FABRICATION OF LBOW MECHANISM

ABSTRACT

Power transmission for skew shafts is with the help of either crossed
helical gear or worm gear or hypoid gears in a machine, but the
manufacturing of these gear is very complex, power loss in gears due to
sliding motion and the shaft orientations is very limited, so need arises for
a better system. In Gearless power transmission for skew shafts which
reduce the losses, cost & save the time and space. This system allows the
changing in the orientation of shafts during motion which is very
interesting and fascinating about this mechanism. In this transmission
system no. of pins or links used must be odd 3,5,7,9... Pins or links are
fixed in the drilled holes at the both shaft ends due to which motion is
transferred. The Working of this arrangement is very smooth & work
effectively with a very minimum amount of power losses, which is skillful
and is having something precise in transmitting power at right angle
without any gears being manufactured.
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Today’s world requires speed on each and every field. Hence

rapidness and quick working is the most important. Now days for
achieving rapidness, various machines and equipment’s are manufactured.
Gears are costly to manufacture. Its need to increase the efficiency of
transmission which cannot be done using geared transmission. Gearless
transmission mechanism is capable of transmitting power at any angle
without any gears being manufactured.

So here I introduced a gearless power transmission system for skew

shafts which reduce the losses, cost & save the time and space. This
system allows the changing in the orientation of shafts during motion
which is very interesting and fascinating about this mechanism.

Also during analysis of mechanism and working it is seen that this

gearless transmission can be used for both intersecting shafts and skew
shafts but here we introduced a solution for skew shafts so main attention
is towards the skew shafts.
 CHAPTER II

COMPONENTS OF THE MODEL AND OPERATIONS

In this section different views of the arrangement and the components

used for arrangement are shown, which is necessary for understanding the
proper working and setup of the arrangement.

Fig-1: Concept Drawing of Machine

View of planes:

Here in the below diagram, planes are shown in the 3D, which helps us
in the understanding of the mechanism and movement of shafts and link
used.
 Fig-2: View of the planes B. View of the shafts

Below diagram shows a different view of the shaft arrangement which

are skew and angle between them is 90 degrees, which helps us in the
understanding of the arrangement of shafts. In below figure (a) front view
(b) side view (c) top view.

Fig-3: View of Shafts Arrangement C. Views of Setup

 Different views of the setups are shown in Figure (a) Front view. (b)
Side view (c) Top view. These views show the arrangement of links and
shafts.
 (c)

Fig-4: View of the setup

D. Views of the Pins

(a) (b) (c)

Fig-5: View of pins E. Arrangement of Pins in

Shaft:

In the below diagram for basic arrangement of pins in the shaft holes
are shown. The diagram clearly shows that pins used are in odd no.3, 5, 7,
9… and centers of any two pin holes must not be on that line which
represent the diameter of the shaft and angle between all consecutive holes
should be equal for smoother power transmission. Value of angle such that
it’s multiple with any integral not equal to 180 degrees.

Let the Value of angle = x degree, then n*x ≠ 180 degree. Where n
is an integral value.

As mentioned, Angle between the centers of any two pin holes must
not be on that line which represent the diameter of the shaft because if this
happen angle between them is 180 degrees and during motion pins or links
use are trying to overlap each other because of this motion interrupted.
Also, as we mentioned that pins no. should be odd and angle between
consecutive holes are equal so it can be easily understood by below table
that why it is necessary.

Here different views of the pins according to the setup are shown (a)
Front view (b) Side view (c) Top view. These pins are used for
transmitting the power when there is no change in orientation of shafts
during motion.

A drive shaft, driveshaft, driving shaft, propeller shaft (prop shaft),

or Cardan shaft is a mechanical component for transmitting torque and
rotation, usually used to connect other components of a drive train that
cannot be connected directly because of distance or the need to allow for
relative movement between them.

As torque carriers, drive shafts are subject to torsion and shear stress,
equivalent to the difference between the input torque and the load. They
must therefore be strong enough to bear the stress, whilst avoiding too
much additional weight as that would in turn increase their inertia.

To allow for variations in the alignment and distance between the driving
and driven components, drive shafts frequently incorporate one or more
universal joints, jaw couplings, or rag joints, and sometimes a splined joint
or prismatic joint.

History

The term drive shaft first appeared during the mid 19th century. In
Stover's 1861 patent reissue for a planing and matching machine, the term
is used to refer to the belt-driven shaft by which the machine is driven. [1]
The term is not used in his original patent. [2] Another early use of the term
occurs in the 1861 patent reissue for the Watkins and Bryson horse-drawn
mowing machine.[3] Here, the term refers to the shaft transmitting power
from the machine's wheels to the gear train that works the cutting
mechanism.

In the 1890s, the term began to be used in a manner closer to the modern
sense. In 1891, for example, Battles referred to the shaft between the
transmission and driving trucks of his Climax locomotive as the drive
shaft,[4] and Stillman referred to the shaft linking the crankshaft to the rear
axle of his shaft-driven bicycle as a drive shaft.[5] In 1899, Bukey used the
term to describe the shaft transmitting power from the wheel to the driven
machinery by a universal joint in his Horse-Power.[6] In the same year,
Clark described his Marine Velocipede using the term to refer to the gear-
driven shaft transmitting power through a universal joint to the propeller
shaft.[7] Crompton used the term to refer to the shaft between the
transmission of his steam-powered Motor Vehicle of 1903 and the driven
axle.[8]

The pioneering automobile industry company, Autocar, was the first to use
a drive shaft in a gasoline-powered car. Built in 1901, today this vehicle is
in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution.[9]

Automotive drive shaft

Vehicles

An automobile may use a longitudinal shaft to deliver power from an

engine/transmission to the other end of the vehicle before it goes to the
wheels. A pair of short drive shafts is commonly used to send power from
a central differential, transmission, or transaxle to the wheels.

A truck two section propeller shaft

Front-engine, rear-wheel drive

In front-engined, rear-drive vehicles, a longer drive shaft is also required to

send power the length of the vehicle. Two forms dominate: The torque
tube with a single universal joint and the more common Hotchkiss drive
with two or more joints. This system became known as Système Panhard
after the automobile company Panhard et Levassor patented it.

Most of these vehicles have a clutch and gearbox (or transmission)

mounted directly on the engine, with a drive shaft leading to a final drive
in the rear axle. When the vehicle is stationary, the drive shaft does not
rotate. Some vehicles (generally sports cars, most commonly Alfa Romeos
or Porsche 924s), seeking improved weight balance between front and rear,
use a rear-mounted transaxle. This places the clutch and transmission at the
rear of the car and the drive shaft between them and the engine. In this
case the drive shaft rotates continuously with the engine, even when the
car is stationary and out of gear.

A drive shaft connecting a rear differential to a rear wheel may be called a

half-shaft. The name derives from the fact that two such shafts are required
to form one rear axle.

Early automobiles often used chain drive or belt drive mechanisms rather
than a drive shaft. Some used electrical generators and motors to transmit
power to the wheels.

Front-wheel drive

In British English, the term "drive shaft" is restricted to a transverse shaft

that transmits power to the wheels, especially the front wheels. A drive
shaft connecting the gearbox to a rear differential is called a propeller
shaft, or prop-shaft. A prop-shaft assembly consists of a propeller shaft, a
slip joint and one or more universal joints. Where the engine and axles are
separated from each other, as on four-wheel drive and rear-wheel drive
vehicles, it is the propeller shaft that serves to transmit the drive force
generated by the engine to the axles.

Several different types of drive shaft are used in the automotive industry:

 One-piece drive shaft

 Two-piece drive shaft
 Slip-in-tube drive shaft

The slip-in-tube drive shaft is a new type that improves crash safety. It can
be compressed to absorb energy in the event of a crash, so is also known as
a collapsible drive shaft.

Four wheel and all-wheel drive

These evolved from the front-engine rear-wheel drive layout. A new form
of transmission called the transfer case was placed between transmission
and final drives in both axles. This split the drive to the two axles and may
also have included reduction gears, a dog clutch or differential. At least
two drive shafts were used, one from the transfer case to each axle. In
some larger vehicles, the transfer box was centrally mounted and was itself
driven by a short drive shaft. In vehicles the size of a Land Rover, the
drive shaft to the front axle is noticeably shorter and more steeply
articulated than the rear shaft, making it a more difficult engineering
problem to build a reliable drive shaft, and which may involve a more
sophisticated form of universal joint.

