Refrigerated Facility Design: Initial Building Considerations Location

CHAPTER 13
REFRIGERATED FACILITY DESIGN

Initial Building Considerations .............................................. 13.1 Refrigeration Systems ............................................................. 13.7
Building Design ...................................................................... 13.2 Insulation Techniques ........................................................... 13.11
Specialized Storage Facilities ................................................. 13.3 Applying Insulation ............................................................... 13.12
Construction Methods ............................................................. 13.4 Other Considerations ............................................................ 13.14
A REFRIGERATED facility is any building or section of a

building that achieves controlled storage conditions using
refrigeration. Two basic storage facilities are (1) coolers that protect
It should be noted that due to ongoing research, the trend is
toward lower temperatures for frozen foods. Refer to Chapters 22
and 23 of the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals and Chap-
commodities at temperatures usually above 0°C and (2) low-tem- ter 10 of this volume for further information.
perature rooms (freezers) operating under 0°C to prevent spoilage
or to maintain or extend product life. INITIAL BUILDING CONSIDERATIONS
The conditions within a closed refrigerated chamber must be
maintained to preserve the stored product. This refers particularly to Location
seasonal, shelf life, and long-term storage. Specific items for con- Private refrigerated space is usually adjacent to or in the same
sideration include building with the owner’s other operations.
Public space should be located to serve a producing area, a transit
• Uniform temperatures
storage point, a large consuming area, or various combinations of
• Length of air blow and impingement on stored product these to develop a good average occupancy. It should also have the
• Effect of relative humidity following:
• Effect of air movement on employees
• Controlled ventilation, if necessary • Convenient location for producers, shippers, and distributors,
considering the present tendency toward decentralization and
• Product entering temperature
avoidance of congested areas
• Expected duration of storage • Good railroad switching facilities and service with minimum
• Required product outlet temperature switching charges from all trunk lines to plant tracks if a railhead
• Traffic in and out of storage area is necessary for the profitable operation of the business
In the United States, the U.S. Public Health Service Food and • Easy access from main highway truck routes as well as local
Drug Administration (FDA) developed the Food Code, which con- trucking, but avoiding location on congested streets
sists of model requirements for safeguarding public health and • Ample land for trucks, truck movement, and plant utility space
ensuring that food is unadulterated. The code is a guide for estab- plus future expansion
lishing standards for all phases of handling refrigerated foods. It • Location with a reasonable land cost
treats receiving, handling, storing, and transporting refrigerated • Adequate power and water supply
foods and calls for sanitary as well as temperature requirements. • Provisions for surface, waste, and sanitary water disposal
These standards must be recognized in the design and operation of • Consideration of zoning limitations and fire protection
refrigerated storage facilities. • Location away from residential areas, where noise of outside
operating equipment (i.e., fans and engine-driven equipment on
Regulations of the Occupational Safety and Health Administra-
refrigerated vehicles) would be objectionable
tion (OSHA), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), U.S.
• External appearance that is not objectionable to the community
Department of Agriculture (USDA), and other standards must also
• Minimal tax and insurance burden
be incorporated in warehouse facility and procedures.
• Plant security
Refrigerated facilities may be operated for or by a private com- • Favorable undersoil bearing conditions and good surface drainage
pany for storage or warehousing of their own products, as a public
facility where storage services are offered to many concerns, or Plants are often located away from congested areas or even out-
both. Important locations for refrigerated facilities, public or pri- side city limits where the cost of increased trucking distance is off-
vate, are (1) point of processing, (2) intermediate points for general set by better plant layout possibilities, a better road network, better
or long-term storage, and (3) final distributor or distribution point. or lower priced labor supply, or other economies of operation.
The five categories for the classification of refrigerated storage
for preservation of food quality are Configuration and Size Determination
Building configuration and size of a cold storage facility are
• Controlled atmosphere for long-term storage of fruits and determined by the following factors:
vegetables
• Coolers at temperatures of 0°C and above • Is the receipt and shipment of goods to be primarily by rail or by
• High-temperature freezers at -2 to -3°C truck? Shipping practices affect the platform areas and internal
• Low-temperature storage rooms for general frozen products, traffic pattern.
usually maintained at -23 to -29°C • What relative percentages of merchandise are for cooler and for
freezer storage? Products requiring specially controlled condi-
• Low-temperature storages at -23 to -29°C, with a surplus of
tions, such as fresh fruits and vegetables, may justify or demand
refrigeration for freezing products received at above -18°C several individual rooms. Seafood, butter, and nuts also require
special treatment. Where overall occupancy may be reduced
The preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 10.5, Refrigerated Distri- because of seasonal conditions, consideration should be given to
bution and Storage Facilities. providing multiple-use spaces.
13.2 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)
• What percentage is anticipated for long-term storage? Products

that are stored long term can usually be stacked more densely.
• Will the product be primarily in small or large lots? The drive-
through rack system or a combination of pallet racks and a mez-
zanine have proved effective in achieving efficient operation and
effective use of space. Mobile or moving rack systems are also
plausible.
• How will the product be palletized? Dense products such as meat,
tinned fruit, drums of concentrate, and cases of canned goods can
be stacked very efficiently. Palletized containers and special pal-
let baskets or boxes effectively hold meat, fish, and other loose
products.
The slip sheet system, which requires no pallets, eliminates the
waste space of the pallet and can be used effectively for some
products.
Pallet stacking racks make it feasible to use the full height of
the storage and palletize any closed or boxed merchandise.
• Will rental space be provided for tenants? Rental space usually
requires special personnel and office facilities. An isolated area
for tenant operations is also desirable. These areas are usually
leased on a unit area basis, and plans are worked into the main
building layout.
