SOLAR THERMAL PLANT

SOLAR THERMAL PLANT

 SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
PRINCIPLE
• It works in the principle of conversation of heat
energy of sun's rays in to steam by utilizing to high
temperature fluid.
• The fluid is then circulated through pipes so that it
can transfer its heat to water and produce steam.
• The steam is directed through a steam turbine
which convert heat energy of steam into
mechanical energy into mechanical energy , which
drives a generator to produce electricity.
 SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
• Solar thermal energy is used to heat water and air.
• The two types of solar heating systems are passive
systems and active systems.
 SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
1.Active system
 It use a collector and a fluid that absorbs solar
radiation.
 Fans or pumps circulate air or heat-absorbing
liquids through collectors and then transfer the heated
fluid directly to a room or to a heat storage system.
 Active water heating systems usually have a tank
for storing solar heated water.
 SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
2.Passive system
 It happens when the sun shines through the windows
of a building and warms the interior.
 Building designs that optimize passive solar heating
usually have south-facing windows that allow the sun to
shine on solar heat-absorbing walls or floors during the
winter.
 The solar energy heats the building by natural
radiation and convection.
 Window overhangs or shades block the sun from
entering the windows during the summer to keep the
building cool.
 SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
CONSTRUCTION PARTS:
1.Solar Thermal Collectors or Heliostats
2.Receiver
3.Heat Exchanger
4.Power House
 SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
1.Solar Thermal Collectors or Heliostats
• Thermal solar collectors turn the sun’s
radiation into heat and then transfer that heat to
air or water.
 SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
Types of solar collectors
 SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
Nonconcentrating collectors—The collector
area is the same as the absorber area.
• Flat-plate collectors are the most common
type of nonconcentrating collectors and are
used when temperatures lower than 200°F are
sufficient.
• Solar systems for heating water or air usually
have nonconcentrating collectors.
 SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
1.Flat-plate collectors
 SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
1.Flat-plate collectors

Absorber
 it consists of a large heat absorbing plate, usually a large sheet
of copper or aluminium as they are both good conductors of
heat,
 It is painted or chemically etched black to absorb as much solar
radiation as possible for maximum efficiency.
Risers-
 absorbing surface has several parallel copper pipes or tubes
called risers.
 It contain the heat transfer fluid, typically water or molten salt
or gas.
 These copper pipes are bonded, soldered or brazed directly to
the absorber plate to ensure maximum surface contact and heat
transfer.
 SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
1.Flat-plate collectors
Glazing sheet
 The pipes and absorber plate are enclosed in an
insulated metal or wooden box with a sheet of glazing
material,
 It has either glass or plastic on the front to protect the
enclosed absorber plate and create an insulating air
space.
 The air gap between the plate and glazing material
traps this heat preventing it from escaping back into
the atmosphere
 SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
1.Flat-plate collectors
Working
As the absorber plate warms up, it transfers
heat to the fluid within the collector which is
then used by the household but it also loses
heat to its surroundings.
To minimize this loss of heat, the bottom and
sides of a flat plate collector are insulated with
high temperature rigid foam or aluminium foil
insulation as shown.
SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
 SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
2.Evacuvated solar collectors
 SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
2.Evacuvated solar collectors
 SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
2.Evacuvated solar collectors
• Inside the each glass tube, a flat or curved aluminium or copper
fin is attached to a metal heat pipe running through the inner tube.
• The fin is covered with a selective coating that transfers heat to
the fluid that is circulating through the pipe.
• This sealed copper heat pipe transfers the solar heat via
convection of its internal heat transfer fluid to a ―hot bulb‖ that
indirectly heats a copper manifold within the header tank.
• These copper pipes are all connected to a common manifold
which is then connected to a storage tank, thus heating the hot
water during the day.
• The hot water can then be used at night or the next day due to the
insulating properties of the tank.
• The insulation properties of the vacuum are so good that while the
inner tube may be as high as 150oC, the outer tube is cooler to
touch. This means that evacuated tube water heaters can perform
well and can heat water to fairly high temperatures even in cold
weather when flat plate collectors perform poorly due to heat loss.
 SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
Concentrating collectors
 The area intercepting the solar radiation is greater,
sometimes hundreds of times greater, than the absorber
area.
 The collector focuses or concentrates solar energy onto
an absorber.
 The collector usually moves so that it maintains a high
degree of concentration on the absorber.
 Solar thermal power plants use concentrating solar
collector systems because they can produce high
temperature heat.
 SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
1.Parabolic Trough Reflectors
 SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
1.Parabolic Trough Reflectors