Modern light cars with all-wheel drive (notably Audi or the Fiat Panda)
may use a system that more closely resembles a front-wheel drive layout.
The transmission and final drive for the front axle are combined into one
housing alongside the engine, and a single drive shaft runs the length of the
car to the rear axle. This is a favoured design where the torque is biased to
the front wheels to give car-like handling, or where the maker wishes to
produce both four-wheel drive and front-wheel drive cars with many
shared components.

Research and development

The automotive industry also uses drive shafts at testing plants. At an

engine test stand a drive shaft is used to transfer a certain speed or torque
from the internal combustion engine to a dynamometer. A "shaft guard" is
used at a shaft connection to protect against contact with the drive shaft
and for detection of a shaft failure. At a transmission test stand a drive
shaft connects the prime mover with the transmission.

Motorcycle drive shafts

Drive shafts have been used on motorcycles since before WW1, such as
the Belgian FN motorcycle from 1903 and the Stuart Turner Stellar
motorcycle of 1912. As an alternative to chain and belt drives, drive shafts
offer long-lived, clean, and relatively maintenance-free operation. A
disadvantage of shaft drive on a motorcycle is that helical gearing, spiral
bevel gearing or similar is needed to turn the power 90° from the shaft to
the rear wheel, losing some power in the process.

BMW has produced shaft drive motorcycles since 1923; and Moto Guzzi
have built shaft-drive V-twins since the 1960s. The British company,
Triumph and the major Japanese brands, Honda, Suzuki, Kawasaki and
Yamaha, have produced shaft drive motorcycles.

Lambretta motorscooters type A up to type LD were shaft-driven [10]

the
NSU Prima scooter was also shaft-driven [11]
Motorcycle engines positioned such that the crankshaft is longitudinal and
parallel to the frame are often used for shaft-driven motorcycles. This
requires only one 90° turn in power transmission, rather than two. Bikes
from Moto Guzzi and BMW, plus the Triumph Rocket III and Honda ST
series all use this engine layout.

Motorcycles with shaft drive are subject to shaft effect where the chassis
climbs when power is applied. This effect, which is the opposite of that
exhibited by chain-drive motorcycles, is counteracted with systems such as
BMW's Paralever, Moto Guzzi's CARC and Kawasaki's Tetra Lever.

Marine drive shafts

On a power-driven ship, the drive shaft, or propeller shaft, usually

connects the transmission inside the vessel directly to the propeller,
passing through a stuffing box or other seal at the point it exits the hull.
There is also a thrust block, a bearing to resist the axial force of the
propeller. As the rotating propeller pushes the vessel forward, any length
of drive shaft between propeller and thrust block is subject to compression,
and when going astern to tension. Except for the very smallest of boats,
this force isn't taken on the gearbox or engine directly.

Cardan shafts are also often used in marine applications between the
transmission and either a propeller gearbox or waterjet.

Locomotive drive shafts

The Shay, Climax and Heisler locomotives, all introduced in the late 19th
century, used quill drives to couple power from a centrally mounted multi-
cylinder engine to each of the trucks supporting the engine. On each of
these geared steam locomotives, one end of each drive shaft was coupled
to the driven truck through a universal joint while the other end was
powered by the crankshaft, transmission or another truck through a second
universal joint. A quill drive also has the ability to slide lengthways,
effectively varying its length. This is required to allow the bogies to rotate
when passing a curve.

Cardan shafts are used in some diesel locomotives (mainly diesel-

hydraulics, such as British Rail Class 52) and some electric locomotives
(e.g. British Rail Class 91). They are also widely used in diesel multiple
units.

BEARING:

Bearing (mechanical)
A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion to only the
desired motion, and reduces friction betweenmoving parts. The design of
the bearing may, for example, provide for free  linear movement of the
moving part or for freerotation around a fixed axis; or, it may prevent a
motion by controlling the vectors of normal forces that bear on the moving
parts. Many bearings also facilitate the desired motion as much as possible,
such as by minimizing friction. Bearings are classified broadly according
to the type of operation, the motions allowed, or to the directions of the
loads (forces) applied to the parts.

The term "bearing" is derived from the verb "to bear";[1] a bearing being a
machine element that allows one part to bear (i.e., to support) another. The
simplest bearings are bearing surfaces, cut or formed into a part, with
varying degrees of control over the form, size,  roughness and location of
the surface. Other bearings are separate devices installed into a machine or
machine part. The most sophisticated bearings for the most demanding
applications are very precise devices; their manufacture requires some of
the highest standards of current technology.

Industrial era[edit]

The first modern recorded patent on ball bearings was awarded to Philip

Vaughan, a British inventor and ironmaster who created the first design for
a ball bearing inCarmarthen in 1794. His was the first modern ball-bearing
design, with the ball running along a groove in the axle assembly.[8]

Bearings played a pivotal role in the nascent  Industrial Revolution,

allowing the new industrial machinery to operate efficiently. For example,
they saw use for holding wheel and axle to greatly reduce friction over that
of dragging an object by making the friction act over a shorter distance as
the wheel turned.

The first plain and rolling-element bearings were wood closely followed

by bronze. Over their history bearings have been made of many materials
including ceramic,sapphire, glass, steel, bronze, other metals and plastic
(e.g., nylon, polyoxymethylene, polytetrafluoroethylene, and UHMWPE)
which are all used today.

Watch makers produce "jeweled" watches using sapphire plain bearings to

reduce friction thus allowing more precise time keeping.

Even basic materials can have good durability. As examples, wooden

bearings can still be seen today in old clocks or in water mills where the
water provides cooling and lubrication.
Early Timken tapered roller bearing with notched rollers

The first patent for a radial style ball bearing was awarded to Jules Suriray,

a Parisian bicycle mechanic, on 3 August 1869. The bearings were then
fitted to the winning bicycle ridden by James Moore in the world's first
bicycle road race, Paris-Rouen, in November 1869.[9]

In 1883, Friedrich Fischer, founder of FAG, developed an approach for

milling and grinding balls of equal size and exact roundness by means of a
suitable production machine and formed the foundation for creation of an
independent bearing industry.

The modern, self-aligning design of ball bearing is attributed to Sven

Wingquist of the SKF ball-bearing manufacturer in 1907, when he was
awarded Swedish patent No. 25406 on its design.

Henry Timken, a 19th-century visionary and innovator in carriage

manufacturing, patented the tapered roller bearing in 1898. The following
year he formed a company to produce his innovation. Over a century the
company grew to make bearings of all types, including specialty steel and
an array of related products and services.

Erich Franke invented and patented the wire race bearing in 1934. His

focus was on a bearing design with a cross section as small as possible and
which could be integrated into the enclosing design. After World War II he
founded together withGerhard Heydrich the company Franke & Heydrich
KG (today Franke GmbH) to push the development and production of wire
race bearings.

Richard Stribeck’s extensive research [10][11] on ball bearing steels identified

the metallurgy of the commonly used 100Cr6 (AISI 52100) [12] showing
coefficient of friction as a function of pressure.

Designed in 1968 and later patented in 1972, Bishop-Wisecarver's co-

founder Bud Wisecarver created vee groove bearing guide wheels, a type
of linear motion bearing consisting of both an external and internal 90-
degree vee angle.[13][better source needed]

In the early 1980s, Pacific Bearing's founder, Robert Schroeder, invented

the first bi-material plain bearing which was size interchangeable with
linear ball bearings. This bearing had a metal shell (aluminum, steel or
stainless steel) and a layer of Teflon-based material connected by a thin
adhesive layer.[14]

Today ball and roller bearings are used in many applications which include
a rotating component. Examples include ultra high speed bearings in dental
drills,aerospace bearings in the Mars Rover, gearbox and wheel bearings
on automobiles, flexure bearings in optical alignment systems, bicycle
wheel hubs, and air bearings used in Coordinate-measuring machines.

Common[edit]

By far, the most common bearing is the plain bearing, a bearing which uses
surfaces in rubbing contact, often with a lubricant such as oil or graphite. A
plain bearing may or may not be a  discrete device. It may be nothing more
than the bearing surface of a hole with a shaft passing through it, or of a
planar surface that bearsanother (in these cases, not a discrete device); or it
may be a layer of bearing metal either fused to the substrate (semi-discrete)
or in the form of a separable sleeve (discrete). With suitable lubrication,
plain bearings often give entirely acceptable accuracy, life, and friction at
minimal cost. Therefore, they are very widely used.