Fig. 1 Typical Plan for One-Story Refrigerated Facility
The owner of a prospective refrigerated facility may want to
obtain advice from specialists in product storage, handling, and
movement systems. One-Story Configuration
Figure 1 shows the layout of a one-story -23°C freezer that
Stacking Arrangement complies with current practices. The following essential items and
functions are considered:
Typically, the height of refrigerated spaces varies between 8.5
and 10.5 m or more clear space between the floor and structural • Refrigeration machinery room
steel to allow forklift operation. Pallet rack systems use the greater • Refrigerated shipping docks with seal-cushion closures on the
height. The practical height for stacking pallets without racks is 4.5 doors
to 5.5 m. The clear space above the pallet stacks is used for air dis- • Automatic doors
tribution, lighting, and sprinkler lines. Overhead space is inexpen- • Batten doors or strip curtains
sive, and because the refrigeration requirement for the extra height • Low-temperature storage held at -23°C or lower
is not significant in the overall plant cost, a minimum of 6 m clear • Pallet-rack systems to facilitate the handling of small lots and to
height is desirable. Greater heights are valuable if automated or comply with first-in, first-out inventory, which is required for
mechanized material handling equipment is contemplated. The some products
effect of high stacking arrangements on insurance rates should be • Blast freezer or separate sharp freezer room for isolation of
investigated. products being frozen
The floor area in a facility where a diversity of merchandise is to • Cooler or convertible space
be stored can be calculated on the basis of 130 to 160 kg/m3 to allow • Space for brokerage offices and for distributors
about 40% for aisles and space above the pallet stacks. In special- • Space for empty pallet storage and repair
purpose or production facilities, products can be stacked with less • Space for shop and battery charging
aisle and open space, with an allowance factor of about 20%. • Automatic sprinklers in accordance with National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) regulations
BUILDING DESIGN Other areas that must be in a complete operable facility are
Most refrigerated facilities are single-story structures. Small col- • Electrical area
umns on wide centers permit palletized storage with minimal lost • Shipping office
space. This type of building usually provides additional highway • Administration office
truck unloading space. The following characteristics of single-story • Personnel welfare facilities
design must be considered: (1) horizontal traffic distances, which to A modified one-story design is sometimes used to reduce hori-
some extent offset the vertical travel required in a multistory build- zontal traffic distances and land costs. An alternative is to locate
ing; (2) difficulty of using the stacking height with many commod- nonproductive services (including offices and the machinery room)
ities or with small-lot storage and movement of goods; (3) necessity on a second-floor level, usually over the truck platform work area to
for treatment of the floor below freezers to give economical protec- permit full use of the ground floor for production work and storage.
tion against possible ground heaving; and (4) high land cost for the However, potential vibration of the second floor from equipment
capacity of the building. A one-story facility with moderate or low below must be considered.
stacking heights has a high cost per cubic metre because of the high One-story design or modification thereof gives the maximum
ratio of construction costs and added land cost to product storage capacity per unit of investment with a minimum overall operating
capacity. However, the first cost and operating cost are usually expense, including amortization, refrigeration, and labor. Mechani-
lower than that of a multistory facility. zation must be considered as well. In areas where land availability
Refrigerated Facility Design 13.3
or cost is a concern, a high-rise refrigerated storage building may be • Public refrigerated facility with several chambers designed to
a viable option. handle all commodities. Storage temperatures may range from 2
Designs that provide minimum overall costs restrict office facil- to 15°C (with humidity control) and to -29°C (without humidity
ities and utility areas to a minimum. They also include ample dock control).
area to ensure efficiency in loading and unloading merchandise. • Refrigerated facility area for case and break-up distribution, auto-
mated to varying degrees. The area may incorporate racks with
Shipping and Receiving Docks pallet spaces to facilitate distribution.
• Facility designed for a processing operation with bulk storage for
Regulations on temperature control during all steps of product frozen ingredients and rack storage for palletized outshipment of
handling have led to designing the trucking dock as a refrigerated processed merchandise. An efficient adaptation frequently seen in
anteroom to the cold storage area. Dock refrigeration is an absolute practice is to adjoin the refrigerated facility to the processing
necessity in humid and warm climates. Typically, loading and plant.
unloading of transport vehicles is handled by separate work crews.
• Public refrigerated facility serving several production manufac-
One crew moves the product in and out of the vehicles, and a ware-
turers for storing and inventorying products in lots and assembling
house crew moves the product in and out of the refrigerated storage. outshipments.
This procedure may allow the merchandise to accumulate on the
• Mechanized refrigerated facility with stacker cranes, racks,
shipping dock. Maintaining the dock at 2 to 7°C offers the following
infeed and outfeed conveyors, and conveyor vestibules. Such a
advantages:
facility may have an interior ceiling 18 to 30 m high. It is desirable
• Refrigeration load in the low-temperature storage area, where to mount the evaporators in the highest internal area to help
energy demand per unit capacity of refrigeration is higher, is remove moisture from outside air infiltration. A penthouse to
reduced. house the evaporators provides easy access through the roof for
• Less ice or frost forms in the low-temperature storage because maintenance, a means of controlling condensate drip, and added
less warm air infiltrates into the area. rack storage space.
• Refrigerated products held on the dock maintain a more favorable
Controlled Atmosphere Storage Rooms
temperature.
• Packaging remains in good condition because it stays dry. Facility Controlled atmosphere storage rooms may be required for stor-
personnel are more comfortable because temperature differences age of some commodities, particularly fresh fruits and vegetables
are smaller. that respire, consuming oxygen (O2) and producing carbon dioxide
• Less maintenance on forklifts and other equipment is required (CO2) in the process. The storage life of such products may be
because condensation is reduced. greatly lengthened by a properly controlled environment, which
includes control of temperature, humidity, and concentration of
• Need for anterooms or vestibules to the freezer space is reduced noncondensable gases (O2, CO2, and nitrogen). Hermetically seal-
or eliminated. ing the room to provide such an atmosphere is a challenging under-
taking, often requiring special gastight seals. Although information
Utility Space is available for some commodities, the desired atmosphere usually
Space for a general office, locker room, and machinery room is must be determined experimentally for the commodity as produced
needed. A superintendent’s office and a warehouse records office in the specific geographic location that the storage room is to serve.
should be located near the center of operations, and a checker’s Commercial application of controlled atmosphere storage has
office should be in view of the dock and traffic arrangement. Rented historically been limited to fresh fruits and vegetables that respire.
space should be isolated from warehouse operations. The storage spaces may be classified as having either (1) product-
The machinery room should include ample space for refrigera- generated atmospheres, in which the room is sufficiently well sealed
tion equipment and maintenance, adequate ventilation, standby that the natural oxygen consumption of the fruit balances the infil-
capacity for emergency ventilation, and adequate segregation from tration of O2 into the space; or (2) externally generated atmospheres,
other areas. Separate exits are required by most building codes. A in which nitrogen generators or O2 consumers assist the normal res-
maintenance shop and space for parking, charging, and servicing piration of the fruit. The second type of system can cope with a
warehouse equipment should be located adjacent to the machinery poorly sealed room, but the cost of operation may be high; even with
room. Electrically operated material handling equipment is used to the external gas generator system, a hermetically sealed room is
eliminate inherent safety hazards of combustion-type equipment. desired.
