ACKNOWLEDGMENT

In the present world of competition there is a race of existence in which

those are having will to come forward succeed. Project is like a bridge
between theoretical and practical working. With this willing I joined this
particular project. First of all, I would like to thank the supreme power the
Almighty God who is obviously the one has always guided me to work on
the one has always guided me to work on the right path of life. Without
his grace this project could not become a reality. Next to him are my
parents, whom I am greatly indebted for me brought up with love and
encouragement to this stage. I am feeling oblige in taking the opportunity
to sincerely thanks to professor Sourav Sir (Department of Civil
Engineering, P.C.E. Purnea), I am highly obliged in taking the opportunity
to sincerely thanks to all the staff members of computer department for
their generous attitude and friendly behaviour. At last but not the least I
am thankful to all my teachers and friends who have been always helping
and encouraging me though out the year. I have no valuable words to
express my thanks, but my heart is still full of the favours received from
every person.
About The Project
The construction of bow-gutter railway overbridge, parallel to the existing
one, is expected to be thrown open for vehicular traffic next month. The
72-metre-long single span bridge is being constructed at an estimated cost
of Rs29 crore.
The bridge can take 25-tonne axle load per metre and it can go up to 70-90
tonne axle load, said Choudhary, adding, “The new bridge will be higher
compared to the old overbridge, which was constructed in 1964.”
What Is Bridge ?

A bridge is a structure that is built over a railway, river, or road so that

people or vehicles can cross from one side to the other . on the structural
behavior of each type of bridge, there will be a maximum clear span to
cover, which depends directly on the project’s budget. There are a variety
of loads and environmental conditions that the new and existing structure
needs to support effectively, including dead load, traffic, rain, wind, flood.
Modern bridges, the focus of this article, began with the introduction of
industrially produced iron. They have evolved over the past 200 years as
engineers came to better understand the possibilities inherent first in cast
iron, then in wrought iron and structural steel, and finally in reinforced
and prestressed concrete. These materials have led to bridge designs that
broke completely with the designs in wood or stone that characterized
bridges before the Industrial Revolution.
Every nation needs the infrastructure to perform all kind of activities
related to the improvement and service of the society. Transportation
system became part of the infrastructure due its connection between two
destinations, using maritime, land, or aerial methods, creating a link for
social and economic activity. Bridges are widely used to cross rivers,
valleys, and roads, providing a passage with other parts of the land since
ancient times to modernity. Each structure has different requirements to
cover, such span clearage, traffic flow, geometry and characteristics of the
place to build; therefore, a great variety of bridges can be developed.
Common materials used on construction are structural steel, reinforced
concrete, pre-stressed concrete, or post-tensioned concrete; depending
effective structural design process and techniques
Types of Ancient Bridge
We can think that all existing bridges with the variety of materials,
geometries, loads and designs have always existed. However, the evolution
of bridges has occurred within the changing needs of the society since the
19th century, with the improvement of materials, optimization techniques,
architectural and structural designs
1 ) Ancient Bridges
In the beginning, bridge were built with a simple geometry and had very
limited uses, because they only covered very short span, such as small
rivers. These bridge used basic material such as wood, ropes and stone .
2 ) Stone Arch Bridges
The first bridges that were built based on mathematics methods were the
stone arch. The exact construction date is not known, but there are
structures built by civilizations such as the Greeks or the Romans, where
they used this type of bridges as aqueducts, roads for people walking and
carriages.

3) Wooden and steel truss bridges

By the beginning of the 19th century, the structures used wood as common
material and truss bridges began to emerge . These wooden trusses took
advantage of the axial stress capacity of the bar elements, creating bridges
with longer spans, low weight and enough stiffness to withstand higher
loads. Due the large number of geometries that can be created with trusses,
there are possible arrangements which the bar elements can have taking
advantage of the tension and compression stress capacities.
Types Of Bridges

The 5 main types of bridges are:

1. Arch Bridge
2. Beam Bridge
3. Cantilever Bridge
4. Suspension Bridge
5. Truss Bridge

1 )Beam Bridge : A beam bridge is one of the simplest types of bridge.

A perfect example being a basic log bridge – something you may see while
out on a country walk.A beam bridge has a horizontal beam supported by
two piers. The beam bends when a load is on the bridge. A load can be
cars, trucks, or a train. Compression acts on the top side of the beam and
the two piers. Tension acts on the bottom side of the beam.
The deck area traditionally consists of wood plank or stone slabs (often
referred to as a clapper bridge). These are supported either side by two
beams running between abutments/piers
.
2)Truss Bridge: A truss bridge is built with triangles made of steel bars.
A triangle is a very strong shape. Compression and tension forces act on the
bridge. The diagram below shows the forces.The truss bridge has been
around for literally centuries and is a load-bearing structure which
incorporates a truss in a highly efficient yet very simple design. You will
notice an array of different variations of the simple truss bridge but they all
incorporate triangular sections. The role of these triangular elements is
important because they effectively absorb tension and compression to
create a stressed structure able to accommodate dynamic loads. This
mixture of tension and compression ensures the structure of the bridge is
maintained and the decking area remains uncompromised even in relatively
strong winds.

