AUTOCAD

INTRODUCTION-cordinate system

Absolute cordinate system-In absolute cordinate system all

the points are located from the origin

Relative cordinate system- In relative cordinate system the

points are located with respect to the previous point

Polar cordinate system-In polar cordinate system if one angle

and the distance is known we can draw a line from the given
point

AIM- To Design and Draft a layout of a residential building

INTRODUCTION-

 floor plan- or house plan is a simple two-dimensional (2D)

line drawing showing a structure's walls and rooms as
though seen from above
 elevation- refers to an orthographic projection of the
exterior (or sometimes the interior) faces of a building that
is a two-dimensional drawing of the building’s
 sectional elevation- of a building is a elevation when
seen through a vertical plane cutting through the part of
the building
 beam- is a horizontal structural element that withstand
vertical loads, shear forces and bending moments. The
loads applied to the beam result in reaction forces at the
support points of the beam.
 Column- is a vertical structural member that carry loads
mainly in compression
 Footings- are structural elements that transmit load of
entire superstructure to the underlying soil below the
structure
GIVEN-  a. Plot Size: 60’x20’(18.3m x6m) 

              b. Orientation- Facing East 

PROCEDURE-

1. Using command window open UNITS and select decimal

and meter 
2. using rectangle tool create the plot of dimension
18.3mx6m
3. select line command and draw the plan for (ground floor
and first floor) and also draw the elevation as per the
desired dimenion within the limits(18.3mx6m)
4. cut the section and draw the section elevation using line
tool
5. draw the center line diagram for representing the footings
locations
6. using line tool draw the beams plan for ground floor and
first floor
7. select the dimension tool and give the dimensions to the
drawing
8. select multileader for representing diffrent levels in
elevation
9. select single line text and give the nomenclature where it
is needed
RESULT
AIM To draw the given Structural elements in autocad

Fig 1

PROCEDURE

1. SELECT line command

2. specify the first point eg-(1,1)
3. follows the series of command

 (@0.9,0)(@0,0.25)(@-0.2,0)(@0,0.4)(@-0.05,0)(@0,0.4)
(@-0.05,0)(@0,0.6)(@0,0.05)(@0,1)(@-0.3,0)(@0,-1)
(@0,-0.05)(@0,-0.15)(@-0.3,0)(@0,-0.15)(@-0.3,0)(@0,-
0.15)(@-0.3,0)(0,-0.15)(@1.15,0)(@0,-0.25)(@-0.05,0)
(@0,-0.4)(@0.2,0) (1,1)
RESULT

FIG2

PROCEDURE

1. SELECT the line command

2. specify the first point
3. follow the series of command

 (@1,0)(@0,0.15)(@0.45<146.7)(@0,0.2)(@0,0.2)
(@0,0.2)(@0,0.2)(@0,0.2)(@0,0.2)(@0,0.2)(@0,0.2)(@-
 0.04,0)(@-0.92,0)(@-0.04,0)(@0.-0.2)(@0,-0.2)(@0,-0.2)
(@0,-0.2)(@0,-0.2)(@0,-0.2)(@0,-0.2)(@0,-0.2)
(@0.45<213.3)(@0,-0.15)

FIG4

PROCEDURE

1. SELECT the line command

2. specify th first point
3. follow the series of command
  (@0.9,0)(@0,0.45)(@-0.05,0)(@0,0.3)(@-0.05,0)(@0,0.6)
(@-0.05,0)(@0,1)(@-0.3,0@0,-1)(@-0.05,0)(@0,-0.6)(@-
0.05,0)(@0,-0.3)(@-0.05,0)(@0,-0.4)(@-0.15,0)(@0,-
0.45)

FIG5

PROCEDURE

1. SELECT THE ISOMETRIC DRAFTING

2. SELECT THE ORTHO MODE
3. SELECT THE DYNAMIC MODE
4. specify the first point
5. using dynamic mode draw the given isometric drawing by
putting the given dimension
RESULT