Battery-charging areas should be designed with high roofs and must In most cases, a CO2 scrubber is required; the exception is the
be ventilated due to the potential for combustible fumes resulting case where the total desired O2 and CO2 content is 21%, which is the
from the charging activity. normal balance between O2 and CO2 during respiration. Carbon
dioxide may be removed by (1) passing the room air over dry lime
SPECIALIZED STORAGE FACILITIES that is replaced periodically; (2) passing the air through wet caustic
solutions in which the caustic (typically sodium hydroxide) is peri-
Material handling methods and storage requirements often dic- odically replaced; (3) water scrubbers in which CO2 is absorbed
tate design of specialized storage facilities. Automated material from the room air by a water spray and then desorbed from the water
handling within the storage, particularly for high stack piling, may by outdoor air passed through the water in a separate compartment;
be an integral part of the structure or require special structural treat- (4) monoethanolamine scrubbers in which the solution is regener-
ments. Controlled atmosphere rooms and minimal air circulation ated periodically by a manual process or continuously by automatic
rooms require special building designs and mechanical equipment equipment; or (5) dry adsorbents automatically regenerated on a
to achieve design requirements. Drive-in and/or drive-through rack cyclic basis.
systems can improve product inventory control and can be used in Among the systems of room sealing to prevent outside air infil-
combination with stacker cranes, narrow-aisle high stacker cranes, tration are (1) galvanized steel lining the walls and ceiling of the
and automatic conveyors. Mobile racking systems may be consid- room and interfaced into a floor sealing system; (2) plywood with an
ered where space is at a premium. impervious sealing system applied to the inside face; (3) carefully
In general, specialized storage facilities may be classified as applied sprayed urethane finished with mastic, which also serves as
follows: a fire retardant.
A room is considered sufficiently sealed if, under uniform tem-

perature and barometric conditions, 1 h after the room is pressurized
to 250 Pa (gage), 25 to 50 Pa remains. A room with external gas gen-
eration is considered satisfactorily sealed if it loses pressure at dou-
ble the above rate, and the test prescribed for a room with product-
generated atmosphere is about one air change of the empty room in
a 30 day period.
Extreme care in all details of construction is required to obtain a
seal that passes these tests. Doors are well sealed and have sills that
can be bolted down; electrical conduits and special seals around
pipe and hanger penetrations must allow some movement while
keeping the hermetic seal intact. Structural penetrations through the
seal must be avoided, and the structure must be stable. Controlled
atmosphere rooms in multifloor buildings, where the structure
deflects appreciably under load, are extremely difficult to seal.
Gas seals are normally applied at the cold side of the insulation, Fig. 2 Total Exterior Vapor Retarder System
so that they may be easily maintained and points of leakage can be
detected. However, this placement causes some moisture entrap-
ment, and the insulation materials must be carefully selected so that
this moisture causes minimal damage. In some installations, cold air
with a dew point lower than the inside surface temperature is circu-
lated through the space between the gas seal and the insulation to
provide drying of this area. Chapters 21 and 23 have additional
information on conditions required for storage of various commod-
ities in controlled atmosphere storage rooms.
Automated Warehouses
Automated warehouses usually contain tall, fixed rack arrange-
ments with stacker cranes under fully automatic, semiautomatic, or
manual control. The control systems can be tied into a computer
system to retain a complete inventory of product and location.
The following are some of the advantages of automation:
• First-in, first-out inventory can be maintained.
• Enclosure structure is high, requiring a minimum of floor space Fig. 3 Entirely Interior Vapor Retarder System
and favorable cost per cubic metre.
• Product damage and pilfering are minimized. Supplementary refrigeration or air-conditioning units in the
• Direct material handling costs are minimized. refrigerated room that operate only as required can usually alleviate
The following are some of the disadvantages: such problems.
• First cost of the racking system and building are very high CONSTRUCTION METHODS
compared to conventional designs.
Cold storages, more than most construction, require correct
• Access may be slower, depending on product flow and locations.
design, quality materials, good workmanship, and close supervision.
• Cooling equipment may be difficult to access for maintenance, Design should ensure that proper installation can be accomplished
unless installed in a penthouse. under various adverse job site conditions. Materials must be com-
• Air distribution must be carefully evaluated. patible with each other. Installation must be made by careful workers
directed by an experienced, well-trained superintendent. Close
Refrigerated Rooms cooperation between the general, roofing, insulation, and other con-
Refrigerated rooms may be appropriate for long-term storage at tractors increases the likelihood of a successful installation.
temperatures other than the temperature of the main facility, for bin Enclosure construction methods can be classified as (1) insulated
storage, for controlled atmosphere storage, or for products that dete- structural panel, (2) mechanically applied insulation, or (3) adhe-
riorate with active air movement. Mechanically cooled walls, sive or spray-applied foam systems. These construction techniques
floors, and ceilings may be economical options for controlling the seal the insulation within an airtight, moisturetight envelope that
temperature. Embedded pipes or air spaces through which refriger- must not be violated by major structural components.
ated air is recirculated can provide the cooling; with this method, Three methods are used to achieve an uninterrupted vapor
leakage is absorbed into the walls and prevented from entering the retarder/insulation envelope. The first and simplest is total encapsu-
refrigerated space. lation of the structural system by an exterior vapor retarder/insula-
The following must be considered in the initial design of the tion system under the floor, on the outside of the walls, and over the
room: roof deck (Figure 2). This method offers the least number of pene-
trations through the vapor retarder, as well as the lowest cost. The
• Initial cool-down of the product, which can impose short-term second method is an entirely interior system in which the vapor
peak loads retarder envelope is placed within the room, and insulation is added
• Service loads when storing and removing product to the walls, floors, and suspended ceiling (Figure 3). This technique
• Odor contamination from products that deteriorate over long is used where walls and ceilings must be washed, where an existing
periods structure is converted to refrigerated space, or for smaller rooms that
• Product heat of respiration are located within large coolers or unrefrigerated facilities or are part
tions should be filled. Where practicable, the wrap insulation should

be located, and the metal projection sealed, on the warm side. Vapor
sealing on the inside of conduits prevents moisture flow through the
conduits.
