UNIVERSITY OF ZAKHO

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OG PETROLEUM

Petroleum Properties

Name of Students:
Amir Sabah Khalid
Sipan Nizar
Aswan Jumaa
Mohammed Khalid
Thakir Mahmoud
Zeravan Hazim

Petroleum
Supervisor: Dr. Sherwan M.S

2020-2021
 Table of contents

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3
What is the petroleum?...................................................................5
The origin of Petroleum…………………………………………………………………6
Properties of petroleum (Chemical Properties)……………………………..9
Physical properties………………………………………………………………………11
Facilities and processes………………………………………………………………..13
Exploration………………………………………………………………………………….14
Production…………………………………………………………………………………..15
Refining……………………………………………………………………………………….17
Fractional distillation…………………………………………………………………..18
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………22
Reference…………………………………………………………………………………….23

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Introduction:
Hydrocarbons
Organic chemical compounds consisting of the elements carbon and
hydrogen only, and most of these compounds are in the form of long or short
chains of carbon atoms connected by one or two molecular bonds, and
hydrogen unites with them to complete their orbits and produce a stable acid,
and they may be composed of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms
Like methane (CH4).

Types of hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are divided into three main types, namely.
❖ Aromatic hydrocarbons: They are rings of carbon.
❖ saturated hydrocarbons: they are hydrocarbons that do not contain
any double or triple bonds, nor do they form rings.
❖ Unsaturated hydrocarbons: They are hydrocarbons that contain
second or triple bonds.

• Oil (petroleum) and natural gas consist of hydrocarbons (carbon and

hydrogen atoms).
• Some hydrocarbons are gaseous and invisible Natural Gas, some
appear liquid like Oil, and some solid like Tar.
• The ability of hydrocarbon to flow (viscosity), and the ability to
evaporate (volatility) depend on the size of its (molecule).
• The hydrocarbon with short chain of molecule tend to be less viscous
(they flow more easily) and more volatile (they evaporate more
easily).
• The hydrocarbon with long chain molecules have more viscosity
(they flow slowly) and less volatile (they evaporate slowly).

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the ration of carbon atom affects the viscosity and volatility of the
hydrocarbons, the more the carbon atoms, the more the viscosity (they flow
slowly) and the low the volatile hydrocarbon (they evaporate slowly).
• The gaseous hydrocarbons have short-chain molecule like Natural
Gas.
• The liquid hydrocarbons have moderate- chain molecule like Oils.
• The semi-solid hydrocarbons have long-chain molecule like Tar.

The importance of hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are important sources of energy that people depend on, and the
simplest compound of them is gasoline, which is a derivative of petroleum
and is used as a fuel for many means of transportation, and its molecular
formula is C6H6, in addition to methane, which is a gas used for cooking
and heating, which is an alkenene and its molecular formula is : CH4, and
the rest of petroleum products are hydrocarbons, as well as natural gas that
exists alone in the ground, and coal, which is one of the most important
causes of the industrial revolution, and with its energy, man reached space
where he used fuel for spacecraft as well, and he entered into the
manufacture of plastics, Candles and others.

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What is the petroleum?

Petroleum is crude oil, a naturally occurring liquid that can be refined to

make gasoline (or petrol), diesel fuel, jet fuel, home heating oil, lubricating
oil, wax, asphalt, and many other valuable products. Crude oil usually
occurs in subsurface deposits, but in some areas it leaks onto the surface in
oil seeps. The word petroleum comes from Latin, in which petra means rock
and oleum means oil. As a technical term, petroleum also includes natural
gas, a naturally occurring gas with a similar chemistry to crude oil that also
occurs in subsurface deposits.
The petrochemical industry uses chemicals from the refining of crude oil
and the processing of natural gas to produce petrochemicals such as plastic,
latex paints, synthetic rubber, fertilizers, drugs, synthetic fibers, and
explosives.
The subsurface deposit of crude oil or natural gas is called the oil or gas
reservoir, and the surface of the ground above it is called the field. The field
is given a geographical name, such as the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field or the
Groningen Gas Field.
Crude oil and natural gas are fossil fuels, which are carbon- or hydrocarbon-
based fuels naturally formed from ancient organic matter. Coal, formed
from wood by natural processes in the subsurface, is another fossil fuel.
Both crude oil and natural gas are considered nonrenewable resources.
Unlike trees, a renewable resource that grows back in a relatively short time,
oil and gas are not naturally replaced after they are consumed. Therefore,
the world supplies of both crude oil and natural gas are limited.