However, there are many applications where a more suitable bearing can
improve efficiency, accuracy, service intervals, reliability, speed of
operation, size, weight, and costs of purchasing and operating machinery.

Thus, there are many types of bearings, with varying shape, material,
lubrication, principle of operation, and so on.

Types[edit]

Animation of ball bearing (without a cage). The inner ring rotates and the
outer ring is stationary.

There are at least 6 common types of bearing, each of which operates on

different principles:

 Plain bearing, also known by the specific styles: bushing, journal

bearing, sleeve bearing, rifle bearing
 Rolling-element bearing such as ball bearings and roller bearings
 Jewel bearing, in which the load is carried by rolling the axle slightly
off-center
 Fluid bearing, in which the load is carried by a gas or liquid
 Magnetic bearing, in which the load is carried by a magnetic field
 Flexure bearing, in which the motion is supported by a load element
which bends.

Motions[edit]

Common motions permitted by bearings are:

 axial rotation e.g. shaft rotation

 linear motion e.g. drawer
 spherical rotation e.g. ball and socket joint
 hinge motion e.g. door, elbow, knee

Friction[edit]

Reducing friction in bearings is often important for efficiency, to reduce

wear and to facilitate extended use at high speeds and to avoid overheating
and premature failure of the bearing. Essentially, a bearing can reduce
friction by virtue of its shape, by its material, or by introducing and
containing a fluid between surfaces or by separating the surfaces with an
electromagnetic field.

 By shape, gains advantage usually by using spheres or rollers, or by

forming flexure bearings.
 By material, exploits the nature of the bearing material used. (An
example would be using plastics that have low surface friction.)
 By fluid, exploits the low viscosity of a layer of fluid, such as a
lubricant or as a pressurized medium to keep the two solid parts from
touching, or by reducing the normal force between them.
 By fields, exploits electromagnetic fields, such as magnetic fields, to
keep solid parts from touching.

Combinations of these can even be employed within the same bearing. An

example of this is where the cage is made of plastic, and it separates the
rollers/balls, which reduce friction by their shape and finish.

Loads[edit]

Bearings vary greatly over the size and directions of forces that they can
support.

Forces can be predominately radial, axial (thrust bearings) or bending

moments perpendicular to the main axis.

Speeds[edit]

Different bearing types have different operating speed limits. Speed is

typically specified as maximum relative surface speeds, often specified ft/s
or m/s. Rotational bearings typically describe performance in terms of the
product DN where D is the mean diameter (often in mm) of the bearing
and N is the rotation rate in revolutions per minute.

Generally there is considerable speed range overlap between bearing types.

Plain bearings typically handle only lower speeds, rolling element bearings
are faster, followed by fluid bearings and finally magnetic bearings which
are limited ultimately by centripetal force overcoming material strength.
Play[edit]

Some applications apply bearing loads from varying directions and accept
only limited play or "slop" as the applied load changes. One source of
motion is gaps or "play" in the bearing. For example, a 10 mm shaft in a
12 mm hole has 2 mm play.

Allowable play varies greatly depending on the use. As example, a

wheelbarrow wheel supports radial and axial loads. Axial loads may be
hundreds of newtonsforce left or right, and it is typically acceptable for the
wheel to wobble by as much as 10 mm under the varying load. In contrast,
a lathe may position a cutting tool to ±0.02 mm using a ball lead screw
held by rotating bearings. The bearings support axial loads of thousands of
newtons in either direction, and must hold the ball lead screw to
±0.002 mm across that range of loads

Stiffness[edit]

A second source of motion is elasticity in the bearing itself. For example,

the balls in a ball bearing are like stiff rubber, and under load deform from
round to a slightly flattened shape. The race is also elastic and develops a
slight dent where the ball presses on it.

The stiffness of a bearing is how the distance between the parts which are
separated by the bearing varies with applied load. With rolling element
bearings this is due to the strain of the ball and race. With fluid bearings it
is due to how the pressure of the fluid varies with the gap (when correctly
loaded, fluid bearings are typically stiffer than rolling element bearings).
Service life[edit]

Fluid and magnetic bearings

Main articles: Fluid bearing and Magnetic bearing

Fluid and magnetic bearings can have practically indefinite service lives.
In practice, there are fluid bearings supporting high loads in hydroelectric
plants that have been in nearly continuous service since about 1900 and
which show no signs of wear.

Rolling element bearings

Rolling element bearing life is determined by load, temperature,

maintenance, lubrication, material defects, contamination, handling,
installation and other factors. These factors can all have a significant effect
on bearing life. For example, the service life of bearings in one application
was extended dramatically by changing how the bearings were stored
before installation and use, as vibrations during storage caused lubricant
failure even when the only load on the bearing was its own weight; [15] the
resulting damage is often false brinelling. Bearing life is statistical: several
samples of a given bearing will often exhibit a  bell curve of service life,
with a few samples showing significantly better or worse life. Bearing life
varies because microscopic structure and contamination vary greatly even
where macroscopically they seem identical.

L10 life[edit]

Bearings are often specified to give an "L10" life (outside the USA, it may
be referred to as "B10" life.) This is the life at which ten percent of the
bearings in that application can be expected to have failed due to classical
fatigue failure (and not any other mode of failure like lubrication
starvation, wrong mounting etc.), or, alternatively, the life at which ninety
percent will still be operating.The L10 life of the bearing is theoretical life
and may not represent service life of the bearing. Bearings are also rated
using C0 (static loading) value. This is the basic load rating as a reference,
and not an actual load value.

Plain bearings

For plain bearings some materials give much longer life than others. Some
of the John Harrison clocks still operate after hundreds of years because of
the lignum vitae wood employed in their construction, whereas his metal
clocks are seldom run due to potential wear.

Flexure bearings

Flexure bearings rely on elastic properties of material.Flexure bearings

bend a piece of material repeatedly. Some materials fail after repeated
bending, even at low loads, but careful material selection and bearing
design can make flexure bearing life indefinite.

Short-life bearings

Although long bearing life is often desirable, it is sometimes not necessary.

Tedric A. Harris describes a bearing for a rocket motor oxygen pump that
gave several hours life, far in excess of the several tens of minutes life
needed.[15]

External factors[edit]

The service life of the bearing is affected by many parameters that are not
controlled by the bearing manufactures. For example, bearing mounting,
temperature, exposure to external environment, lubricant cleanliness
and electrical currents through bearings etc.
Maintenance and lubrication[edit]

Many bearings require periodic maintenance to prevent premature failure,

but many others require little maintenance. The latter include various kinds
of fluid and magnetic bearings, as well as rolling-element bearings that are
described with terms including sealed bearing and sealed for life. These
contain seals to keep the dirt out and the grease in. They work successfully
in many applications, providing maintenance-free operation. Some
applications cannot use them effectively.

Nonsealed bearings often have a grease fitting, for periodic lubrication

with a grease gun, or an oil cup for periodic filling with oil. Before the
1970s, sealed bearings were not encountered on most machinery, and
oiling and greasing were a more common activity than they are today. For
example, automotive chassis used to require "lube jobs" nearly as often as
engine oil changes, but today's car chassis are mostly sealed for life. From
the late 1700s through mid 1900s, industry relied on many workers
called oilers to lubricate machinery frequently with oil cans.

Factory machines today usually have lube systems, in which a central

pump serves periodic charges of oil or grease from a reservoir through  lube
lines to the various lube points in the machine's bearing surfaces, bearing
journals, pillow blocks, and so on. The timing and number of such  lube
cycles is controlled by the machine's computerized control, such
as PLC or CNC, as well as by manual override functions when
occasionally needed. This automated process is how all modern
CNC machine tools and many other modern factory machines are
lubricated. Similar lube systems are also used on nonautomated machines,
in which case there is a hand pump that a machine operator is supposed to
pump once daily (for machines in constant use) or once weekly. These are
called one-shot systemsfrom their chief selling point: one pull on one
handle to lube the whole machine, instead of a dozen pumps of an alemite
gun or oil can in a dozen different positions around the machine.

