Analog Electronics

Homework #3
Chris Lee
Last worked on: 10/22/2017
Homework Due Date: 10/26/2017
7th Edition of the textbook: Microelectronic Circuits, by
Sedra/Smith

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 Table of Contents
FORMULA SHEET & Constants (Rough Draft) .................................................................................................... 4
Intrinsic Semiconductors............................................................................................................................ 4
Doped Semiconductors: ............................................................................................................................. 4
Current Flow Semiconductors.................................................................................................................... 5
The pn Junction .......................................................................................................................................... 7
The pn Junction with Applied Voltage ....................................................................................................... 9
Capacitive Effects in the pn Junction ......................................................................................................... 9
Intrinsic Semiconductors: ................................................................................................................................ 11
Problem 3.1 .................................................................................................................................................. 11
Part A: At −55°C........................................................................................................................................ 11
Part B: At 0°C ............................................................................................................................................ 12
Part C: At 20°C .......................................................................................................................................... 12
Part D: At 75°C ......................................................................................................................................... 13
Part E: At 125°C ........................................................................................................................................ 13
Problem 3.2 .................................................................................................................................................. 14
Doped Semiconductors: ................................................................................................................................... 15
Problem 3.3 .................................................................................................................................................. 15
Problem 3.4 .................................................................................................................................................. 16
Problem 3.5 .................................................................................................................................................. 17
Current Flow in Semiconductors:..................................................................................................................... 19
Problem 3.6 .................................................................................................................................................. 19
Part A........................................................................................................................................................ 19
Part B ........................................................................................................................................................ 20
Part C ........................................................................................................................................................ 21
Part D ....................................................................................................................................................... 22
Problem 3.7 .................................................................................................................................................. 23
Problem 3.8 .................................................................................................................................................. 24
Problem 3.9 .................................................................................................................................................. 26
Problem 3.10 ................................................................................................................................................ 27
The pn Junction: ............................................................................................................................................... 29
Problem 3.12 ................................................................................................................................................ 29

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 Problem 3.14 ................................................................................................................................................ 32
Problem 3.15 ................................................................................................................................................ 33
Problem 3.16 ................................................................................................................................................ 34
The pn Junction with Applied Voltage: ............................................................................................................ 35
Problem 3.17 ................................................................................................................................................ 35
Problem 3.20 ................................................................................................................................................ 37
Problem 3.21 ................................................................................................................................................ 38
Problem 3.23 ................................................................................................................................................ 39
Capacitive Effects in the pn Junction: .............................................................................................................. 41
Problem 3.24 ................................................................................................................................................ 41
Problem 3.25 ................................................................................................................................................ 42

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FORMULA SHEET & Constants (Rough Draft)

Intrinsic Semiconductors
−𝐸𝑔
⁄
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑇 3/2 𝑒 2𝑘𝑇

Where

𝑛𝑖 = 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3

B material dependent Parameter 𝐵 = 7.3 ∗ 1015 𝑐𝑚−3 𝐾 −3/2 (silicon) 𝐵 = 3.56 ∗ 1014 𝑐𝑚−3 𝐾 −3/2
(Gallium arsenide)
T is the temperature of the material, 𝑇 = 273 + 𝑡(℃)𝐾.
𝐸𝑔 is the bandgap energy is, 𝐸𝑔 = 1.12 𝑒𝑉.

k is the Boltzmann’s constant 𝑘 = 8.62 ∗ 10−5 𝑒𝑉/𝐾

𝑖𝑛
Fraction of atom ionized: 𝐹 = 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 @ 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒℃

Atomic concentration of Silicon: 5 ∗ 1022 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠/𝑐𝑚3

Doped Semiconductors:
p-type semiconductors

Intrinsic Carrier Density for Silicon at 300k ni= 1.5 ∗ 1010 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3

Acceptor Doping Concentration or doping concentration of the P side is: NA = 5*1018 carrier/cm3
If the acceptor doping concentration NA >> ni (given >> 1.5*1010), then the majority hole
concentration becomes 𝑃𝑝 ≅ 𝑁𝐴 . Therefore the hole concentration is 5*1018 carrier/cm3

Concentration of minority electrons:

𝑛2
𝑛𝑝 = 𝑝𝑖 where np is minority electrons, pp is hole concentration, ni is the intrinsic carrier density
𝑝

n-type semiconductor –
concentrations of electrons (nn) ≅ donor concentration (ND)

𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖2

𝑁𝐷 𝑝𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖2
𝑛𝑖2
𝑁𝐷 =
𝑝𝑛

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Phosphorous – Donor Impurity
Since phosphorus is a donor impurity, 𝑁𝐷 > 𝑛𝑖
(Where 𝑁𝐷 is the donor concentration and 𝑛𝑖 is the intrinsic concentration)
Since it’s a donor impurity, it’s an n-type semiconductor
n-type semiconductor = 𝑛𝑛 ≅ 𝑁𝐷
where 𝑛𝑛 is the concentration of free electrons in the n-type silicon and 𝑁𝐷 is the donor
concentration.
𝜂𝑖 = 1.5 ∗ 1010
Current Flow Semiconductors

Intrinsic Silicon – Under thermal equilibrium, the concentration of free electrons n is equal to the number
of holes p.

𝑛 = 𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 Measured in m3

Resistivity 𝜌 can be calculated as follows:

𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
1
𝜌 = 𝜂 𝑞(𝜇 = Ω ∙ 𝑐𝑚 , 𝑞 = 1.6 ∗ 10−19 ,
𝑖 𝑛 +𝜇𝑝 )

𝜂𝑖 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛, 𝜂𝑖 = 1.5 ∗ 1010 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑉. 𝑠

𝜇𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠, 𝜇𝑛 = 1200 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑉. 𝑠

𝜇𝜌 = 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠, 𝜇𝜌 = 400 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑉. 𝑠

For N semiconductors

Doping concentration 𝑝 = 𝑁𝐴

𝜂𝑖2
𝑝= = 𝑐𝑚3
𝑁𝐷
N- Semiconductors resistivity 𝜌
1
𝜌= = 𝑐𝑚2
𝑞𝑁𝐷 𝜇𝑛

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P-doped Semiconductors
𝑛 = 𝑁𝐷
𝜂𝑖2
𝑁𝐷 =
𝑁𝐴
1
𝜌=
𝑞𝑁𝐴 𝜇𝑝 + 𝑞𝑁𝐷 𝜇𝑛

Where n is free electron, ND is the doping concentration.