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The petroleum industry is divided into two sectors. Upstream petroleum
involves exploration, drilling, and production. Downstream petroleum
involves transport, refining, petrochemical manufacturing, marketing, and
sales. There are two types of oil companies. National oil companies are
owned by the federal government of a country. Saudi Aramco (Saudi
Arabia) and Petróleus Mexicanos or Pemex (Mexico) are examples.
International oil companies, such as Exxon-Mobil Corporation and Shell,
are owned privately by investors.

The origin of Petroleum:

The vast majority of hydrocarbons found on Earth occur in petroleum,
coal, and natural gas. Petroleum (literally "rock oil" – petrol for short)
and coal are generally thought to be products of decomposition of
organic matter. In contrast to petroleum, is coal, which is richer in
carbon and poorer in hydrogen. Natural gas is the product of
methanogenesis.
Formation process
From planktonic remains to kerogen:

Although it is recognized that the original source of carbon and hydrogen

was in the materials that made up primordial Earth, it is generally accepted
that these two elements had to pass through an organic phase to be combined
into the varied complex molecules recognized as hydrocarbons. The organic
material that is the source of most hydrocarbons has probably been derived
from single- celled planktonic (free-floating) plants, such as diatoms and
blue-green algae, and single-celled planktonic animals, such as
foraminifera, which live in aquatic environments of marine, brackish, or
fresh water. Such simple organisms are known to have been abundant long
before the Paleozoic Era, which began some million years ago.

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 planktonic diatoms Blue-green algae

Rapid burial of the remains of the single-celled planktonic plants and

animals within fine-grained sediments effectively preserved them. This
provided the organic materials, the so-called proto petroleum, for later
diagenesis (a series of processes involving biological, chemical, and
physical changes) into true petroleum.
The first, or immature, stage of hydrocarbon formation is dominated by
biological activity and chemical rearrangement, which convert organic
matter to kerogen. This dark-colored insoluble product of bacterially
altered plant and animal detritus is the source of most hydrocarbons
generated in the later stages. During the first stage, biogenic methane is
the only hydrocarbon generated in commercial quantities. The
production of biogenic methane gas is part of the process of
decomposition of organic matter carried out by anaerobic
microorganisms (those capable of living in the absence of free oxygen).

From kerogen to petroleum:

Deeper burial by continuing sedimentation, increasing temperatures,
and advancing geologic age result in the mature
stage of hydrocarbon formation, during which the full range of
petroleum compounds is produced from kerogen and other precursors
by thermal degradation and cracking (in which heavy hydrocarbon
molecules are broken up into lighter molecules). Depending on the
amount and type of organic matter, hydrocarbon generation occurs
during the mature stage at depths of about 760 to 4,880 metres
(2,500 to 16,000 feet) at temperatures between 65 °C and 150 °C
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(150 °F and 300 °F). This special environment is called the “oil
window.” In areas of higher than normal geothermal gradient (increase
in temperature with depth), the oil window exists at shallower depths
in younger sediments but is narrower. Maximum hydrocarbon
generation occurs from depths of 2,000 to 2,900 metres (6,600 to 9,500
feet). Below 2,900 metres, primarily wet gas, a type
of gas containing liquid hydrocarbons known as natural gas liquids, is
formed.
Approximately 90 percent of the organic material in sedimentary source
rocks is dispersed kerogen. Its composition varies, consisting of a range
of residual materials whose basic molecular structure takes the form of
stacked sheets of aromatic hydrocarbon rings in which atoms
of sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen also occur. Attached to the ends of the
rings are various hydrocarbon compounds, including
normal paraffin chains. The mild heating of the kerogen in the oil
window of a source rock over long periods of time results in the
cracking of the kerogen molecules and the release of the attached
paraffin chains. Further heating, perhaps assisted by the catalytic effect
of clay minerals in the source rock matrix, may then produce soluble
bitumen compounds, followed by the various saturated and unsaturated
hydrocarbons, asphaltenes (precipitates formed from oily residues), and
others of the thousands of hydrocarbon compounds that make up crude
oil mixtures.

