Learning approach

Key assumptions

Focus on the environment

 Focus that nurture influences behaviour.
 States behaviour is learnt through learning + looks at how and why we learn
behaviours.
 Says that environment experienced shapes people + their behaviours by
reinforcements and punishments
 Reinforcement: people will imitate behaviour if they get reward + therefore will
continue with behaviour
o E.g. 2 sisters. Big sister eats correctly using knife + fork
and mom praises her for that. Young sister will imitate
her to get positive attention too.
 Punishment: when people are punished, they are less likely to repeat behaviour
o E.g. Boy starts moaning. His mother speaks harshly to
him. Unlikely he repeats it.

Scientific methodology
 Difficult to draw scientific conclusions on behaviours + why they happen.
 Approach looks at observable behaviour, which can be measured.
 Approach tries to study an isolated behaviour and what triggers the behaviour
being learnt
 Measurable, reliable experiments used to ensure studies are scientific.
o Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961) conducted reliable
scientific lab experiment to see if children imitated
aggressive role models.

Nature and nurture debate

 Focus of environmental influences on behaviour
 Approach supports the nurture debate as it believes role + influence of
environment is + important than our genes.
 It states we should be only concerned about the environment we are brought
in.
 Classical conditioning- we learn through association
o E.g. Watson and Raymer (1920)- Each time a rat was
presented to B.A, a loud noise made. B.A scared on loud
noise but not of the rat. At the end, B.A scared of the rat
as he paired it with loud noise.

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  Operant conditioning- we learn through consequence
o E.g. Boy does not do the homework. When he does not
do the homework, he has no computer. In order to get
computer, he does homework. Learns behaviour in order
to avoid something unpleasant.
 Social learning theory- learning through observation
o E.g. Young sister sees how her older sister studies and her
parents gave her positive attention. Young sister will
imitate older sister (her role model) in order to get
positive attention.

Methodology

Observations
Observations= when watching is the main way of obtaining data + when there’s no
manipulation of IV.
 Observations usually include tallying
 Tallying= quantitative data
If observations written down=qualitative data.

Structured observations
 Behaviour to be observed carried out in structured setting.
 = situation repeated with different Ps + researchers observe what happens.
 Manipulation of situation.
Evaluation
 As there are many controls in place, cause + effect validity can be more
easily drawn
 As the environment is very controlled, they can be tested for reliability +
replicability. Easier to repeat.
 As setting is manipulated by researcher, lack of ecological
validity. Tasks may be unnatural (no task validity)

Naturalistic observation
 No manipulation from researcher
 Take place in Ps natural environment
 E.g. Researcher goes to playground at a school and observes children’s
behaviour.
Evaluation
 Ecological + task validity- observes natural behaviour.

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  If procedure is fully documented + controlled, another researcher can
repeat it.
 Not reliable, take place in natural setting, uncontrolled
environment- difficult to replicate as behaviour is not likely to be
repeated.

Non-participant observations
 Researchers are not part of observation
 Sit away from activity + are not involved.
 E.g. Researcher sits down in job interview + observes candidates levels of
stress.
Evaluation
 Observer can concentrate on observation + be partial and objective.
 Recording data is easier + more efficient, more data can be recorded.
 Able to carry out tallying + systematically.
 Observer has to be nearby to observe, so it’s likely that his
presence will affect the situation. It would lack validity= what is
recorded is not ‘normal’

Participant observations
 Researchers take part + are involved in activity/situation.
 Observer is also a participant
 E.g. Ps are given a set of instructions and researcher observes what they do.
Evaluation
 Ecological validity- observers don’t affect the situation + make it
unnatural. They are not additional people which could affect the results.
 A participant observer gathers valid data as setting + task are natural to
him.
 The observer may be too involved to record all data as they
cannot step back from situation.
 They lack reliability as they are difficult to replicate because
observer is part of group + therefore influences it.

Overt observations
 Ps know observation is taking place + know everything about the study.
 E.g. In a class, researcher observes relationship between teacher and pupils,
with both teacher and students knowing about this.
Evaluation
 Ethical as Ps give their consent to participate + have right of withdraw.
 Observers may ask Ps for help in getting data they may normally have
no access to.