Drift Velocity
𝑉𝑑 = 𝜇𝑛 𝐸
𝑉
Where E is 𝐸 = ℓ

Formula for conductivity: (bar)

𝜎 = 𝑞(𝑝𝜇𝑝 + 𝑛𝜇𝑝 )
Formula for drift current density
𝐽𝐷 = 𝜎𝐸, 𝐽𝐷 = 𝑞(𝑝𝜇𝑝 + 𝑛𝜇𝑝 )𝐸

𝑞 = 1.6 ∗ 10−19

Where
𝐽𝐷 is drift current density
𝜎 is conductivity

E is the electric field

n is the electron density

p is hole density

𝜇𝑛 is electron mobility
𝐼𝐷
𝐽𝐷 =
𝐴
𝐼𝐷 is the drift current
A is the cross-sectional area

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Current Density for a doped silicon
𝐽 = 𝑛𝑞𝜇𝑛 𝐸
Change in hole concentration with respect to x distance (Graphical Representation)

𝜕𝑝𝑛 108 𝑝𝑛0 − 𝑝𝑛0

=
𝜕𝑥 0−𝑊
𝜂2
𝑝𝑛0 = 𝑁𝑖 = 𝑐𝑚3 is the concentration of holes
𝐷

Hole-current density that flow in the x-direction

𝜕𝑝𝑛
𝐽𝑝 = −𝑞𝐷𝑝 = 𝐴/𝑐𝑚2
𝜕𝑥
The pn Junction
Built-in voltage:

𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑇 ln ( 2 )
𝜂𝑖

If the n and p regions are equally doped, then

𝑁𝐴 = 𝑁𝐷
At room temperature
𝑉𝑇 = 0.026𝑉 = 300𝐾 𝑜𝑟 26𝑚𝑉 𝑎𝑡 300𝐾
If not, set up proportion
Permeability for a depleted region
𝜀𝑠 = 11.7𝜀0
Where
𝜀0 = 8.85 ∗ 10−14
𝜀𝑠 ≈ 1.04 ∗ 10−12
Width of the depletion region:

2𝜀𝑠 1 1
√ [ + ] 𝑉0 = 𝑐𝑚
𝑞 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷

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The width of a depletion region is given by:
𝑊 = 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑥𝑝

𝑥𝑛 𝑁𝐴
=
𝑥𝑝 𝑁𝐷

𝑁𝐴
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥𝑝 ( )
𝑁𝐷

Since 𝑥𝑛 and 𝑥𝑝 represents the width of a depletion region that extends into the p and n regions.

𝑁𝐴
𝑊 = 𝑥𝑝 ( ) + 𝑥𝑝
𝑁𝐷

𝑁𝐴
= 𝑥𝑝 ( + 1)
𝑁𝐷

𝑊
𝑥𝑝 =
𝑁
(𝑁𝐴 + 1)
𝐷

Charge stored on either side of the junction

𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
𝑄𝑗 = 𝑞 ( ) 𝐴𝑊
𝑁𝐴 +𝑁𝐷
Total charge stored for a depletion layer

𝑄𝑗 = 𝐴√2𝑞𝜀𝑠 𝑁𝐷 𝑉0

Total charge stored on one side of the junction Qj is:

𝑄𝑗 = 𝐴𝑞𝑁𝐷 𝑊

If NA >> ND

2𝜀𝑠 1 1
√ [ + ] 𝑉0 = 𝑐𝑚
𝑞 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷

𝑊 2 𝑞𝑁𝐷
𝑉0 = =𝑉
2𝜀𝑠
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The pn Junction with Applied Voltage
Width of depletion for intrinsic silicon is:

2𝜀(𝑉𝑜 + 𝑉𝑅 ) 1 1
𝑊=√ ( + )
𝑞 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷

Where NA is the acceptor concentration 𝑁𝐴 = 1017 𝑐𝑚3

Where ND is the donor concentration 𝑁𝐷 = 1016 𝑐𝑚3
Saturation Current:
𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑛
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐴𝑞𝜂𝑖2 ( + )
𝐿𝑝 𝑁𝐷 𝐿𝑛 𝑁𝐴

A is cross-sectional area
Lp is distance traveled by holes during their lifetime
Ln distance traveled by electrons during their lifetime
DP is the diffusion constant for holes
DN is the diffusion constant for electrons
NA represents the acceptor concentration
ND represents the donor concentration
Forward current:
𝑉
( )−1
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑠 (𝑒 𝑉𝜏 )

Power dissipation at break-down region:

𝑊
𝑃𝑧 =
2
Average breakdown Current
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐼𝑧(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = ( )𝐼
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑧
Capacitive Effects in the pn Junction
𝜀𝑠 𝑞 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
𝐶𝑗0 = 𝐴√ ( )=𝐹
2𝑉0 𝑁𝐴 +𝑁𝐷

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 𝐶𝑗0
𝐶𝑗 = =𝐹
𝑉
√1 + 𝑅
𝑉0

Particular junction Depletion Capacitance

𝐶𝑗0
𝐶𝑗 = =𝐹
𝑉𝑅 𝑚
(1 + 𝑉 )
0

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Intrinsic Semiconductors:
Problem 3.1

Find values of the intrinsic carrier concentration ni for silicon at −55°C, 0°C, 20°C, 75°C, and 125°C. At each
temperature, what fraction of the atoms is ionized? Recall that a silicon crystal has approximately 5 × 1022
atoms/cm3.
−𝐸𝑔
⁄
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑇 3/2 𝑒 2𝑘𝑇