At the end of the mature stage, below about 4,800 metres (16,000 feet),
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depending on the geothermal gradient, kerogen becomes condensed in
structure and chemically stable. In this environment, crude oil is no
longer stable, and the main hydrocarbon product is dry thermal methane
gas.

Properties of petroleum:

Petroleum consists basically of compounds of only two elements,

carbon and hydrogen. Because these elements combine in a large
variety of complex ways, however, crude oils vary greatly in their
chemical composition. Their physical properties such as color, specific
gravity, and viscosity also vary widely.

Chemical Properties:
Crude oil and natural gas are composed primarily of hydrocarbon
molecules, which are made of carbon and hydrogen atoms that are
bonded together. Hydrocarbon molecules range from 1 to more than 60
carbons in length. Minor amounts of sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen also
occur.
The difference between crude oil and natural gas is the size of the
hydrocarbon molecules. Under surface temperature and pressure,
natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules that have one, two,
three, and four carbons. The hydrocarbon gas with one carbon (CH4) is
methane, with two carbons (C2H6) is ethane, with three carbons
(C3H8) is propane, and with four carbons (C4H10) is butane. Natural
gas is sometimes pure methane but is often a mixture of methane,
ethane, propane, and butane. A typical composition of natural gas by
volume is 88 percent methane, 5 percent ethane, 2 percent propane, and
1 percent butane.

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Crude oil is a mixture of thousands of hydrocarbon molecules with 5 to
more than 60 carbons. The molecules form straight chains, circles, and
chains with side chains. Shorter hydrocarbon molecules are very fluid
whereas longer molecules are viscous.
Both crude oil and natural gas sometimes contain sulfur as an impurity.
Sulfur in crude oil is bonded to the carbon in the hydrocarbon
molecules. At a refinery, crude oil with a significant amount of sulfur
must have the sulfur removed before the oil can be refined. Crude oil
with less than 1 percent sulfur, called sweet crude, is worth more than
crude oil that contains more than 1 percent sulfur, which is called sour
crude. Sulfur occurs in some natural gases as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
gas, which is poisonous and corrosive. Natural gas with no detectable
amount of hydrogen sulfide is called sweet gas. It is more valuable than
sour gas, which has a detectable amount of hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen
sulfide has a very distinctive and pungent smell similar to rotten eggs.
In some very sour natural gases, the hydrogen sulfide content can be
more than 60 percent by volume. Many natural gases contain non-
hydrocarbon gases that do not burn, which are called inerts. These
include water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, argon, oxygen, and
helium.
A typical chemical analysis by weight of crude oil is:

Carbon 84 to
87%

Hydrogen 11 to
14%

Sulfur 0.06
to 2%

Nitrogen 0.1 to
2%

Oxygen 0.1 to
0.2%

Metals 0 to
0.14%

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Physical properties:

Crude oils range from very fluid, volatile liquids to viscous, semisolid
materials. The color is usually black or black with a greenish tinge. It can
also be reddish, greenish yellow, light yellow, or transparent. The smell
ranges from gasoline (sweet crude) to foul (sour crude) to fruity (crude oil
rich in aromatic-type molecules).
Natural gas is a colorless, odorless gas that burns. An artificial odorant is
put in natural gas before it is sold.
Under high temperature and pressure beneath the surface, some portions of
crude oil occur as a gas mixed with natural gas. When the gas is brought to
the surface during production, temperature and pressure drop. The portion
of crude oil that was a gas separates from the natural gas as a liquid called
condensate. Condensate is almost pure gasoline in composition and is often
called natural gasoline. It is very fluid and transparent, sometimes with a
yellowish tinge. Condensate is classified as crude oil when it is produced.
Natural gas that contains condensate is called wet gas. Natural gas without
condensate is called dry gas; it is pure methane.

Crude oil density is measured in degrees (°) API (American Petroleum

Institute) gravity. Degrees API gravity is calculated by dividing the specific
gravity of the crude oil at 60° F into 141.5 and then subtracting 131.5. Fresh
water is 10° API gravity. Crude oils range from 5 to 55°. Average-weight
oils are between 22 and 31°. Light oils are above 31°. They are more fluid
and contain more gasoline than normal crude oil. Heavy oils are below 22°.
They are more viscous and contain more asphalt than normal crude oil. Extra
heavy oils are less than 10° and sink in water because they are denser than
water. Condensates are very light, with degrees API gravities above 50.
Light oils are easiest to produce and are more valuable than heavy oils
because they contain more gasoline. The most valuable is sweet crude oil,
at 37° API gravity.