The oiling system inside a modern automotive or truck engine is similar in

concept to the lube systems mentioned above, except that oil is pumped
continuously. Much of this oil flows through passages drilled or cast into
the engine block and cylinder heads, escaping through ports directly onto
bearings, and squirting elsewhere to provide an oil bath. The oil pump
simply pumps constantly, and any excess pumped oil continuously escapes
through a relief valve back into the sump.

Many bearings in high-cycle industrial operations need periodic lubrication

and cleaning, and many require occasional adjustment, such as pre-load
adjustment, to minimise the effects of wear.

Bearing life is often much better when the bearing is kept clean and well
lubricated. However, many applications make good maintenance difficult.
For example, bearings in the conveyor of a rock crusher are exposed
continually to hard abrasive particles. Cleaning is of little use, because
cleaning is expensive yet the bearing is contaminated again as soon as the
conveyor resumes operation. Thus, a good maintenance program might
lubricate the bearings frequently but not include any disassembly for
cleaning. The frequent lubrication, by its nature, provides a limited kind of
cleaning action, by displacing older (grit-filled) oil or grease with a fresh
charge, which itself collects grit before being displaced by the next cycle.

Rolling-element bearing outer race fault detection

Rolling-element bearings are widely used in the industries today, and

hence maintenance of these bearings becomes an important task for the
maintenance professionals. The rolling-element bearings wear out easily
due to metal-to-metal contact, which creates faults in the outer race, inner
race and ball. It is also the most vulnerable component of a machine
because it is often under high load and high running speed conditions.
Regular diagnostics of rolling-element bearing faults is critical for
industrial safety and operations of the machines along with reducing the
maintenance costs or avoiding shutdown time. Among the outer race, inner
race and ball, the outer race tends to be more vulnerable to faults and
defects.

There is still a room for discussion whether the rolling element excites
the natural frequencies of bearing component when it passes the fault on
the outer race. Hence we need to identify the bearing outer race natural
frequency and its harmonics. The bearing faults create impulses and results
in strong harmonics of the fault frequencies in the spectrum of vibration
signals. These fault frequencies are sometimes masked by adjacent
frequencies in the spectra due to their little energy. Hence, a very high
spectral resolution is often needed to identify these frequencies during
a FFT analysis. The natural frequencies of a rolling element bearing with
the free boundary conditions are 3 kHz. Therefore, in order to use the
bearing component resonance bandwidth method to detect the bearing fault
at an initial stage a high frequency range  accelerometer should be adopted,
and data obtained from a long duration needs to be acquired. A fault
characteristic frequency can only be identified when the fault extent is
severe, such as that of a presence of a hole in the outer race. The
harmonics of fault frequency is a more sensitive indicator of a bearing
outer race fault. For a more serious detection of defected bearing
faults waveform, spectrum and envelope techniques will help reveal these
faults. However, if a high frequency demodulation is used in the envelope
analysis in order to detect bearing fault characteristic frequencies, the
maintenance professionals have to be more careful in the analysis because
of resonance, as it may or may not contain fault frequency components.

Using spectral analysis as a tool to identify the faults in the bearings faces
challenges due to issues like low energy, signal
smearing, cyclostationarity etc. High resolution is often desired to
differentiate the fault frequency components from the other high-amplitude
adjacent frequencies. Hence, when the signal is sampled for  FFT analysis,
the sample length should be large enough to give adequate frequency
resolution in the spectrum. Also, keeping the computation time and
memory within limits and avoiding unwanted aliasing may be demanding.
However, a minimal frequency resolution required can be obtained by
estimating the bearing fault frequencies and other vibration frequency
components and its harmonics due to shaft speed, misalignment, line
frequency, gearbox etc.

Packing[edit]

Some bearings use a thick grease for lubrication, which is pushed into the

gaps between the bearing surfaces, also known as  packing. The grease is
held in place by a plastic, leather, or rubber gasket (also called a  gland)
that covers the inside and outside edges of the bearing race to keep the
grease from escaping.

Bearings may also be packed with other materials. Historically, the wheels
on railroad cars used sleeve bearings packed with waste or loose scraps of
cotton or wool fiber soaked in oil, then later used solid pads of cotton.[16]

Ring oiler[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Ring oiler.

Bearings can be lubricated by a metal ring that rides loosely on the central
rotating shaft of the bearing. The ring hangs down into a chamber
containing lubricating oil. As the bearing rotates, viscous adhesion draws
oil up the ring and onto the shaft, where the oil migrates into the bearing to
lubricate it. Excess oil is flung off and collects in the pool again.[17]Splash
lubrication[edit]

Some machines contain a pool of lubricant in the bottom, with gears

partially immersed in the liquid, or crank rods that can swing down into the
pool as the device operates. The spinning wheels fling oil into the air
around them, while the crank rods slap at the surface of the oil, splashing it
randomly on the interior surfaces of the engine. Some small internal
combustion engines specifically contain special plastic  flinger
wheels which randomly scatter oil around the interior of the mechanism.[18]

Pressure lubrication[edit]

For high speed and high power machines, a loss of lubricant can result in
rapid bearing heating and damage due to friction. Also in dirty
environments the oil can become contaminated with dust or debris that
increases friction. In these applications, a fresh supply of lubricant can be
continuously supplied to the bearing and all other contact surfaces, and the
excess can be collected for filtration, cooling, and possibly reuse. Pressure
oiling is commonly used in large and complex  internal combustion
engines in parts of the engine where directly splashed oil cannot reach,
such as up into overhead valve assemblies. [19] High speed turbochargers
also typically require a pressurized oil system to cool the bearings and
keep them from burning up due to the heat from the turbine.
BELT PULLEY:

Pulley:

A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support

movement and change of direction of a taut cable or belt, or transfer of
power between the shaft and cable or belt. In the case of a pulley supported
by a frame or shell which does not transfer power to a shaft, but is used to
guide the cable or exert a force, the supporting shell is called a block, and
the pulley may be called a sheave.

A pulley may have a groove or grooves between flanges around its

circumference to locate the cable or belt. The drive element of a pulley
system can be a rope, cable, belt, or chain.

Hero of Alexandria identified the pulley as one of six simple machines

used to lift weights.[1] Pulleys are assembled to form a block and tackle in
order to provide mechanical advantage to apply large forces. Pulleys are
also assembled as part of belt and chain drives in order to transmit power
from one rotating shaft to another.
Block and tackle

A set of pulleys assembled so that they rotate independently on the same

axle form a block. Two blocks with a rope attached to one of the blocks
and threaded through the two sets of pulleys form a block and tackle.[5][6]

A block and tackle is assembled so one block is attached to fixed mounting

point and the other is attached to the moving load. The ideal mechanical
advantage of the block and tackle is equal to the number of parts of the
rope that support the moving block.

In the diagram on the right the ideal mechanical advantage of each of the
block and tackle assemblies[4] shown is as follows:

 Gun Tackle: 2
 Luff Tackle: 3
 Double Tackle: 4
 Gyn Tackle: 5
 Threefold purchase: 6

Rope and pulley systems

A rope and pulley system—that is, a block and tackle—is characterised by

the use of a single continuous rope to transmit a tension force around one
or more pulleys to lift or move a load—the rope may be a light line or a
strong cable. This system is included in the list of simple machines
identified by Renaissance scientists.[7][8]
If the rope and pulley system does not dissipate or store energy, then its
mechanical advantage is the number of parts of the rope that act on the
load. This can be shown as follows.

Consider the set of pulleys that form the moving block and the parts of the
rope that support this block. If there are p of these parts of the rope
supporting the load W, then a force balance on the moving block shows
that the tension in each of the parts of the rope must be W/p. This means
the input force on the rope is T=W/p. Thus, the block and tackle reduces
the input force by the factor p.

A gun tackle has a single pulley in both the fixed and moving blocks
with two rope parts supporting the load W.

Separation of the pulleys in the gun tackle show the force balance
that results in a rope tension of W/2.


 A double tackle has two pulleys in both the fixed and moving blocks
with four rope parts supporting the load W.

Separation of the pulleys in the double tackle show the force balance
that results in a rope tension of W/4.

How it works

The simplest theory of operation for a pulley system assumes that the
pulleys and lines are weightless, and that there is no energy loss due to
friction. It is also assumed that the lines do not stretch.

In equilibrium, the forces on the moving block must sum to zero. In

addition the tension in the rope must be the same for each of its parts. This
means that the two parts of the rope supporting the moving block must
each support half the load.