Air/Vapor Treatment at Junctions

Air and vapor leakage at wall/roof junctions is perhaps the pre-
dominant construction problem in cold storage facilities.
When a cold room of interior-exterior design (Figure 4) is low-
ered to operating temperature, the structural elements (roof deck
and insulation) contract and can pull the roof away from the wall.
Negative pressure in the space of the wall/roof junction can cause
warm, moist air to leak into the room and form frost and ice. There-
fore, proper design and construction of the air/vapor seal is critical.
An air/vapor flashing sheet system is best for preventing leakage.
This is a transition from the roof system vapor retarder to the exte-
Fig. 4 Interior-Exterior Vapor Retarder System rior wall system vapor retarder. A good corner flashing sheet must
be flexible, tough, airtight, and vaportight. Proper use of flexible
insulation at overlaps, mastic adhesive, and a good mastic sealer
ensure leak-free performance. To remain airtight and vaportight
during the life of the facility, a properly constructed vapor retarder
should
• Be flexible enough to withstand building movements that may
occur at operating temperatures
• Allow for thermal contraction of the insulation as the room is
pulled down to operating temperature
• Be constructed with a minimum of penetrations that might cause
leaks (Wall ties and structural steel that extend through the corner
flashing sheet may eventually leak no matter how well sealed dur-
ing construction; keep these to a minimum, and make them acces-
sible for maintenance.)
• Have corner flashing sheet properly lapped and sealed with adhe-
sive and mechanically fastened to the wall vapor retarder
• Have corner flashing sealed to roof without openings
Fig. 5 Separate Exterior Vapor Retarder Systems for Each • Have floor to exterior vapor retarders that are totally sealed
Area of Significantly Different Temperature
The interior-exterior design (Figure 4) is likely to be unsuc-
of a food-processing facility. The third method is interior-exterior cessful at the wall/roof junction because of extreme difficulty in
construction (Figure 4), which involves an exterior curtain wall of maintaining an airtight or vaportight environment.
masonry or similar material tied to an interior structural system. The practices outlined for the wall/roof junction apply for other
Adequate space allows the vapor retarder/insulation system to turn insulation junctions. The insulation manufacturer and the designer
up over a roof deck and be incorporated into a roofing system, which must coordinate the details of the corner flashing design.
serves as the vapor retarder. This construction method is a viable Poor design and shoddy installation cause moist air leakage into
alternative, although it allows more interruptions in the vapor the facility, resulting in frost and ice formation, energy loss, poor
retarder than the exterior system. appearance, loss of useful storage space, and, eventually, expensive
The total exterior vapor retarder system (Figure 2) is best repairs.
because it has the fewest penetrations and the lowest cost. Areas of
widely varying temperature should be divided into separate enve- Floor Construction
lopes to retard heat and moisture flow between them (Figure 5). Refrigerated facilities held above freezing need no special
underfloor treatment. A below-the-floor vapor retarder is needed in
Space Adjacent to Envelope facilities held below freezing, however. In these facilities, the sub-
Condensation at the envelope is usually caused by high humidity soil eventually freezes; any moisture in this soil also freezes and
and inadequate ventilation. Poor ventilation occurs most often causes floor frost heaving. In moderate climates, underfloor tubes
within a dead air space such as a ceiling plenum, hollow masonry vented to ambient air are sufficient to prevent heaving. Artificial
unit, through-metal structure, or beam cavity. All closed air spaces heating, either by air circulated through underfloor ducts or by gly-
should be eliminated, except those large enough to be ventilated col circulated through plastic pipe, is the preferred method to pre-
adequately. Ceiling plenums, for instance, are best ventilated by vent frost heaving. Electric heating cables installed under the floor
mechanical vents that move air above the envelope. can also be used to prevent frost formation. The choice of heating
If possible, the insulation envelope and vapor retarder should not method depends on energy cost, reliability, and maintenance
be penetrated. All steel beams, columns, and large pipes that project requirements. Air duct systems should be screened to keep rodents
through the insulation should be vapor-sealed and insulated with a out and sloped for drainage to remove condensation.
1200 mm wrap of insulation. Conduit, small pipes, and rods should Future facility expansion must be considered when underfloor
be insulated at four times the regular wall insulation thickness. In heating systems are being designed. Therefore, a system including
both cases, the thickness of insulation on the projection should be artificial heating methods that do not require building exterior
half that on the regular wall or ceiling. Voids within metal projec- access is preferred.
Surface Preparation Electrical Wiring

When an adhesive is used, the surface against which the insulat- Electrical wiring should be brought into a refrigerated room
ing material is to be applied should be smooth and dust-free. Where through as few locations as possible (preferably one), piercing the
room temperatures are to be below freezing, masonry walls should wall vapor retarder and insulation only once. Plastic-coated cable is
be leveled and sealed with cement back plaster. Smooth poured con- recommended for this service where codes permit. If codes require
crete surfaces may not require back plastering. conduit, the last fitting on the warm side of the run should be explo-
No special surface preparation is needed for a mechanical fasten- sionproof and sealed to prevent water vapor from entering the cold
ing system, assuming that the surface is reasonably smooth and in conduit. The light fixtures in the room should not be vapor-sealed
good repair. but should allow free passage of moisture. Care should be taken to
The surface must be warm and dry for a sprayed foam system. maintain the vapor seal between the outside of the electrical service
Any cracks or construction joints must be prepared to prevent pro- and the cold room vapor retarder.
jection through the sprayed insulation envelope. All loose grout and
dust must be removed to ensure a good bond between the sprayed Tracking
foam insulation and the surface. Very smooth surfaces may require Cold room meat tracking, wherever possible, should be erected
special bonding agents. and supported within the insulated structure, entirely independent of
No special surface preparation is needed for insulated panels the building itself. This places the entire weight of the tracking on
used as a building lining, assuming the surfaces are sound and rea- the cold room floor, eliminates flexure of the roof structure or over-
sonably smooth. Grade beams and floors should be true and level head members, and simplifies maintenance.
where panels serve as the primary walls.
