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SHANTI GYAN NIKETAN SR. SEC. SCHOOL

SUBJECT : BIOLOGY, CLASS: XII
CHAPTER 1: REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS
PREPARED BY: KAJAL ROBINSON (PGT BIOLOGY)
Reproduction in organism
- lifespan: The period from birth to the natural death of an organism is known as its lifespan.
- No individual is immortal, except unicellular organisms.
- Life span of organism can be divided into following phases:
1. Juvenile phase (Vegetative phase in plants) 2. Reproductive phase 3. Senescence phase

1. Juvenile phase 2. reproductive phase 3. senescence phase

(vegetative phase
in plants)
Period of growth End of juvenile phase marks - End of reproductive phase mark the
before attaining the beginning of beginning of senescence phase when
reproductive reproductive phase. In this organism lose the ability to reproduce.
maturity phase an organism can - This phase ends with the death of oranism.
reproduce to give rise to new - (During this, concomitant changes occur in the
organisms (progeny)
body. E.g. slowing of metabolism etc. It
ultimately leads to death.)

Question : Why unicellular organism like amoeba and paramecium are called immortal?
Answer: There is no natural death in unicellular organisms. Cell division is the mode of reproduction in them.

Question: Why life span of individual should not be equated with their size?
Answer: As there can be a large difference between organism’s life span of organism with approx. same size.
e.g. parrot life span-140 year crow life span -14 yrs (both with aprox same size)
mango tree life span is very short comparative to peepal tree.
Life spans of some organisms
Organism Lifespan Organism Lifespan
Rose Parrot 140 yrs
Rice plant 3-7 months Crocodile 60 yrs
Banyan tree 400+ yrs Horse 40-50 yrs
Banana tree 2-3 yrs Tortoise 100-150 yrs
Dog 22 yrs Crow 15 yrs
Butterfly 1-2 weeks Cow 22 yrs
Fruit fly 2 weeks Elephant 50-70 yrs

- Reproduction is a biological process in which an organism produces young ones (offspring) similar to itself.
- Question: what is the significance of reproduction?
Answer: 1. Continuity of species generation after generation 2. Transfer of genetic material from parent to
progeny.
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. When offspring is produced by a single parent 1.when two parents (opposite sex) participate in
with or without the involvement of gamete reproduction and also involve fusion of gamete
formation
(male and female gamete)
2. It is occurs in unicellular organisms, simple 2. Occurs in comparatively complex organisms
plants and animals (with simple organization) (higher plant and animals).
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3. The offspring are identical to one another and to 3. It results in offspring that are not identical to
their parent. (morphologically and genetically the parents or amongst themselves. (they are not
clones).
similar individuals are known as clones.)
4.It is comparatively faster process (give rise to 4. It is an elaborate, complex and slow process as
large number of individuals in less time period). compared to asexual reproduction.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Types of asexual reproduction

1. Fission 2. Budding 3. Sporulation 4. Fragmentation 5. Regeneration 6. Vegetative
Propagation

Fission: Sporulation in Amoeba (under These spores

unfavorable condition). get dispersed
o The parent cell divides into two or more individuals.
- During unfavourable condition, to new
o Cell divide equally unicellular organisms like localities with
amoeba. air and inside
o Occurs in unicellular organisms. cyst remain
o Fission Binary fission (when cell divides into two - Splitting of parental cell into dormant/inacti
daughter cell) e.g. amoeba under favorable numerous daughter cells (spores) ve during
conditions) unfavourable
- Individual small cell surrounded condition
Multiple fission (when parent cell divide by resistant coat (cyst) and spread
(cyst protect the spores under
into multiple daughter cells) unfavourable condition)
e.g. 1. Amoeba under unfavourable condition
(called as sporulation in amoeba) - On the return of favourable
2. Sporulation in plasmodium condition cyst hatches.
(malaria causing organism)
- Each gradually grows to
become new adult individual

Budding in yeast (unicellular organism)

• Budding: In yeast (unicellular), cell divide unequally give rise to a small bud (small cell) appears and grows
on the parent body (large cell). After maturation, it is detached from parent body to form new individual. E.g.
Hydra, Sponge, Yeast etc.

• Spores: spores are unicellular structure which germinate in favourable conditions to give rise to new
organism.

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It occurs in fungi and alage. E.g. zoospores, conidia

Zoospore Conidia
DISIMMILARITIES 1 Motile spores (as they bear Non-motile spores (don’t have flagella)
flagella to move around)
2 Endogenous (produce inside Exogenous (produce openly, not covered
a sac like covering called by any covering/ does not produced inside
sporangia) sporangia)
3 E.g. Chlamydomonas e.g. Penicillium

SIMMILARITY BOTH ARE ASEXUAL SPORES

• Gemmules: Special spores produced inside sponges.

• Vegetative propagation: It is the production of offspring rom vegetative propagules in plants

- Vegetative propagules are units of vegetative propagation.
- Vegetative propagules contain meristematic tissue that can give rise to new whole plants
- Bud, Bulbil Runner, sucker, tuber, bulb etc.
- Meristematic tissue consist of undifferentiated, highly dividing cells.

