1

CHAPTER

Introduction
Practice Exercises
1.1 What are the three main purposes of an operating system?
Answer:
The three main puropses are:

• To provide an environment for a computer user to execute programs

on computer hardware in a convenient and efficient manner.
• To allocate the separate resources of the computer as needed to
solve the problem given. The allocation process should be as fair
and efficient as possible.
• As a control program it serves two major functions: (1) supervision
of the execution of user programs to prevent errors and improper use
of the computer, and (2) management of the operation and control
of I/O devices.

1.2 We have stressed the need for an operating system to make efficient use
of the computing hardware. When is it appropriate for the operating
system to forsake this principle and to “waste” resources? Why is such
a system not really wasteful?
Answer:
Single-user systems should maximize use of the system for the user. A
GUI might “waste” CPU cycles, but it optimizes the user’s interaction
with the system.
1.3 What is the main difficulty that a programmer must overcome in writing
an operating system for a real-time environment?
Answer:
The main difficulty is keeping the operating system within the fixed time
constraints of a real-time system. If the system does not complete a task
in a certain time frame, it may cause a breakdown of the entire system it
is running. Therefore when writing an operating system for a real-time
system, the writer must be sure that his scheduling schemes don’t allow
response time to exceed the time constraint.
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1.4 Keeping in mind the various definitions of operating system, consider

whether the operating system should include applications such as Web
browsers and mail programs. Argue both that it should and that it should
not, and support your answers.
Answer:
An argument in favor of including popular applications with the
operating system is that if the application is embedded within the
operating system, it is likely to be better able to take advantage of
features in the kernel and therefore have performance advantages
over an application that runs outside of the kernel. Arguments against
embedding applications within the operating system typically dominate
however: (1) the applications are applications - and not part of an
operating system, (2) any performance benefits of running within the
kernel are offset by security vulnerabilities, (3) it leads to a bloated
operating system.
1.5 How does the distinction between kernel mode and user mode function
as a rudimentary form of protection (security) system?
Answer:
The distinction between kernel mode and user mode provides a rudi-
mentary form of protection in the following manner. Certain instructions
could be executed only when the CPU is in kernel mode. Similarly, hard-
ware devices could be accessed only when the program is executing in
kernel mode. Control over when interrupts could be enabled or disabled
is also possible only when the CPU is in kernel mode. Consequently, the
CPU has very limited capability when executing in user mode, thereby
enforcing protection of critical resources.
1.6 Which of the following instructions should be privileged?
a. Set value of timer.
b. Read the clock.
c. Clear memory.
d. Issue a trap instruction.
e. Turn off interrupts.
f. Modify entries in device-status table.
g. Switch from user to kernel mode.
h. Access I/O device.
Answer:
The following operations need to be privileged: Set value of timer, clear
memory, turn off interrupts, modify entries in device-status table, access
I/O device. The rest can be performed in user mode.
1.7 Some early computers protected the operating system by placing it in
a memory partition that could not be modified by either the user job
or the operating system itself. Describe two difficulties that you think
could arise with such a scheme.
Answer:
 Practice Exercises 3

The data required by the operating system (passwords, access controls,

accounting information, and so on) would have to be stored in or passed
through unprotected memory and thus be accessible to unauthorized
users.
1.8 Some CPUs provide for more than two modes of operation. What are
two possible uses of these multiple modes?
Answer:
Although most systems only distinguish between user and kernel
modes, some CPUs have supported multiple modes. Multiple modes
could be used to provide a finer-grained security policy. For example,
rather than distinguishing between just user and kernel mode, you
could distinguish between different types of user mode. Perhaps users
belonging to the same group could execute each other’s code. The
machine would go into a specified mode when one of these users was
running code. When the machine was in this mode, a member of the
group could run code belonging to anyone else in the group.
Another possibility would be to provide different distinctions within
kernel code. For example, a specific mode could allow USB device drivers
to run. This would mean that USB devices could be serviced without
having to switch to kernel mode, thereby essentially allowing USB device
drivers to run in a quasi-user/kernel mode.
1.9 Timers could be used to compute the current time. Provide a short
description of how this could be accomplished.
Answer:
A program could use the following approach to compute the current
time using timer interrupts. The program could set a timer for some
time in the future and go to sleep. When it is awakened by the interrupt,
it could update its local state, which it is using to keep track of the
number of interrupts it has received thus far. It could then repeat this
process of continually setting timer interrupts and updating its local
state when the interrupts are actually raised.
1.10 Give two reasons why caches are useful. What problems do they solve?
What problems do they cause? If a cache can be made as large as the
device for which it is caching (for instance, a cache as large as a disk),
why not make it that large and eliminate the device?
Answer:
Caches are useful when two or more components need to exchange
data, and the components perform transfers at differing speeds. Caches
solve the transfer problem by providing a buffer of intermediate speed
between the components. If the fast device finds the data it needs in the
cache, it need not wait for the slower device. The data in the cache must
be kept consistent with the data in the components. If a component has
a data value change, and the datum is also in the cache, the cache must
also be updated. This is especially a problem on multiprocessor systems
where more than one process may be accessing a datum. A component
may be eliminated by an equal-sized cache, but only if: (a) the cache
and the component have equivalent state-saving capacity (that is, if the
component retains its data when electricity is removed, the cache must
4 Chapter 1 Introduction

retain data as well), and (b) the cache is affordable, because faster storage
tends to be more expensive.
1.11 Distinguish between the client–server and peer-to-peer models of
distributed systems.
Answer:
The client-server model firmly distinguishes the roles of the client and
server. Under this model, the client requests services that are provided
by the server. The peer-to-peer model doesn’t have such strict roles. In
fact, all nodes in the system are considered peers and thus may act as
either clients or servers—or both. A node may request a service from
another peer, or the node may in fact provide such a service to other
peers in the system.
For example, let’s consider a system of nodes that share cooking
recipes. Under the client-server model, all recipes are stored with the
server. If a client wishes to access a recipe, it must request the recipe from
the specified server. Using the peer-to-peer model, a peer node could ask
other peer nodes for the specified recipe. The node (or perhaps nodes)
with the requested recipe could provide it to the requesting node. Notice
how each peer may act as both a client (it may request recipes) and as a
server (it may provide recipes).
Operating-
System
2
CHAPTER