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  Unvalid- Ps may act differently because they are aware of the
observation.
 Difficult to carry out as Ps would be watching observers + what
they are doing.

Covert observations
 Ps don’t know they are being observed.
 It’s done secretly
 E.g. Researcher observes behaviour of people at a shop and Ps don’t know.
Evaluation
 Valid as Ps don’t know they’re being observed therefore they will act as
they do normally, usual behaviour.
 Observation is easier to carry out as Ps are not looking at what the
observer is doing.
Unethical:
• No informed consent
• Distress could occur
Observers may find it difficult as they cannot be helped by Ps
(E.g. where to observe better)
 I need to be able to compare the 4 types of naturalistic experiments (table in
blue book)
 I need to be able to describe + evaluate a lab experiment and how it is used
with animals and humans.
 I need to be able to describe + asses ethical guidelines for humans.

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Content

Classical conditioning
Neutral stimulus (NS) = any environmental stimulus that does not naturally produce a
behavioural response. E.g. a TV does not naturally make you feel scared.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) = any stimulus that produces a natural, unlearnt
behavioural response (natural response). E.g. tasting a lemon and blinking because it’s
sour.
Unconditioned response (UCR) = any response which occurs without learning. E.g.
tasting a lemon and blinking because it’s sour.
Conditioned stimulus (CS) = a stimulus that has been associated with an unconditioned
response + now produces the same response as the UCS on its own. E.g. you once got
very ill with blue vodka, so now each time you see a blue drink you feel very ill.
Conditioned response (CR) = A learnt behaviour that is shown in response to a learnt
stimulus E.g. you are scared of dogs because once one bit you.

Description
 Learning through association
 1) Associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus which
produces an unconditional response (natural response)
 2) If the association is maintained then the unconditioned response will be
shown when just the neutral stimulus is present.
 3) The neutral stimulus is now a learnt association and is known as the
conditioned stimulus.
 4) Result- we have the same response to the unconditioned and conditioned
stimulus.

Pavlov’s theory
Pavlov developed the theory of classical conditioning from his research on salivation.

 He collected dog’s saliva to see if bell could induce salivation by associating the
noise with the food.
 Dogs naturally salivate for food.
 The food and the bell were paired on a number of occasions.
 The bell was then presented alone and the dogs salivated.

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  After associating bell + food and making dogs salivate, buzzer was
paired with bell many times.
Bell + buzzer= salivation
This further conditioning= high order conditioning
Explains why behaviours can occur from abstract stimuli.
 Dogs would salivate at any stimulus similar to conditioned stimulus.
E.g. Dogs which salivated at the sight of a circle would salivate at the
sight of an oval.
This extended association= stimulus generalisation
 Pavlov found he could weaken learnt behaviour by dissolving link
between conditioned stimulus and conditioned response.
Dogs trained with bell sound, presented bell with no food. Eventually,
no salivation-
Weakening of learnt behaviour= extinction
If does not mean behaviour disappears, means it is dormant.
If dog out of expt. + brought back, could salivate spontaneously with
bell= Spontaneous recovery.

Operant Conditioning
 Learning through consequence.
 ABC model of learning
 A- antecedent- stimulus that triggers behaviour
 B- behaviour- a response that can be measured as a result of the
antecedent (stimulus)
 C- consequence- a reward or punishment to continue or stop the
behaviour.
 Stimulus-response behaviour- If positive consequence, behaviour
continues. If negative consequence, behaviour stops.
 Positive reinforcement- being rewarded for a positive behaviour, being
given something pleasurable for a desired behaviour so behaviour
continues.
 Negative reinforcement- rewarding by removing something unpleasant
so behaviour continues.
E.g. You have been grounded for not doing your homework. When you
start doing your homework, you can go out.

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  Punishment- giving something unpleasant so behaviour stops. If
someone is punished for showing certain behaviour, that certain
behaviour will not be repeated.
 Primary reinforcers- basic need. E.g. food, sex, water.
 Secondary reinforcers- linked by association with primary reinforcers
e.g. money.

The Skinner box

 A rat in box with a lever that when pressed delivers food.
 A= Stimulus to trigger behaviour- lights.
 B= Behaviour by pressing the lever
 C= a reward (food) or punishment (shock) after the behaviour.

