1.

01 CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS
Group One || March 2021
GEN CHEM II
Transcribers: Palomares, Sean
Editors: Saquilayan, Lourence

Legend: become more spread out in a process.

Remember Previous Trans
(Exams)
Lecturer Book
Trans Comm Moreover, entropy is the energy not being
     used properly in a reaction or in a system.
Entropy is commonly associated with the
Overview word randomness or disorder as it is
typically defined as how spread out
What is Chemical Thermodynamics?
(randomly) the atoms are in a certain
 The study of the interrelationships among condition.
heat, work, and the energy content of a  Microstates - Each specific way, each
system at equilibrium. arrangement of the energy of each molecule
 The science of the relationship between
heat, work, temperature, and energy; deals in the whole system at one instant is called a
with the transfer of energy from one place to microstate.
another and from one form to another  Gibb’s Free Energy - The Gibbs free energy
of a system at any moment in time is defined
A. Unlocking of terminologies as the enthalpy of the system minus the
product of the temperature times the entropy
of the system. G = H - TS.
 System - A system is the set of substances
and energy that is being studied. B. First Law of Thermodynamics
 Surroundings - The surrounding is
everything else that is not the system defined. “Energy cannot be created nor destroyed”
 Universe - The system and surroundings
altogether  The First Law of Thermodynamics states that
heat is a form of energy, and thermodynamic
 Non-spontaneous - This process will not processes are therefore subject to the
take place unless it is “driven” by the continual principle of conservation of energy. This
input of energy from an external source. means that heat energy cannot be created
 Spontaneous - A process that occurs or destroyed. It can, however, be transferred
naturally under certain conditions. from one location to another and converted to
 Endothermic (Energetically Unfavorable) - and from other forms of energy.
Any process with an increase in the enthalpy
H of the system. In such a process, a closed
system usually absorbs thermal energy from
its surroundings, which is heat transfer into
the system.
 Exothermic (Energetically Favorable) -
Processes that release energy, usually in the
form of heat or light. In an exothermic
reaction, energy is released because the total
energy of the products is less than the total
energy of the reactants.
 Enthalpy Change - Enthalpy change is the
name given to the amount of heat evolved or
absorbed in a reaction carried out at constant
pressure. It is given the symbol ΔH, read as
"delta H".
 Entropy - Entropy is simply a measure how
much the energy of atoms and molecules
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[GENERAL CHEMISTRY II] 1 CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS – Sean Palomares. Lourence Saquilayan, Daryl Sandico & Bernardino Lacbayo

 The First Law says that the internal energy of ∆𝑯𝑯°𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒏𝒏 = +

a system has to be equal to the work that is  If the enthalpy change for the reaction turns
being done on the system, plus or minus the
out to be a positive integer, the reaction is
heat that flows in or out of the system and any
other work that is done on the system endothermic.
 This law governs changes in the state  Exothermic - Processes that release energy,
function we have called internal energy (U). usually in the form of heat or light. In an
Changes in the internal energy (ΔU) are exothermic reaction, energy is released
closely related to changes in the enthalpy because the total energy of the products is
(ΔH), which is a measure of the heat flow less than the total energy of the reactants.
between a system and its surroundings at 25
degrees Celsius and 1 atm. ∆𝑯𝑯°𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 = −
 If the enthalpy change for the reaction is a
STANDARD ENTALPHIES OF FORMATION negative integer, the reaction is exothermic
∆𝑯𝑯°𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 = � 𝒎𝒎∆𝑯𝑯°𝒇𝒇 (𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑) − � 𝒏𝒏∆𝑯𝑯°𝒇𝒇 (𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓)
as it releases or loses heat.