- It is made by simply bending a sheet of reflective or highly

polished material into a parabolic shape called a parabola. Since
solar light waves essentially travel parallel to each other, this type
of solar collector can be pointed directly into the sun and still
achieve a total focal output from all parts of the trough shaped
reflector as shown.
 SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
1.Parabolic Trough Reflectors - working

• The parabolic trough reflector when used as a solar thermal energy

collector is constructed as a long parabolic reflecting mirror which is
usually painted a reflective silver, or made from polished aluminium,
or uses mirrors which extends linearly into the trough shape.
• A metal black heat tube inside a sealed glass tube which can also be
evacuated is used to reduce heat losses.
• The heat tube contains a heat-transfer fluid which is pumped around a
loop within the tube absorbing the heat as it pass through.
• The heat transfer fluid which is usually a mixture of water and other
additive’s or thermal oil, is pumped through the tube and absorbs the
solar heat reaching temperatures of over 200oC.
• The hot water is sent to a heat exchanger where it directly heats a hot
water storage tank for use in the home making this type of solar
heating application a closed-loop active system.
SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
 SOLAR THERMAL POWER
GENERATION
• Low temperature Rankine cycle

• Medium temperature Rankine cycle

• High temperature Rankine cycle

24
 SOLAR THERMAL POWER
1.Low temperature Rankine cycle
 SOLAR THERMAL POWER
1.Low temperature Rankine cycle
• Hot water at around 100 °C is stored in a well-insulated
thermal storage tank
• Then it flows through vapor generator through which
the working fluid of Rankine cycle is passed
• The working fluid has low boiling point
• Vapour at about 90 °C and pressure of few atmospheres
leaves the vapour generator which executes the
Rankine cycle
• Working fluids: organic fluids like methyl chloride,
toluene, refrigerants like R-11, R-113 etc.
 SOLAR THERMAL POWER
MEDIUM TEMPERATURE
• Temperature attained: 150 – 300 °C
• Fluid flowing through absorber tubes is high boiling
point liquid
• Stored in tanks and drawn through heat-exchanger
– Transfers heat to high pressure water which is
converted into steam
• This high pressure steam executes the Rankine cycle
• Cycle efficiency: 20%
• Overall efficiency: 10%
 SOLAR THERMAL POWER
HIGH TEMPERATURE
• Temperature: 400 °C
• Concept: central tower
• Solar radiation is reflected from heliostats and
concentrated on boiler situated at top of
supporting tower
• This thermal input is used to operate a high
temperature Rankine cycle
 SOLAR THERMAL POWER
CENTRAL TOWER
SOLAR THERMAL POWER
Thermionic power generator (TPG)
1. Introduction
• Thermionic power generator (TPG) is a device
that converts heat energy into electrical energy.

• Thermionic emission is the basis for the working

of this system.

• The thermionic emission is the emission of

electrons from metal surface due to heat.
• A thermionic energy converter (or) thermionic power
generator is a device consisting of two electrodes placed
near one another in a vacuum.
• One electrode is normally called the cathode, or emitter,
and the other is called the anode, or plate.
• Ordinarily, electrons in the cathode are prevented from
escaping from the surface by a potential-energy barrier.
• When an electron starts to move away from the surface, it
induces a corresponding positive charge in the material,
which tends to pull it back into the surface.
• To escape, the electron must somehow acquire enough
energy to overcome this energy barrier.
• At ordinary temperatures, almost
one of the electrons
can acquire enough energy to escape.
• However, when the cathode is very hot, the
electron energies are greatly increased by
thermal motion.
• At sufficiently high temperatures, a considerable
number of electrons are able to escape.
• The liberation of electrons from a hot surface is
called thermionic emission
The idea of electrons leaving the surface is shown in
figure
 2. Thermionic effect
• Thermionic effect is the ejection of electron from the heated metal
surface and forms as electron cloud at the cathode.
Principle
 Thermionic power generator is based on the principles of
Thermionic effect that the electrons are emitted from a hot metal
surface and responsible for the production of electricity.
Construction
 The TPG consist of tungsten or rhenium metal, which is negatively
charged cathode acts as an emitter.
 There is positively charged electrode is called collector.
It is collecting the ejected electrons. The emitter and
collector are kept in a vacuum quartz tube.
 Thermionic Power generator