Behaviour (pressing lever) was learnt in two different ways:

 Positive reinforcement= when rat pressed lever and light was present, food was
given.
 Negative reinforcement= when rat pressed lever and light was present, no
more electric shocks are given.
 The punishment was electric shocks when rat did not press the lever.

Positive reinforcement A B C =Behaviour continues

Light Lever pressed Food

Negative reinforcement A B C =Behaviour continues

Light Lever pressed No more shocks

Punishments A B C =Behaviour stops

Light Lever pressed Shock

Shaping behaviour
To shape the desired behaviour (the outcome) the individual is directed with small reinforcing
steps.
Shaping is when behaviour is learned by:

1. Rewarding moves towards desired behaviour.

2. Then you wait for an action which goes nearer to desired behaviour.
3. Finally, wait for desired behaviour before giving reward.

E.g. Squirrel had to do a course. Whole course is difficult to do in one attempt, so squirrel was
given reward for each small correct action.

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Social Learning Theory
 Learning through observation
 3 main key ideas
 Observation
 Imitation
 Modelling
 Bandura’s (1977) 4 steps of modelling:
1. Attention- to role model
2. Retention- the capacity to remember it
3. Reproduction- capability to reproduce the behaviour
4. Motivation- reward we believe we will have as a result of imitating
behaviour.
 Role models (people we imitate and therefore learn behaviours from)
 Effective role models- same sex, identifiable, admired, respected or
powerful
 Vicarious reinforcement- when we learn through others’ mistakes or
successes
o E.g. At a dinner, Julie ate correctly and mother gave her a
positive comment. Julie’s brother, Mark, wants too a
reward (positive comment) so he will copy the behaviour
in order to get it.

Evaluation of operant conditioning and classical conditioning as

explanations of human behaviour
Strengths:
 In both, objective + careful controls. Both studied scientifically. Some behaviour
is isolated + a way of measuring it is planned. Behaviour is tested + because of
careful controls, scientific conclusions are drawn. E.g. Skinner (Op. Condt.)
varied the IV in such way differences introduced were clear. This allowed cause-
and-effect conclusions to be drawn.
 Applicable- both theories can be used in therapy- Aversion therapy and Token
economy programmes- so theories have real-life applications as they help
people.

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Weaknesses
 They are investigated mainly with animal experiments. Although they are
scientific, there are many differences between animals and humans, so it is
difficult to generalise findings from animal experiments to human behaviour.
 Both operant and classical conditioning lack of validity. Experiments isolate a
behaviour from a more complex and usual behaviour and repeat it in labs.
There is a lack of ecological validity and task validity, as what is being studied is
unnatural.

Evaluation of social learning theory as an explanation of human behaviour

Strengths:
 Many experimental evidence. Most comes from Bandura, but there is also from
other researchers who have found that behaviour is observed and then
imitated. Not difficult to set up an experiment to see how specific behaviour is
modelled. This has been found in studies with animals and children.
 Can be applied as a therapy- applicable as it has real-life purposes. Can be used
for learning purposes, for example, using a role model to make a child
interested in reading.

Weaknesses:
 Behaviour may not be shown immediately, so we can say it is difficult to test for
observational learning. Experiments only show a specific behaviour at a specific
time, something not usual in real life, so there might be a lack of validity.
 Some experiments are carried on animals. Although they are scientific, there
are many differences between animals and humans, so it is difficult to
generalise findings from animal experiments to human behaviour.

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Operant conditioning and social learning theory as explanations for gender
development

Operant conditioning as an explanation for gender development

 Reward- girls are more likely to be rewarded for “girlish” behaviour (wearing
pink and playing dolls) and boy for “boyish” behaviour (sports). E.g. Fathers
praise their small son for being a “man” as he plays football really well.
 Reward- even from babies, girls are rewarded for being “sweet” and boys for
being “strong”
 Punishment- children are punished, in terms of comments or reactions, for
displaying opposite gender development. E.g. Boys playing dolls
 Langlois and Downs found out that punishment for “girlish” boys was
worse than for “boyish” girls.