Fixed pulley
 

Diagram 1: The load F on the moving pulley is balanced by the

tension in two parts of the rope supporting the pulley.

Movable pulley

Diagram 2: A movable pulley lifting the load W is supported by two

rope parts with tension W/2.

These are different types of pulley systems:

 Fixed: A fixed pulley has an axle mounted in bearings attached to a

supporting structure. A fixed pulley changes the direction of the
force on a rope or belt that moves along its circumference.
Mechanical advantage is gained by combining a fixed pulley with a
movable pulley or another fixed pulley of a different diameter.
 Movable: A movable pulley has an axle in a movable block. A single
movable pulley is supported by two parts of the same rope and has
a mechanical advantage of two.
 Compound: A combination of fixed and a movable pulleys forms a
block and tackle. A block and tackle can have several pulleys
mounted on the fixed and moving axles, further increasing the
mechanical advantage

 The mechanical advantage of the gun tackle can be increased by

interchanging the fixed and moving blocks so the rope is attached to
the moving block and the rope is pulled in the direction of the lifted
load. In this case the block and tackle is said to be "rove to
advantage."[9] Diagram 3 shows that now three rope parts support the
load W which means the tension in the rope is W/3. Thus, the
mechanical advantage is three.
 By adding a pulley to the fixed block of a gun tackle the direction of
the pulling force is reversed though the mechanical advantage
remains the same, Diagram 3a. This is an example of the Luff
tackle.

 Free body diagrams

 The mechanical advantage of a pulley system can be analyzed using

free body diagrams which balance the tension force in the rope with
the force of gravity on the load. In an ideal system, the massless and
frictionless pulleys do not dissipate energy and allow for a change of
direction of a rope that does not stretch or wear. In this case, a force
balance on a free body that includes the load, W, and n supporting
sections of a rope with tension T, yields:
 The ratio of the load to the input tension force is the mechanical

advantage MA of the pulley system,[10]

 Thus, the mechanical advantage of the system is equal to the number
of sections of rope supporting the load.

 Belt and pulley systems

 A belt and pulley system is characterised by two or more pulleys in

common to a belt. This allows for mechanical power, torque, and
speed to be transmitted across axles. If the pulleys are of differing
diameters, a mechanical advantage is realised.
 A belt drive is analogous to that of a chain drive, however a belt
sheave may be smooth (devoid of discrete interlocking members as
would be found on a chain sprocket, spur gear, or timing belt) so
that the mechanical advantage is approximately given by the ratio of
the pitch diameter of the sheaves only, not fixed exactly by the ratio
of teeth as with gears and sprockets.
 In the case of a drum-style pulley, without a groove or flanges, the
pulley often is slightly convex to keep the flat belt centred. It is
sometimes referred to as a crowned pulley. Though once widely
used on factory line shafts, this type of pulley is still found driving
the rotating brush in upright vacuum cleaners, in belt sanders and
bandsaws.[11] Agricultural tractors built up to the early 1950s
generally had a belt pulley for a flat belt (which is what Belt Pulley
magazine was named after). It has been replaced by other
mechanisms with more flexibility in methods of use, such as power
take-off and hydraulics.
  Just as the diameters of gears (and, correspondingly, their number of
teeth) determine a gear ratio and thus the speed increases or
reductions and the mechanical advantage that they can deliver, the
diameters of pulleys determine those same factors. Cone pulleys and
step pulleys (which operate on the same principle, although the
names tend to be applied to flat belt versions and V belt versions,
respectively) are a way to provide multiple drive ratios in a belt-and-
pulley system that can be shifted as needed, just as a transmission
provides this function with a gear train that can be shifted. V belt
step pulleys are the most common way that drill presses deliver a
range of spindle speeds.

Belt (mechanical)

A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts
mechanically, most often parallel. Belts may be used as a source of
motion, to transmit power efficiently, or to track relative movement. Belts
are looped over pulleys and may have a twist between the pulleys, and the
shafts need not be parallel.

In a two pulley system, the belt can either drive the pulleys normally in
one direction (the same if on parallel shafts), or the belt may be crossed, so
that the direction of the driven shaft is reversed (the opposite direction to
the driver if on parallel shafts). As a source of motion, a conveyor belt is
one application where the belt is adapted to carry a load continuously
between two points.
History

The mechanical belt drive, using a pulley machine, was first mentioned in
the text the Dictionary of Local Expressions by the Han Dynasty
philosopher, poet, and politician Yang Xiong (53–18 BC) in 15 BC, used
for a quilling machine that wound silk fibers on to bobbins for weavers'
shuttles.[1] The belt drive is an essential component to the invention of the
spinning wheel.[2][3] The belt drive was not only used in textile
technologies, it was also applied to hydraulic powered bellows dated from
the 1st century AD.[2]

Power transmission

Belts are the cheapest utility for power transmission between shafts that
may not be axially aligned. Power transmission is achieved by specially
designed belts and pulleys. The demands on a belt-drive transmission
system are huge, and this has led to many variations on the theme. They
run smoothly and with little noise, and cushion motor and bearings against
load changes, albeit with less strength than gears or chains. However,
improvements in belt engineering allow use of belts in systems that only
formerly allowed chains or gears.

Power transmitted between a belt and a pulley is expressed as the product

of difference of tension and belt velocity:

where, T1 and T2 are tensions in the tight side and slack side of the belt
respectively. They are related as
where, μ is the coefficient of friction, and α is the angle (in radians)
subtended by contact surface at the centre of the pulley.

Pros and cons

Belt drives are simple, inexpensive, and do not require axially aligned
shafts. They help protect machinery from overload and jam, and damp and
isolate noise and vibration. Load fluctuations are shock-absorbed
(cushioned). They need no lubrication and minimal maintenance. They
have high efficiency (90–98%, usually 95%), high tolerance for
misalignment, and are of relatively low cost if the shafts are far apart.
Clutch action is activated by releasing belt tension. Different speeds can be
obtained by stepped or tapered pulleys.

The angular-velocity ratio may not be constant or equal to that of the

pulley diameters, due to slip and stretch. However, this problem has been
largely solved by the use of toothed belts. Working temperatures range
from −31 °F (−35 °C) to 185 °F (85 °C). Adjustment of center distance or
addition of an idler pulley is crucial to compensate for wear and stretch.

Flat belts

Flat belts were widely used in the 19th and early 20th centuries in line
shafting to transmit power in factories.[4] They were also used in countless
farming, mining, and logging applications, such as bucksaws, sawmills,
threshers, silo blowers, conveyors for filling corn cribs or haylofts, balers,
water pumps (for wells, mines, or swampy farm fields), and electrical
generators. Flat belts are still used today, although not nearly as much as in
the line-shaft era. The flat belt is a simple system of power transmission
that was well suited for its day. It can deliver high power at high speeds
(500 hp at 10,000 ft/min, or 373 kW at 51 m/s), in cases of wide belts and
large pulleys. But these wide-belt-large-pulley drives are bulky, consuming
lots of space while requiring high tension, leading to high loads, and are
poorly suited to close-centers applications, so V-belts have mainly
replaced flat belts for short-distance power transmission; and longer-
distance power transmission is typically no longer done with belts at all.
For example, factory machines now tend to have individual electric
motors.

Because flat belts tend to climb towards the higher side of the pulley,
pulleys were made with a slightly convex or "crowned" surface (rather
than flat) to allow the belt to self-center as it runs. Flat belts also tend to
slip on the pulley face when heavy loads are applied, and many proprietary
belt dressings were available that could be applied to the belts to increase
friction, and so power transmission.

Flat belts were traditionally made of leather or fabric. Today most are
made of rubber or synthetic polymers. Grip of leather belts is often better if
they are assembled with the hair side (outer side) of the leather against the
pulley, although some belts are instead given a half-twist before joining the
ends (forming a Möbius strip), so that wear can be evenly distributed on
both sides of the belt. Belts ends are joined by lacing the ends together
with leather thonging (the oldest of the methods), [5][6] steel comb fasteners
and/or lacing,[7] or by gluing or welding (in the case of polyurethane or
polyester). Flat belts were traditionally jointed, and still usually are, but
they can also be made with endless construction.