Emitter Quartz tube Collector

Thermal energy
VL

RL

Electrical energy
Thermionic Steam Power Plant
Working
• The electrons within a metal can be treated
as "electron gas" in which individual outer
most electrons are capable of moving
freely under the influence of a field.
• This movement of electrons is responsible
for the function of electric circuits.
• At the surface of a metal, a potential barrier
exists which prevents the electrons from
escaping unless certain conditions are met.
• If any electron wants to escape from the
surface of the metallic cathode, they should
cross this potential barrier.
• At 0K, all the electrons are bound and
cannot escape from the surface of cathode
(emitter).
• When the thermal energy is supplied on
the emitter side, some of the electrons are
allowed to move
• These activated electrons can cross the
potential energy barrier and escape from
the surface of cathode and responsible for the
current production.
• As long as the temperature increased, the
number of electrons escapes from the surface
of emitter increases.
• Collector collects the emitted electrons and
there is an external circuit through which
the current flows
• The metal can be heated in two different ways.
• One is direct heating and second is the indirect
heating.
• In the direct heating where the filament itself is
the cathode and the indirect heating where the
cathode is heated by a separate filament.
• Pure tungsten is used as main metal in the case
of direct heating method
• Nickel (or) Nickel alloys are used as main metal
in the case of indirect heating.
Advantages
• Higher efficiency and high power density
• Compact to use
Disadvantages
• There is a possibility of vaporization of emitter surface
• Thermal breaking is possible during operation
• The sealing is often gets failure
Applications
• They are used in space power application for spacecraft
• They are used to power submarines and boats.
• They used in water pump for irrigation,
• They used in power plant for industry and domestic purpose
WIND ENERGY
 CONTENTS
• Power in the Wind
• Types of Wind Power Plants(WPPs)
• Components of WPPs
• Working of WPPs
• Setting of WPPs
• Grid integration issues of WPPs
• Course Objective
To Know the principle of wind energy harnessing
and their issues.
• Course Outcome
To explain wind power plants, classification and
grid integration issues.
 What is wind energy?
• Wind is air in motion.
• Wind forms when the sun heats one part of
the atmosphere differently than another part.
• This causes expansion of warmer air, making
less pressure where it is warm than where it is
cooler.
• Air always moves from high pressure to lower
pressure, and this movement of air is wind.
• During the day at a coast, the sun heats the air
above the land more quickly than the air
above water.
• The warm air over the land expands and rises.
Cooler air from the ocean moves toward the
land to take the place of the rising air, and
makes a "sea breeze" that cools beachgoers in
the summer.
 Characteristics of wind energy
• Do not pollute atmosphere
• Fuel provision and transport are not required
in wind power systems.
• Renewable source of energy
• Wind energy produced on small scale is cheap
but it is competitive with conventional power
generating system when produced on large
scale
 Wind power
• Three factors determine the output from wind
energy
1. The wind speed
2. The cross section of wind swept by rotor
3. The overall conversion efficiency of the rotor,
transmission system and generator or pump
• 100% aero generator – produces 60% - 70%
• Losses are incurred in gear box, transmission
system, generator could decrease efficiency to
30%
• Wind mill works on the principle of converting KE of wind – ME
• KE = ½ mV² (1)
• The amount of air passing in unit time, through an area A
• Velocity V
Mass = ρAV (2)
• m-mass of the air transversing the area A, ρ – density of air
• Substituting the value mass in (1)
KE = ½ ρAV³ watts (3)
• Since the area is normally circular of diameter D in horizontal axis
aero turbine then A= π/4 D² (sq. m) which gives
• Available wind power Pa= ½ ρ π/4 D²V³ (4)
Pa = ⅛ ρπD²V³ (5)
 Power Efficiency
• The fraction of the free-flow wind power that can be
extracted by a rotor is called the power – coefficient
• power – coefficient is given by the equation =
power of wind rotor / power available in the wind
• The maximum/ideal, theoretical efficiency of wind turbine is
the ratio of maximum power obtained from the wind, to the
total power available in the wind.
• Cp can not exceed 0.593 for HAWT
Geographical and constructional needs
• Why wind speed?
• The power available in the wind increases as cube of the wind
speed hence selecting a site with annual mean wind speeds is
essential
• Why large rotor?
• Doubling the diameter of the turbine’s rotor quadruples the
swept area and hence the power output form the device
(horizontal type) hence building larger rather than smaller
wind generators are essential.
 Site selection consideration
• High annual average wind speed
• Availability of anemometry data
• Availability of wind curve at the proposed site
• Wind structure at the proposed site
• Altitude of the proposed site – higher velocity at higher
altitude
• Terrain and its aerodynamics
• Local ecology
• Distance to roads or railways
• Nearness of site to local centre/users
• Nature of ground
• Favourable land cost
 Necessary guidelines
• Best site for wind energy are found off shore
and the sea coast.
• Second best sites are mountains.
• The lowest level of wind energy is found in
planes where values are generally three or
four times lower than that at the coast.
 Characteristics of good wind power
site
• A site should have a high annual wind speed
• There should be no tall obstructions for a
radius of 3Km
• An open plain or an open shore line may be a
good location
• The top of a smooth, well rounded hill with
gentle slopes or island or sea is a good site
• A mountain gap which produces to wind
funnelling is good
 Basic components of WECS
• Yaw control
• Rotors: horizontal axis/vertical axis
• Vertical axis- operate in all wind direction, no yaw req
• Controller
• Sub components of wind mill are
1. Wind turbine or rotor
2. Wind mill head
3. Transmission and control
4. Supporting structure
 Controls
1. The orientation of the rotor into wind
2. Start up and cut in of the equipment
3. Power control of the rotor by varying the pitch of the blades
4. Generator output monitoring – status, data computation, and storage
5. Shut down and cut out owing to malfunction or very high winds
6. protection for the generator, the utility accepting the power and the
prime mover
7. Auxiliary and /or emergency power
8. Maintenance mode
Many combinations are possible in terms of control system and may involve
the following components:
• Sensor-mechanical, electrical, pneumatic
• Decision elements-relays, logic modules, analog ciruits, microprocessor
• Actuators- hydraulic electric or pneumatic
• Towers
1. Reinforced concrete tower
2. The pole tower
3. Build up shell tube tower
4. Truss tower
 Classification of WECS
• Horizontal axis turbine & vertical axis wind
turbine
• Depending on size:
Small scale (upto 2kW) – might be used on
farms, remote applications, places where the
power requirement is low.
Medium scale (2-100 kW) – used to supply
less than 100kW , residences or local uses
Large scale ( 100kW and up) – 100kw or more,
generate power for distribution in central
power grids. Sub classes are:
Single generator at a single site, multiple
generators sited at several places over an area
• Based on output energy:
 DC output – a) DC generator , b) alternator rectifier
 AC output – a) variable frequency, variable or constant voltage
AC, (b) constant frequency, variable or constant voltage AC
• Based on rotational speed:
 Constant speed with variable pitch blades – uses synchronous
generator with constant frequency output
 Nearly constant speed with foxed pitch blades – induction
generator
 Variable speed with fixed pitch blades – for constant
frequency output:
 Field modulated system
 AC-DC-AC link
 Double output induction generator
 AC commutator generator
• Based on utilization of output is made:
 Batter storage
 Direct connection to an electromagnetic
energy converter
 Other forms (thermal potential) of storage
 Interconnection with conventional electric
utility grids.
 Advantages of WECS