 The standard conditions are a pressure of 1 Examples

atmosphere (atm) for all gases and a
concentration of 1 M for all species in solution SITUATION ONE
(1 mol/L). We assume a temperature of 25°C Dihydrogen sulfide (H2S) and oxygen gas (O2)
(298K) for all enthalpy changes given in this reacted to produce water (H2O) and sulfur dioxide
text, unless otherwise indicated. Enthalpies of (SO2). Using the standard enthalpies of formation of
formation measured under these conditions
the reactants and products, determine the change in
are called standard enthalpies of formation
(ΔHof) enthalpy for each of these reactions.
 The standard condition for reactions is at Given:
25C or 298K at 1 atmospheric pressure • H2S(g) = -20.1 kJ/mol
(atm) • O2(g) = 0 kJ/mol
• H2O(l) = -285.8 kJ/mol
• SO2(g) = -296.1 kJ/mol
Questions:
• Is the reaction endothermic or
exothermic? Why?
• On what temperature and pressure did
the reaction happen?
Solution:

2 H S(g) + 3 O (g) ---> 2 H O(l) + 2 SO (g)

2 2 2 2

°
∆Hrrn = � m∆Hf° (products) − � n∆Hf° (reactants)
By substitution:
°
∆Hrrn =[2(-285.8) + 2(-296.1)] – [2(-20.1) + 3(0)]
By evaluating the equation:
°
∆𝐇𝐇𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 =-1123.6 kJ/mol
ENDOTHERMIC VS EXOTHERMIC  In response to number 1, the reaction is
REACTIONS exothermic as the result for the enthalpy
 Endothermic - Any process with an increase change is a negative integer as the reaction
in the enthalpy H of the system. In such a releases heat.
 On the second question, the temperature and
process, a closed system usually absorbs
pressure where the reaction occurred is at
thermal energy from its surroundings, which STP at 298K and 1atm.
is heat transfer into the system
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[GENERAL CHEMISTRY II] 1 CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS – Sean Palomares. Lourence Saquilayan, Daryl Sandico & Bernardino Lacbayo

SITUATION TWO (energetically unfavorable). Enthalpy does

Water (H2O) and sodium chlroide (NaCl) was not necessarily determine whether a reaction
produced when sodium hydroxide (NaOH) reacted is spontaneous or not.
with hydrogen chloride (HCl). Using the standard  An endothermic reaction does not always
enthalpies of formation of the reactants and products, mean a non-spontaneous reaction and the
determine the change in enthalpy for each of these same also stands for exothermic reactions.
reactions Just like the melting of ice to water, it is an
GIVEN: endothermic reaction as the ice absorbs heat
• NaOH(s) = -426.7 kJ/mol from its environment but it is spontaneous or
• HCl(g) = -92.3 kJ/mol able to happen on its own.
• NaCl(s) = -411.0 kJ/mol  Thus, enthalpy is not the only factor that
• H2O(g) = -296.1 kJ/mol determines whether a process is
QUESTION: spontaneous.
1. Is the reaction endothermic or  To help explain why these phenomena
exothermic? Why? proceed spontaneously in only one direction
2. What type of chemical reaction occurred? requires an additional state function called
3. Will the temperature of the surroundings entropy (S), a thermodynamic property of all
increase or decrease? substances that is proportional to their degree
SOLUTION: of "disorder".
 Enthalpy + Entropy will determine if the
NaOH(s) + HCl(g) ----> NaCl(s) + H O(g) reaction is spontaneous or not.
2
°
∆Hrrn = � m∆Hf° (products) − � n∆Hf° (reactants)
D. Second Law of Thermodynamics
By substitution, we get: (Entropy)
°
∆Hrrn =[(-411.0) + (-241.8)] – [(-426.7) + (-92.3)] “States that the state of entropy of the entire
Finally, after evaluating the equation we get: universe will always increase over time.”
°
∆𝐇𝐇𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 =-133.8 “All spontaneous changes cause an increase in
 In response to number 1, the reaction is also the entropy of the universe”
exothermic as the result for the enthalpy
change is a negative integer as the reaction What is Entropy?
releases heat.  Entropy is simply a measure how much the
 The reaction that happened was a double- energy of atoms and molecules become more
displacement reaction as both reactants spread out in a process
switched places. It is worth noting that the  Entropy, the measure of a system's thermal
reactants were: NaOH(s) and HCl(g); by energy per unit temperature that is
observing the products which were: NaCl(s) unavailable for doing useful work. Because
and H O(g). As stated, the sodium in the work is obtained from ordered molecular
2
motion, the amount of entropy is also a
sodium hydroxide in the reactant switched measure of the molecular disorder, or
over to the chlorine atom from the HCl thus randomness, of a system.
forming NaCl (salt) while the remaining
Hydroxide (OH) from the NaOH combined
with the remaining H atom from the HCl which
also formed H2O or water.