Where

𝑛𝑖 = 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3

B material dependent Parameter 𝐵 = 7.3 ∗ 1015 𝑐𝑚−3 𝐾 −3/2

T is the temperature of the material, 𝑇 = 273 + 𝑡(℃)𝐾.
𝐸𝑔 is the bandgap energy, 𝐸𝑔 = 1.12 𝑒𝑉.

k is the Boltzmann’s constant 𝑘 = 8.62 ∗ 10−5 𝑒𝑉/𝐾

𝑖 𝑛
Fraction of atom ionized: 𝐹 = 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Atomic concentration of Silicon: 5 ∗ 1022 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠/𝑐𝑚3

Part A: At −55°C
𝑇 = 273 − 55
= 218℃
−𝐸𝑔
⁄
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑇 3/2 𝑒 2𝑘𝑇

1.12
)
15 )(218)3/2 −(2(8.62∗10−5 )(218)
= (7.3 ∗ 10 𝑒

= 2.68406 ∗ 106 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3

𝑖 𝑛
Fraction ionized = 𝐹 = 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

2.68406 ∗ 106
𝐹= = 5.36813623 ∗ 10−17
5 ∗ 1022

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Part B: At 0°C
𝑇 = 273 − 0
= 273℃
−𝐸𝑔
⁄
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑇 3/2 𝑒 2𝑘𝑇

1.12
−( )
= (7.3 ∗ 1015 )(273)3/2 𝑒 2(8.62∗10−5 )(273)

= 1.523205601 ∗ 109 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3

𝑖 𝑛
Fraction ionized = 𝐹 = 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

1.523205601 ∗ 109
𝐹= 22
= 3.0464112 ∗ 10−14 @ 0℃
5 ∗ 10
Part C: At 20°C
𝑇 = 273 + 20
= 293℃
−𝐸𝑔
⁄
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑇 3/2 𝑒 2𝑘𝑇

1.12
−( )
= (7.3 ∗ 1015 )(253)3/2 𝑒 2(8.62∗10−5 )(253)

= 8.595351739 ∗ 109 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3

𝑖 𝑛
Fraction ionized = 𝐹 = 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

8.595351739 ∗ 109
𝐹= = 1.71907035 ∗ 10−13 @ 20℃
5 ∗ 1022

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Part D: At 75°C
𝑇 = 273 + 75
= 348℃
−𝐸𝑔
⁄
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑇 3/2 𝑒 2𝑘𝑇

1.12
−( )
= (7.3 ∗ 1015 )(348)3/2 𝑒 2(8.62∗10−5 )(348∗102 )

= 3.700094354 ∗ 1011 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3

𝑛𝑖
Fraction ionized = 𝐹 = 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

3.700094354 ∗ 1011
𝐹= 22
= 7.40018871 ∗ 10−12 @ 75℃
5 ∗ 10
Part E: At 125°C
𝑇 = 273 + 125
= 398℃
−𝐸𝑔
⁄
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑇 3/2 𝑒 2𝑘𝑇

1.12
−( )
= (7.3 ∗ 1015 )(398)3/2 𝑒 2(8.62∗10−5 )(398∗102 )

= 4.722761829 ∗ 1012 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3

𝑛𝑖
Fraction ionized = 𝐹 = 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

4.722761829 ∗ 1012
𝐹= = 9.44552366 ∗ 10−11 @ 125℃
5 ∗ 1022
𝑇 = 273 + 𝑡(℃)𝐾 −𝐸𝑔
⁄
𝑛𝑖
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑇 3/2 𝑒 2𝑘𝑇 𝐹=
5 ∗ 1022
218 K 2.68406 ∗ 106 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3 5.36813623 ∗ 10−17
273 K 1.52320 ∗ 109 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3 3.0464112 ∗ 10−14
293 K 8.59535 ∗ 109 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3 1.71907035 ∗ 10−13
348 K 3.7000 ∗ 1011 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3 7.40018871 ∗ 10−12
398 K . 72276 ∗ 1012 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3 9.44552366 ∗ 10−11

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Problem 3.2

Calculate the value of ni for gallium arsenide (GaAs) at T = 300 K. The constant B = 3.56×1014 cm−3K−3/2 and
the bandgap voltage Eg= 1.42 eV.
−𝐸𝑔
⁄
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑇 3/2 𝑒 2𝑘𝑇

3 −1.42⁄
𝑛𝑖 = (3.56 ∗ 1014 )(3002 )𝑒 2(8.62∗10−5 )(300)

= 2.204686 ∗ 106 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3

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Doped Semiconductors:
Problem 3.3

For a p-type silicon in which the dopant concentration NA = 5×1018/cm3, find the hole and electron
concentrations at T = 300 K.

p-type semiconductors
10
Intrinsic Carrier Density for Silicon at 300k ni= 1.5 ∗ 10 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3

Acceptor Doping Concentration or doping concentration of the P side is: NA = 5*1018 carrier/cm3
If the acceptor doping concentration NA >> ni (5*1018 >> 1.5*1010), then the majority hole
concentration becomes 𝑃𝑝 ≅ 𝑁𝐴 . Therefore the hole concentration is 5*1018 carrier/cm3

The concentration of the minority electrons is:

𝑝𝑝 𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖2

𝑛𝑖2
𝑛𝑝 =
𝑝𝑝

1.5 ∗ 1010 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3

𝑛𝑝 =
5 ∗ 1018 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3

45 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3

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Problem 3.4
For a silicon crystal doped with phosphorus, what must ND be if at T =300 K the hole concentration drops
below the intrinsic level by a factor of 108?
−𝐸𝑔
⁄
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑇 3/2 𝑒 2𝑘𝑇

−(1.12 )
⁄
15
𝑛𝑖 = (7.3 ∗ 10 )(300) 3/2
𝑒 2(8.62∗10−5 )(300)