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Classification:
Crude oils are classified by their chemical content. There are three types.
Asphalt-based crude oils are usually black. When refined, they produce a
relatively large amount of high-quality gasoline and asphalt. Paraffin-based
crude oils are black with a greenish tinge. When refined, they produce a
relatively large amount of paraffin wax and high-quality motor lubricating
oil. Mixed-base crude oils are a natural blend of asphalt- and paraffin-based
crude oil.

Measurement:
Crude oil is measured in the English system in barrels (bbls), which contain
42 U.S. gallons or 34.97 imperial gallons. In the metric or International
System of Units (SI), crude oil is measured in metric tons or cubic meters
(m3). One metric ton of average density (30° API gravity) crude oil occupies
one barrel. A cubic meter of oil equals 6.29 barrels.
Natural gas is measured in the English system in cubic feet (cf), commonly
in thousands of cubic feet (Mcf). It is reported as cubic feet under standard
conditions of temperature and pressure, defined by law as surface
temperature (60° F, or 15.6° C) and pressure (14.7 pounds per square inch
or 101.3 kilopascals). In the metric system, natural gas is measured in cubic
meters. One cubic meter is equal to 35.315 cubic feet. Natural gas heat
content is measured in the English system in British thermal units (BTUs).
One BTU of heat is about the heat produced by burning a wooden kitchen
match. One cubic foot of natural gas typically has between 900 and 1,200
BTUs of heat. In the metric system, the heat content of gas is measured in
kilojoules (kJ). One kilojoule is equal to about one BTU.

Benchmark crude oils:

A benchmark crude oil is a standard for a particular country. All other crude
oils are compared to it. In the United States, West Texas Intermediate is the
benchmark crude oil. It has 38 to 40° API gravity and 0.3 percent sulfur.
Brent, the benchmark crude oil for the North Sea, is very similar with 38°
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API gravity and 0.3 percent sulfur. Dubai, the Middle East benchmark, is
31° API gravity and 2 percent sulfur.

Facilities and processes:

The oil and gas industry facilities and systems are broadly
defined, according to their use in the oil and gas industry
production stream:
Exploration Includes prospecting, seismic and drilling activities
that take place before the development of a field is finally
decided.
Upstream Typically refers to all facilities for production and
stabilization of oil and gas. The reservoir and drilling community
often uses upstream for the wellhead, well, completion and
reservoir only, and downstream of the wellhead as production or
processing. Exploration and upstream/production together is
referred to as E&P.
Midstream Broadly defined as gas treatment, LNG production
and regasification plants, and oil and gas pipeline systems.
Refining Where oil and condensates are processed into
marketable products with defined specifications such as
gasoline, diesel or feedstock for the petrochemical industry.
Refinery offsites such as tank storage and distribution terminals
are included in this segment, or may be part of a separate
distributions operation.
Petrochemical These products are chemical products where
the main feedstock is hydrocarbons. Examples are plastics,
fertilizer and a wide range of industrial chemicals.

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Exploration:

In the past, surface features like tar seeps or gas pockmarks

provided initial clues to the situation of shallow hydrocarbon
deposits. Today, a series of surveys, starting with broad
geological mapping through increasingly advanced methods like
passive seismic, reflective seismic, magnetic and gravity surveys
give data to stylish analysis tools that identify potential
hydrocarbon bearing rock as “prospects.”

An offshore well typically costs $30 million, with most falling

within the $10-$100 million range. Rig leases are typically
$200,000 - $700,000 per day. The average US onshore well
costs about $4 million, as many have much lower production
capacity. Smaller companies exploring marginal onshore
fields may drill a shallow well for as little as $100,000.
This means that oil companies spend much time on analysis
models of excellent exploration data, and can only drill when
models provides a good indication of source rock and
probability of finding oil or gas.

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The first wells during a region are called wildcats because little
could also be known about potential dangers,
like the downhole pressures which will be encountered, and thus
require particular care and attention to safety equipment. If a find
(strike, penetration) is formed, additional reservoir
characterization like production testing, appraisal wells, etc., are
needed to work out the dimensions and production capacity of
the reservoir in order to justify a development decision.