Name of plant Vegetative propagules Explanation

Potato Buds (eyes) Stem swell and form tuber, there are scars present on
tuber from where Axillary bud arise
Ginger and banana Rhizome Stem remain dormant underground, give rise to new
plant from nodes under favourable condition
Bryophyllum Buds arise from the There are notches at the margin of leaves from
notch of leaf margins where adventitious buds arise. Each bud give rise to
new plant
Agave Bulbil Axillary bud gets swell and enlarge. Detached from
stem and give rise to new plant
Water hyacinth/ Echornia Offset Horizontal stem grows onto the surface of water and
(aquatic plant) give rise to new plant at every node.
Sugarcane Nodes Nodes of stem

Question : Asexual reproduction is the common method in simple organisms like algae and fungi. During
adverse conditions, they can shift to sexual mode of reproduction. Explain why?
Answer: 1. During sexual reproduction zygote form a thick covering around it which protect it from adverse
conditions.
2. Sexual reproduction brings variation into the individuals, some of which might help the individuals

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to adapt to the changed conditions and survive. This ensures the continuity of species.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Question : differentiate among annual, biennial and perineal plants.
ANNUAL BIENNIAL PERINEAL
Complete life span within only one Complete life span within 2 years Take more than 2 years to
year and die. (vegetative, (juvenile phase attained in first complete life cycle (attain
reproductive and senescence phase year-vegetative growth only, in reproductive ability again and
attained within one year only) second year reproduce and die) again)
Flower only once in a year Flower once in life time Flower every year

- Some plants exhibit unusual flowering

- E.g.
1. Bamboo species flower only once in their lifetime (after 50-100 years), produce large number of fruits and die.
2. Strobilanthus kunthiana (Neelakuranji) flowers once in 12 years.
Last flowering occurred in moth of September-October (2018)
It attracts large number of tourists in area of Karnataka, Kerala etc

Question: What is responsible for transition between three phases of life span (javelin, reproductive and
senescence)?
Answer: - In both plants and animals, hormones are responsible for the transitions between the three phases.
- Interaction between hormones and certain environmental factors regulate the reproductive processes
and the associated behavioral expressions of organisms.
Question : Differentiate between seasonal breeders and annual breeders.
Seasonal Breeder Continuous Breeder
1. The can breed only during a particular period / Can breed in any season throughout year as
particular season in a year active reproductive reproductive cycle run throughout
cycle during favorable season reproductive phase
2. Temperature impact the secretion of their sex Temperature does not impact their sex
hormones hormones
3. e.g. birds, cattles e.g. human

Question: Birds living in nature lay eggs only seasonally. However, birds in captivity (e.g. poultry) can be
made to lay eggs throughout the year. How can this be possible?
Answer: Those birds in poultry farms are kept on temperature which matches with temperature of their
reproduction season, this activates their sex hormones that’s how they can be made reproductively active.
Question : differentiate between oestrus and menstrual cycle?
Answer:
Oestrus cycle Menstrual cycle
1. In non-primates placental mammals (female) In primates placental mammals (female)
ovaries and reproductive tract undergoes into cyclic ovaries and reproductive tract undergoes into
changes to make oraginsm ready for reproduction. cyclic changes to make oraginsm ready for
reproduction
2. e.g. cows, sheep, rat, deer, dog, tiger etc Human , monkey, chimpanzee ,ape

EVENTS IN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. Pre-fertilisation, 2. Fertilisation 3.Post- fertilisation events

i. Gametogenesis i. External fertilization i. zygote
ii. Gamete transfer ii. Internal fertilization ii. Embryogenesis

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1.Pre-fertilisation Events
These are the events prior to the fusion of gametes. They include gametogenesis and gamete transfer.
a. Gametogenesis
- It is the formation of male and female gametes.
- MEIOCYTE: In diploid organisms, Gamete Mother Cell which undergoes into meiosis division to give rise
to gamete cell called as meiocyte.
Question: What is the relation between chromosome numbers of meiocyte and gametes?
Answer: Gametes contain half number of chromosomes that is present in Meiocyte cell.
Meiocyte (2n) contains 2 sets of chromosomes and gamete(n) contain one set of chromosomes
Question: If rice plant contain 20 chromosomes then how many chromosomes are present in meiocyte
and gametes?
- Gametes (haploid cells) produced by organisms are 2 types:
Homogametes (isogametes): Heterogametes:

Morphologically Similar gametes. They cannot The male and female gametes are morphologically
categorize into male & female gametes. distinct types.

E.g. Some algae like Cladophora. E.g. Fucus (an alga) Human beings etc.