Cold Storage Doors
Finishes Doors should be strong yet light enough for easy opening and
Insulated structural panels with metal exteriors and metal or closing. Hardware should be of good quality, so that it can be set to
reinforced plastic interior faces are prevalent for both coolers and compress the gasket uniformly against the casing. All doors to
freezers. They keep moisture from the insulation, leaving only the rooms operating below freezing should be equipped with heaters.
joints between panels as potential areas of moisture penetration. In-fitting doors are not recommended for rooms operating below
They are also available with surface finishes that meet government freezing unless they are provided with heaters, and they should not
requirements. be used at temperatures below -18°C with or without heaters.
For sanitary washdowns, a scrubbable finish is sometimes See the subsection on Doors in the section on Applying Insula-
required. Such finishes generally have low permeance; when one is tion for more information.
applied on the inside surface of the insulation, a lower permeance
Hardware
treatment is required on the outside of the insulation.
All insulated walls and ceilings should have an interior finish. All metal hardware, whether within the construction or exposed
The finish should be impervious to moisture vapor and should not to conditions that will rust or corrode the base metal, should be
serve as a vapor retarder, except for panel construction. The per- heavily galvanized, plated, or otherwise protected.
meance of the in-place interior finish should be significantly greater
than the permeance of the in-place vapor retarder. Refrigerated Docks
To select an interior finish to meet the in-use requirements of the The purpose of the refrigerated facility (e.g., distribution, in-
installation, the following factors should be considered: (1) fire transit storage, or seasonal storage) will dictate the loading dock
resistance, (2) washdown requirements, (3) mechanical damage, (4) requirements. Shipping docks and corridors should provide liberal
moisture and gas permeance, and (5) government requirements. All space for (1) movement of goods to and from storage, (2) storage of
interior walls of insulated spaces should be protected by bumpers pallets and idle equipment, (3) sorting, and (4) inspecting. The dock
and curbs wherever there is a possibility of damage to the finish. should be at least 9 m wide. Commercial use facilities usually
require more truck dock space than specialized storage facilities due
Suspended Ceilings to the variety of products handled.
Floor heights of refrigerated vehicles vary widely but are often
Suspended (hung) insulated ceilings perform well when they are
greater than those of unrefrigerated vehicles. Rail dock heights and
surfaced with a vapor retarder that is attached with flashing to the
building clearances should be verified by the railroad serving the
wall insulation vapor retarder on the top or warm side. The space
plant. A dock height of 1370 mm above the rail is typical for refrig-
above the ceiling must be ventilated at a minimum of six air changes
erated rail cars. Three to five railroad car spots per 30 000 m3 of
per hour to minimize the possibility of condensation. Roof-mounted
storage should be planned.
exhaust fans and uniformly spaced vents around the perimeter of the
Truck dock heights must comply with the requirements of fleet
plenum may be used. The mechanical ventilators should be thermo-
owners and clients, as well as the requirements of local delivery
stat and/or humidistat controlled to turn off when the outside tem-
trucks. Trucks generally require a 1370 mm height above the pave-
perature is below 10°C and the outside humidity is above 60% rh. At
ment, although local delivery trucks may be much lower. Some
these conditions, condensation rarely occurs, and the ventilation
reefer trucks are up to 1470 mm above grade. Adjustable ramps at
only reduces the insulating effect of the dead air space.
some of the truck spots will partly compensate for height variations.
Suspended ceilings should be designed for light foot traffic for If dimensions permit, seven to ten truck spots per 30 000 m3 should
inspection and maintenance of piping and electrical wiring. Fas- be provided in a public refrigerated facility.
tening systems for ceiling panels include spline, U channel, and Refrigerated docks maintained at temperatures of 2 to 7°C
camlock. require about 190 W of refrigeration per square metre of floor area.
Cushion-closure seals around the truck doorways reduce infiltration
Floor Drains of outside air. An inflatable or telescoping enclosure can be
Floor drains should be avoided if possible, particularly in freez- extended to seal the space between a railcar and the dock. Insulated
ers. If they are necessary, they should have short, squat dimensions doors for docks must be mounted on the inside walls. The relatively
and be placed high enough to allow the drain and piping to be high costs of doors, cushion closures, and refrigeration influence
installed above the insulation envelope. dock size and number of doors.
Schneider System The selection of the refrigeration system for a refrigerated

facility should be made in the early stages of planning. If the facil-
The Schneider system, and modifications thereof, is a cold stor-
ity is a single-purpose, low-temperature storage building, most
age construction and insulation method primarily used in the west-
types of systems can be used. However, if commodities to be
ern United States, with most of the installations in the Pacific
stored require different temperatures and humidities, a system
Northwest. It is an interior-exterior vapor retarder system, as illus-
must be selected that can meet the demands using isolated rooms
trated in Figure 4. The structure features the use of concrete tilt-up
at different conditions.
walls and either glue-laminated wood beams or bowstring trusses
Using factory-built packaged unitary equipment may have merit
for the roof. Fiberglass batts coupled with highly efficient vapor
for the smallest structures and also for a multiroom facility that
retarders and a support framework are used to insulate the walls and
requires a variety of storage conditions. Conversely, the central
roof. The floor slab construction, insulation, and underfloor heat are
compressor room has been the accepted standard for larger installa-
conventional for refrigerated facilities.
tions, especially where energy conservation is important.