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

FOUNDATION
Any structure in general, is considered to have two parts the sub-
structure and the super-structure. The sub-structure transmits the
load of superstructure to the under-lying soil and is termed as
foundation. Footing is that part of foundation which ultimately
delivers the load to the soil and is, thus in direct contact with it.
Foundation is the most important part of any structure. Generally it
embedded under ground. If any part of the structure except
foundation is found weak, it can be strengthened by adopting
suitable measures. But foundation of a structure has yielded and
ruptured it is very difficult to make it in proper position. The strength
and durability of any structure depends upon the strength of its
foundation. The selection of materials to be used for foundation
construction mainly depends on the type of structure and the nature
of the sub soil over which the load is to be transferred.
OBJECTS OF FOUNDATION
Foundation is provided for the following purposes:
1. To distribute the load of the structure, on large area, so that the
intensity of load does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of
underlying soil.
2. To distribute the load on underlying soil evenly and thus to
prevent unequal settlement of the foundation. 3. To provide a
levelled and hard surface, for the super-structure to be built over it.
4. To increase the stability of the structure as a whole, against
sliding, overturning other disturbing forces like wind, rain, etc.
5. To prevent lateral movement of the supporting material so that
safety of the structure is not endangered.
DEEP AND SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
Foundation may be broadly classified under two heads:
1. Shallow foundations.
2. Deep foundations.
A foundation is said to be shallow when the depth of foundation is
equal to or less than width. If depth of foundation is greater than its
width. It is termed as deep foundation.
BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL
The load of any structure is finally transmitted to the soil lying below
the foundation of the structure. Hence it is very essential to know
the strength and behavior of the underlying soll. Bearing capacity of
the soil is its ability to support the load coming over its unit ares
without causing excessive settlement and displacement. The
minimum load on unit are causing failure is called the ultimate
bearing capacity of soil. Actually load allowed on the sol is much less
than its ultimate bearing capacity. The safe bearing capacity of the
soil can be found out by dividing the ultimate bearing capacity of the
soil by a factor of safely. The value of factor of safely usually varies
from 2 to 3, depending upon the nature of the soil. Bearing capacity
of soil depends largely upon the characteristics of its particle soils
exhibit less bearing power than those having heavy and coarser
particles. Sol particles. Fine having finer particles are much more
affected by moisture conditions. The bearing capacity of the soil is
used to indicate the maximum pressure to which a soil can be
subjected to, without causing any shear failure of the soil, and
excessive settlement of the so
METHODS OF IMPROVING THE BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS
The bearing power of a soil mainly depends on the closeness of its
particles. If the particles are brought close together or the gap
between them is filled, the bearing power of the soil can be increase
considerably. By improving bearing capacity of a soil, it is meant to
employ such methods by which it may be possible to make the soil to
withstand more loads The following methods have been suggested
to improve the bearing capacity of the soil
1. By increasing the depth of foundations: Ordinary soils bear more
loads at depths. The compactness of the soil increases with depth.
And the bearing capacity of the soil increases with increase in its
compactness so by increasing the depth of foundations, more loads
can be given on a soil.
2 By increasing the width of foundations: In this method by
increasing the width, it is meant virtually increasing the bearing area
thereby decreasing the intensity of pressure, which is helpful in
loading the soil more.
3. By compacting the soil: Bearing capacity of the soil depends upon
the closeness or compactness of soil particles. Hence by compacting
the soil either by hand rammers, rollers or some other means, the
bearing capacity can be increased.
4. By drawing off sub-soil moisture: Moistrure is responsible for
decreasing the bearing power of a soil. Excess water will decrease
the cohesion of soil particles and hence will decrease the bearing
capacity. Therefore to improve the bearing power of a sol the excess
or free water from the sub-soil should be removed. This is done by
means of pipes with open butt joints in trenches over a layer of sand
and filling the trenches over the pipes by loose materials such as
boulders etc.
5. By filling granular materials: Grannual materials like sand, gravel
or crushed stone is blended into the natural soil by hand ramming.
The layer of soil thus formed is much stronger and has improved
bearing capacity.
6. By confining the sub-soil: Soils when loaded, transmit the
pressure in a transverse direction which leads to the lateral escape of
sub-soil. Hence if the soil is confined and prevented from the lateral
escape, the bearing power can be increased. It is done by sheet piles.
Sheet piles are driven round the foundation trenches to prevent the
lateral escapes.
7. By grouting: This method consists of pumping under pressure,
cement grout into the soil. This will seal up the pores and bind the
particles of the soil and thereby increase the bearing power of the
soil. To ensure proper distribution of cement grout, holes are drilled
at regular intervals and cement grout is pumped through perforated
pipes,inserted in the holes. & By solidifying the soil by chemicals: The
soil particles are solidifying by injecting certain chemicals such as
diluted soda silicate and calcium chloride. The chemicals fill up the
voids and bind the particles of the soil and hence the bearing
capacity is increased.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD FOUNDATION