C. Chemical Thermodynamics

 Tells chemists whether a particular reaction is  From a rigid 4x3 formation, the particles
spontaneous in the direction in which it is pictured have assumed a random position
written, and it gives the composition of the over time. This is because of entropy. Entropy
reaction system at equilibrium. is commonly described as the state of
 However, change in enthalpy only tells us disorder or randomness of particles.
whether a reaction is exothermic  Entropy (S) is a thermodynamic property of all
(energetically favorable) or endothermic substances that is proportional to their degree
of disorder. The greater the number of
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[GENERAL CHEMISTRY II] 1 CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS – Sean Palomares. Lourence Saquilayan, Daryl Sandico & Bernardino Lacbayo

possible microstates for a system, the greater  Phase Change - When a phase change
the disorder and the higher the entropy. occurs - that is, a substance moves from one
region of its phase diagram to another - the
Explaining Microstates entropy of that substance changes even as its
temperature stays the same. A substance in
solid phase has low entropy; in liquid phase,
it has medium entropy; in gas phase, it has

 Illustrating Low- and High-Entropy States with high entropy.

a Deck of Playing Cards. A new, unshuffled
deck has only a single arrangement, so there  A solid has low entropy as the molecule
is only one microstate. In contrast, a randomly structure of solids are rigid and tightly packed,
shuffled deck can have any one of therefore, there are less microstates. Liquids
approximately 1068 different arrangements, on the contrary are loose and freely moving
which correspond to 1068 different but still assumes the structure of the container
microstates. it is placed; as it is loosely arranged, there is
 Mathematically speaking, microstates are the more wiggle room for the molecules to
is the number of permutations on the arrange thus increasing the microstates
arrangement of any given number of which contributes to the increase in entropy.
particles. The same also applies for gaseous particles
E. Second Law of Thermodynamics as gases are more far-apart.

 States that the state of entropy of the entire Entropy Changes and Spontaneity
universe will always increase over time.
 All spontaneous changes cause an increase  The standard molar entropy, So, is the
in the entropy of the universe entropy of 1 mole of a substance in its
standard state, at 1 atm of pressure. These
Factors Affecting Entropy values have been tabulated, and selected
 Temperature - Entropy increases as substances are listed in Table 18.1 “Standard
temperature increases. An increase in Molar Entropies of Selected Substances at
temperature means that the particles of the 298 K.”
substance have greater kinetic energy. The
faster moving particles have more disorder
than particles that are moving more slowly at
a lower temperature.
 Gaseous Particles - Gases have higher
entropies than solids or liquids because of
their disordered movement. That means that
during a reaction in which there is a change
in the number of molecules of gas present,
entropy will change.
 Volume - increasing the volume of a
substance increases the number of positions
where each molecule could be, which
increases the number of microstates.
Therefore, any change that results in a higher
temperature, more molecules, or a larger
volume yields an increase in entropy.

