SOGC CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE

SOGC CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE No. 189, March 2007

Diagnosis and Management of Placenta Previa

2. Sonographers are encouraged to report the actual distance from
This guideline has been reviewed by the Clinical Obstetrics the placental edge to the internal cervical os at TVS, using
Committee and approved by the Executive and Council of the standard terminology of millimetres away from the os or millimetres
Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada. of overlap. A placental edge exactly reaching the internal os is
described as 0 mm. When the placental edge reaches or overlaps
PRINCIPAL AUTHOR the internal os on TVS between 18 and 24 weeks’ gestation
Lawrence Oppenheimer, MD, FRCSC, Ottawa ON (incidence 2–4%), a follow-up examination for placental location in
the third trimester is recommended. Overlap of more than 15 mm is
MATERNAL FETAL MEDICINE COMMITTEE associated with an increased likelihood of placenta previa at term. (ll-2A)
Dr Anthony Armson, MD, Halifax NS 3. When the placental edge lies between 20 mm away from the
Dr Dan Farine (Chair), MD, Toronto ON internal os and 20 mm of overlap after 26 weeks’ gestation,
ultrasound should be repeated at regular intervals depending on
Ms Lisa Keenan-Lindsay, RN, Oakville ON the gestational age, distance from the internal os, and clinical
Dr Valerie Morin, MD, Cap-Rouge QC features such as bleeding, because continued change in placental
location is likely. Overlap of 20 mm or more at any time in the third
Dr Tracy Pressey, MD, Vancouver BC
trimester is highly predictive of the need for Caesarean section
Dr Marie-France Delisle, MD, Vancouver BC (CS). (llI-B)
Dr Robert Gagnon, MD, London ON 4. The os–placental edge distance on TVS after 35 weeks’ gestation
Dr William Robert Mundle, MD, Windsor ON is valuable in planning route of delivery. When the placental edge
lies > 20 mm away from the internal cervical os, women can be
Dr John Van Aerde, MD, Edmonton AB offered a trial of labour with a high expectation of success. A
distance of 20 to 0 mm away from the os is associated with a
higher CS rate, although vaginal delivery is still possible depending
Abstract on the clinical circumstances. (ll-2A)
Objective: To review the use of transvaginal ultrasound for the 5. In general, any degree of overlap (> 0 mm) after 35 weeks is an
diagnosis of placenta previa and recommend management based indication for Caesarean section as the route of delivery. (ll-2A)
on accurate placental localization. 6. Outpatient management of placenta previa may be appropriate
Options: Transvaginal sonography (TVS) versus transabdominal for stable women with home support, close proximity to a
sonography for the diagnosis of placenta previa; route of delivery, hospital, and readily available transportation and telephone
based on placenta edge to internal cervical os distance; in-patient communication. (ll-2C)
versus out-patient antenatal care; cerclage to prevent bleeding; 7. There is insufficient evidence to recommend the practice of cervical
regional versus general anaesthesia; prenatal diagnosis of cerclage to reduce bleeding in placenta previa. (llI-D)
placenta accreta.
8. Regional anaesthesia may be employed for CS in the presence of
Outcome: Proven clinical benefit in the use of TVS for diagnosing placenta previa. (II-2B)
and planning management of placenta previa.
9. Women with a placenta previa and a prior CS are at high risk for
Evidence: MEDLINE search for “placenta previa” and bibliographic placenta accreta. If there is imaging evidence of pathological
review. adherence of the placenta, delivery should be planned in an
Benefits, Harms, and Costs: Accurate diagnosis of placenta previa appropriate setting with adequate resources. (II-2B)
may reduce hospital stays and unnecessary interventions. Validation: Comparison with Placenta previa and placenta previa
Recommendations: accreta: diagnosis and management. Royal College of
Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, Guideline No. 27,
1. Transvaginal sonography, if available, may be used to investigate October 2005.
placental location at any time in pregnancy when the placenta is
thought to be low-lying. It is significantly more accurate than The level of evidence and quality of recommendations are described
transabdominal sonography, and its safety is well using the criteria and classifications of the Canadian Task Force on
established. (11–2A) Preventive Health Care (Table).
J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2007;29(3):261–266