𝑛𝑖 = 1.493926 ∗ 1010 𝑐𝑚3

Concentration of minority electrons:
𝑛2
𝑛𝑝 = 𝑝𝑖 where np is minority electrons, pp is hole concentration, ni is the intrinsic carrier density
𝑝

n-type semiconductor –
concentrations of electrons (nn) = donor concentration (ND)

𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖2
𝑁𝐷 𝑝𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖2
𝑛𝑖2
𝑁𝐷 =
𝑝𝑛
𝑛𝑖(𝑛𝑒𝑤)
𝑝𝑛 =
𝑛𝑖(𝑜𝑙𝑑)
𝑛𝑖(𝑛𝑒𝑤)
𝑝𝑛 =
108
(1.5 ∗ 1010 )2
𝑁𝐷 = 𝑛𝑖(𝑛𝑒𝑤)
108
(1.5 ∗ 1010 )2
𝑁𝐷 =
1.493926 ∗ 1010
108
𝑁𝐷 = 1.5 ∗ 1018

16 | P a g e
Problem 3.5

In a phosphorus-doped silicon layer with impurity concentration of 1017/cm3, find the hole and
electron concentrations at 27°C and 125°C.

Solve:

Electron Concentration:

Convert from Celsius to Kelvin:

𝑇 = 273 + 𝑡(℃)𝐾.
𝑇 = 273 + 27(℃)𝐾.
𝑇 = 300°𝐾
𝑇 = 273 + 125(℃)𝐾
𝑇 = 398°𝐾
Since phosphorus is a donor impurity, 𝑁𝐷 > 𝑛𝑖
(Where 𝑁𝐷 is the donor concentration and 𝑛𝑖 is the intrinsic concentration)
Since it’s a donor impurity, it’s an n-type semiconductor
n-type semiconductor = 𝑛𝑛 ≅ 𝑁𝐷
where 𝑛𝑛 is the concentration of free electrons in the n-type silicon and 𝑁𝐷 is the donor
concentration.
𝑁𝐷 = 1017 𝑐𝑚3
Thus, the electron concentration at 27°C and 125°C is 1017 𝑐𝑚3
Hole concentration is given as:
concentrations of electrons (nn) ≅ donor concentration (ND)
𝑝𝑛 is hole concentration

𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖2
𝑁𝐷 𝑝𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖2
𝑛𝑖2
𝑁𝐷 =
𝑝𝑛

17 | P a g e
 𝑛𝑖2
𝑝𝑛 =
𝑁𝐷
First 𝑛𝑖 needs to be calculated:
−𝐸𝑔
⁄
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑇 3/2 𝑒 2𝑘𝑇

At 27℃ (300K)
−1.12⁄
𝑛𝑖 = (7.3 ∗ 1015 𝑐𝑚−3 )(300)3/2 𝑒 2(8.62∗10−5 )(300)

𝑛𝑖 = 1.493926 ∗ 1010 /𝑐𝑚3

Substituting

𝑛𝑖2
𝑝𝑛 =
𝑁𝐷
(1.493926 ∗ 1010 )2
𝑝𝑛 =
1017
= 2.23 ∗ 103 /𝑐𝑚3
At 125℃ (398K)
−1.12⁄
𝑛𝑖 = (7.3 ∗ 1015 𝑐𝑚−3 )(398)3/2 𝑒 2(8.62∗10−5 )(398)

𝑛𝑖 = 4.7227618/𝑐𝑚3
𝑛𝑖2
𝑝𝑛 =
𝑁𝐷
(4.7227618)2
𝑝𝑛 =
1017
= 2.23 ∗ 108 /𝑐𝑚3
Recall (from Formula Sheet)

B material dependent Parameter 𝐵 = 7.3 ∗ 1015 𝑐𝑚−3 𝐾 −3/2 (silicon) 𝐵 = 3.56 ∗ 1014 𝑐𝑚−3 𝐾 −3/2
(Gallium arsenide)
T is the temperature of the material, 𝑇 = 273 + 𝑡(℃)𝐾.
𝐸𝑔 is the bandgap energy is, 𝐸𝑔 = 1.12 𝑒𝑉.

k is the Boltzmann’s constant 𝑘 = 8.62 ∗ 10−5 𝑒𝑉/𝐾

18 | P a g e
Current Flow in Semiconductors:
Problem 3.6

A young designer, aiming to develop intuition concerning conducting paths within an integrated circuit,
examines the end-to-end resistance of a connecting bar 10-μm long, 3-μm wide, and 1 μm thick, made of
various materials. The designer considers:

(a) intrinsic silicon

(b) n-doped silicon with ND = 5×1016/cm3

(c) n-doped silicon with ND = 5×1018/cm3

(d) p-doped silicon with NA= 5×1016/cm3

(e) aluminum with resistivity of 2.8 μΩ·cm

Find the resistance in each case. For intrinsic silicon, use the data in Table 3.1. For doped silicon,

assume μn = 3μp = 1200 cm2/V · s. (𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑅 = 𝜌𝐿/𝐴. )

Solve:

Part A

Intrinsic Silicon – Under thermal equilibrium, the concentration of free electrons n is equal to the number
of holes p.

𝑛 = 𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖
Resistivity 𝜌 can be calculated as follows:
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
1
𝜌 = 𝜂 𝑞(𝜇 = Ω ∙ 𝑐𝑚 , 𝑞 = 1.6 ∗ 10−19 ,
𝑖 𝑛 +𝜇𝑝 )

𝜂𝑖 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛, 𝜂𝑖 = 1.5 ∗ 1010 𝑐𝑚3 /𝑉. 𝑠

𝜇𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠, 𝜇𝑛 = 1200 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑉. 𝑠

𝜇𝜌 = 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠, 𝜇𝜌 = 400 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑉. 𝑠

1
𝜌=
𝜂𝑖 𝑞(𝜇𝑛 + 𝜇𝑝 )
1
𝜌=
1.5∗1010 (1.6∗10−19 )(1200+400)

𝜌 = 260416.667Ω ∙ 𝑐𝑚
19 | P a g e
The length is given as:

10-μm long

The area is given as:

3-μm wide * 1 μm thick = 3 μm2

𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
(260416.667 ∗ 104 𝑐𝑚)(10μm)
𝑅=
3 μm2
𝑅 = 8.68055 ∗ 109 Ωμm

Part B

n-doped silicon with ND = 5×1016/cm3

n-type semiconductor = 𝑛𝑛 ≅ 𝑁𝐷

𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑛 = 𝜂𝑖2
𝜂𝑖2
𝑁𝐷 =
𝑝𝑛
𝜂𝑖 = 1.5 ∗ 1010
(1.5 ∗ 1010 )2
5 × 1016 =
𝑝𝑛
(1.5 ∗ 1010 )2
𝑝𝑛 =
5 × 1016
𝑝𝑛 = 4500𝑐𝑚3
N- Semiconductors resistivity 𝜌
1
𝜌=
𝑞𝑁𝐷 𝜇𝑛
1
𝜌= −19
(1.6 ∗ 10 )(5 × 1016 )(1200 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑉. 𝑠)
𝜌 = .1042Ω𝑐𝑚

20 | P a g e
The resistance is calculated as:
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
4
(. 1042 ∗ 10 )10μm
𝑅=
3 μm2
𝑅 = 3473.33 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠

Part C
(c) n-doped silicon with ND = 5×1018/cm3

For N semiconductors

Doping concentration 𝑝 = 𝑁𝐴

𝜂𝑖2
𝑝=
𝑁𝐷
N- Semiconductors resistivity 𝜌
1
𝜌=
𝑞𝑁𝐷 𝜇𝑛
1
𝜌= −19 18
(1.6 ∗ 10 )(5 × 10 /cm3 )(1200 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑉. 𝑠)
𝜌 = 1.0416 ∗ 10−3
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
−3
(1.0416 ∗ 10 ∗ 104 ) 10μm
𝑅=
3 μm2
𝑅 = 34.72222223 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠

21 | P a g e
Part D
(d) p-doped silicon with NA= 5×1016/cm3

P-doped Semiconductors
𝑛 = 𝑁𝐷
𝜂𝑖2
𝑁𝐷 =
𝑁𝐴
1
𝜌=
𝑞𝑁𝐴 𝜇𝑝 + 𝑞𝑁𝐷 𝜇𝑛

Where n is free electron, ND is the doping concentration.

(1.5 ∗ 1010 )2
𝑁𝐷 =
5 ∗ 1016
𝑁𝐷 = 4500
𝜇𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠, 𝜇𝑛 = 1200 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑉. 𝑠

𝜇𝜌 = 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠, 𝜇𝜌 = 400 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑉. 𝑠

1
𝜌= −19
(1.6 ∗ 10 )(5 ∗ 1016 )(400) + (1.6 ∗ 10−19 )(4500)(1200)
𝜌 = .3125
4
(. 3125 ∗ 10 ) ∗ 10−6
𝑅=
3 μm2

𝑅 = 1041.667 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠

22 | P a g e
Problem 3.7

Contrast the electron and hole drift velocities through a 10-μm layer of intrinsic silicon across
which a voltage of 3 V is imposed. Let μn = 1350 cm2/V ・ s and μp = 480 cm2/V ・ s・

Solve
𝑉𝑑 = 𝜇𝑛 𝐸

The electric field is given as

𝑉
𝐸=
𝑙
3𝑉
𝐸=
10𝜇𝑚
= .3𝑉/𝜇𝑚
𝑉𝑑 = (1350 ∗ 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑉. 𝑠)(. 3𝑉/𝜇𝑚)
𝑐𝑚2
𝑉𝑑 = 405 ( )
𝜇𝑚. 𝑠

(10−2 )2
𝑉𝑑 = 405 ( )
10−6

10−4
𝑉𝑑 = 405 ( −6 )
10

𝑉𝑑 = 405(100) = 40500𝑚/𝑠

23 | P a g e
Problem 3.8

Find the current that flows in a silicon bar of 10-μm length having a 5-μm × 4-μm cross-section and having
free-electron and hole densities of 104/cm3 and 1016/cm3, respectively, when a 1 V is applied end-to-end.
Use μn = 1200 cm2/V ・ s and μp = 500 cm2/V ・s.

Formula for conductivity:

𝜎 = 𝑞(𝑝𝜇𝑝 + 𝑛𝜇𝑝 )
Formula for drift current density
𝐽𝐷 = 𝜎𝐸, 𝐽𝐷 = 𝑞(𝑝𝜇𝑝 + 𝑛𝜇𝑛 )𝐸

Where
𝐽𝐷 is drift current density
𝜎 is conductivity

E is the electric field

𝑉
Where E is 𝐸 = ℓ

n is the electron density

𝜇𝑛 is electron mobility

n is the electron density

p is hole density
𝑉
𝐸=
ℓ
1𝑉
𝐸=
10𝜇𝑚
𝐽𝐷 = 𝑞(𝑝𝜇𝑝 + 𝑛𝜇𝑛 )𝐸

𝐽𝐷 = (1.6 ∗ 10−19 ) ((1016 )500 + (104 )(1200)) ∗ 1000

= 800𝐴/𝑐𝑚2

24 | P a g e
The cross-sectional area is given by:

(5μm × 4μm ) ∗ 104

= 2 ∗ 10−7 𝑐𝑚2
Calculating the drift current:
𝐼𝐷
𝐽𝐷 =
𝐴
𝐼𝐷 is the drift current
A is the cross-sectional area

𝐼𝐷 = (800𝐴/𝑐𝑚2 )(2 ∗ 10−7 𝑐𝑚2 )

= 160𝜇𝐴

25 | P a g e
Problem 3.9
In a 10-μm-long bar of donor-doped silicon, what donor concentration is needed to realize a
current density of 2 mA/μm2 in response to an applied voltage of 1 V? (Note: Although the carrier
mobilities change with doping concentration, as a first approximation you may assume μn to be
constant and use 1350 cm2/V ・ s, the value for intrinsic silicon.)