Production:
This illustration gives an overview of typical oil and gas production
facilities:

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Today, oil and gas is produced in almost every a part of the planet, from
the tiny 100 barrels-a-day private wells to the massive bore 4,000 barrels-
a-day wells; in shallow 20 meter deep reservoirs to three ,000 meter deep
wells in additional than 2,000 meters of water; in $100,000 onshore wells
and $10 billion offshore developments. Despite this range, many parts of
the method are quite similar in theory.
At the left side, we find the wellheads. They feed into production
and test manifolds. In distributed production, this is often called
the gathering system. The remainder of the diagram is that the
actual process, often called the fuel oil separation plant (GOSP).
While there are oil- or gas-only installations, more often the well stream
will contains a full range of hydrocarbons from gas (methane, butane,
propane, etc.), condensates (medium density hydrocarbons) to crude oil.
With this well flow, we also get a spread of unwanted components, like
water, CO2 , salts, sulfur and sand. The purpose of the GOSP is to process
the well flow into clean, marketable products: oil, gas or condensates.
Also included are variety of utility systems, which aren't a part of the
particular process but provide energy, water, air or another utility
to the plant.

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Refining:

Up to the first 1970s, petroleum prices were kept reasonably stable by major
international oil companies and industrialized nations.
Less value was created within the upstream production operations and
comparatively more profits were generated in refining and distribution
operations. With the 1973 oil crisis and rising petroleum prices, more of the
worth was created upstream. Now, the success of a contemporary refinery
depends more on economies of scale and therefore the ability to process a
good range of crudes into the utmost quantity of high value fuels and
feedstock. A refinery that's ready to handle multiple types from
heavy to light crude is claimed to possess to possess an outsized
swing. Trade specifications like ”West Texas Intermediate” (WTI)
API 38.3°, “Brent Blend” API 38.3°, “Heavy Arab Crude” API 27.7°
or “Grane” API 18.7° are samples of such crudes. Medium light crudes are
often used directly in early engines and burners. Modern consumers, like
gas and diesel engines, aviation turbojet engines and ship bunkers need
fuels manufactured to express specifications. This includes removing
contaminants and pollutants, such as sulfur.

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Fractional distillation:
The basic refinery uses fractional distillation. Incoming crude is heated to
its boiling point. It then enters the distillation column, which separates the
different fractions. The column is of the reflux type, where colder
condensed fluids running down are reheated by rising vapors that
successively condense. This produces clear thermal zones where the various
products are often drained.

NOTE: The schematic on the subsequent page is simplified.

Both continuous and vacuum distillation is employed in separate columns
to avoid heating the raw crude to quite 370 °C. Overheating would cause
thermal cracking and excessive coke which will also plug pipes and vessels.
Also a sidecut stripper is employed, additionally to the most column, to
further improve separation. Sidecut is another name for the fractions
emerging from the side (rather than top and bottom) of the most column,
i.e., naphtha, gasoline, kerosene and diesel.

The fractions are a mix of alkanes and aromatics and other hydrocarbons,
so there is not a linear and uniformly rising relationship between carbon
number and boiling point and density, although there is a rough fit. Even so,
this means that each fraction contains a distribution of carbon numbers and
hydrocarbons.

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Basic products:
The basic products from fractional distillation are:

Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) has carbon numbers of 1-5 and a boiling
stress to twenty °C. Most of the LPGs are propane and butane, with carbon
number 3 and 4 and boiling points -42 °C and -1 °C, respectively. Typical
usage is domestic and camping gas, LPG vehicles and petrochemical
feedstock.
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Naphtha, or full range naphtha, is that the fraction with boiling points
between 30 °C and 200 °C and molecules generally having carbon
numbers 5 to 12. The fraction is usually 15–30% of petroleum by weight.
It is used mainly as a feedstock for other processes:
❖In the refinery for producing additives for high octane gasoline.
❖A diluent for transporting very heavy crude.
❖Feedstock to the petrochemical olefins chain.
❖Feedstock for many other chemicals.
❖As a solvent in cleaning.