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[GENERAL CHEMISTRY II] 1 CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS – Sean Palomares. Lourence Saquilayan, Daryl Sandico & Bernardino Lacbayo

Entropy of a System Given:

• NaOH(s) = 52.3 J/Kmol
∆𝑺𝑺𝜽𝜽𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 = � 𝒎𝒎𝑺𝑺𝜽𝜽𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 (𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑) − � 𝒏𝒏𝑺𝑺𝜽𝜽𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 (𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓) • HCl(g) = 186.908 J/Kmol
Entropy change of a system • NaCl(s) = 72.13 J/Kmol
• H2O(g) = 188.825 J/Kmol
 If the entropy of a system is a positive integer, Solution:
it is entropically favorable or increased in
NaOH(s) + HCl(g) ----> NaCl(s) + H O(g)
entropy. 2

 If the entropy is negative, the system is

entropically unfavorable or decreased in
θ
∆Srxn = � mSfθ (products) − � nSfθ (reactants)
entropy.
By substitution:
Entropy of the Surroundings θ
∆Srxn =[(72.13) + (188.825)] – [(52.3) + (186.908)]
−∆𝑯𝑯 By evaluating the equation:
∆𝑺𝑺°𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 =
𝑻𝑻 ∆𝑺𝑺𝜽𝜽𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 =21.747 J/Kmol
Entropy of Surroundings
The entropy change of the system is 21.747 J/Kmol.
 The entropy of the surroundings
increases/decreases by an amount equal to
the heat energy they absorbed/released with SITUATION TWO
respect to the enthalpy change of the system, Water (H2O) and sodium chloride (NaCl) was
divided by the temperature at which it produced when sodium hydroxide (NaOH) reacted
happens. with hydrogen chloride (HCl). Using the enthalpy
change of the reaction at 298K, determine the
Entropy of the Universe change in entropy of surroundings.
∆𝑺𝑺𝜽𝜽𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 = ∆𝑺𝑺𝜽𝜽𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 + ∆𝑺𝑺𝜽𝜽𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 NaOH(s) + HCl(g) ----> NaCl(s) + H2O(g)
Entropy of the Universe
∆𝑯𝑯𝜽𝜽𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 = � 𝒎𝒎∆𝑯𝑯𝜽𝜽𝒇𝒇 (𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑) − � 𝒏𝒏∆𝑯𝑯𝜽𝜽𝒇𝒇 (𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓)
 In the quest to identify a property that may
reliably predict the spontaneity of a process, θ
∆Hrxn =[(-411.0) + (-241.8)] – [(-426.7) + (-92.3)]
we have identified a very promising
candidate: entropy. Processes that involve an θ
∆Hrxn =-133.8 kJ/mol
increase in entropy of the system (ΔSsys>0)
are very often spontaneous; however, To get the entropy change of the surroundings,
examples to the contrary are plentiful. By finding the enthalpy change is required.
expanding consideration of entropy changes −∆𝑯𝑯
to include the surroundings, we may reach a ∆𝑺𝑺°𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 =
𝑻𝑻
significant conclusion regarding the relation
between this property and spontaneity. In −(−𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌/𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎)
∆𝑺𝑺°𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 =
thermodynamic models, the system and 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑲𝑲
surroundings comprise everything, that is, the
−(−𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑱𝑱/𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎)
universe, and so the following is true: ∆𝑺𝑺°𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 =
 If the Entropy of the universe is a positive 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑲𝑲
integer, the reaction is spontaneous but if the
entropy is a negative integer the reaction is ∆𝑺𝑺𝜽𝜽𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 =449 J/Kmol
non-spontaneous. To get the entropy of the surroundings, dividing the
 If the entropy of the universe is zero, the enthalpy change of the reaction and the temperature
reaction is in equilibrium or reversible. on which the reaction took place will yield the answer.
Examples  Since we are looking at the POV of the
SITUATION ONE: surroundings, the sign of the enthalpy will be
Water (H2O) and sodium chlroide (NaCl) was negated. (if the reaction releases heat, the
produced when sodium hydroxide (NaOH) reacted surroundings absorb the heat released by the
with hydrogen chloride(HCl). Using the standard reaction.)
molar entropies of the reactants and products,
determine the change in entropy of this reaction.