The key to success for the Schneider system is an excellent vapor
Multiple centrally located, single-zone condensing units have
retarder system that is professionally designed and applied, with
been used successfully in Japan and other markets where high-rise
special emphasis on the wall/roof junction. Fiberglass has a high refrigerated structures are used or where local codes drive system
permeability rating and loses its insulating value when wet. It is
selection.
therefore absolutely essential that the vapor retarder system perform
Direct refrigeration, either a flooded or pumped recirculation
at high efficiency. Typical wall vapor retarder materials include alu-
system serving fan-coil units, is a dependable choice for a central
minum B foil and heavy-gage polyethylene, generously overlapped
compressor room. Refrigeration compressors, programmable logic
and adhered to the wall with a full coating of mastic. The roofing
controllers, and microprocessor controls complement the central
materials act as a vapor retarder for the roof. The vapor retarder at
engine room refrigeration equipment.
the wall/roof junction is usually a special aluminum foil assembly
installed to perform efficiently in all weather conditions. Load Determination
The fiberglass insulation applied to the wall is usually 250 to 300
mm thick for freezers and 150 to 200 mm for coolers. It is retained The refrigeration loads of refrigerated facilities of the same
by offset wood or fabricated fiberglass-aluminum sheathed studs on capacity vary widely. Many factors, including building design,
600 mm centers. Horizontal girts are used at intervals for bracing. indoor and outdoor temperatures, and especially the type and flow
The inside finish is provided by 25 mm thick perforated higher den- of goods expected and the daily freezing capacity, contribute to the
sity fiberglass panels that can breathe to allow any moisture that load. Therefore, no simple design rules apply. Experience from
passes through the vapor retarder to be deposited as frost on the comparable buildings and operations is valuable, but an analysis of
evaporator coils. any projected operation should be made. Compressor and room
cooling equipment should be designed for maximum daily require-
The fiberglass insulation applied to the roof structure is usually
ments, which will be well above any monthly average.
300 to 350 mm thick for freezers and 200 to 250 mm for coolers and
The load factors to be considered include
is applied between 50 mm by 300 mm or 50 mm by 350 mm joists that
span the glue-laminated wood beams, purlins, or trusses. The exterior • Heat transmission through insulated enclosures
finish is the same as described for walls. Battens attached to the • Heat and vapor infiltration load from warm air passing into refrig-
underside of the joists hold the finish panels and insulation in place. erated space and improper air balance
Advantages of the Schneider system over insulated panels, • Heat from pumps or fans circulating refrigerant or air, power
assuming equal effectiveness of the vapor retarder/insulation enve- equipment, personnel working in refrigerated space, product-
lopes over time, include lower first cost for structures over 3700 m2, moving equipment, and lights
lower operating cost, and fewer interior columns. Disadvantages • Heat removed from goods in lowering their temperatures from
include a less clean appearance, unsuitability where washdown is receiving to storage temperatures
required, impracticality where a number of smaller rooms are • Heat removed in freezing goods received unfrozen
required, and a smaller number of capable practitioners (i.e., archi- • Heat produced by goods in storage
tects, engineers, contractors) available. • Other loads, such as office air conditioning, car precooling, or
special operations inside the building
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS • Refrigerated shipping docks
• Heat released from automatic defrost units by fan motors and
Types of Refrigeration Systems defrosting, which increases overall refrigerant system requirements
Refrigeration systems can be broadly classified as unitary or • Blast freezing or process freezing
applied. In this context, unitary refers to units that are designed by High humidity, warm temperatures, or manual product handling
manufacturers, assembled in factories, and installed in a refrigerated may dramatically affect design, particularly that of the refrigeration
space as prepackaged units. Heat rejection and compression equip- system.
ment is either within the same housing as the low-temperature air- A summation of the average proportional effect of the load
cooling coils or separated from the cooling section. Such units nor- factors is shown in Table 1 as a percentage of total load for a
mally use hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) refrigerants. facility in the southern United States. Both the size and the effect
Applied units denote field-engineered and -erected systems and of the load factors are influenced by the facility design, usage, and
form the vast majority of large refrigerated (below freezing) facility location.
systems. Installations generally have a central machinery room or Heat leakage or transmission load can be calculated using the
series of machinery rooms convenient to electrical distribution ser- known overall heat transfer coefficient of various portions of the
vices, cooling tower, outside service entrance, and so forth. Essen- insulating envelope, the area of each portion, and the temperature
tially made to order, applied systems are generally designed and difference between the lowest cold room design temperature and the
built from standard components obtained from one or more suppli- highest average air temperature for three to five consecutive days at
ers. Key elements are compressors, fan-coil units, receivers, pump the building location. For freezer storage floors on ground, the aver-
circulation systems, controls, refrigerant condensers (evaporative, age yearly ground temperature should be used.
shell-and-tube, liquid-cooled, or air-cooled), and other pressure Heat infiltration load varies greatly with the following variables:
vessels. size of room, number of openings to warm areas, protection on
Table 1 Refrigeration Design Load Factors for Typical 10 000-m2 Single-Floor Freezer
Long-Term Storage Short-Term Storage Distribution Operation
Cooling Capacity Cooling Capacity Cooling Capacity
Refrigeration Load Factors kW Percent kW Percent kW Percent
Transmission losses 343 49 343 43 343 36
Infiltration 35 5 70 9 140 15
Internal operation loads 175 25 196 24 217 22
Cooling of goods received 24 3 53 6 105 11
Other factors 123 18 143 18 158 16
Total design capacity 700 100 805 100 963 100
Note: Based on a facility located in the southern United States using a refrigerated loading dock, automatic doors, and forklift material handling.
openings, traffic through openings, and cold and warm air temper- ference between the refrigerant coil and the return air, and
atures and humidities. Calculation should be based on experience, volumetric airflow depend on the application.