Social learning theory as an explanation for gender development

 Children are + likely to copy same sex role model as the behaviour is seen as
more relevant.
 Children are more likely to identify with same sex parent as they are more
similar to themselves.
 Children observe + imitate stereotypical male/female activities. E.g. Men
working in garage, women cooking dinner.
 Observation can be based on significant others, not only parents. E.g.
Grandparents, teachers, peers.
 Also, media models usually display gender specific behaviour.
 Gender specific toys are given to children. These toys also model gender
specific behaviour + are rewarded.
 Both room decoration + clothes model gender specific behaviour.
 Craner + Skidd found that, when asked to tell a story, girls spoke about caring +
friendship and boys about conflict.
 Bandura Ross and Ross (1961) showed that when children were exposed to an
aggressive role model, they imitated aggressive behaviour more when the role
model was the same sex as them. Male child mean with male aggressive role
model= 25.8 compared to 12.4 with female aggressive role model.

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Evaluation of operant conditioning and social learning theory as
explanations for gender development
Strengths:
 Scientific observations have been done + show that girls copy mother and boys
copy fathers and that this imitation is strong. Also show girls + boys play with
different toys and that these toys are gender specific.
Observable behaviour is investigated with scientific + objective research
methods.
 Learning theories have been tested with animal expt. + similar behaviours have
been found. Behaviour can be replicated in lab so there’s strong evidence for it
happening.
Learning by observation found in animals + humans. Animal studies can be
replicated + are reliable.
 Credible- we can see everyday situations where children copy parents. Makes
sense role models + reinforcement= gender appropriate behaviour.

Weaknesses:
If observation was the only cause of gender behaviour, each culture would
have totally different gender behaviours. As we can find many similarities in
different societies, this suggests observation is not the only factor.
We can find different gender behaviours since birth.
E.g. Newborn baby girls maintain eye contact with speaking adult longer than
newborn baby boy.
Girls maintain different eye contact with silent adult than with talking adult;
boys do not show this difference.
These occur too early in life for learning to have taken place.
Reductionist- Learning explanation ignores biological evidence that gender is
caused by chromosomes + determinant presence of Y chromosome.
A case study against theory- David Reimer was born male but his upbringing
was female. He rebelled and acted as a male. When adult, he was told he was a
male, he said he always felt male. Learning theory says that Reimer should
have been satisfied with female gender. The fact he didn’t provides evidence
against learning approach.

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 Comparison of the three approaches as explanations of gender
development.
Description
Feature Psychodynamic Biological Learning
Focus on It is genetic that all people go Complete focus on No consideration of
nature through the Oedipus and the nature- XX female + XY biology.
Electra complex. male. Male + female
hormones, brain
lateralisation.
Focus on Children need to identify with same Epigenetic modification- Complete focus:
nurture sex parent + follow their behaviour the approach considers observation, modelling,
to learn gender + complete the that genes can be same sex parent and
complex. The superego is switched on and off operant conditioning.
developed by taking on same sex depending on the Reward and punishment
parent ideal. environment. A person for specific gender
may have their feminine development.
or masculine genes
switched depending on
environment.
Parental Parents are needed to identify with X or Y chromosomes Parents shape behaviour
contribution in Phallic stage. come from parents. 50% by giving rewards or
genes from each one. punishments. Main role
models.
Early years The first 5 years of life are the most Sex is assigned at birth Lots of learning happens
important- resolving conflict, stages although hormones at an early age although
of development. change over time. learning is continuous.
Science Uses concepts that can’t be The approach uses It uses scientific
measured e.g. id or superego. The scientific tests to make methods, favouring
data gathered is qualitative + need data objective e.g. PET experiments +
interpretation, not scientific. scans. The studies take quantitative measures. It
place in a lab were looks for cause + effect
quantitative data is relationships. Lab
collected. Animal studies studies used. However,
are used to investigate its concepts are not as
the effect of drugs. measurable or clear as in
Scientific measures of the Biological approach
measurable concepts and observations may be
(chromosomes + open to interpretation.
hormones) take place.