Gasoline has carbon numbers mainly between 4 and 12 and boiling points
up to 120 °C. Its main use is as fuel for combustion engines. Early on, this
fraction might be sold directly as gasoline for cars, but today’s engines
require more precisely formulated fuel, so but 20% of gasoline at the pump
is the raw gasoline fraction. Additional sources are needed to meet the
demand, and additives are required to control such parameters as octane
rating and volatility. Also, other sources such as bioethanol may be added,
up to about 5%.
Kerosene has main carbon numbers 10 to 16 (range 6 to 16) boiling
between 150 °C and 275 °C. Its main use is as aviation fuel, where the
simplest known blend is Jet A-1. Kerosene is also used for lighting
(paraffin lamps) and heating.
Diesel oil, or petrodiesel, is employed for diesel engines in cars, trucks,
ships, trains and utility machinery. It has a carbon number range of 8 to 21
(mainly 16-20) and is that the fraction that boils between 200 °C and 350
°C.
White and black oils: The above products are often called white oils, and
therefore the fractions are generally available from the atmospheric
distillation column. The remaining fraction below are the black oils, which
must be further separated by vacuum distillation due to the temperature
restriction of heating raw crude to no more than 370-380 °C. This allows
the lighter fractions to boil off at a lower temperatures than with
atmospheric distillation, avoiding overheating.
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 Lubricating oils, or mineral base lubricating oil (as opposed to synthetic
lubricants), form the basis for lubricating waxes and polishes. These
typically contain 90% staple with carbon numbers from 20 to 50 and a
fraction boiling at 300-600 °C. 10% additives are used to control lubricant
properties, such as viscosity.
Fuel oils may be a common term encompassing a good range of fuels that
also includes sorts of kerosene and diesel, also because the heavy heating
oil and bunker that is produced at the low end of the column before bitumen
and coke residues. Fuel oil is graded on a scale of 1 to six where grade 1 and
a couple of is analogous to kerosene and diesel, 3 is never used anymore.
4-6 are the heavy fuels, also called Bunker A, B and C, where B and C are
very high viscosity at normal ambient temperatures and
requires preheating to about 100 °C and 120 °C respectively, before it flows
enough to be utilized in an engine or burner. Fuel oil grade 4 doesn't require
preheating and is usually mixed with off spec products, like tank residue and
interface liquid from multiphase pipelines or with grade 2 heating oil to
realize low enough viscosity at ambient temperatures. Fuel oil 6 is that the
lowest grade, its specification also allows 2% water and 0.5% mineral soil
and is consumed almost exclusively by large ships in high sea, where
pollutants such as sulfur is less regulated.

Bitumen and other residues like coke and tar has carbon numbers above 70
and boiling points above 525 °C. Low sulfur coke are often used for anodes
within the metals industry (aluminum and steel) after processing (calcining).
The remainder may be a problem fuel, due to high sulfur content and even
higher CO2 emissions than coal (typically 15% higher). Bitumen within the
sort of asphalt boiling above 525 °C is employed for roofing and road
paving. Asphalt concrete pavement material is usually composed of fifty
asphalt/bitumen and 95% stone, sand, and gravel (aggregates).

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Conclusion:

Millions of years ago, the earth was populated with plants and
animals. Much of that life was located in or adjacent to ancient
rivers, lakes, and sea. As plants and animals died, their remains
settled to the bottom of these bodies of water. Ancient rivers
carried mud and sand that buried the organic material. As layers
of organic material continued to build up, the oxygen supply to the
lower layers eventually was cut off and decomposition slowed
down. The thick Upstream oil sector: this sector deals with the;
Exploration (searching for hydrocarbons) and Production and also
called (E&P) sector. Exploration: by different types of field geology,
geophysics, and well logging methods. Production: deals with
extracting hydrocarbons by oil well drilling. This comes after
exploration.

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Reference:

https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/petroleum/276386

https://wiki.aapg.org/Petroleum_exploration

https://www.e-education.psu.edu/eme801/node/470

https://books.google.iq/books?id=VTtDAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA323&dq=The+tools
+of+exploration&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj1jMq3hursAhUtmIsKHdP5CdoQ
6AEwAHoECAUQAg

https://books.google.iq/books?id=VqjrCAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=s
ource+rock&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjI2dfphursAhVjkIsKHa79CEcQ6AEwA
HoECAQQAg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_refinery

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