• Renewable sources of energy

• All forms of solar energy, wind energy system
are non-polluting, so it has no adverse
influence on the environment
• Wind energy systems avoid fuel provision and
transport
• Small scale / large scale
 Disadvantages of WECS
• Wind energy available in dilute and fluctuating in nature
• Unlike water energy wind energy needs storage capacity
because of its irregularity
• Wind energy systems are noisy in operation, a large unit can
be heard many kilometres away.
• Wind power system have a relatively high overall weight,
because they involve the construction of a high tower and
include also a gear box, a hub, and pitch charger, a generator
coupling shaft etc.
• Larger areas are needed, typically, propellers 1-3 m in
diameter, deliver power in the 30 to 300 W range
• Present systems are neither maintenance free not-practically
reliable.
Horizontal axis using two aerodynamic
blades
Horizontal axis using two aerodynamic
blades
 Advantages
• Simple blade control – lower blade weight and
cost, lower gear box cost
• Counter weight cost less than second blade
• Counter weight can be inclined to reduce
blade coning
• Pitch bearings do not carry centrifugal force
• Blade root spar cab be large diameter i.e.
More rugged
 Disadvantages
• Vibration produced, due to aerodynamic
torque
• Unconventional appearances
• Large blade root bending movements
• starting torque reduced by ground boundary
layer
• One-per-rev coriolis torque produced, due to
flapping
 Horizontal axis multibladed type
• Blades made from sheet metal or aluminium
• Rotors have high strength to weight ratios and have been
known to service hours of freewheeling operation in 60km/hr
winds
• They have good power coefficient, high starting torque,
simple and low cost
 Horizontal axis wind mill-Dutch type
• Oldest design. Blade surface is made from an
array of wodden slats which feather at high
wind speed
 Sail type
• Blade surface is made from cloth, nylon or
plastics arranged as mast and pole or sail
wings.
• Better performance.
• Applications: electric power generation and
pumping water.
 Basics of wind energy electricity
generation
• Wind turbine – wind mill, wind generator, wind
power unit, wind energy converter
Grid management
• Induction generators are widely used for wind
power generation.
• Substantial capacitor banks are used in
substations for power factor correction
• Extensive modelling of wind farm is needed by
transmission system operators to ensure
predictable stable behaviour during system faults.
• Double fed machines are more desirable for
grid interconnection
• Transmission system operators should specify
few requirements for interconnection to the
transmission grid.
• This include power factor, constancy of
frequency, dynamic behaviour of the wind
farm during a system fault.
 Capacity factor
• The ratio between actual productivity in a year
and theoretical maximum is called capacity
factor.
• 20%-40%
• Affected by various factors: variability of wind
on the site, generator size.
 penetration
• Wind energy penetration is defined as the
fraction of energy produced by the wind from
the total available generation capacity.
• Penetration depends on : existing generating
plants, pricing mechanism, capacity of
storage, dement management
• Above 5%
 Wind energy economics
• Cost trends
• Incentives
 Wind economics determining factors
• Wind resource
• Financing and ownership structure
• Taxes and policy incentives from the government
• Plant size: equipment, installation, operation and
maintenance
• Turbine size, model and tower height
• Green field or site expansion
• Land, transmission and ancillary service
 Advantages
• Clean
• Free
• Place – ability
• Decentralized
• Domestic
• Remote area supply
 Disadvantages
• Reliability
• Expensive
• National security
• Noise
• Wild life
• Aesthetics
 Grid Integration issues of WPPs
• Grid integration issues of WPPs are broadly classified as
follows:
A. Interface issues:
I. Short circuit power control
II. Active and reactive power control
III. Voltage control
B. Operational issues:
I. Power system stability
II. Frequency control
III. Short term balancing
IV. Long term balancing
V. Impact on transmission and distribution systems
• To enhance the interface issues, the transmission
capacity of the network could be enhanced by:
i. Adding transformers to the existing substations
ii. Upgrading the transmission infrastructure