Key Words: Placenta previa, Caesarean section, transvaginal

ultrasonography, low-lying placenta

This guideline reflects emerging clinical and scientific advances as of the date issued and is subject to change. The information
should not be construed as dictating an exclusive course of treatment or procedure to be followed. Local institutions can dictate
amendments to these opinions. They should be well documented if modified at the local level. None of these contents may be
reproduced in any form without prior written permission of the SOGC.

MARCH JOGC MARS 2007 l 261

SOGC CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE

Key to evidence statements and grading of recommendations, using the ranking of the Canadian Task Force
on Preventive Health Care

Quality of Evidence Assessment* Classification of Recommendations†

I: Evidence obtained from at least one properly randomized A. There is good evidence to recommend the clinical preventive
controlled trial action
II-1: Evidence from well-designed controlled trials without B. There is fair evidence to recommend the clinical preventive
randomization action
II-2: Evidence from well-designed cohort (prospective or C. The existing evidence is conflicting and does not allow to
retrospective) or case-control studies, preferably from more make a recommendation for or against use of the clinical
than one centre or research group preventive action; however, other factors may influence
decision-making
II-3: Evidence obtained from comparisons between times or
places with or without the intervention. Dramatic results in D. There is fair evidence to recommend against the clinical
uncontrolled experiments (such as the results of treatment preventive action
with penicillin in the 1940s) could also be included in this E. There is good evidence to recommend against the clinical
category preventive action
III: Opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical I. There is insufficient evidence (in quantity or quality) to make
experience, descriptive studies, or reports of expert a recommendation; however, other factors may influence
committees decision-making

*The quality of evidence reported in these guidelines has been adapted from the Evaluation of Evidence criteria described in the Canadian Task Force
on the Periodic Preventive Health Exam Care.59
†Recommendations included in these guidelines have been adapted from the Classification of Recommendations criteria described in the Canadian
Task Force on the Periodic Preventive Health Exam Care.59

INTRODUCTION DIAGNOSIS OF PLACENTA PREVIA

Transvaginal sonography is now well established as the pre-

lacenta previa is defined as a placenta implanted in the
P lower segment of the uterus, presenting ahead of the
ferred method for the accurate localization of a low-lying
placenta. Sixty percent of women who undergo
leading pole of the fetus. It occurs in 2.8/1000 singleton transabdominal sonography (TAS) may have a reclassifica-
pregnancies and 3.9/1000 twin pregnancies1 and represents tion of placental position when they undergo TVS.7–10 With
a significant clinical problem, because the patient may need TAS, there is poor visualization of the posterior placenta,11
to be admitted to hospital for observation, she may need the fetal head can interfere with the visualization of the
blood transfusion, and she is at risk for premature delivery. lower segment,12 and obesity13 and underfilling or overfill-
The incidence of hysterectomy after Caesarean section (CS) ing of the bladder14,15 also interfere with accuracy. For these
for placenta previa is 5.3% (relative risk compared with reasons, TAS is associated with a false positive rate for the
those undergoing CS without placenta previa is 33).2 diagnosis of placenta previa of up to 25%.16 Accuracy rates
Perinatal mortality rates are three to four times higher than for TVS are high (sensitivity 87.5%, specificity 98.8%, posi-
in normal pregnancies.3,4 tive predictive value 93.3%, negative predictive value
97.6%), establishing TVS as the gold standard for the diag-
nosis of placenta previa.17 The only randomized trial to date
The traditional classification of placenta previa describes comparing TVS and TAS confirmed that TVS is more ben-
the degree to which the placenta encroaches upon the cer- eficial.18 TVS has also been shown to be safe in the presence
vix in labour and is divided into low-lying, marginal, partial, of placenta previa,17,19 even when there is established vagi-
or complete placenta previa.5 In recent years, publications nal bleeding. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) will also
have described the diagnosis and outcome of placenta accurately image the placenta and is superior to TAS.20 It is
previa on the basis of localization, using transvaginal unlikely that it confers any benefit over TVS for placental
sonography (TVS) when the exact relationship of the pla- localization, but this has not been properly evaluated.
cental edge to the internal cervical os can be accurately mea- Furthermore, MRI is not readily available in most units.
sured. The increased prognostic value of TVS diagnosis has
Recommendation
rendered the imprecise terminology of the traditional classi-
fication obsolete.6 This guideline describes the current diag- 1. Transvaginal sonography, if available, may be used to
nosis and management of placenta previa and is based investigate placental location at any time in pregnancy
largely on studies using TVS. when the placenta is thought to be low-lying. It is