Current Density for a doped silicon

𝐽 = 𝑛𝑞𝜇𝑛 𝐸
n-type semiconductor –
concentrations of electrons (nn) ≅ donor concentration (ND)
𝐽
𝑛=
𝑞𝜇𝑛 𝐸
Solving for E
𝑉
𝐸=
ℓ
1𝑉
𝐸=
10μm
𝐸 = .1𝑉/μm
2 ∗ 10−3 /(10−6 )
𝑛=
(1.6 ∗ 10−19 )(1350 ∗ (10−2 )2 ). 1
𝑛 = 9.25925 ∗ 1023

26 | P a g e
Problem 3.10
Holes are being steadily injected into a region of n-type silicon (connected to other devices, the details of
which are not important for this question). In the steady state, the excess-hole concentration profile shown
in Fig. P3.10 is established in the n-type silicon region. Here “excess” means over and above the thermal-
equilibrium concentration (in the absence of hole injection), denoted pn0. If ND = 1016/cm3, ni=1.5×1010/cm3,
Dp=12 cm2/s, and W =50 nm, find the density of the current that will flow in the x direction.

n-type semiconductor –
concentrations of electrons (nn) ≅ donor concentration (ND)

𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖2

𝑁𝐷 𝑝𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖2
𝑛𝑖2
𝑁𝐷 =
𝑝𝑛
Change in hole concentration with respect to x distance

𝜕𝑝𝑛 108 𝑝𝑛0 − 𝑝𝑛0

=
𝜕𝑥 0−𝑊
𝜂2
𝑝𝑛0 = 𝑁𝑖 is the concentration of holes
𝐷

Solving for the concentration of holes

(1.5 × 1010 )2
𝑝𝑛0 = = 22500𝑐𝑚3
1016

27 | P a g e
 𝜕𝑝𝑛 108 (22500𝑐𝑚3 )
=
𝜕𝑥 0−𝑊
𝜕𝑝𝑛 108 (22500𝑐𝑚3 )
=−
𝜕𝑥 𝑊
𝜕𝑝𝑛 108 (22500𝑐𝑚3 )
=−
𝜕𝑥 50 ∗ 10−9 ∗ 102 𝑐𝑚2
𝜕𝑝𝑛
= 4.5 ∗ 1017 𝑐𝑚−4
𝜕𝑥

Hole-current density that flow in the x-direction

𝜕𝑝𝑛
𝐽𝑝 = −𝑞𝐷𝑝 = 𝐴/𝑐𝑚2
𝜕𝑥
𝐽𝑝 = −(1.6 ∗ 10−19 )(12 ∗ 10)(4.5 ∗ 1017 ) = 0.864 𝐴/𝑐𝑚2

28 | P a g e
The pn Junction:
Problem 3.12
Calculate the built-in voltage of a junction in which the p and n regions are doped equally with
5×1016 atoms/cm3. Assume ni= 1.5 × 1010/cm3. With the terminals left open, what is the width of
the depletion region, and how far does it extend into the p and n regions? If the cross-sectional
area of the junction is 20 μm2, find the magnitude of the charge stored on either side of the
junction.

Built-in voltage:

𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑇 ln ( 2 )
𝜂𝑖
If the n and p regions are equally doped, then
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑁𝐷
This means
𝑁𝐴 = 5 ∗ 1016
𝑁𝐷 = 5 ∗ 1016
𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑇 ln ( 2 )
𝜂𝑖
(5 ∗ 1016 )(5 ∗ 1016 )
𝑉0 = 0.026𝑉 ln ( )
1.5 ∗ 1010

𝑉𝑇 = 0.026𝑉 = 300𝐾 𝑜𝑟 26𝑚𝑉 𝑎𝑡 300𝐾

𝑉0 = 0.7810 𝑉
Permeability for a depleted region
𝜀 = 11.7𝜀0
Where
𝜀0 = 8.85 ∗ 10−14
Width of the depletion region:

2𝜀 1 1
√ [ + ]
𝑞 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷

29 | P a g e
 2(11.7(8.85 ∗ 10−14 )) 1 1
=√ −19 [ + ]
(1.6 ∗ 10 ) 5 ∗ 1016 5 ∗ 1016

= 2.275 ∗ 10−5 𝑐𝑚

= 2.275 ∗ (10−5 )(10−2 )𝑚

= 2.275 ∗ 10−7 𝑚

= 0.2275 ∗ 10−6 𝜇𝑚

The width of a depletion region is given by:

𝑊 = 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑥𝑝

𝑥𝑛 𝑁𝐴
=
𝑥𝑝 𝑁𝐷

𝑁𝐴
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥𝑝 ( )
𝑁𝐷

Since 𝑥𝑛 and 𝑥𝑝 represents the width of a depletion region that extends into the p and n regions.

𝑁𝐴
𝑊 = 𝑥𝑝 ( ) + 𝑥𝑝
𝑁𝐷

𝑁𝐴
= 𝑥𝑝 ( + 1)
𝑁𝐷

𝑊
𝑥𝑝 =
𝑁
(𝑁𝐴 + 1)
𝐷
Solving for the extension in the P region
0.2
𝑥𝑝 =
5 ∗ 1016
( + 1)
5 ∗ 1016

0.2𝜇𝑚
= 0.1𝜇𝑚
2

30 | P a g e
Solving for the extension in the n region

𝑊 − 𝑥𝑝 = 𝑥𝑛

𝑊 − 𝑥𝑝 = 𝑥𝑛

0.2𝜇𝑚 − 0.1𝜇𝑚 = 0.1𝜇𝑚

31 | P a g e
Problem 3.14
Estimate the total charge stored in a 0.1-μm depletion layer on one side of a 10-μm×10-μm junction. The
doping concentration on that side of the junction is 1018/cm3.