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Methodology Use of case studies to gather Uses scientific tests, lab Possible use of case
unique qualitative data. No animal experiments, animal studies but unlikely.
or lab experiments. studies, twin/adoption Animal studies to see
studies to see the effect effect of reinforcement.
of nature on behaviour + Observation to analyse
genes on gender. Case behaviour, no IV
studies used (Money, manipulation.
1975) Findings from
animals generalised to
humans

Evaluation
Feature Psychodynamic Biological Learning
Subjective/objective Subjective- Research Objective- in research Can be objective if
methods are totally methods such as PET inter-observer
open to interpretation. scanning which are reliability is used
E.g. Dream analysis. scientific + are used to although what is being
They all produce gather quantitative observed may be open
qualitative data. data. to interpretation.

Studies of support Freud (1909) believed Money’s (1975) case Bandura, Ross + Ross
that Little Hans study of David Reimer (1961) showed that
showed evidence for where a boy was children copied
Oedipus complex, castrated and raised as aggressive behaviour
including castration a girl + given female they observed. In
fear + identification hormones. Although addition, children were
with father in wanting he was completely more likely to copy the
of possess mother raised as a female, he same sex parent.
felt male. Biological
evidence for gender
development.

Scientific It needs interpretation Genes, DNA, The experiments

as it is subjective + not hormones- all tested isolate the variables
scientific even though scientifically focusing using many controls
Freud aimed to be on physical measurable but behaviour is
scientific by stating he events. difficult to measure.
only used a person’s
info; he did not change
it or modify it.

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Reliability Case studies are used The tests used are Observations can be
which are unique and objective (PET, MRI) structured + scientific
cannot be repeated. and are planned to get so they can be
Each case study is scientific result. repeated exactly to get
individual + difficult to Procedures in labs are the same results. The
test in another person clear so it can be procedure can be
in the same way. replicated. replicated in the same
way in the same way if
instructions are clear.
Unstructured
observations are less
reliable.
Validity Valid because it Valid because it uses It has ecological
gathers in-depth scientific methods validity because
unique data from an (PET, MRI) Twin + observations take
individual in case adoption studies are place in Ps natural
studies. valid because they are environment, when
the only way to test observations are not
100% genetics against structured. When
nurture. structured, lack of
validity (lab conditions)
Generalisability Uses case studies Can be difficult as it is Yes, because expts +
which are difficult to based on a unique case observations are
generalize. Freud study (David Reimer). carried out BUT usually
stated Oedipus Also, only small on children, which
complex using 1 samples for twin could affect
unique case study studies are available. generalisability.
(Little Hans)

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Aversion therapy
 Treatment based on classical conditioning
 Simplified, it is when someone has a behaviour you want to remove + you give
something unpleasant so he associates it with behaviour + stops doing it.
 Used for addictions
 Replaces the pleasure response with an aversion response (pain or something
unpleasant)
 To stop the behaviour with an aversive stimulus, which produces an aversive
response.
 To treat alcoholism, an emetic drug (which makes you sick) is paired with
alcohol. After a number of pairings, the alcohol alone will make the person feel
sick.
 It is necessary to give the patient non-alcoholic drinks without emetic drug
during the treatment in order to prevent stimulus generalisation.

(Unconditioned stimulus) (Unconditioned response)

Emetic drug Vomiting

(Conditioned stimulus + unconditioned stimulus) (Unconditioned response)

Alcohol + emetic drug Vomiting

(Conditioned stimulus) (Conditioned response)

Alcohol Vomiting

Aversion therapy and homosexuality

 Even until recently, this therapy has been used to “treat” homosexuality.
 Homosexual men are given electric shocks when they are shown pictures of
naked men and not when shown pictures of naked women.
 In 2006, the American Psychological Association stated that aversion therapy
for homosexuality violates the codes of practice.

Evaluation

Strengths

 Some applicability- longitudinal studies have shown it worked better than other
treatments in some cases, like for example token economy programmes.
 Credible- the treatment is based on the classical conditioning principals, a
known clear theory. Also, it is logical + rational as the treatment is based on a
person stop acting in a particular way because they are being punished.

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Weaknesses

 Although Seligman’s (1966) case study stated that 50% of gay men who
received therapy stopped homosexual practices, it was discovered later that
most men studied were bisexual. When pure homosexuals were studies,
treatment was much less successful. This may mean the treatment does not
work, so it lacks validity.
 Unethical- therapists have much more power than the patient. Patients may
give permission but may feel they have no right to withdraw. Also, society
seems to be the one to choose when it is appropriate to use the therapy e.g. in
homosexuality was appropriate until 2006.
 Another treatment has developed from this therapy, “covert sensitation”. This
therapy includes association with unwanted behaviour. It seems more ethical
because patient does not receive actual e.g. shocks, he imagines them. The
existence of another treatment implies it is not completely valid.