For the satisfactory performance of the foundation, following three
basic requirements should be fulfilled:

1. Location: The foundation of the structure should be so located in

such a way that it is capable to resist any unexpected effect which
may adversely affect the performance of the structure.
2. Stability: The foundation should be safe and stable against all the
possible forces to which a structure is likely to be subjected.
3. Settlement: Settlement of the structure as a whole is permissible
to some extent as it does not impair the stability and usefulness of
the structure. It is not possible to specify the permissible settlement
of the foundation as it depends upon so many factors, Differential
settlement of the foundation is most detrimental for the structure
and should not be allowed to exceed the permissible limits.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
The foundation is called shallow foundation when its depth is equal
to or less than the width of the foundation. Such foundations are
placed immediately under the lowest part of the super-structure.
Following are the various types of foundations which come under the
category of shallow foundations.
1. Spread footings
2.Eccentrically loaded footings
3. Mat or raft foundation
4. Stepped foundation.
5. Continuous footing foundation.
6. Grillage foundation
7. Combined footings
8. Inverted arch footing
9.Colomn footing or pad foundation
CAUSES OF FAILURE OF FOUNDATIONS
The following are the various causes of the failure
1 Unequal Settlement of Soil
This is a very common cause of the failure of foundation. When a soil
is loaded, it is compressed. This compression or yielding of the soil is
termed as settlement. If this settlement a unequel le more on one
side of the structure and less on the other side, it causes tilting and
overturning and ultimately failure of the structure. There are various
causes of unequal settlement such as non-uniformity of loads, non-
uniformity of sub-soil Le sub-soil having softer patches of soil and so
on.

2. Unequal Settlement of Masonry

The unequal settlement of masonry is the result of shrinkage and
compressibility of major joints. The reasons for the compressibility of
mortar, due to unequal mortar thickness. and constructing more
height of wall in a day than as specified. If masonry and mortar are
not cured after its construction, then there are chances of unequal
compressibility and shinkage.
3 Withdrawal of Sub-soil Moisture
The presence of sub-soil moisture presents many fold problems in
the construction of sale foundations. This is liable to occur in damp
soils overlying a layer of sand or gravel. In dy weather, the sub-soil
moisture level goes down, with the result, the soil below the
foundations loose their cohesion and shrinks, causing wide cracks in
the masonry by unequal settlement.
4 Lateral Escape of the Supporting Material
When the foundations are constructed on the soft or non-cohesive
soils, they are liable to slip away beneath the foundations, when
loaded, if not prevented from doing so and this may cause severe
cracks in the structure with chance of total failure.
5. Lateral Thrust of the Super-structure
There are many causes of the lateral thrust. It may be due to a sloppy
roof, an arched opening, dome, constant wind flowing in one
direction. Due to lateral thrust, the structure may it or overturn
METHODS OF PREVENTION OF FAILURES OF FOUNDATIONS
To prevent various causes of failure of foundations, the following
remedies may be adopted:
1. Prevention of Unequal Settlement of Soils
A right type of foundation based on the standard design and
specifications should be adopted. The load of the structure is within
the permissible limit of the safe bearing capacity of the soil, and the
load is evenly distributed on the sub-soll. Foundations are not to be
disturbed by the adjoining excavation or drain etc.
2. Prevention of Unequal Settlement of Masonry
The mortar to be used in the masonry should be stiff, as the loose
mortar will cause
unequal settlement of the masonry. Here masonry should be raised
uniformly and in one day