Rope drives

In the mid 19th century, British millwrights discovered that multi-grooved

pulleys connected by ropes outperformed flat pulleys connected by leather
belts. Wire ropes were occasionally used, but cotton, hemp, manila hemp
and flax rope saw the widest use. Typically, the rope connecting two
pulleys with multiple V-grooves was spliced into a single loop that
traveled along a helical path before being returned to its starting position
by an idler pulley that also served to maintain the tension on the rope.
Sometimes, a single rope was used to transfer power from one multiple-
groove drive pulley to several single- or multiple-groove driven pulleys in
this way.

In general, as with flat belts, rope drives were used for connections from
stationary engines to the jack shafts and line shafts of mills, and sometimes
from line shafts to driven machinery. Unlike leather belts, however, rope
drives were sometimes used to transmit power over relatively long
distances. Over long distances, intermediate sheaves were used to support
the "flying rope", and in the late 19th century, this was considered quite
efficient.[8][9][10]

Round belts

Round belts are a circular cross section belt designed to run in a pulley
with a 60 degree V-groove. Round grooves are only suitable for idler
pulleys that guide the belt, or when (soft) O-ring type belts are used. The
V-groove transmits torque through a wedging action, thus increasing
friction. Nevertheless, round belts are for use in relatively low torque
situations only and may be purchased in various lengths or cut to length
and joined, either by a staple, a metallic connector (in the case of hollow
plastic), gluing or welding (in the case of polyurethane). Early sewing
machines utilized a leather belt, joined either by a metal staple or glued, to
great effect.
V belts

V belts (also style V-belts, vee belts, or, less commonly, wedge rope)
solved the slippage and alignment problem. It is now the basic belt for
power transmission. They provide the best combination of traction, speed
of movement, load of the bearings, and long service life. They are
generally endless, and their general cross-section shape is roughly
trapezoidal (hence the name "V"). The "V" shape of the belt tracks in a
mating groove in the pulley (or sheave), with the result that the belt cannot
slip off. The belt also tends to wedge into the groove as the load increases
—the greater the load, the greater the wedging action—improving torque
transmission and making the V-belt an effective solution, needing less
width and tension than flat belts. V-belts trump flat belts with their small
center distances and high reduction ratios. The preferred center distance is
larger than the largest pulley diameter, but less than three times the sum of
both pulleys. Optimal speed range is 1,000–7,000 ft/min (300–
2,130 m/min). V-belts need larger pulleys for their thicker cross-section
than flat belts.

For high-power requirements, two or more V-belts can be joined side-by-

side in an arrangement called a multi-V, running on matching multi-groove
sheaves. This is known as a multiple-V-belt drive (or sometimes a
"classical V-belt drive").

V-belts may be homogeneously rubber or polymer throughout, or there

may be fibers embedded in the rubber or polymer for strength and
reinforcement. The fibers may be of textile materials such as cotton,
polyamide (such as Nylon) or polyester or, for greatest strength, of steel or
aramid (such as Twaron or Kevlar).
When an endless belt does not fit the need, jointed and link V-belts may be
employed. Most models offer the same power and speed ratings as
equivalently-sized endless belts and do not require special pulleys to
operate. A link v-belt is a number of polyurethane/polyester composite
links held together, either by themselves, such as Fenner Drives'
PowerTwist, or Nu-T-Link (with metal studs). These provide easy
installation and superior environmental resistance compared to rubber belts
and are length-adjustable by disassembling and removing links when
needed.

V-belt history

Trade journal coverage of V-belts in automobiles from 1916 mentioned

leather as the belt material,[11] and mentioned that the V angle was not yet
well standardized.[12] The endless rubber V-belt was developed in 1917 by
John Gates of the Gates Rubber Company. Multiple-V-belt drive was first
arranged a few years later by Walter Geist of the Allis-Chalmers
corporation, who was inspired to replace the single rope of multi-groove-
sheave rope drives with multiple V-belts running parallel. Geist filed for a
patent in 1925, and Allis-Chalmers began marketing the drive under the
"Texrope" brand; the patent was granted in 1928 (U.S. Patent 1,662,511).
The "Texrope" brand still exists, although it has changed ownership and no
longer refers to multiple-V-belt drive alone.

Multi-groove belts

A multi-groove, V-Ribbed, or polygroove belt [13] is made up of usually

between 3 and 24 "V" shaped sections alongside each other. This gives a
thinner belt for the same drive surface, thus it is more flexible, although
often wider. The added flexibility offers an improved efficiency, as less
energy is wasted in the internal friction of continually bending the belt. In
practice this gain of efficiency causes a reduced heating effect on the belt,
and a cooler-running belt lasts longer in service. Belts are commercially
available in several sizes, with usually a 'P' (sometimes omitted) and a
single letter identifying the pitch between grooves. The 'PK' section with a
pitch of 3.56 mm is commonly used for automotive applications.[14]

A further advantage of the polygroove belt that makes them popular is that
they can run over pulleys on the ungrooved back of the belt. Though this is
sometimes done with V-belts with a single idler pulley for tensioning, a
polygroove belt may be wrapped around a pulley on its back tightly
enough to change its direction, or even to provide a light driving force.[15]

Any V-belt's ability to drive pulleys depends on wrapping the belt around a
sufficient angle of the pulley to provide grip. Where a single-V-belt is
limited to a simple convex shape, it can adequately wrap at most three or
possibly four pulleys, so can drive at most three accessories. Where more
must be driven, such as for modern cars with power steering and air
conditioning, multiple belts are required. As the polygroove belt can be
bent into concave paths by external idlers, it can wrap any number of
driven pulleys, limited only by the power capacity of the belt.[15]

This ability to bend the belt at the designer's whim allows it to take a
complex or "serpentine" path. This can assist the design of a compact
engine layout, where the accessories are mounted more closely to the
engine block and without the need to provide movable tensioning
adjustments. The entire belt may be tensioned by a single idler pulley.
Ribbed belt

A ribbed belt is a power transmission belt featuring lengthwise grooves. It

operates from contact between the ribs of the belt and the grooves in the
pulley. Its single-piece structure is reported to offer an even distribution of
tension across the width of the pulley where the belt is in contact, a power
range up to 600 kW, a high speed ratio, serpentine drives (possibility to
drive off the back of the belt), long life, stability and homogeneity of the
drive tension, and reduced vibration. The ribbed belt may be fitted on
various applications: compressors, fitness bikes, agricultural machinery,
food mixers, washing machines, lawn mowers, etc.

Film belts

Though often grouped with flat belts, they are actually a different kind.
They consist of a very thin belt (0.5–15 millimeters or 100–4000
micrometres) strip of plastic and occasionally rubber. They are generally
intended for low-power (less than 10 watts), high-speed uses, allowing
high efficiency (up to 98%) and long life. These are seen in business
machines, printers, tape recorders, and other light-duty operations.

Timing belts

Timing belts (also known as toothed, notch, cog, or synchronous belts)

are a positive transfer belt and can track relative movement. These belts
have teeth that fit into a matching toothed pulley. When correctly
tensioned, they have no slippage, run at constant speed, and are often used
to transfer direct motion for indexing or timing purposes (hence their
name). They are often used instead of chains or gears, so there is less noise
and a lubrication bath is not necessary. Camshafts of automobiles,
miniature timing systems, and stepper motors often utilize these belts.
Timing belts need the least tension of all belts and are among the most
efficient. They can bear up to 200 hp (150 kW) at speeds of 16,000 ft/min
(4,900 m/min).

Timing belts with a helical offset tooth design are available. The helical
offset tooth design forms a chevron pattern and causes the teeth to engage
progressively. The chevron pattern design is self-aligning and does not
make the noise that some timing belts make at certain speeds, and is more
efficient at transferring power (up to 98%).

Disadvantages include a relatively high purchase cost, the need for

specially fabricated toothed pulleys, less protection from overloading,
jamming, and vibration due to their continuous tension cords, the lack of
clutch action (only possible with friction-drive belts), and the fixed
lengths, which do not allow length adjustment (unlike link V-belts or
chains).

Specialty belts

Belts normally transmit power on the tension side of the loop. However,
designs for continuously variable transmissions exist that use belts that are
a series of solid metal blocks, linked together as in a chain, transmitting
power on the compression side of the loop.