iii. Improving distribution of power flows among different
parallel paths by installing new facilities in grid
substations such as series reactors, phase shifting
transformers etc.
iv. Improving the utilization of existing infrastructure by
replacing line conductors with high temperature
conductors.
v. Replacing the existing infrastructure with those of a
higher transmission capacity.
1. What is wind energy?
Wind energy is an indirect form of solar energy.
Wind power is the conversion of wind energy
into useful form of energy such as using wind
turbines to make electricity, windmills for
mechanical power, wind pump for water
pumping or drainage or sails to propel ships
2. Applications of wind power
a) Electricity
b) Producing mechanical power
wind pumps are used for water pumping or
3. Characteristics of wind energy?
a) Do not pollute the atmosphere
b) Fuel provision and transportation is not
required
c) Renewable source of energy
d) Wind energy when produced on small scale is
cheaper but competitive with conventional
power generation system when produced on
large scale.
4. Define wind shear
The wind speed varies with height above the
ground is called wind shear
• What is wind power density?
A yardstick frequently used to determine good
locations is referred to wind power density
• What is meant by wind turbine?
A wind turbine is a rotating machine which converts
the kinetic energy of wind into mechanical
energy.
• Define capacity factor
The ratio between actual productivity in a year and
theoretical maximum is called capacity factor.
Typical capacity factors are 20-40%
Capacity factor = actual productivity in a
year/theoretical max productivity in a year
• How will you define wind energy penetration?
It is defines as the fraction of energy produced by wind from the
total available generation capacity
• Mention various advantages of wind power
a) Wind power emits absolutely no green house gases.
Therefore, there is no pollution
b) Wind is obtained at free of cost
c) Wind power is helpful in supplying electricity to remote
areas
d) Wind energy itself is both renewable and sustainable. The
wind will never rut out
e) The potential of wind power is enormous i.e 20 times more
than what the entire human population needs
• What are the disadvantages of wind power?
i. Wind is a fluctuating source of energy and it is not suited to
meet the base load energy demand
ii. Wind energy requires some form of energy storage e.g.
Batteries, pumped hydro
iii. The manufacturing and installation of wind turbines require
heavy investments
iv. Wind turbine can be a threat to wildlife
v. Some wind turbines tend to generate a lot of noise which can be
unpleasant.
• Define Betz’s limit
It is the theoretical limit assigned to the efficiency of a wind turbine.
It states that no turbine can convert more than 59.3% of wind
kinetic energy into mechanical energy. Thus, the value of power
coefficient (Cp) is limited to Betz limit. For well designed turbine,
the efficiency lies in the range of 35% - 45%
• What is meant by stalling
If the air pressure increases on the low pressure side, enormous
turbulence is produced which reduces the lift force and it
leads to increase the drag significantly called stalling
• State the characteristics of lift and drag
i. Drag is in the direction of airflow
ii. Lift is perpendicular to the direction of airflow
iii. Generation of lift always causes a certain amount of drag to
be developed with a good aerofoil
iv. The lift produced can be thirty times greater than drag
v. Lift devices are generally more efficient than drag devices
• What are the components of wind energy systems?
• List the advantages of wind turbine
i. Wind industry developers and manufacturers make a lot of
money by investing them due to government subsidies and
cash incentives
ii. Safer environment
• Mention the advantages of HAWT
State the disadvantages of HAWT
Write down the advantages and
disadvantages of VAWT
Solidity
• It is defined as the percentage of circumference
of the rotor which contains the material instead
of air
The parameters considered in designing wind
turbine rotor are
• Solidity
• Tip speed ratio
• Performance coefficient
• Torque
• Rotor power control
Write the characteristics of wind speed
Classify wind power plants
List the various grid integration issues
of WPPs
 TIDAL POWER PLANT
• Energy can be tapped from coastal water by
building dams that trap the water at high tide
and release it at low tide