Total charge stored on one side of the junction Qj is:

𝑄𝑗 ≈ 𝐴𝑞𝑁𝐷 𝑊
Solve:

Calculate the area:

10𝜇𝑚 × 10𝜇𝑚 = 100𝜇𝑚2

𝑄𝑗 = (100𝜇𝑚2 )(1.6 ∗ 10−19 𝐶)(1018 /cm3 )(0.1μm)

𝑄𝑗 = 1.6 ∗ 10−12

32 | P a g e
Problem 3.15
In a pn junction for which NA >>ND, and the depletion layer exists mostly on the shallowly doped
side with W =0.2 μm, find V0 if ND= 1016/cm3. Also calculate QJ for the case A = 10 μm2.

Given: W
If NA >> ND

2𝜀𝑠 1 1
√ [ + ] 𝑉0 = 𝑐𝑚
𝑞 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷

𝑊 2 𝑞𝑁𝐷
𝑉0 = =𝑉
2𝜀𝑠

(0.2 ∗ 10−4 )2 (1.6 ∗ 10−19 )1016

𝑉0 = =𝑉
2(11.7(8.85 ∗ 10−14 ))

(0.2 ∗ 10−4 )2 (1.6 ∗ 10−19 )1016

𝑉0 = =𝑉
2(11.7(8.85 ∗ 10−14 ))

𝑉0 = .309𝑉
Given: For a depletion layer
𝑄𝑗 = 𝐴√2𝑞𝜀𝑠 𝑁𝐷 𝑉0

= (10 ∗ 10−8 )√2(1.6 ∗ 10−19 )(1.04 ∗ 10−12 )(1016 )(. 309𝑉)

= 3.1997 ∗ 10−15

33 | P a g e
Problem 3.16
By how much does V0 change if NA or ND is increased by a factor of 10?

𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑇 ln ( 2 )
𝜂𝑖

At room temperature
𝑉𝑇 = 0.026𝑉 = 300𝐾 𝑜𝑟 26𝑚𝑉 𝑎𝑡 300𝐾
Original:
1(1)
𝑉0 = 26𝑚𝑉 ln ( ) = −1218.42𝑚𝑉
(1.5 ∗ 1010 )2

New Value:

1(10)
𝑉0 = 26𝑚𝑉 ln ( ) = −1158.56𝑚𝑉
(1.5 ∗ 1010 )2

−1218.42𝑚𝑉 − −1158.56𝑚𝑉 = 59.86mV

Thus, the value increases by 59.86mV when NA or ND is increased by a factor of 10.

34 | P a g e
The pn Junction with Applied Voltage:
Problem 3.17

If a 3V reverse-bias voltage is applied across the junction specified in Problem 3.13, find W and QJ .

Width of depletion for intrinsic silicon is:

2𝜀(𝑉𝑜 + 𝑉𝑅 ) 1 1
𝑊=√ ( + )
𝑞 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷

Where NA is the acceptor concentration 𝑁𝐴 = 1017 𝑐𝑚3

Where ND is the donor concentration 𝑁𝐷 = 1016 𝑐𝑚3

𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑇 ln ( 2 )
𝜂𝑖

𝑉𝑇 = 0.026𝑉 = 300𝐾 𝑜𝑟 26𝑚𝑉 𝑎𝑡 300𝐾

𝜂2 = 1.5 ∗ 1010 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3

Solve:

(1017 𝑐𝑚3 )(1016 𝑐𝑚3 )

𝑉0 = 26𝑚𝑉 ln ( 2)
(1.5 ∗ 1010 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3 )

𝑉0 = 757.18 𝑚𝑉
𝑉0 = .75718 𝑉

2(1.04 ∗ 10−12 )(. 75718 + 3) 1 1

𝑊=√ −19 ( 17 + 16 )
(1.6 ∗ 10 ) 10 10

= 7.3299 ∗ 10−5 𝑐𝑚
= .73299 𝜇𝑐𝑚

𝑞 = 1.6 ∗ 10−19

Charge stored on either side of the junction

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 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
𝑄𝑗 = 𝑞 ( ) 𝐴𝑊
𝑁𝐴 +𝑁𝐷

(1017 𝑐𝑚3 )(1016 𝑐𝑚3 )

𝑄𝑗 = (1.6 ∗ 10−19 ) ( 17 3 ) (100𝜇𝑚2 )(. 73299 𝜇𝑐𝑚)
10 𝑐𝑚 + 1016 𝑐𝑚3

𝑄𝑗 = 10.63 ∗ 1014 𝐶

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Problem 3.20
Calculate IS and the current I for V = 750 mV for a pn junction for which NA = 1017/cm3, ND =
1016/cm3, A = 100 μm2, ni= 1.5×1010/cm3, Lp = 5 μm, Ln= 10 μm, Dp = 10 cm2/s, and Dn= 18 cm2/s.

Saturation Current:
𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑛
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐴𝑞𝜂𝑖2 ( + )
𝐿𝑝 𝑁𝐷 𝐿𝑛 𝑁𝐴

A is cross-sectional area
Lp is distance traveled by holes during their lifetime
Ln distance traveled by electrons during their lifetime
DP is the diffusion constant for holes
DN is the diffusion constant for electrons
NA represents the acceptor concentration
ND represents the donor concentration
𝑞 = 1.6 ∗ 10−19

2( −19 10 3 )2
10𝑐𝑚2 /𝑠 18𝑐𝑚2 /𝑠
𝐼𝑠 = (100𝜇𝑚) 1.6 ∗ 10 𝐶 )(1.5 ∗ 10 /𝑐𝑚 ( + )
(5𝜇𝑚)(1016 /cm3 ) (10 μm)( 1017 /cm3 )

𝜇𝑚2 10𝑐𝑚2 cm3 18𝑐𝑚2 cm3

𝐼𝑠 = (3600) ( 6 ) ( + )
𝑐𝑚 (5𝜇𝑚)(1016 )𝑠 (10 μm)( 1017 )𝑠

𝜇𝑚2 10𝑐𝑚5 18𝑐𝑚5

𝐼𝑠 = (3600) ( 6 ) ( + )
𝑐𝑚 (5 ∗ 1016 𝜇𝑚)𝑠 (1 ∗ 1018 𝜇𝑚)𝑠

𝜇𝑚2 𝑐𝑚5 (2 ∗ 10−16 ) 𝑐𝑚5 (1.8 ∗ 10−17 )