Rolling roads

Belts used for rolling roads for wind tunnels can be capable of 250 km/h
(160 mph).[16]
Standards for use

The open belt drive has parallel shafts rotating in the same direction,
whereas the cross-belt drive also bears parallel shafts but rotate in opposite
direction. The former is far more common, and the latter not appropriate
for timing and standard V-belts unless there is a twist between each pulley
so that the pulleys only contact the same belt surface. Nonparallel shafts
can be connected if the belt's center line is aligned with the center plane of
the pulley. Industrial belts are usually reinforced rubber but sometimes
leather types, non-leather non-reinforced belts, can only be used in light
applications.

The pitch line is the line between the inner and outer surfaces that is
neither subject to tension (like the outer surface) nor compression (like the
inner). It is midway through the surfaces in film and flat belts and
dependent on cross-sectional shape and size in timing and V-belts.
Calculating pitch diameter is an engineering task and is beyond the scope
of this article. The angular speed is inversely proportional to size, so the
larger the one wheel, the less angular velocity, and vice versa. Actual
pulley speeds tend to be 0.5–1% less than generally calculated because of
belt slip and stretch. In timing belts, the inverse ratio teeth of the belt
contributes to the exact measurement. The speed of the belt is:

Speed = Circumference based on pitch diameter × angular speed in rpm

Selection criteria

Belt drives are built under the following required conditions: speeds of and
power transmitted between drive and driven unit; suitable distance
between shafts; and appropriate operating conditions. The equation for
power is
 power [kW] = (torque [N·m]) × (rotational speed [rev/min]) × (2π
radians) / (60 s × 1000 W).

Factors of power adjustment include speed ratio; shaft distance (long or

short); type of drive unit (electric motor, internal combustion engine);
service environment (oily, wet, dusty); driven unit loads (jerky, shock,
reversed); and pulley-belt arrangement (open, crossed, turned). These are
found in engineering handbooks and manufacturer's literature. When
corrected, the power is compared to rated powers of the standard belt
cross-sections at particular belt speeds to find a number of arrays that
perform best. Now the pulley diameters are chosen. It is generally either
large diameters or large cross-section that are chosen, since, as stated
earlier, larger belts transmit this same power at low belt speeds as smaller
belts do at high speeds. To keep the driving part at its smallest, minimal-
diameter pulleys are desired. Minimum pulley diameters are limited by the
elongation of the belt's outer fibers as the belt wraps around the pulleys.
Small pulleys increase this elongation, greatly reducing belt life. Minimal
pulley diameters are often listed with each cross-section and speed, or
listed separately by belt cross-section. After the cheapest diameters and
belt section are chosen, the belt length is computed. If endless belts are
used, the desired shaft spacing may need adjusting to accommodate
standard-length belts. It is often more economical to use two or more
juxtaposed V-belts, rather than one larger belt.

In large speed ratios or small central distances, the angle of contact

between the belt and pulley may be less than 180°. If this is the case, the
drive power must be further increased, according to manufacturer's tables,
and the selection process repeated. This is because power capacities are
based on the standard of a 180° contact angle. Smaller contact angles mean
less area for the belt to obtain traction, and thus the belt carries less power.

Belt friction
Main article: Belt friction

Belt drives depend on friction to operate, but excessive friction wastes

energy and rapidly wears the belt. Factors that affect belt friction include
belt tension, contact angle, and the materials used to make the belt and
pulleys.

Belt tension

Power transmission is a function of belt tension. However, also increasing

with tension is stress (load) on the belt and bearings. The ideal belt is that
of the lowest tension that does not slip in high loads. Belt tensions should
also be adjusted to belt type, size, speed, and pulley diameters. Belt tension
is determined by measuring the force to deflect the belt a given distance
per inch of pulley. Timing belts need only adequate tension to keep the belt
in contact with the pulley.

Belt wear

Fatigue, more so than abrasion, is the culprit for most belt problems. This
wear is caused by stress from rolling around the pulleys. High belt tension;
excessive slippage; adverse environmental conditions; and belt overloads
caused by shock, vibration, or belt slapping all contribute to belt fatigue.

Belt vibration

Vibration signatures are widely used for studying belt drive malfunctions.
Some of the common malfunctions or faults include the effects of belt
tension, speed, sheave eccentricity and misalignment conditions.The effect
of sheave Eccentricity on vibration signatures of the belt drive is quite
significant. Although, vibration magnitude is not necessarily increased by
this it will create strong amplitude modulation. When the top section of a
belt is in resonance, the vibrations of the machine is increased. However,
an increase in the machine vibration is not significant when only the
bottom section of the belt is in resonance. The vibration spectrum has the
tendency to move to higher frequencies as the tension force of the belt is
increased.

Belt dressing

Belt slippage can be addressed in several ways. Belt replacement is an

obvious solution, and eventually the mandatory one (because no belt lasts
forever). Often, though, before the replacement option is executed,
retensioning (via pulley centerline adjustment) or dressing (with any of
various coatings) may be successful to extend the belt's lifespan and
postpone replacement. Belt dressings are typically liquids that are poured,
brushed, dripped, or sprayed onto the belt surface and allowed to spread
around; they are meant to recondition the belt's driving surfaces and
increase friction between the belt and the pulleys. Some belt dressings are
dark and sticky, resembling tar or syrup; some are thin and clear,
resembling mineral spirits. Some are sold to the public in aerosol cans at
auto parts stores; others are sold in drums only to industrial users.

Specifications

To fully specify a belt, the material, length, and cross-section size and
shape are required. Timing belts, in addition, require that the size of the
teeth be given. The length of the belt is the sum of the central length of the
system on both sides, half the circumference of both pulleys, an d the
square of the sum (if crossed) or the difference (if open) of the radii. Thus,
when dividing by the central distance, it can be visualized as the central
distance times the height that gives the same squared value of the radius
difference on, of course, both sides. When adding to the length of either
side, the length of the belt increases, in a similar manner to the
Pythagorean theorem. One important concept to remember is that as D 1
gets closer to D2 there is less of a distance (and therefore less addition of
length) until its approaches zero.

On the other hand, in a crossed belt drive the sum rather than the difference
of radii is the basis for computation for length. So the wider the small drive
increases, the belt length is higher.
Table no.1: Arrangements of pins in shafts

No. of Angle Angle Value of

Pins between between integral

consecutive consecutive

hole(degree) hole(degree)

2(even) 180 Yes 1

3(odd) 120 No No integral

4(even) 90 Yes 2

5(odd) 72 No No integral

6(even) 60 Yes 3

7(odd) 51.43 No No integral

8(even) 45 Yes 4

9(odd) 40 No No integral

In upper table it is seen that with any no. of pins other than odd
there must be an integral whose multiplication with angle gives the
value 180 degrees so only odd no. of pins used.
 Fig-6: View of Shaft with Holes

F. Analysis of Mechanism

From the above diagrams and views the setup is clearly

established in the mind, but as for convenience here we use the front
view of the setup for analyzing the mechanism of setup.
 Fig-7: Setup

Let at the starting instant shaft 1 starts rotation with 3 pins in

anticlockwise direction and a reaction force developed at the pin
surface which in contact with the shaft and this force transferred to the
other end of the pin which is in the shaft and applying on the shaft 2
due to which shaft 2 starts rotating in the same direction as shaft 1,
after 120 degree rotation pin 1 comes at the place of pin 2 & pin 2
comes at the place of pin 3 & pin 3 comes at the place of pin 1 by
sliding in shaft and self-adjusting. This motion repeated for next 120
degrees and further for next 120 degrees and pins are exchanging the
position in successive order as discussed before.

CHAPTER III

3 DESIGN CALCULATIONS

Testing of the machine and for functioning

Power of motor = ¼ H.P = 746 x 0.25 = 186.5 N- m /s

Rpm of motor N= 1440 rpm

Power of motor P =186.5 watt.

P = 2 πN TP /60 --------- (Eq.1)

Where, N = Rpm of motor = 1440 T = Torque

transmitted

From eq.1 we get,

186.5 = 2π×140×T/60

T = 1.23 N-m

T = 1238 N-mm.