• Energy available is very large but only in few

locations

• Similar to hydro enegy

102
• Although available for free, they have following
demerits
– Vary time to time
– Varying heads
– Large capital cost

• TIDES: rhythmic rise and fall of water due to

balance of forces
– Gravitational force of moon and sun acting on earth

• Tides are characterized by

– Schedule and
– range

103
• Schedule
– Vary from day to day
– Moon does not occur on a regular 24 h daily
schedule
– Instead it rotates around earth every 24 h 50 min
– During this time tide rises and falls twice resulting
in tidal cycle that lasts 12 h 25 min

• Tidal Range (R)

– =Water elevation at high tide – water elevation at
low tide

104
105
• At times during new moon
– Sun, moon and earth are approximately in one line
– Gravitational forces of sun and moon are enhanced
– Tidal range is high called spring tides
• Near the first and third quarter of moon
– Sun and moon are at right angles w.r.t. earth
– Tides are called neap tides
– Tidal range is very small
• High tides are lower than the average and
• Low tides are higher than the average
• Variations in periodicity, monthly and seasonal
ranges must be taken into account in design of
tidal power plants
106
107
• Tidal range
– Along coastlines: 1m or so
– Constricted areas: 10m or more
• Tidal power plants are to be located in such
constricted areas
• Tidal power development scheme essentially
involves
– Construction of long barrier across a bay to create
a large basin
– Barrier includes dykes, gate controlled sluices and
power house

108
 TIDAL POWER SCHEMES
• Single basin, single-effect tidal power scheme

• Single basin, double-effect tidal power scheme

• Linked basin scheme

109
Single basin, single-effect scheme

110
 Single basin, single-effect scheme
(single-ebb)
• Basin is filled by keeping sluices open during
high tide

• Power is generated by letting water flow from

the basin to the sea through turbine during
low tide

111
Single basin double-effect scheme

112
Single basin double-effect scheme
• During high tide
– Power is generated with water flowing from the
sea to the basin through the turbines
• During low tide
– Power is generated with water flowing from basin
to sea through the turbines
• In this case the turbines should be reversible
with proper blade angles depending upon the
direction of flow

113
Linked basin or double basin scheme

114
 SOLAR POWER
Thermal
Direct Water
Photovoltaic
Solar energy
Wind

Indirect Biomass

OTEC

Wave
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Cylindrical parabolic solar collector

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Paraboloid solar collector

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SOLAR THERMAL POWER GENERATION
• Low temperature Rankine cycle

• Medium temperature Rankine cycle

• High temperature Rankine cycle

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Low temperature

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 LOW TEMPERATURE
• Hot water at around 100 °C is stored in a well-
insulated thermal storage tank
• Then it flows through vapor generator through
which the working fluid of Rankine cycle is passed
• The working fluid has low boiling point
• Vapour at about 90 °C and pressure of few
atmospheres leaves the vapour generator which
executes the Rankine cycle
• Working fluids: organic fluids like methyl chloride,
toluene, refrigerants like R-11, R-113 etc.