Systematic desensitisation
 Based on classical conditioning principles
 Used to treat phobias
 It is a step-by-step approach to get a person used to the phobic object or
situation
 The idea is that phobias are learnt by classical conditioning, so they can be
unlearnt the same way.
 People are taught to relax their muscles + then introduced gradually to phobic
object/situation.

Evaluation

 Compared to other therapies, e.g. flooding a person into phobia until he is

calm, it is fairly ethical.
 Only useful for phobias, not for other mental illnesses e.g. psychoses.

Token economy programmes

 Based on operant conditioning principles.
 Aim is to obtain desired behaviour through a system of rewards
 ‘Tokens’ are used as points and when person achieves certain number of
‘tokens’ (given as a reward for desired behaviour) they can be used to purchase
something desired.

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Evaluation

 Programme can be suited to each individual. Rewards the tokens buy can be
personal + goals can be set up individually. The therapy can be focused clearly,
not a group therapy.
 It is time-consuming. Although it works, it requires a lot of time input. E.g. In
schools, only 30% of teachers use it.

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Case studies
Watson and Raymer (1920)
Aim:

 Using classical conditioning principles, to see whether a human baby would

develop a fear that he did not have previously.
 To test whether classical conditioning worked with humans.
Procedure

 Albert was healthy, well-developed and unemotional.

 A single case experiment- good control over IV and DV
 The researchers tested baby Albert’s fear response to a rabbit, rat + cotton
wool- no fear was shown.
 They also banged a hammer, which caused a fear response- BA cried.
 The conditioning took place when Albert was 11 months old.
 They believed it wasn’t unethical because he would have to become
accustomed to fear and different stimuli at nursery.

The conditioning and results

 A white rat was presented to BA and he went to touch it.

 As his left hand touched the rat, a loud noise was made behind his head and he
jumped and fell forward, but did not cry.
 As his right hand touched the rat, he jumped, fell forward and started to cry.
 The white rat was therefore paired with the loud sound so that BA associated
rat with noise.
 The pairing was repeated a number of times. He showed some fear and
discomfort and, eventually, after more pairings, he started to cry each time he
was presented the rat and the loud noise.
 After this took place, the rat was presented alone and BA started to cry and
crawl away.

(Unconditioned stimulus) (Unconditioned response)

Loud noise Crying

(Conditioned stimulus + unconditioned stimulus) (Unconditioned response)

Rat + loud noise Crying

(Conditioned stimulus) (Conditioned response)

Rat Crying

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Transference/Generalisation and time

 Transfer to other objects- BA was then given a number of different stimuli

similar to the rat to see if he transferred fear (Stimuli generalisation). When
shown a white rat he cried and moved away. However, he only moved away
from the cotton wool but did not cry.
 The effect of time on conditioning- the final experiment was carried when BA
was 1yr and 21 days old. Although, 1 month later he still responded negatively
to objects, e.g. the rat, he did not cry.

Conclusions

 A conditioned emotional response can occur in humans after only a few

pairings of stimuli.
 The CR can be generalised onto similar objects to the conditioned stimulus.
 It is possible to classically condition the emotional response of fear, although
this response seems to diminish in intensity over time.

Evaluation
Strengths

 The study was documented. Data come from more than one source
(researchers and witnesses) so there was inter-rater reliability. Also, only 1
variable was changed at a time so experiment was easier to repeat- + reliability.
 The study gives evidence that classical conditioning occurs in humans. Until the
date, the only proof was the findings of animal studies (e.g. Pavlov + dogs) but
this was hard to generalise because of the complexity of mankind.
 Can be considered ethical- The experiment had no long term effects on BA. A
month after the experiment, a test was carried and BA showed no fear to
objects, only discomfort.