262 l MARCH JOGC MARS 2007

 Diagnosis and Management of Placenta Previa

significantly more accurate than transabdominal Transperineal or translabial ultrasound (using a

sonography, and its safety is well established. (ll-2A) transabdominal probe) can also improve upon the diagnos-
tic accuracy of TAS and may be a useful alternative when
PREDICTION OF PLACENTA PREVIA AT DELIVERY TVS is not available.29
The occurrence of placenta previa is common in the first Recommendations
half of pregnancy, and its persistence to term will depend on
2. Sonographers are encouraged to report the actual dis-
the gestational age and the definition employed for the
tance from the placental edge to the internal cervical os at
exact relationship of the internal cervical os to the placental
TVS, using standard terminology of millimetres away
edge on TVS.21–26 In this guideline, the following terminol-
from the os or millimetres of overlap. A placental edge
ogy is recommended to describe this relationship: when the
exactly reaching the internal os is described as 0 mm.
placenta edge does not reach the internal os, the distance is
When the placental edge reaches or overlaps the internal
reported in millimetres away from the internal os; when the
cervical os on TVS between 18 and 24 weeks’ gestation
placental edge overlaps the internal os by any amount, the
(incidence 2–4%), a follow-up examination for placental
distance is described as millimetres of overlap. A placental
location in the third trimester is recommended. Overlap
edge that exactly reaches the internal os is described by a
of more than 15 mm is associated with an increased
measurement of 0 mm.
likelihood of plaenta previa at term. (ll-2A)
For a placental edge reaching or overlapping the internal os,
3. When the placental edge lies between 20 mm away from
Mustafa et al.21 found in a longitudinal study an incidence of
the internal os and 20 mm overlap after 26 weeks’ gesta-
42% between 11 and 14 weeks, 3.9% between 20 and 24
tion, ultrasound should be repeated at regular intervals
weeks, and 1.9% at term. With overlap of 23 mm between
depending on the gestational age, distance from the
11 and 14 weeks, they estimated that the probability of pla-
internal os, and clinical features such as bleeding,
centa previa at term was 8%. Similarly, Hill et al.22 reported
because continued change in placental location is likely.
an incidence of 6.2% for a placenta extending over the
Overlap of 20 mm or more at any time in the third tri-
internal os between 9 and 13 weeks. In their series of 1252
mester is highly predictive of the need for CS. (lll-B)
patients, 20 (1.6%) had overlap of the placental edge of
16 mm or more, and only 4 of these had placenta previa
ROUTE OF DELIVERY AT TERM
persisting to term (0.3%). Two additional studies that have
examined various distances of overlap between 9 and The need for CS at term is predicated upon the os to placen-
16 weeks23,24 agreed that persistence of placenta previa is tal edge distance and clinical features (e.g., presence of
extremely unlikely if the degree of placental overlap is no unstable lie and/or bleeding). Five studies have examined
more than 10 mm. Two studies examined cut-off values at the likelihood of CS for placenta previa on the basis of dis-
18 to 23 weeks’ gestation.25,26 These found a similar inci- tance to the placental edge on the last ultrasound prior to
dence of the placenta reaching or overlapping the internal delivery.6,27–31 The last scan was performed at a mean of 35
os of up to 2%, and overall less than 20% of these persisted to 36 weeks’ gestational age, and a distance of > 20 mm
as placenta previa. The likelihood of persistent placenta away from the os was associated with a high likelihood of
previa was effectively zero when the placental edge reached vaginal delivery (range 63–100%). It has been suggested
but did not overlap the os (0 mm) and increased significantly that this cut-off distance of > 20 mm away from the os
beyond 15 mm overlap such that a distance of > 25 mm should be defined as a low-lying placenta, rather than a pla-
overlap had a likelihood of placenta previa at delivery of centa previa, in order to avoid the bias of physicians per-
between 40% and 100%. forming elective section based on the report of a placenta
previa.30 These cases can be managed in the high
The process of placental “migration” or relative upward
expectation of a vaginal delivery.
shift of the placenta due to differential growth of the lower
segment is continuous into the late third trimester.15,18,27 Of Between 20 mm and 0 mm away from the os on the last
26 patients scanned at an average of 29 weeks’ gestational scan, CS for placenta previa varies from approximately 40%
age when the placenta lay between 20 mm away from the to 90% and may be driven by the exact distance from the os
internal os and 20 mm of overlap, only 3 (11.5%) required and physicians’ prior knowledge of the ultrasound find-
CS for placenta previa at delivery. An average migration rate ing.28,30,31 In this latter group, trial of labour may be appro-
of > 1 mm per week was highly predictive of a normal out- priate in the absence of an unstable lie or bleeding,30
come. An overlap of > 20 mm after 26 weeks was predic- although more data in the form of prospective studies are
tive of the need for CS.27 Predanic et al.28 have subsequently required on the likelihood of antepartum and intrapartum
published similar results. bleeding.