LINTELS
When an opening is made in a masonry wall, the usual methods of
covering openings is either by using a lintel or by providing an arch.
Lintels are placed over the top of the openings and transfers the load
of masonry laterally, causing vertical reactions only, in the side
supports. An arch is a special arrangement of blocks of building
material such as stones, bricks placed along a curved line so as to
resist load by balancing certain thrusts and counterthrusts. It exerts a
horizontal thrust and vertical pressure on its supports. The
construction of a lintel easier than an arch.
A lintel is a horizontal member placed just over the opening of door,
window, verandah, etc. to support the load of the masonry work
over it. These are usually rectangular in plan and section. Timber,
stone, brick, R.C.C., R.B. or rolled steel sections may be used for the
construction of the lintels. R.B. and R.C.C. lintels are commonly used
nowadays. In hilly or stoney areas stone lintels are used, because
they are cheaply available there.
TYPES OF LINTELS
Following are the various types of lintels:
1. Wooden lintels
2. Stone lintels
3. Brick lintels
4. Steel lintels
5. R.C.C. lintels

1. Wooden Lintels
These are oldest types of lintels and consist of wooden beams placed
over the opening. Two ends of the lintels are embedded in the
masonry. Coaltar should be painted over the ends and top of it, to
protect it from while-ants. The thickness of the wooden lintel varies
from 15 cm to 20 cm. These lintels are normally provided with
relieving arches. Timber to be used for lintel should be properly
seasoned and be of good quality wood. Preservative coating should
also be done over it, before placing it in position.
2.Stone Lintels
Stones were used as lintels in olden days, in those places where good
quality of stones are easily and cheaply available. These lintels may
be used as a single-piece or more than one piece.
3.Brick Lintels
These are used for small openings, usually not exceeding 1.0 m span.
These are lintels, which consist of bricks placed end to end. Brick
lintels are nothing but brick flat arches. The depth of the brick lintel
varies from 10 to 20 cm, depending upon the span.
4.Steel Lintels
These lintels consist of steel sections, such as I-section, T-section,
angle iron or channel section, embedded at ends in brickwork or in
cement concrete. For wide and thick walls

R.C.C. Lintels
Reinforced cement concrete lintels consist of mild steel
reinforcement embedded in concrete. Cement concrete is strong in
compression but weak in tension. To take tension, mild steel
reinforcement is provided in these lintels. R.C.C. lintels are pre-
casted or cast-in-situ lint Pre-casted lintels are casted at ground,
cured and then placed in position. Cast-in-situ lintels are casted at
site in position. For these lintels from-work is made, in which these
are casted by pouring cement concrete. Mild steel reinforcement is
placed in the mould before pouring of concrete.

STAIRS
TERMS USED IN STAIRS
1. Tread. Horizontal uppor portion of a step used for placing the
foot during ascend or descend.
2. Riser. It is the vertical member which joins two consecutive
treads.
3. Rise, Vertical distance between the faces of any two
consecutive steps.
4. Flight. A series of steps between two landings.
 5. Nosing. The outer projection of a tread.
6. Line of nosing. It is an imaginary line connecting the nosing
points of steps and it is parallel to the slope of the stair.
7. Head room. It is the clear vertical distance between the tread
of the steps and the bottom of the flight or landing immediately
above.
8. Hand rail. Wooden or metallic rail is generally provided on the
side of stair for safety purpose.
9. Sting. It is a sloping member which supports the ends of in a
staircase.
10. Newel post. It is the vertical member placed at the ends
of flights to support the ends of strings and hand rails.
11. Pitch. It is the angle of inclination of the flight of the stair
with the floor.
12. Baluster. Vertical member to support the hand rail and
placed between stringer and hand rail.
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD STAIRCASE
The following are the general requirements of a good staircase:
1. Location. It should be centrally located such that it is easily
accessible from the various rooms of the building. Sufficient light and
proper ventilation should be made available in the staircase for easy
and safe communication between the various floors.
2 Number of steps in a flight. It is restricted to maximum of 12 and a
minimum of 3 for easy and comfortable ascend or descend.
3. Head room. Head room never provided less than 2.15 m.
4.Width of stairs. The width of the stair depends upon the purpose
and importance of the building. In residential buildings, it may be
kept about one meter and in public buildings, it is considered more
about 1.5 m.
5.Pitch of stairs. Generally pitch of the stairs should never be greater
than 40° and not less than 25⁰ for less than
6. Landing. The minimum width of the landing should be equal to the
width of stairs.
7. Winders. The use of winders in a staircase should be avoided.
They are expensive in construction as well as dangerous for the
users. They should be provided at the lower end of the flight, when
their use becomes essential.
8. Steps. In a staircase, all the steps should have uniform rise and
tread. The rise and tread should be selected for comfortable ascent
or descent on stair. The following rules are used as a guideline to
obtain proper proportion of steps in a stair.