Sexuality (bisexual or unisexual) in organisms on the basis of gamete formation:

Bisexual Unisexual
Male & female reproductive structures present in Male and female reproductive structures are
the same individual. present on different individuals.
Male and female gamete produced by same Male and female gametes are produced by
individual. different indiuviduals.
Also calles as 1. Monoecious (plants), Also called as dioicous organism, heterothallic
2. Hermaphrodite (animal)
3. Homothallic (plant)
e.g. hibiscus, pisum (pea), sweet potato, cucurbits, Papaya , date palm , cocoroach, marchantia,
coconut, Chara, sponge, tapeworm and leech liverwort

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Earthworm(bisexual)
Marchentia (unisexual)

Sweet potato (bisexual)

Chara (bisexual)

Cockroach(unisexual)

Cell division during gamete formation:

- If organism is diploid (organism with diplontic life cycle) – Organism’s cell divide by meiosis division to
give rise to haploid gamete cell.
- Many monerans, fungi, algae & bryophytes have haploid parental body. They produce haploid gametes by
mitosis.
- Pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms & animals have diploid parental body. They produce haploid
gametes by meiosis of meiocytes (gamete mother cell).
- Haploid organism Diploid organism
(haplontic life cycle) (diplontic life cycle)
Mitosis division Meiosis division
Haploid Gamete
b. Gamete transfer :
- Gametes are produced in male and female reproductive parts has to come in close association for fusion. The
transfer of male gamete toward female gamete (in case of internal fertilisation) or transfer of both male and
female gametes towards each other for fusion/ syngamy called as gamete transfer
- In plants pollen grain (male gametophyte) carries male gamete which is non motile. Pollen tube reaches to stigma
and form pollen tube and release male gamete inside ovule (pollination and pollen pistil interaction)

Question: define Anthrozoid.

Answer: Male gametes in many lower plants are called as Anthrozoids.

c. Fertilisation:
- also called as syngamy
- Fusion of male and female gametes result in formation of zygote called as fertilization

Diagram represents the fusion of homogametes

(fusion of morphologically similar gametes)

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PARTHENOGENESIS: phenomenon of development of new organism from unfertilized female gamete

(without
fertilization) called as parthenogenesis
e.g. rotifers, honeybees , some lizards and birds (turkey),

Types of fertilization on the basis of location :

Internal Fertilisation External fertilization
Fertilization occur inside the body of organism Organisms exhibiting external fertilisation
<show great synchrony between the sexes and
release a large number of gametes into the
surrounding medium (water) in order to enhance
the chances of syngamy.>
Less vulnerable to predators as zygote forms A major disadvantage is that the offspring are
inside the body of organism extremely vulnerable to predators threatening
their survival up to adulthood
Male gametes are usaually motile or fee to Male and female gametes both are motile and both
move (it travels to reach the female gamete) travels towards each other for fertilisation
Female gametes are generally non motile and
stable
large number of male gametes are produced No of male and female gametes both produced in
but the number of female gamete is very low. large number
terrestrial organisms: belonging to fungi, e.g. bony fishes, amphibians, Algae, fungi
higher animals such as reptiles, birds,
mammals
and in a majority of plants (bryophytes,
pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms)

3. Post-fertilisation Events
These are the events after the formation of zygote.
Zygote

- Formation of the diploid zygote is universal in all sexually reproducing organisms

- Zygote is a unicellular structure that give rise to new organism. It is the product of syngamy (fertilisation).
- Zygote is the vital link between organisms of one generation and the next.
- In fungi and algae, zygote develops a thick wall that is resistant to desiccation and damage. It undergoes a
period of rest before germination.
- In organisms with haplontic life cycle, zygote divides by meiosis into haploid spores that grow into haploid
individuals.
- Sexually reproducing organisms begin life as a zygote.
Zygote(2n)

If haplontic life cycle If diplontic life cycle

(If mature organism is haploid) (If mature organism if diploid)

Zygote (2n) undergo into meiosis division zygote (2n) undergoes mitosis to form
to give rise to haploid spores which grows diploid spores or embryo (2n)
to develop into new individual (n)

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Embryogenesis
- Embryogenesis is a phenomenon in which
- zygote undergoes cell division (mitosis) and cell differentiation to develop into embryo.

Embryogenesis (Cell division (mitosis) and cell differentiation)

ZYGOTE EMBRYO

- Cell divisions increase the number of cells in the embryo.

- Cell differentiation causes the modifications of groups of cells into various tissues and organs to form an
organism.

Based on location of zygote development, animals are 2 types:

OVIPAROUS VIVIPAROUS
1. Organism lay fertilized/unfertilized eggs 1. Does not lay eggs, instead giving birth to young
ones
2. In reptiles and birds, the fertilized eggs covered by 2. There is no calcareous covering around eggs
hard calcareous shell are laid in a safe place. After
incubation, young ones hatch out
3. Zygote undergo embryogenesis and further 3. Zygote develops into a young one inside the
development to form inside the calcareous egg female body. Later, the young ones are
(outside mother’s womb). After incubation young delivered out of the body.
one hatch out
4. Chance of survival of organism is less. 4. Because of proper care and protection, the
That’s why to compensate the loss number of chances of survival of young ones are greater in
organism produced are high . viviparous animals.
That’s why number of organism produced are
less.
5. e.g. reptiles, birds 5. e.g. humans, apes,

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SHANTI GYAN NIKETAN SR. SEC. SCHOOL

GOYLA (NEAR DWARKA SECTOR 19), NEW DELHI-71, TEL: 7042898935/36/40