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SOGC CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINE

When the placenta overlaps the os by any amount on the of the baby weighing less than 2000 g. However, random-
last scan prior to delivery, CS is required in all cases27–31; this ization in this trial was by birth date, and analysis was by
was previously defined as “complete placenta previa.” treatment received not intention to treat.
Recommendations Recommendation
4. The os–placental edge distance on TVS after 35 weeks’ 7. There is insufficient evidence to recommend the practice
gestation is valuable in planning route of delivery. When of cervical cerclage to reduce bleeding in placenta
the placental edge lies > 20 mm away from the internal previa. (lll-D)
cervical os, women can be offered a trial of labour with a
high expectation of success. A distance of 20 to 0 mm METHOD OF ANAESTHESIA FOR CAESAREAN SECTION
away from the os is associated with a higher CS rate,
Anaesthesiologists are divided in their opinions regarding
although vaginal delivery is still possible depending on
the safest method of anaesthesia for CS with placenta
the clinical circumstances. (ll-2A)
previa.40 Two retrospective studies conclude that regional
5. In general, any degree of overlap (> 0 mm) after 35 weeks anaesthesia is safe,41,42 and one small randomized trial sug-
is an indication for Caesarean section as the route of gests that epidural anaesthesia is superior to general anaes-
delivery.(ll-2A) thesia with regard to maternal hemodynamics.43 When pro-
longed surgery is anticipated in women with prenatally diag-
INPATIENT VERSUS OUTPATIENT MANAGEMENT nosed placenta accreta, general anaesthesia may be prefera-
There has been one small published randomized trial32 that ble, and regional analgesia could be converted to general
explored home versus hospital management of women with anaesthesia if undiagnosed accreta is encountered.41
placenta previa. Twenty-seven women were randomized to Recommendation
bed rest with minimal ambulation in hospital, and 26
women were discharged home. Recurrent bleeding 8. Regional anaesthesia may be employed for CS in the
occurred in 62% of subjects. Overall, there was no differ- presence of placenta previa. (II-2B)
ence in any major outcome, and there was a significant sav-
PLACENTA PREVIA AND PLACENTA ACCRETA
ing of days in hospital in the outpatient group. A number of
retrospective reviews have also examined this question,33–35 The association between prior CS, placenta previa, and pla-
and the results of these trials also support the use of centa accreta (pathological adherence of the placenta) is
outpatient management for stable patients. However, it was well recognized. The incidence of placenta previa climbs
found that the clinical outcomes for placenta previa are with the number of prior CS,44,45 and there is a suggestion
highly variable and cannot be predicted confidently from that the incidence of placenta previa is rising because of the
antenatal events,32 although the degree of previa may be a increasing CS rate.46 The mechanism of causation of previa
guide to the likelihood of complications.36 Overall, the total by a previous scar is poorly understood, but it may be due to