A. Tread in cm + 2 x Rise in cm= 60 to 62.5

B. Tread in cm x Rise in cm = 400 to 420 C. Tread in cm+Rise in cm =
42.5 to 45.
TYPES OF STAIRS
The various types of stairs are classified as follows:
1. Straight flight stairs
2.Quarter turn stairs
3. Half turn stairs
(a) Dog-legged stairs (b) Open-newel stairs
4. Three quarter turn stairs
5. Circular or spiral stairs
6.Geometrical stairs
7. Bifurcated stairs.

1. Straight Flight Stairs

It may consist of a single flight or with one or more landing in
between. This type of stair is constructed when long but narrow
space is available to accommodate it.
2. Quarter Turn Stairs
When the direction of flight is to be changed by 90°, quarter turn
stairs are provided. This may be achieved either by introducing a
quarter space landing or by providing winders at the junction.

3. Half Turn Stairs

Stairs changing its direction through 180° are known as half turn
stairs. It may be either dog-legged type or open newel type. In dog
legged stairs, the flights are in opposite directions and no space is
provided between the flights in plan. Whereas in open-newel stairs,
there is a well or an opening between the flights and it may be used
to accommodate a lift. Such type of stairs are useful where space
available is enough.

4. Three Quarter Turn Stairs

Stairs changing direction through 270° are called as three quarter
turn stairs.
5.Circular or Spiral Stairs Circular stairs are generally provided at the
rear of a building to give access for servicing at various floors. All the
steps radiate from a newel post, in the form of winders. It may be
constructed in stone, cast iron, steel or R.C.C.
6. Geometrical Stairs
This types of stair may have any geometrical shape and there are no
newel posts. Better skill is needed to construct geometrical stair and
it is weaker than open-newel stair.

7. Bifurcated Stairs
Such type of stairs are generally constructed in modern public
buildings. There is a wide fight at the start and is divided into two
narrow flights at the mid-landing. The two narrow flights begin from
either side of the mid-landing.

Floors
Floors are the horizontal elements of a building structure, dividing
the building into different parts vertically. The main purpose of
dividing the building into various levels by floors is to create more
space for accommodation within restricted land area for the use of
occupants, keeping other belongings of the occupants.
The floors constructed below the ground level are known as
basement floors. Floors constructed near ground, resting on ground
are called ground floors. The object of the ground floor is to have a
clean, smooth, impervious and a durable surface. The floors
constructed above the ground floor are known as upper floors. All
the upper floors should be sufficiently strong to take all the loads
coming over them. All floors consist of following two components:

1. Floor Base
It is also known as sub-grade, base course or sub-floor. The function
of this component is to give required strength, load bearing capacity,
stability and support to the floor covering.
2. Floor Covering
It is also known as paving or flooring. This is provided over the floor
base and its function is to provide a hard, clean, smooth, impervious,
durable and attractive surface to the floor.
There are various types of floors which are commonly adopted in
residential and public buildings these days. Each type of floor has its
own merits and there is not a single type that could be suitably
provided under all circumstances. The different types of floors which
are commonly used for ground floor construction are given below:
1. Brick flooring
2. Stone flooring
3.Tiles flooring
6. Granolithic flooring
3. Concrete flooring
5. Wooden flooring
7. Terrazzo flooring
9. Asphalt flooring
11. Rubber flooring
8. Mosaic flooring
10. Linoleum flooring
13. Cork flooring
15. Plastic flooring
17. Acid-proof flooring
12. Magnesite flooring
14. Glass flooring
16. Marble flooring
SELECTION OF TYPE OF FLOORING
The selection of the type of floor often carefully considered before
making final choice:
poses a problem and as such following points are
1. It should have good appearance.
2. It should be a good durable.
3. It should be noiseless as for as possible.
4. It should not be very costly.
5. It should be easy to clean.
6.It should have low maintenancecost.
7. It should be free from dampness.
8. It should not be too much slippery.
9. It should be hard and smooth.
10. It should be thermally insulated as for as possible.