remembering that most of the load usually occurs during daytime Fans are normally of the axial propeller type, but may be centrif-
operations. Chapter 12 presents a complete analysis of refrigeration ugal if a high static discharge loss is expected. In refrigerated facil-
load calculation. ities, the fan-coil units are usually draw-through. That is, the room
Heat from goods received for storage can be approximated from air is drawn through the coil and discharged through the fan. Blow-
the quantity expected daily and the source. Generally, 5 to 10 K of through units are used in special applications, such as fruit storages
temperature reduction can be expected, but for some newly pro- where refrigerant and air temperatures must be close. Heat from the
cessed items and for fruits and vegetables direct from harvesting, motor is absorbed immediately by the coil on a blow-through unit
35 K or more temperature reduction may be required. For general and does not enter the room. Motor heat must be added to the room
public cold storage, the load may range from 0.5 to 1 W of cooling load with draw-through units. Figure 6 illustrates fan-coil units
capacity per cubic metre to allow for items received direct from har- commonly used in refrigerated facility construction.
vest in a producing area. It is important when selecting fan-coil units to consider the
The freezing load varies from zero for the pure distribution facil- throw, or distance air must travel to cool the farthest area. Failure to
ity, where the product is received already frozen, to the major por- properly consider throw can result in areas of stagnant air and hot
tion of the total load for a warehouse near a producing area. The spots in the refrigerated space. Consult manufacturers’ recommen-
freezing load depends on the commodity, the temperature at which dation in all cases. Do not rely on guesses or “rules of thumb” in
it is received, and the method of freezing. More refrigeration is selecting units with proper airflow. Units vary widely in terms of fan
required for blast freezing than for still freezing without forced-air type, design of the diffuser leaving the fan-coil, and coil air pressure
circulation. drop.
Heat is produced by many commodities in cooler storage, prin- Defrosting. Although all fan-coils occasionally require defrost-
cipally fruits and vegetables. Heat of respiration is a sizable factor, ing if operated below the room dew-point conditions, units located
even at 0°C, and is a continuing load throughout the storage period. above entrances to a refrigerated space tend to draw in warm, moist
Refrigeration loads should be calculated for maximum expected air from adjacent spaces and frost the coil quickly. If this occurs,
occupancy of such commodities. more frequent defrosting will be required to maintain the efficiency
of the cooling coil.
Manual handling of product may add 30 to 50% more load to a
A properly engineered and installed system can be automatically
facility in tropical areas due to constant interruption of the cold bar-
defrosted successfully with hot gas, water, electric heat, or contin-
riers at doors and on loading docks.
uously sprayed brine. The sprayed brine system has the advantage
of producing the full refrigeration capacity at all times; however, it
Unit Cooler Selection does require a supply and return pipe system with a means of boiling
Fan-Coil Units. These units may have direct-expansion, off the absorbed condensed moisture and can be subject to contam-
flooded, or recirculating liquid evaporators with either primary or ination with odors, biological pollution, or airborne dust.
finned-coil surfaces or a brine spray coolant. Storage temperature, Valve Selection. Refer to Chapter 45 and manufacturers’ litera-
packaging method, type of product, and so forth, must be consid- ture for specific information on control valve type and selection
ered when selecting a unit. The coil surface area, temperature dif- (sizing).
Fig. 6 Fan-Coil Units for Refrigerated Facilities

Valving Arrangements. Critical to the performance of all fan- adjacent roof. Temperature control thermostats and electrical equip-
coil units are proper refrigerant feed valve, block valve, and defrost- ment can be housed in the penthouse.
ing valve arrangements. When coils defrost, condensate that has A personnel access door to the penthouse is required for conve-
formed as ice or frost on the coils melts. This new condensate is col- nient equipment service. The inside insulated penthouse walls and
lected in a pan beneath the coil and drained into collection drains ceiling must be vaportight to keep condensation from deteriorating
outside of the freezer space. Because the space is cold, condensate the insulation and to maintain the integrity of the building vapor
pans are connected to the hot-gas defrost system or otherwise heated retarder. Some primary advantages of penthouses are
to prevent ice formation. Likewise, all condensate drain lines must
be wrapped in heat-tracing tape and trapped outside of the refriger- • Cooling units, catwalks, and piping do not interfere with product
ated space to ensure that condensate can drain unrestricted. storage space and are not subject to physical damage from stack-
A variety of valve piping schemes are used. See Chapter 3 for ing truck operations.
typical piping arrangements. • Service to all cooling equipment and controls can be handled by
Valve Location. Vital to convenient maintenance of control one individual from an essential floor or roof deck location.
valves and service block valves is the location of these valves. The • Maintenance and service costs are minimized.
owner/designer has some options in most plants. If penthouse units • Main piping, control devices, and block valves are located outside
are used, all valves are generally located outside the penthouse and the refrigerated space.
are accessible from the roof. Fan-coil units mounted in the refriger- • If control and block valves are located outside the penthouse, any
ated space are generally hung from the ceiling and must be accessed refrigerant leaks will occur outside the refrigerated space.
via ladder or personnel lift cage on a forklift or other service vehicle.
It is recommended that valve stations be located outside the freezer Freezers
storage area if possible in order to facilitate access. Freezers within refrigerated facilities are generally used to freeze
System Considerations. For refrigerated temperatures below products or to chill products from some higher temperature to stor-
-32°C, two-stage compression is generally used. Compound com- age temperature. Failure to properly cool the incoming product
pressors having capacity control on each stage may be used. For transfers the product cool-down load to the facility, greatly increas-
variable loads, separate high- and low-stage (or booster) com- ing facility operating costs. Of perhaps greater concern is that dor-
pressors, each with capacity control or of different capacities, may mant storage in a cold area may not cool the product fast enough to
provide better operation. If blast freezers are included, pipe con- prevent bacterial growth, which causes product deterioration. In
nections should be arranged so that sufficient booster capacity for addition, other stored, already frozen products may be damaged by
the blast freezers can be provided by the low-stage suction pressure providing some or all of the refrigerating effect to the incoming
compressor, while the other booster is at higher suction pressure for products.
the freezer room load. Interstage pressure and temperatures are For this reason, many refrigerated facilities have a blast freezer
usually selected to provide refrigeration for loading dock cooling that producers can contract to use. Blast freezing ensures that the
and for rooms above 0°C. products are properly frozen in minimum time before they are put
In a two-stage system, the liquid refrigerant should be precooled into storage and that their quality is maintained. Modern control
at the high-stage suction pressure (interstage) to reduce the low- systems allow sampling of inner core product temperatures and
stage load. An automatic purger to remove air and other noncon- printout of records that customers may require. The cost of blast
densable gases is essential. Ammonia plants should have oil traps at freezer service can be properly apportioned to its users, allowing
all points where oil may accumulate in the system (i.e., on the com- higher efficiency and lower cost for other cold storage customers.