number of women studied was small, and the statistical reduced differential growth of the lower segment resulting
power of these studies to address the issue of maternal and in less upward shift in placental position as pregnancy
neonatal safety was very limited. Further research is neces- advances.47, 48 Certainly the increasing CS rate is driving the
sary to make firm conclusions, and conservative in-hospital increasing rate of placenta accreta, which now stands at
management is the appropriate approach for women with 1:2500 deliveries.46 The relative risk of placenta accreta in
bleeding. the presence of placenta previa is 1:2065, which is consider-
Recommendation ably higher than the risk for women who have a normally
situated placenta.46 The risk of placenta accreta in the pres-
6. Outpatient management of placenta previa may be ence of placenta previa increases dramatically with the num-
appropriate for stable women with home support, close ber of previous CS, with a 25% risk for one prior CS, and
proximity to a hospital, and readily available transporta- more than 40% for two prior CS.45,49 Placenta accreta is a
tion and telephone communication. (ll-2C) significant condition with high potential for hysterectomy,
and a maternal death rate reported at 7%. Prenatal diagnosis
CERVICAL CERCLAGE
may be beneficial in preparing for delivery.50 A number of
The benefit of cervical cerclage in the antenatal manage- imaging techniques, including ultrasonography,51 colour
ment of placenta previa has been examined in a systematic Doppler,52,53 and MRI,54,55 are helpful in making a prenatal
review.37 Two trials were identified.38,39 A total of 64 diagnosis of placenta accreta. Conservative management of
women were randomized, and in one study38 there was a placenta accreta with preservation of the uterus is a thera-
reduction in the risk of delivery before 34 weeks or the birth peutic option. Case series56–58 report successes with leaving

264 l MARCH JOGC MARS 2007

 Diagnosis and Management of Placenta Previa

the placenta in-situ and performing uterine artery 20. Powell MC, Buckley J, Price H, Worthington BS, Symonds EM. Magnetic
resonance imaging and placenta praevia. Am J Obstet Gynecol
embolization. 1986;154:656–9.
Recommendation 21. Mustafa SA, Brizot ML, Carvalho MHB, Watanabe L, Kahhale S, Zugaib Z.
Transvaginal ultrasonography in predicting placenta previa at delivery: a
9. Women with a placenta previa and a prior CS are at high longitudinal study. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2002:20:356–9.
risk for placenta accreta. If there is imaging evidence of
22. Hill LM, Di Nofrio DM, Chenevey P. Transvaginal sonographic evaluation
pathological adherence of the placenta, delivery should of first-trimester placenta previa. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 1995;5:301–3.
be planned in an appropriate setting with adequate 23. Taipale P. Hiilesmaa V, Ylostalo P. Diagnosis of placenta previa by
resources. (II-2B) transvaginal sonographic screening at 12–16 weeks in a nonselected
population. Obstet Gynecol 1997;89:364–7.
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