ROOF
The roof is the uppermost part of the building which provides
protective covering over the building to keep out rain, snow, sun and
wind. A roof basically consists of roof covering materials supported
on frame work installed on the top of the building. The choice of the
type of roof for a building should be made after due consideration of
climatic conditions as well as availability of materials. A well planned
rool should following requirements: against adverse effect of rain,
snow, sun, wind, etc.
1.The roof should be durable
2. It should be water-proof.
3. It should have drainage provisions.
It should provide desired insulation against heat and sound.
CLASSIFICATION OF ROOFS
Roofs can be classifid in the following groups:
1. Pitched roofs or sloping roofs
2 Flat roofs or terraced roofs
3. Shelled roofs
4. Domes.

Pitched or sloped roofs are considered suitable for buildings in

coastal regions or in areas where rain fall is very heavy. Flat roofs are
provided for building in plains or in hot regions where rainfall is
scanty. Domes are normally provided as roof for large circular halls
used for assembly halls, gymnasiums, etc. The shell roofs are suitable
for public building like libraries, theatres, recreation centres,
workshops, factories, etc where large floor area are required to be
covered without obstruction from columns.
PITCHED ROOFS
The roof which is provided with a considerable slope, is called
pitched roof. There are different shapes of pitched roofs. The shapes
of the roof depends on the area covered, availability of materials,
height and ventilation required, etc. Some of the commonly used
pitched roofs are as shed roof, gamble roof, hip roof, gambrel roof,
mansard roof, north light roof, etc. Before we study various types of
pitched roofs
FLAT ROOFS
A roof which is nearly flat is known as the flat roof. It is laid at an
angle of less than 10⁰ to the horizontal to cause rain water to flow off
and easily. It is becoming more popular with the introduction of
suitable building materials. It may be constructed by reinforced
cement concrete, reinforced brickwork, precast concrete, flag stone
supported on rolled steel joists, bricks and tiled arches, etc. The
construction of flat roof is same as that of floor except that the top
surface is made slightly sloping in case of flat roof.
Advantages of Flat Roofs
1. It provides better architectural appearance to the building.
2. It's construction is easy and simple.
3. The roof area can be used for roof gardening, playing and sleeping
in hot seasons.
4. It possesses good insulating properties.
5. It is easier to make the flat roof fire-resistant.
6. It avoids the need of false ceiling.

Disadvantages of Flat Roofs

1. In case of heavy rainfall, the flat roofs are not suitable.
2. They can not used over large spans.
3. Initial cost is more.
4. It is difficult to trace and then rectify the leakage.
5. They develop cracks on their top surface due to greater variation
in temperature, which is difficult to repair.
6. The progress of construction of flat roof is very slow.
TYPES OF FLAT ROOFS
The commonly adopted types of flat roof are as under:
1. Brick or tiled flat roof
2. Flag stone roof
3. Jack-arch roof
4. R.B. slab roof
5. R.C.C. slab roof.
R.C.C. Slab Roof
An R.C.C. roof consists of reinforced cement concrete slab supported
on the walls around. Simple R.C.C. slab can be used up to 4 m span
and for larger span T-beam slabs are used. For the construction of a
R.C.C. slab roof, first reinforcement is placed over the prepared
surface of the formwork. The main and cross reinforcement are tied
together with the M.S. wires. When the reinforcement net is ready, it
is embedded in cement concrete generally 1: 2: 4 mix. The concrete
is properly compacted with surface vibraters. Then the slab is
allowed to dry. After drying, it is subjected to proper curing for a
period of 10-12 days.
The formwork is generally removed after 21 days. After removal of
the formwork, the under
surface of the slab is plastered with cement mortar. Over the slab, an
insulation layer and lime
concrete is placed in usual manner. A suitable outward slope is also
maintained for drainage of rainwater.
WATER PROOFING OF FLAT ROOFS
Flat roofs can be made water-proof by adopting following measures:
1. Finishing
The finishing of roof surface is done in cement mortar of ratio 1: 4 at
the time of laying concrete.
2. Mastic Asphalt
A layer of hot mastic asphalt is laid on the roof surface, then jute
cloth is spread over this layer. Again one more layer of mastic asphalt
is applied so that the jute cloth is sand witched between the layers of
mastic asphalt. The sand is then sprinkled over the entire surface of
the roof.
3. Bedding Concrete and Flooring
R.C.C. slab's top surface is kept rough. A layer of 10 cm thick of brick
bat lime concrete 1:2:4 or brick bat cement concrete 1:6 12 is laid
over the R.C.C. slab. This layer of concrete is known as bedding
concrete. Then the surface of bedding concrete is finished by tiles,
terrazzo, etc.