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• Rankine efficiency: 7 – 8%
• Collector efficiency: 25%
• Overall efficiency: 2%

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 MEDIUM TEMPERATURE
• Temperature attained: 150 – 300 °C
• Fluid flowing through absorber tubes is high boiling
point liquid
• Stored in tanks and drawn through heat-exchanger
– Transfers heat to high pressure water which is converted
into steam
• This high pressure steam executes the Rankine cycle
• Cycle efficiency: 20%
• Overall efficiency: 10%

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 HIGH TEMPERATURE
• Temperature: 400 °C
• Concept: central tower
• Solar radiation is reflected from heliostats and
concentrated on boiler situated at top of
supporting tower
• This thermal input is used to operate a high
temperature Rankine cycle

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Solar photovoltaic

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SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC

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PV CELL

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 SOLAR - PHOTOVOLTAIC
• Principle: photoelectric effect
• Bright light is made to fall on junction of p-
type and n-type semiconductors
• Photons enables the electrons to break free
from the junction between them
• When the cell is connected to a load, the
electrons will diffuse from n to p

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 REASON FOR GIVING IMPORTANCE TO SOLAR ENERGY

Solar radiation can be converted to electrical energy directly without any

intermediate process by the solar photovoltaic cells. These cells are usually
fabricated as flat discs, a few inches in diameter. Advantages of photovoltaic
generation include:
(1)There is no moving part so that little maintenance is required.
(2)They utilize an infinitely renewable and pollution free power source.
(3)The cells are reliable and long lasting with no harmful waste products.
(4)The cells are usually made of silicon which is one of earth’s most abundant
and cheap materials.
(5) They have high power-to-weight ratio which is required in aerospace
applications.
PV CELL WORKING PRINCIPLE:
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SOLAR CELL:

• Msmmxxx

FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETERS OF SOLAR CELL:

• Short Circuit Current
• Open circuit voltage
• Maximum Power
• Efficiency
• Fill Factor
 SOLAR CELL TECHNOLOGY:

• Mono crystalline technique.

• Poly crystalline technique.
• Thin film solar cells, made up of

 Gallium Arsenide
 Amorphous silicon
 Cadmium telluride
 Copper indium diselenide

• Multi-junction cells

• Concentrating PV technology
DIFFERENT MPPT TECHNIQUES
Choice of MPPT Technique depends on the following:

 Implementation complexity
 Sensors required
 Ability to detect multiple local maxima
 Cost
 Application
 Response time

• Advantages of perturb & observe stated here is as follows:

 Complexity is less during implementation.

 Simple to implement on a digital controller.
 Less cost.

• Disadvantages of perturb & observe stated here is as follows:

 P&O methods can fail under rapidly changing atmospheric conditions.

 P&O oscillates about the MPP.
• Advantages of incremental conductance MPPT stated here is as follows:

 INC stops oscillating when the MPP has been reached, thus offering a
superior performance to the P&O.
 The INC can track fast changing irradiance better than the P&O.
 The INC method has been proposed to improve the tracking accuracy and
dynamic performance under rapidly varying conditions.
 Incremental conductance can determine that the MPPT has reached the MPP
and stop perturbing the operating point and it can track rapidly increasing
and decreasing irradiance conditions with higher accuracy than P&O.

• Disadvantages of incremental conductance MPPT stated here is as

follows:

 Complexity is high during implementation.

 Cost is high.
 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
• Energy from earth’s own interior

• Earth’s interior: thought to consist of a central

molten core

• Core is surrounded by a semi-fluid material called

the mantle

• Mantle is covered by the crust (30 – 90 km)

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 Geothermal steam
Two types:
• Magmatic steam
– Originates from magma itself
• Meteoritic steam
– Groundwater heated by the magma

• Meteoritic steam is the largest source of

geothermal steam
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 TYPICAL GEOTHERMAL FIELD
A-Hot Magma
B-Igneous Rock
C-Reservoir
D-Impermeable Solid Rock
E-Fissures
F-Geysers Fumaroles
G-Hot Springs
H-Well
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• A fumarole is an opening in a planet's crust, often in areas
surrounding volcanoes, which emits steam and gases such as
carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen chloride, and
hydrogen sulfide.

• A geyser is a spring characterized by intermittent discharge of

water ejected turbulently and accompanied by steam.