Weaknesses

 BA was not protected from ethical guidelines. Although at the time it was
though as acceptable, now it would be totally unethical to carry out an
experiment inducing fear to a baby in order to prove a theory.
 The study may lack validity as it was a lab experiment and both task and place
were unknown for BA. The lab situation could have made BA scared in the first
place.
 Lack of generalisability- as the study was carried on using only 1 baby, the
findings may be limited to Albert.

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Bandura Ross and Ross (1961)
Aim:

 To see whether children will imitate aggressive behaviour even without reward

Procedure:

 36 girls and 36 boys between 3 and 5 years.

 A male and female role model and a female experimenter.

 Children divided into 8 experimental groups of 6 children, with the remaining
24 children being the control group (no role model).
 Matched pairs design- the children in all groups were matched for physical and
verbal aggression from ratings made by experimenter and their school teacher.
 The children in the experimental groups watched an aggressive or non-
aggressive role model of the same sex or opposite sex to themselves.
 The control group were given the same play rules, but with no role-model
present.
 The children were taken into a room individually with the role model. The role
model was on the opposite side of the room.
 The experimenter told the child to draw a picture and the role model was told
that they could play with the toys but the child was not allowed to play with
the toys (child heard this).
 Toys included table, chair, mallet and a bobo doll.

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  The model played for a minute and then began to act aggressively towards
bobo doll. In the non-aggressive group, the role model continued to play with
toys.
 Children were taken into a diff. room and allowed to play with some toys. After
toys were taken away so child felt frustrated (IMPORTANT SO ALL WERE IN
SAME EMOTIONAL STATE)
 After this, children were taken to an experimental room with one-way mirror.
They had a collection of aggressive and non-aggressive toys to play with,
including a bobo doll. They were given 20 mins of free play.

Results

 Rating- imitative aggression and non-imitative aggression.

 Children who were exposed to the aggressive role model show more direct
imitation than children exposed to non-aggressive role model.
 Watching an aggressive role model had a greater impact in boys than in girls,
especially with same-sex role model.
o Male child mean with male aggressive role model=25.8
o Male child mean with female aggressive role model=12.4
 Children also displayed more non-imitative aggression after watching the
aggressive role model and the effect was stronger after watching the same sex
role model.
o Mean number of non-imitative aggression acts for female
child with female aggressive role model= 21.3
o Mean number of non-imitative aggression acts for male
child with male aggressive role model= 36.7

Conclusions

 A child exposed to an aggressive role model is likely aggression + imitate the

aggressive acts.
 It shows that some behaviour is learned through observation and not shaped
by punishment + reward.
 Observed behaviour was imitated without the reinforcement of the modelled
behaviour.
 Boys were more aggressive than girls, but less likely to copy aggressive
behaviour from a female role model.

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Evaluation
Strengths

 The study is a controlled lab expt. It has controls + operationalisation of

variables, so cause + effect conclusions can be drawn out. E.g. children had a
similar emotional state at the start of expt.
 Applicability- the study can be applied to real life situations, it helps to
understand how children learn their behaviour by observing others + how
aggression can be imitated. However, positively it shows how non-aggressive
role models in media can encourage behaviour.
 Reliable, as although it could be subjective because interpretation is needed of
the behaviours, there were several observers so there was inter-rater reliability
agreeing on the behaviour observed.

Weaknesses

 The study lacks validity. Although the setting was familiar to the children
(similar to nursery room), the situation was not usual as there was a role model
who punched and kicked the bobo doll. The children may have thought it was
an order to copy his/her behaviour.
 The study is not ethical as the children observed an adult being aggressive so
there was modelling and they might have copied that behaviour outside the
experiment. Therefore, maybe researchers were “teaching” violence to
children.
 The children were all from an American nursery, so it is difficult to generalise
cross-culturally.
 Cause + effect validity- children may have been showing obedience, not
imitating.

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Key issues
The influence of role models on anorexia

Description

 Anorexia is an eating disorder characterized by being extremely underweight

and refusing to eat properly if eating at all.
 People suffering from anorexia tend to see themselves fat, even when they are
extremely thin. Starts in teenage years
 Consequences: girls stop menstruating, loose interest in socializing, tiredness,
feeling cold + stomach pains.
 Anorexia is self-induced, either by not eating or by doing too much exercise, or
a combination of both.
 Anorexia can last for years, without treatment, sufferers become ill + may die.
 Boys also suffer anorexia, although less than girls, their rate of anorexia is
increasing.