DOORS AND WINDOWS

Doors are meant to provide an access to the rooms of a building. A
door is defined as a movable barrier, fixed in the wall openings at
floor level for the purpose of light, air and easy communication. They
may be constructed from wood, plywood, glass, metals or a
combination of these materials.
A windows is defined as an opening in the wall above the floor level
for natural light, natural ventilation and vision. Windows must also
provide insulation against heat loss, and in some cases, against
sound. Some windows are also required to give a measure of
resistance to fire.

LOCATION OF DOORS AND WINDOWS

Following points should be considered while locating the doors and
windows in the
1. The number of doors in a room should be kept minimum.
2. Doors should preferably be placed in the comer of the room.
3. If there are two doors in a room, the doors should preferably be
located in opposite walls.
4. The size and number of windows should be decided after due
consideration to distribution of light, ventilation and privacy of the
occupants. The location of a window should also meet the functional
requirements of the room,
5.such as interior decoration, arrangement of furniture, etc.
6. The windows should be located opposite to each other as far as
possible.
7. The windows should be located on the northen side of the room.
8. The windows should be located in the prevalent direction of wind.
9. The window's sill should be located about 70 to 80 cm above the
floor level of the room.
SIZES OF DOORS AND WINDOWS
The size of door depends on the requirement of the room and its
size. In general, the size of door should be such that it would allow
the free movement of large object or tallest
person likely to use the door. The height of the door should not be
less than 1,6 m in any case. The width of the door would be 0.4 to
0.6 times the height of the door.
1. Doors of Residential Buildings
The following sizes of doors are normally adopted for various types
of buildings(a) Internal doors: (0.9 mx 2 m 2 m)
(b) External doors: (1.0 mx 2 m)
(c) Doors for W.C. and bathrooms: 10.75m = 2 m
(d) Doors for garrages: (2.5 mx 2.25 m)
2. Doors of Public Buildings
(a) 1.2 mx 2.0 m
(b) 1.2 mx 2.1 m
(c) 1.2 mx 2.25 m

Windows
The size of window would be governed by the total area of window
space needed. The following criteria should be kept in mind while
designing a window
1. Width of windows: 1/8 (width of room height of room)
2. There should be one square metre of window space for every 30
to 40 cubic metres of inside content of the room.
3. The area of the windows opening should be at least 15% of the
floor area of the room.
MATERIALS USED FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF DOORS AND
WINDOWS
Following materials can be used for the construction of doors and
windows:
1. Wood The wood is the most common material for doors and
windows as it can be moulded in variety of shapes and can thus
present a decent appearance.
2. Glass This is used in panels of doors and windows to admit light.
3. Plywood This material is very useful for doors which have to be
made flush.
4. Metals The metals, such as aluminum and steel are now
commonly used for frames of doors
and windows. They have greater rigidity, life and fire-resistance..
5. Concrete RCC frames may be used in area where wood is likely to
be attacked by vermins.
6. P.V.C. They polyvinyl chloride or P.V.C. door shutters are used for
bathrooms, toilets and kitchens. They provide total protection
against corrosion, moisture, termites, and chemicals.
PARTS OF DOORS AND WINDOWS
Following are the main parts of doors and windo
1. Frame
It is an assembly of horizontal and vertical members forming an
enclosure to support door's or window's shutters.
2. Shutter The complete assembly of the styles, panels and rails in
known as shutter.
3. Style
Style is the vertical outside member of the shutter.
4. Top rail
It is the top most horizontal member of the shutter.
5. Lock rail
It is the middle horizontal member of the door shutter where locking
arrangements are fixed.
6. Bottom rail
It is the lowermost horizontal member of the shutter