• A hot spring is a spring produced by the emergence of

geothermal heated groundwater that rises from the Earth's
crust

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 Geothermal

Hydrothermal Geopressurized petrothermal

Vapor Liquid
dominated dominated

Flashed steam

Binary cycle

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Vapour-dominated systems/Dry Steam
Fields
• Water is vaporized into steam that reaches
the surface at relatively dry conditions
• Temperature: 250 °C
• Pressure: above 8 bars
• This steam is suitable for use in power plants
with least cost
• Disadvantage:
– Corrosive gases
– Erosive materials
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Dry Steam Fields

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 Dry Steam Fields
• Dry steam is, essentially, water vapor or water in gaseous state.
• The geothermal power plant companies drill two separate wells to
the extremely hot water reservoir under the earth’s surface; the
production well and injection well.
• The production well extracts steam with a temperature of at least
150°C (300°F) from the hot water reservoir below and directs it to
the turbine.
• The steam turns the turbine, which turns a shaft connected to a
generator.
• With the turning, the generator converts the energy into electricity,
which goes through power lines to a power grid and eventually
supplied to homes, institutions, and industries.
• The used steam finds its way to the condenser, where it’s converted
into water and sent back down to the hot water reservoir through the
injection well and the cycle continues.

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Schematic of vapour-dominated
power plant

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• Steam at the well (1) at about 200 °C is nearly
saturated
• Pressure: upto 35 bar
• Pressure drops through the well cause it to slightly
superheat at well head (2)
– Pressure rarely exceeds 7 bar
• Enters through centrifugal separation to remove
particulate mate
• Enters turbine after an additional pressure drop (3)
• Steam expands at turbine and enters condenser (4)
• Steam jet ejector is used to rid the non condensable
gases from condenser to minimized their corrosive
effect

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Flashed steam system

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Flash steam power plants

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Flash steam power plants
• This kind of geothermal power plant utilizes water at
temperatures of at least 182°C (360°F).
• As the name suggests, it uses flash steam to generate
electricity.
• Flash steaming is the process whereby extremely high-
pressure hot water is flashed or vaporized into steam in a
flash tank by reducing the pressure.
• The steam is then directed to turn turbines, which turns a
shaft connected to a generator leading to production of
electricity.

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Binary cycle system

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Binary cycle power plants
• This geothermal power plant is advantageous compared to
the flash steam and dry steam power plants because it
requires slightly cooler water (as low as 57°C (135°F) to heat
a separate fluid (binary fluid) that has a lower boiling point.
• The power plant enables cooler geothermal reservoirs to be
utilized.
• However, with binary cycle power plants, companies use
pumps to pump up hot water from the hot water reservoir
below through the production well, and the slightly cooler
water is allowed to return to the reservoir below

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• A separate fluid with a lower boiling point known as the
binary fluid, normally a pentane hydrocarbon or butane, is
pumped up at considerably high pressure via the heat
exchanger.

• At the heat exchanger, the binary fluid is vaporized and

directed to turn a turbine, which turns a shaft connected to a
generator and electricity is generated.

• The vapor used to turn the turbine is then converted to water

by cold air radiators and allowed to go back to the reservoir
below through the injection well.

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 GEOPRESSURIZED SYSTEMS
• Source: water or brine
– Temperature: relatively low (160 °C)
– Pressure: very high (>1000 bar)
– Saturated with natural gas (mostly methane)

• Feasibility of generating electricity by a

combined cycle
– One that involves the combustion of methane
– Heat from the thermal energy of hot water

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 Petrothermal systems
• Magma lying close to earth’s surface heats
overlying rock
• When no ground water exists there is simply hot
dry rocks (HDR)
• HDR has very low permeability (impermeable)
– Needs to be fractured to increase the heat transfer
surface
• Thermal energy from HDR is extracted by
pumping water through a well that has been
drilled to lower part of fractured rock
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• The water moves through the fractures,
picking up heat
• It then travels up a second well that has been
drilled to upper part of the rock and finally
back to the surface
• There it is used in a power plant to produce
electricity

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• Video Link OTEC:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FHBVgRWAt3c
• Video Link GE:
https://www.energy.gov/eere/videos/energy-101-
geothermal-energy
• Video Link WE: https://www.energy.gov/science-
innovation/energy-sources/renewable-energy/wind
• Video Link SPV:
https://www.energy.gov/eere/solar/solar-photovoltaic-
technology-basics
• Video Link CSP:
https://www.energy.gov/eere/solar/concentrating-
solar-thermal-power-basics