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SITUATION THREE  One of the major goals of chemical

Water (H2O) and sodium chlroide (NaCl) was thermodynamics is to establish criteria for
produced when sodium hydroxide (NaOH) reacted predicting whether a particular reaction or
with hydrogen chloride (HCl). Using the calculated process will occur spontaneously. We have
entropy change on both susttem and surroundings, developed one such criterion, the change in
find the entropy change of the universe and entropy of the universe: if ΔSuniv>0 for a
determine if the reaction is spontaneous or non- process or a reaction, then the process will
spontaneous. occur spontaneously as written. Using ΔSuniv
requires that we calculate ΔS for both a
system and its surroundings. This may not be
particularly useful for two reasons: we are
normally much more interested in the system
than in the surroundings, and it is difficult to
make quantitative measurements of the
surroundings (i.e., the rest of the universe). A
criterion of spontaneity that is based solely on
To get the universal entropy, you just need to add the
the state functions of a system would be much
entropy change in the system and the surroundings.
more convenient and is provided by a new
 If the Entropy of the universe is a positive
state function: the Gibbs free energy.
integer, the reaction is spontaneous but if the
entropy is a negative integer the reaction is ∆𝑮𝑮𝜽𝜽𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = ∆𝑯𝑯𝜽𝜽𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 − 𝑻𝑻∆𝑺𝑺𝜽𝜽𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
non-spontaneous.
 If the entropy of the universe is zero, the
reaction is in equilibrium or reversible.
Gibb’s Free Energy

 In thermodynamics, the Gibbs free energy is

a thermodynamic potential that can be used
to calculate the maximum reversible work that
may be performed by a thermodynamic
system at a constant temperature and
pressure. The Gibbs free energy is the  If the Gibb’s free energy of the system is a
maximum amount of non-expansion work that positive integer, the reaction is non-
can be extracted from a thermodynamically spontaneous; if the integer turns out to be
closed system. The Gibbs energy is also the negative, the reaction is spontaneous.
thermodynamic potential that is minimized  If the Gibb’s free energy is 0, the reaction is
when a system reaches chemical equilibrium reversible or in equilibrium.
at constant pressure and temperature. Its  Gibb’s free energy only focuses on the
derivative with respect to the reaction system. And not the surroundings nor the
coordinate of the system vanishes at the universe.
equilibrium point. As such, a reduction in is EXAMPLE
necessary for a reaction to be spontaneous at
SITUATION ONE:
constant pressure and temperature.
Water (H2O) and sodium chlroide (NaCl) was
produced when sodium hydroxide (NaOH) reacted
with hydrogen chloride (HCl). Using the calculated
entropy and enthalpy change on the system, find the
Gibb’s Free Energy of the reaction at 298K and
determine if the reaction is spontaneous or non-
spontaneous.

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The Gibb’s free energy is a negative integer, so the  A crystal lattice arrangement is an
reaction is spontaneous. arrangement of molecule in a symmetrical
SPONTANEITY manner. These patterns consist of atoms or
groups of atoms in ordered and symmetrical
 The number with the higher absolute value arrangements which are repeated at regular
will dictate the spontaneity of the reaction. intervals keeping the same orientation to one
another. By replacing each group of atoms by
a representative point a crystal lattice is
obtained. Keep in mind; lattice sit
 es are not necessarily associated with the
position of atoms.

F. Third Law of Thermodynamics

“The entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute

zero is exactly equal to zero”