Structures
Practice Exercises
2.1 What is the purpose of system calls?
Answer:
System calls allow user-level processes to request services of the operat-
ing system.
2.2 What are the five major activities of an operating system with regard to
process management?
Answer:
The five major activities are:
a. The creation and deletion of both user and system processes
b. The suspension and resumption of processes
c. The provision of mechanisms for process synchronization
d. The provision of mechanisms for process communication
e. The provision of mechanisms for deadlock handling
2.3 What are the three major activities of an operating system with regard
to memory management?
Answer:
The three major activities are:
a. Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and
by whom.
b. Decide which processes are to be loaded into memory when
memory space becomes available.
c. Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed.
2.4 What are the three major activities of an operating system with regard
to secondary-storage management?
Answer:
The three major activities are:
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• Free-space management.
• Storage allocation.
• Disk scheduling.

2.5 What is the purpose of the command interpreter? Why is it usually

separate from the kernel?
Answer:
It reads commands from the user or from a file of commands and executes
them, usually by turning them into one or more system calls. It is usually
not part of the kernel since the command interpreter is subject to changes.
2.6 What system calls have to be executed by a command interpreter or shell
in order to start a new process?
Answer:
In Unix systems, a fork system call followed by an exec system call need
to be performed to start a new process. The fork call clones the currently
executing process, while the exec call overlays a new process based on a
different executable over the calling process.
2.7 What is the purpose of system programs?
Answer:
System programs can be thought of as bundles of useful system calls.
They provide basic functionality to users so that users do not need to
write their own programs to solve common problems.
2.8 What is the main advantage of the layered approach to system design?
What are the disadvantages of using the layered approach?
Answer:
As in all cases of modular design, designing an operating system in
a modular way has several advantages. The system is easier to debug
and modify because changes affect only limited sections of the system
rather than touching all sections of the operating system. Information
is kept only where it is needed and is accessible only within a defined
and restricted area, so any bugs affecting that data must be limited to a
specific module or layer.
2.9 List five services provided by an operating system, and explain how each
creates convenience for users. In which cases would it be impossible for
user-level programs to provide these services? Explain your answer.
Answer:
The five services are:

a. Program execution. The operating system loads the contents (or

sections) of a file into memory and begins its execution. A user-level
program could not be trusted to properly allocate CPU time.
b. I/O operations. Disks, tapes, serial lines, and other devices must be
communicated with at a very low level. The user need only specify
the device and the operation to perform on it, while the system
converts that request into device- or controller-specific commands.
User-level programs cannot be trusted to access only devices they
 Practice Exercises 7

should have access to and to access them only when they are
otherwise unused.
c. File-system manipulation. There are many details in file creation,
deletion, allocation, and naming that users should not have to
perform. Blocks of disk space are used by files and must be tracked.
Deleting a file requires removing the name file information and
freeing the allocated blocks. Protections must also be checked
to assure proper file access. User programs could neither ensure
adherence to protection methods nor be trusted to allocate only
free blocks and deallocate blocks on file deletion.
d. Communications. Message passing between systems requires
messages to be turned into packets of information, sent to the
network controller, transmitted across a communications medium,
and reassembled by the destination system. Packet ordering and
data correction must take place. Again, user programs might not
coordinate access to the network device, or they might receive
packets destined for other processes.
e. Error detection. Error detection occurs at both the hardware and
software levels. At the hardware level, all data transfers must be
inspected to ensure that data have not been corrupted in transit. All
data on media must be checked to be sure they have not changed
since they were written to the media. At the software level, media
must be checked for data consistency; for instance, whether the
number of allocated and unallocated blocks of storage match the
total number on the device. There, errors are frequently process-
independent (for instance, the corruption of data on a disk), so there
must be a global program (the operating system) that handles all
types of errors. Also, by having errors processed by the operating
system, processes need not contain code to catch and correct all the
errors possible on a system.

2.10 Why do some systems store the operating system in firmware, while
others store it on disk?
Answer:
For certain devices, such as handheld PDAs and cellular telephones, a
disk with a file system may be not be available for the device. In this
situation, the operating system must be stored in firmware.
2.11 How could a system be designed to allow a choice of operating systems
from which to boot? What would the bootstrap program need to do?
Answer:
Consider a system that would like to run both Windows XP and three
different distributions of Linux (e.g., RedHat, Debian, and Mandrake).
Each operating system will be stored on disk. During system boot-up, a
special program (which we will call the boot manager) will determine
which operating system to boot into. This means that rather initially
booting to an operating system, the boot manager will first run during
system startup. It is this boot manager that is responsible for determining
which system to boot into. Typically boot managers must be stored at
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certain locations of the hard disk to be recognized during system startup.

Boot managers often provide the user with a selection of systems to boot
into; boot managers are also typically designed to boot into a default
operating system if no choice is selected by the user.