Explaining the issue

 SLT- people have role models + imitate them. Celebrities + people with prestige
are more likely to be imitated.
 People are + likely to be imitated if they are seen as similar. Therefore girls are
more likely to imitate female role models than male role models.
 In 2000, ‘size zero’ is trend for catwalk models, so according to SLT wanting to
be thin is no strange in young people. Anorexia helps to achieve desired
thinness.
 Operant condt- Rewards and negative reinforcement of being fat.
E.g. Peers tease fat children, they would stop eating to be thin + not being
teased.
E.g. If peers have envy of thin children, they will stop eating to be thin too.
 Media is also involved in rewards + reinforcements. If thin role models are
successful, this can be seen as a reward so their behaviour is likely to be
imitated.
 Bandura Ross and Ross showed that children exposed to an aggressive role
model will show imitative aggression acts, especially it was a same sex role
model. Female children imitated their female aggressive role model in verbal
aggression with a score of 21.3, compared to their aggressive male role model
8.4
This shows it is very likely children imitate role models, + if role models are thin
celebrities, it is likely they will become anorexic to look like them.

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Evaluation

Strengths
 Cross cultural credibility- theory makes sense cross culturally as in cultures
where there is less importance to be thin less people try to become thin. Gives
evidence for SLT + role model imitation.
 Studies of support- Bandura Ross and Ross showed, using children + aggression,
that behaviour was copied from a role model, even when there was no reward.

Weaknesses

 Lack of validity of studies of support- Bandura Ross and Ross was a lab
experiment carried out in an unnatural setting, using unnatural tasks so findings
lack of validity.
 Alternative theories- Psychodynamic approach suggests anorexia is a result of
wanting to remain as a child + not wanting to grow up. Goes against SLT.

The influence of advertising on people’s behaviour

Description

 Advertising is done with the purpose of persuading someone to buy something.

 All are targeted towards specific age groups, gender or socioeconomic groups.
 Some people think they will not be affected by advertisements, but stats show
sales increase when publicity is used.
 E.g. An advertisement with a phone number increases the number of calls of
the company.

Explaining the issue

 SLT- focuses on a group of people. + uses similar actors. Adverts therefore

model group’s behaviour because SLT say people imitate similar role models.
 Operant condt- adverts use prestigious models e.g. football players, because
research has shown people imitate those who are successful.
 Vicarious learning- people imitate behaviour which is clearly observable. Use of
close-ups in adverts.
 Classical condt- adverts pair involuntary behaviour with product. E.g. Beautiful
women + men used as they produce arousal response. After attractive women
+ men are paired with product, product alone produces arousal response.
 Operant condt- linked with vicarious response. If attractive female is seen to be
rewarded for wearing perfume, behaviour imitated.

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The increase in female violence related to changing role models

Description of the issue

 It is thought there’s been an increase in female violence and “ladettes” culture

in the 2000’s
 “Ladettes” were in the 1990’s drunk and disruptive women, only as men were
at the time.
 Although it is not violence, female violence increased at the same time.
 More female violent figures have been seen lately. E.g. Lara Croft is a violent PC
games heroine who uses violence. Also we can see this female violent figure in
films. E.g. Kill Bill.
 Police officers in Scotland have said there’s been an increase in violent young
women. There’s evidence for this, the number of women imprisoned in
Scotland has risen 4 times more than the rate of men.

Explaining the issue

 Social learning theory- it states that behaviour is imitated from role models.
The increased number of role models for “bad girls” may explain the increase
of female violence.
 Social learning theory + vicarious theory- as there are role models for female
violence, there will be female violence.
 Operant conditioning- as role models are seen as glamorous, they can be seen
as a reward for their female violence, making women violent in order to
achieve the reward. If fun is seen as part of violence, females are more likely to
do it.
 Operant conditioning (II)- Role models, e.g. Kill Bill, may be seen as sexual icons.
This puts pressure on girls as it is likely they receive positive reinforcement- if
they act violently they will be admired by their peers.
 Alternative explanation- alcohol is the cause of the violent behavior in females.
But, it can be argued, that drinking alcohol is part of the behavior girls imitate
and want to adapt.

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