 The third law of thermodynamics is tightly

connected to the second law as it involves
entropy as the “main character” of the law.  In liquids, there are larger spaces between
 At zero kelvin (0K) or absolute zero the particles and the particles move freely.
system must be in a state with the minimum Forces between particles are weaker. Liquids
possible energy; thus, this statement of the may be compressed.
third law holds true if the perfect crystal has
Mathematical Concept of the Third Law
only one minimum energy state. Entropy is
related to the number of possible microstates,  In physical science, the calculation for the
and with only one microstate available at zero entropy of a system is done through the
kelvin the entropy is exactly zero. Boltzmann Entropy Equation. In which, is a
 In simple terms, the third law states that the probability equation relating the entropy S, of
entropy of a perfect crystal approaches an ideal gas to the quantity W, the number of
zero as the absolute temperature real microstates corresponding to the gas's
approaches zero. This law provides an microstate.
absolute reference point for the determination S = 𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
of entropy.  In the equation, the entropy of the system is
 It is a well-known concept that temperature is denoted by S and Kb is the Boltzmann
connected with the kinetic energy that is Constant (1.38065 × 10−23 J/K) the Boltzmann
being produced by the particles. Basing on Constant multiplied by the natural logarithm of
the Kinetic Molecular Theory, atoms are in the microstate will result in the entropy of the
perpetual motion (always moving) that is why, system. This is why, it is stated in the second
there is temperature. The energy from the law of Thermodynamics that an increase in
movement of the atoms can be felt through the microstate of particles will contribute to
temperature. The higher the movement of the overall entropy of the system as the
these particles, the higher the temperature. Boltzmann constant and the natural logarithm
While this is true for all gases, remnants of of the microstates are directly proportional to
these information still hold true for solids and the entropy of the system.
liquids.  As stated by the third law, as the temperature
 In solids, the particles remain in fixed approaches the absolute zero (0K), the
positions in their crystal lattice structure and entropy of the system approaches zero.
only vibrate randomly. The spaces between  It is worth noting that the kinetic energy being
the particles are very small. produced from the movement of particles in
an atom contributes to the temperature of the
system (since the kinetic energy is measured
by ½ mv2). As the movement or velocity of
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each particle slows down, the kinetic energy  In each and every particle there is a zero-
of a system also goes down which eventually point energy or vibrational energy that
contributes to the cooling of an object. A great molecules retain even at the absolute zero of
example of this is when water at 100C freezes temperature. It might be expected that, as
at 0C. The molecules of water turn from a temperature is reduced to absolute zero, all
loose arrangement towards a rigid motion ceases and molecules come to rest. In
arrangement (which explains why ice is solid). fact, however, the motion corresponding to
However, the movement of molecules are not zero-point energy never vanishes. This is
completely still, it moves very slowly that is because of the Heissenberg Uncertainty
why ice is cold. Principle in quantum mechanics. The
 Since it is mentioned in the 2nd law that solids principle states that no object can ever have
have less entropy than gases and liquids due precise values of position and velocity
to its arrangement, there are less microstates simultaneously.
as the formation of molecules are assuming a  Even though the third law states atoms cease
rigid position. The concepts from kinetic to move at 0K, it is impossible because in
molecular theory and kinetic energy explains quantum mechanics, nothing can have a fixed
how the third law of thermodynamics work. As position because it is impossible to determine
the molecules slow down, the temperature the precise location and speed of a particle.
also goes down and the molecules become That is why the zero-point energy persists
fixed as low temperatures thus creating less even at extremely low temperatures.
microstates. At absolute zero, there is
absolutely no movement between the
particles and they only assume one (1)
arrangement or microstate. Backtracking the
Boltzmann Equation for entropy, this will
result to zero. As the natural logarithm of 1 is
0. This is because of the laws of exponents.
In which any number raised to 0 is equal to
one. That is why, when we multiply all of the
values in the equation to zero, no entropy will
be produced.
 However, achieving absolute zero is
impossible. As this needs infinite input of
work.

Adiabatic Processes
“It is impossible to reduce the temperature of
any system to zero temperature in a finite
number of finite operations.”
 An adiabatic process is any process occurring
without gain or loss of heat within a system.
 Technically speaking, absolute zero is not just
cold, it is the absence of heat in a system.
 Adiabatic processes do not produce heat nor
transfer heat from the system towards the
surroundings. The form of energy being
produced is work.
 However, adiabatic processes are idealized
because molecules are in perpetual motion.
As the third law states, the entropy difference
in crystal structures is non-existent. That is
why you cannot reach absolute zero because
it will take an infinite number of steps. To have
a better understanding of this concept, a
glimpse on quantum mechanics is needed.
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