Advantages of Steel Truss Bridges :

1.Strong load-bearing capacity.
2.Effective use of materials.
3.Affordable to construct.
4.Versatile and adaptable design.
5.Professional bridge engineering.
3) Cantilever Bridge: A cantilever bridge is a bridge built using
cantilevers, structures that project horizontally into space, supported on
only one end.The bridge works by using cantilevers which may be simple
beams or trusses. They are made from prestressed concrete or structural
steel when used to accommodate traffic. When you consider that the
horizontal beams making up the cantilever arm are only supported from
one side it does begin to sound a little dangerous. However ,
the two cantilever arms are connected by what is known as the “suspended
span” which is effectively a centrepiece which has no direct support
underneath. The bridge load is supported through diagonal bracing with
horizontal beams as opposed to typical vertical bracing. Extremely safe and
very secure, the design of cantilever bridges is one which still lives on
today.
5 ) Suspension Bridge: The structure of a stereotypical suspension
bridge looks very simple but the design is extremely effective. The deck of
the suspension bridge is the load-bearing element of the structure. This is
held in place by vertical suspenders which support the cables. The
suspension cables extend out beyond each side of the bridge and are
anchored firmly into the ground. It will depend upon the size of the bridge
but a number of towers will be installed to hold up the suspension cables.
Any load applied to the bridge is transformed into tension across the
suspension cables which are the integral part of the structure. As there is
some “give” in the suspension cables this can translate into slight, but
measured, bridge movement in difficult weather conditions.
Types Of Bridge Materials
Around the world, bridges are made of almost any material at hand,
including ropes, vines, even trash. The following materials are the most
common used in bridge building.
Wood — A popular material for trusses and trestles in the 1800s, wood
was also used for covered bridges. Its use gave way to more durable
options that weren’t susceptible to warping, splintering, and
termites.Perhaps one of the biggest advantages of using wood as a building
material is that it is a natural resource, making it readily available and
economically feasible. ... It is remarkably strong in relation to its weight,
and it provides good insulation from the cold.A number of valuable
properties such as low heat conductivity, small bulk density, relatively high
strength, amenability to mechanical working etc.
Stone — They are strong, durable and descent in appearance. The main
uses of stone as a building material are: As a principal material for
foundation of civil engineering works, and for the construction of walls,
arches, abutments and dams. In stone masonry in places where it is
naturally available. A low-maintenance and durable option often used for
arched bridges, stone was often used for bridge-building in the Roman era.

Concrete and steel — In more modern times, a combination of

concrete and steel is most often used for freeway overpasses, etc. Concrete
is the most widely used construction material in the entire world. Rather
than existing as an independent material, concrete is a mix of various
materials. These materials include cement, water, fine aggregate, and
crushed stones or gravel.Concrete is a popular material for many
construction applications, and it is widely used because of its strength,
durability, reflectivity, and versatility. These properties make it a sturdy
and longlasting option for numerous domestic and commercial settings.
Steel is used because it binds well to concrete, has a similar thermal
expansion coefficient and is strong and relatively cost-effective. Reinforced
concrete is also used to provide deep foundations and basements and is
currently the world's primary building material.
The most common among the most common steel types in construction is
definitely mild steel type, also known as plain carbon steel. Carbon steel is
a type of steel that contains between 0.12 and 2% of carbon, which is the
main alloying constituent.
Types Of Loads For Design Of Bridge Structures
Various design loads to be considered in the design of bridges are:
1. Dead load
2. Live load
3. Impact load
4. Wind load
5. Longitudinal forces
6. Centrifugal forces
7. Buoyancy effect
8. Effect of water current
9. Thermal effects

1.Dead Load
The dead load is nothing but a self-weight of the bridge elements. The
different elements of bridge are deck slab, wearing coat, railings, parapet,
stiffeners and other utilities. It is the first design load to be calculated in the
design of bridge.
2.Live Load
The live load on the bridge, is moving load on the bridge throughout its
length. The moving loads are vehicles, Pedestrians etc. but it is difficult to
select one vehicle or a group of vehicles to design a safe bridge.
3.Impact Loads
The Impact load on bridge is due to sudden loads which are caused when
the vehicle is moving on the bridge. When the wheel is in movement, the
live load will change periodically from one wheel to another which results
the impact load on bridge.
4.Wind Loads
Wind load also an important factor in the bridge design. For short span
bridges, wind load can be negligible. But for medium span bridges, wind
load should be considered for substructure design. For long span bridges,
wind load is considered in the design of super structure.

5.Longitudinal Forces
The longitudinal forces are caused by braking or accelerating of vehicle on
the bridge. When the vehicle stops suddenly or accelerates suddenly it
induces longitudinal forces on the bridge structure especially on the
substructure. So, IRC recommends 20% of live load should be considered
as longitudinal force on the bridges.

6.Centrifugal Forces
If bridge is to be built on horizontal curves, then the movement of vehicle
along curves will cause centrifugal force on to the super structure. Hence,
in this case design should be done for centrifugal forces also.
Centrifugal force can be calculated by C (kN/m) = (WV2)/(12.7R)
Where ,
W = live load (kN)
V = Design speed (kmph)
R = Radius of curve (m)
7. Buoyancy Effect
Buoyancy effect is considered for substructures of large bridges submerged
under deep water bodies. Is the depth of submergence is less it can be
negligible.
8. Forces by Water Current
When the bridge is to be constructed across a river, some part of the
substructure is under submergence of water. The water current induces
horizontal forces on submerged portion. The forces caused by water
currents are maximum at the top of water level and zero at the bottom water
level or at the bed level.
The pressure by water current is P = KW [V2/2g]
Where ,
P = pressure (kN/m2)
K = constant (value depending upon shape of pier)
W = unit weight of water .

9. Thermal Stresses
Thermal stresses are caused due to temperature. When the temperature is
very high or very low they induce stresses in the bridge elements especially
at bearings and deck joints. These stresses are tensile in nature so, concrete
cannot withstand against this and cracks are formed.
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