𝐼𝑠 = (3600) ( 6 ) ( + )
𝑐𝑚 (𝜇𝑚)𝑠 (𝜇𝑚)𝑠

2.18 ∗ 10−16 1𝑚
𝐼𝑠 = (3600)(𝜇𝑚)𝑠 ( )( )
𝑐𝑚 100𝑐𝑚

𝐼𝑠 = 0.7848 ∗ 10−16 𝐴
Forward current:
750
𝐼 = (0.7848 ∗ 10−16 ) (𝑒 ( 26 ) − 1)

𝐼 = 2.645 ∗ 10−2

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Problem 3.21
Assuming that the temperature dependence of IS arises mostly because IS is proportional to n2i, use the
expression for ni in Eq. (3.2) to determine the factor by which n2i changes as T changes from 300 K to 305 K.
This will be approximately the same factor by which IS changes for a 5°C rise in temperature.

What is the factor?

Utilizing Intrinsic Semiconductor Formula

−𝐸𝑔
⁄
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑇 3/2 𝑒 2𝑘𝑇

B material dependent Parameter 𝐵 = 7.3 ∗ 1015 𝑐𝑚−3 𝐾 −3/2 (silicon) 𝐵 = 3.56 ∗ 1014 𝑐𝑚−3 𝐾 −3/2
(Gallium arsenide)
T is the temperature of the material, 𝑇 = 273 + 𝑡(℃)𝐾.
𝐸𝑔 is the bandgap energy is, 𝐸𝑔 = 1.12 𝑒𝑉.

k is the Boltzmann’s constant 𝑘 = 8.62 ∗ 10−5 𝑒𝑉/𝐾

(−1.12⁄ )
𝑛𝑖 = (7.3 ∗ 1015 𝑐𝑚−3 )(300)3/2 𝑒 2(8.62∗10−5 )300

𝑛𝑖 = 1.493926 ∗ 1010
𝑛𝑖 2 = 2.2318 ∗ 1020

(−1.12⁄ )
𝑛𝑖 = (7.3 ∗ 1015 𝑐𝑚−3 )(305)3/2 𝑒 2(8.62∗10−5 )305

𝑛𝑖 = 2.18409 ∗ 1010
𝑛𝑖 2 = 4.770283 ∗ 1020
𝑛𝑖2 (305𝐾) 4.770283 ∗ 1020
=
𝑛𝑖2 (300𝐾) 2.2318 ∗ 1020

= 2.1

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Problem 3.23
A pn junction for which the breakdown voltage is 12 V has a rated (i.e., maximum allowable)
power dissipation of 0.25 W. What continuous current in the breakdown region will raise the
dissipation to half the rated value? If breakdown occurs for only 10ms in every 20 ms, what
average breakdown current is allowed?

Power dissipation at break-down region:

𝑊
𝑃𝑧 =
2

0.25
𝑃𝑧 =
2
𝑃𝑧 = .125
Continuous current in the breakdown region
𝑃𝑧 = 𝐼𝑍 𝑉𝑍
(. 125) = 𝐼𝑍 (12)
(. 125)
= 𝐼𝑍
(12)
𝐼𝑍 = 0.01041666𝐴
Breakdown Current at .25W
. 25𝑊 = 𝐼𝑍 (12)
𝐼𝑍 = .0208𝐴
Average breakdown Current
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐼𝑧(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = ( )𝐼
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑧

20 ∗ 10−3
𝐼𝑧(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = ( ) . 0208𝐴
10 ∗ 10−3

𝐼𝑧(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = .0416 𝐴

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40 | P a g e
Capacitive Effects in the pn Junction:
Problem 3.24
For the pn junction specified in Problem 3.13, find Cj0 and Cj at VR =3 V.

Built-in voltage:

𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑇 ln ( 2 )
𝜂𝑖
NA = 1017/cm3

ND = 1016/cm3

𝜂𝑖2 = 1.5 ∗ 1010 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑐𝑚3

𝑉𝑇 = 0.026𝑉 = 300𝐾 𝑜𝑟 26𝑚𝑉 𝑎𝑡 300𝐾
𝜀𝑠 ≈ 1.04 ∗ 10−12
𝑞 = 1.6 ∗ 10−19
A = 100µm2

𝜀𝑠 𝑞 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
𝐶𝑗0 = 𝐴√ ( )
2𝑉0 𝑁𝐴 +𝑁𝐷

𝐶𝑗0
𝐶𝑗 =
𝑉𝑅
√1 +
𝑉0

Solve

(1017 )(1016 )
𝑉0 = (26) ln ( ) = 757.189𝑚𝑉
(1.5 ∗ 1010 )2

−12
(1.04 ∗ 10 ) (1.6 ∗ 10−19 ) (1017 )(1016 )
2
𝐶𝑗0 = (100𝜇𝑚 )√ ( )
2(. 757189) (1017 ) + (1016 )

𝐶𝑗0 = 3.16 ∗ 10−14

3.16 ∗ 10−14
𝐶𝑗 =
√1 + 3
. 757189
𝐶𝑗 = 1.418 ∗ 10−14

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Problem 3.25
For a particular junction for which Cj0 = 0.4 pF, V0 = 0.75 V, and m = 1/3, find Cj at reverse-bias
voltages of 1 V and 10 V.

Particular junction Depletion Capacitance

𝐶𝑗0
𝐶𝑗 =
𝑉 𝑚
(1 + 𝑉𝑅 )
0

0.4
𝐶𝑗 = = .30157 𝑝𝐹
1 1/3
(1 + )
0.75

0.4
𝐶𝑗 = = .1646 𝑝𝐹
10 1/3
(1 + )
0.75

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