3.1 DESIGNING OF SHAFT

Following stresses are normally adopted in shaft design

Max tensile stress = 60 N/mm2

Max shear stress = 40 N/mm2

Considering 25 % overload

Tmax= 1238 x 1.25= 1.525 x 10 3 N-mm

The shaft is subject to pure torsional stress

We know T= 3. 14/16 x fs x d3

15250 = 3. 14/ 16 x 70x d3

D =10.20mm
Taking factor of safety = 2

D = 10 x 2 = 20mm

A shaft diameter is 20mm and length is 230mm =2151.11 ×230

=494755.3

Bending stress for shaft

=32 × 3 =186.649N/mm²
Tensional shear stress of shaft

=60×106 2

Where, Kw=7.5, n=120 Mt=596831.03Nmm

τ=16Mt/πd³

=16×596831.03/π×203

=112.57N/mm²

3.2 DESIGNING OF HUB

Considering a hub of internal diameter is 32mm and outer diameter is

92mm, length is 82mm.

=100×9.81=981

= 2 / 02− 2

=980×322 /922−322

=135.01N/mm

3.3 DESIGNING OF EL-BOW ROD

We know that,

Same torque is transmitted to bent link shaft

So torque on each shaft = T /3 = 15250 /3 = 5083 N mm T= 3. 14/16 x fs
x d3

5083 = 3. 14/ 16 x 70x d3

D = 7.17 mm.

Take approximately D=8mm.

Diameter of rod is 8mm and length is 300mm =0.78 3

=0.78×43

= 49.92 kg/mm²
Bending stress of rod

σ =PL/4Z

=186.5×300/4×49.92 =280.19 N/mm²

CHAPTER IV

4.WORKING

The Gearless transmission or El-bow mechanism is a device for

transmitting motion at any fixed angle between the driving and driven
shaft. The synthesis of this mechanism would reveal that it comprises of a
number of pins would be in between 3 to 8, the more the pins the smoother
the operation. These pins slide inside hollow cylinders thus formatting a
sliding pair. Our mechanism has 3 such sliding pairs. These cylinders are
placed in a Hollow pipe and are fastened at 120 degree to each other. This
whole assembly is mounted on brackets wooden table. Power is supplied
by an electric motor. The working of the mechanism is understood by the
diagram. An unused form of transmission of power on shaft located at an
angle. Motion is transmitted from driving to the driven shaft through the
roads which are bent to conform to the angles between the shafts. These
roads are located at in the holes equally spaced around a circle and they are
free to slide in & out as the shaft revolves. This type of drive is especially
suitable where quite operation at high speed is essential but only
recommended for high duty.

The operation of this transmission will be apparent by the action of

one rod. During a revolution. If we assume that driving shaft “A” is
revolving as indicated by arrow the driven shaft B will rotate counter
clockwise. As shaft A turns through half revolution C shown in the inner
and most effective driving position slides out of both shafts A & B The
first half revolution and rod “C” then will be at the top then

during the remaining half this rod “C” slide in wards until it again reaches
to inner most position shown in Fig. in the meanwhile the other roads have
of course passed through the same cycle of movements all rods are
successively sliding inwards and outwards.
 Fig-7: Gearless power transmission for skew shafts

Although this transmission is an old one many mechanics are skeptical

about its operation, however it is not only practicable but has proved
satisfactory for various applications when the drive is for shafts which are
permanently located at given angle. Although this illustration shows a right
angle transmission this drive can be applied also to shafts located at
intermediate angle between (0 and 90 degree) respectively. In making this
transmission, it is essential to have the holes for a given rod located
accurately in the same holes must be equally spaced in radial and
circumferential directions, be parallel to each rod should be bent to at
angle at which the shaft are to be located. If the holes drilled in the ends of
the shafts have “blind” or closed ends, there ought to be a small vent at the
bottom of each rod hole for the escape of air compressed by the pumping
action of the rods.
 CHAPTER V

5. COMPARISION WITH EXISTING SOLUTIONS

 This arrangement gives the coverage of a wide range of shaft

diameter, which may be standard or non-standard which is not
 possible in the existing gear arrangement because the manufacturing
of gears for skew shafts very complex and because of
standardization its only use of shafts of standard diameter.

 Proposed gear less transmission with pins can be used for very high
speeds and for high loads which is comparable to the worm gear and
not possible for crossed helical gears.

 This system not having any possibility of like sliding and point
contact as in crossed helical gears so power loss is very low in
introduced arrangement and used for high loads with proper rigidity
of shafts and pins.

 The main and very interesting advantage of this proposed system is

that we can changes the position of shafts during motion or during

intermittent position according to need by using given type of links

at the place of pins which is not possible in any existing system till
now.

 Since any dimension of any component used is not out the shafts
dimensions limit, a large reduction in the size of the machines is
possible .in short a large space saving should be done.

 Repairing cost on failure of any component is very low.

  Very low setup cost.
 Easy and time saving installation of setup.

 Easy manufacturing of links and pins in comparison of crossed

helical and worm gear.
 Very less skill is required for setup.

CHAPTER VI
6.APPLICATIONS
The featured product has its widest application as an extension for a
socket wrench. Here the design makes it easy to reach fasteners in the
automotive and other mechanical industries, where direct access to bolts
and screws is often limited. However, the possible applications for this
technology extend into numerous fields. Just think of the possibilities for
power transmission in push bikes, toy sand hand- cranked equipment, or
for movement transmission in store and Outdoor signage.

 Driving for all kinds four faced tower clocks. The elbow mechanism
was made use of the “Big Ben Clock” having four dials on the tower
of London.

This clock was installed on 1630 AD and still it is functioning in

good condition.

 The mechanism is invariable used for multiple spindle drilling

operation called the gang drilling.

 Used for angular drilling between 0 to 90 degree position.

 Lubrication pump for C.N.C. lathe machines.

 The mechanism is very useful for a reaching a drive at a clumsy

location.
 Air blower for electronic and computer machine.

 The mechanism has found a very usefully use in electronic and

computer technology for multiple.
  The elbow mechanism is used for movement of periscope in
submarines.

CHAPTER VII

7.RESULTS

The final design thus obtained is capable of transmitting torque and

power at varied angles depending on the angular limitation of the hooks
joint. With further research and advanced analysis in the design wide-
ranging applications of the drive can be discovered.

The model works correctly as per the design. With the help of this
system, we can efficiently reduce the cost in power transmission and
further advancement in this technology can be made.

There is clear in design and Fabrication of our project is safe at 140rpm to

260rpm for gearless transmission system.

CHAPTER VIII

CONCLUSION
 During working on experimental setup and after a long discussion it
is observed that proposed arrangement used for any set of diameters with
any profile of shafts for skew shafts of any angle but the shaft’s must be
having the rotational motion about his own axis, transmission of motion is
very smooth and desirable and used only for the equal R.P.M. of driving
shaft and driven shaft by employing links or given type of links for
appropriate joints for revolute pair.

Some successful mechanical devices function smoothly however

poor fly they are made while other does this only by virtue of an accurate
construction & fitting of their moving parts.

This projects which looks very simple & easy to construct was actually
very difficult to conceive & imagine without seeing an actual one in
practice. Motions demands to be studied first & we have done that very
thing. We find that while acceptable analysis for existing mechanism can
often be Made quite easily we cannot without insight & imagination make
effective synthesis of new mechanism hence we are mould to present this
our project gear less transmission at 90 degree (El-bow mechanism) which
we have managed to successfully device after long & hard input in
conceiving its working principle.

REFERENCES
[1]Prof. A. Kumar and S. Das, “An arrangement for power

transmission between co-axial shafts of different diameter”,

International Journal of Engineering Research and

Technology (IJERT), ISSN: 2278-0181, Volume 2, Issue 2,

March 2013, Page .no: 338-347.

[2]Prof. B. Naveen Bardiya, T. karthik, L Bhaskara Rao

“Analysis and Simulationof Gearless Transmission

Mechanism", International Journal Of Core Engineering &

Management (IJCEM) ,Volume 1, Issue 6, September 2014,

Page.no: 136-142.

[3]Prof. Mahantesh Tanodi, “Gearless power transmission-

offset parallel shaft coupling", International Journal of

engineering Research and Technology (IJERT), volume 3,

Issue 3, March 2014, Page.no.129-132.

[4]R.S. Khurmi and J.K Gupta, “Theory of machines”, S. Chand

publications, Hyderabad, IInd edition, 2008, Page.no: 569-589.

[5]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= School of Mechanical and

Building Sciences.

[6] Book s. s. rattan Mc Graw Hill Education (India) private limited,

New Delhi.

[7] PSG Design data book by Dr. P. Mahadevan.