pressor discharge, condensers, intercoolers, and evaporators), so
Although there are many types of freezers, including belt, tray,
that oil can be removed periodically without loss of ammonia. Chap-
contact plate, spiral, and other packaged types, the most common
ters 1 through 7 have further information on refrigeration systems.
arrangement used in refrigerated facilities is designed to accept pal-
The use of commercial, air-cooled packaged or factory-assem-
lets of products from a forklift. The freezing area is large and free
bled units is common, especially in smaller plants. These units have from obstructions and has large doors. See Chapter 15, Industrial
lower initial cost, smaller space requirements, and no need for a spe-
Food Freezing Systems.
cial machinery room or operating engineer. However, they use more
Figure 8 illustrates a typical blast freezer used in a refrigerated
energy, have higher operating and maintenance costs, and have a
facility. Temperatures are normally about -35°C but may be higher
shorter life expectancy for components (usually compressors) than
central refrigeration systems. or lower depending upon the product being frozen. Once the room
is filled to design capacity, it is sealed and the system is started. The
Multiple Installations. To distribute air without ductwork,
refrigeration process time can be controlled by a time clock, by
installations of multiple fan-coil units have been used. The quantity
manual termination, or by measuring internal product temperature
of air circulated per unit refrigeration capacity may be higher than
and stopping the process once the control temperature is reached.
that required for sprayed unit systems, so proper application is
The last method gives optimum performance. Once the product is
important. For single-story buildings, sprayed units installed in
penthouses with ducted air distribution have been used to make full
use of floor space in the storage area (Figure 7). Either prefabricated
or field-erected refrigeration systems or cooling units connected to
a central plant can be incorporated in penthouse design.
Unitary cooling units are located in a penthouse, with distribut-
ing ductwork projected through the penthouse floor and under the
insulated ceiling below. Return air passes up through the penthouse
floor grille. This system avoids the interference of fan-coil units
hung below the ceiling in the refrigerated chamber and facilitates
maintenance access.
Defrost water drain piping passes through the penthouse insu-
lated walls and onto the main storage roof. Refrigerant mains and
electrical conduit can be run over the roof on suitable supports to the
central compressor room or to packaged refrigeration units on the Fig. 7 Penthouse Cooling Units
Microprocessor controls and electronic sensors generally offer

the following advantages over electromechanical control:
• More accurate readings and therefore more accurate control
• Easier operation
• Greater flexibility due to adjustable set points and operating
parameters
• More information concerning operating conditions, alarms,
failures, and trouble-shooting
• Capability for interfacing with remote operator stations
There are four main areas of control in all refrigerated facility
systems with a central compressor room:
1. Compressor package control. Minimum requirements: orderly
start-up, orderly shutdown, capacity control to maintain suction
pressure, alarm monitoring, and safety shutdown.
2. Condenser control. Minimum requirements: fan and water
Fig. 8 Typical Blast Freezer pump start and stop to maintain a reasonable constant or floating
refrigerant discharge pressure.
3. Evaporator control. Minimum requirements: control of the air
frozen, the pallets are transferred to general refrigerated storage unit fans and refrigerant liquid feed to maintain room air temper-
areas. atures and staging of the air unit refrigerant valve stations to
Because the blast freezer normally operates intermittently, provide automatic coil defrosts.
freezer owners should endeavor to operate it during the times when 4. Refrigerant flow management. Minimum requirements: main-
energy cost is lowest. Unfortunately, food products must be frozen tenance of desired refrigerant levels in vessels, control of valves
as quickly as possible, and products are usually delivered during and pumps to transfer refrigerant as needed between vessels and
times of peak electrical rates. Alternative power sources, such as air units in the system, and proper shutdowns in the event of
natural gas engine or diesel drives, should be considered. Although refrigerant overfeed or underfeed.
these normally have first cost and maintenance cost premiums, they
are not subject to time-varying energy rates and may offer savings. Other areas of control, such as refrigerant leak detection and
Defrost techniques for blast freezers are similar to normal defrost alarm, sequencing of multiple compressors for energy efficiency,
methods for refrigerated facility fan-coil units. Coils can often be and underfloor warming system control, may be desired.
defrosted after the product cooling cycle is completed or while the Because of the wide variety of control components and systems
freezer is being emptied for the next load. available and the fast-changing capabilities of those components, it
Pumped refrigerant recycling systems and flooded surge drum is impossible to define or recommend an absolute component list.
coils have both been used with success. Direct-expansion coils may However, it is possible to provide guidelines for the design and lay-
be used, but the designer should be careful with expansion valve out of the overall control system, regardless of the components used
systems to address coil circuitry, refrigerant liquid overfeed, oil or the functions to be controlled. This design or general layout can
return, defrost, shutdown liquid inventory management, and so be termed a control system architecture.
forth. Conventional oil removal devices should be supplied on All control systems consist of four main building blocks:
flooded coil and pumped systems because the blast freezer is nor- 1. Controller(s)—Microprocessor with control software.
mally the lowest temperature system in the facility and may accu- 2. Input/Outputs (I/Os)—Means of connecting devices or mea-
mulate oil over time. Materials of construction can be similar to the surements to the controller.
rest of facility. Floor heating may be convenient if the products are 3. Operator interface(s)—Means of conveying information con-
damp or wet during loading. tained in the controller to a human being.
Most blast freezers are accessed from a refrigerated space, so that 4. Interconnecting media—Means of transferring information
(1) products can be moved directly from the freezer to storage racks. between controllers, I/Os, and operator interfaces.
Also, the blast freezers can be used for storage when not operating.
The control system architecture defines the quantity, location,
Controls and function of these basic components. The architecture deter-
mines the reliability, expandability, operator interface opportuni-
The term controls refers to any mechanism or device used to
ties, component costs, and installation costs of a control system.
start, stop, adjust, protect, or monitor the operation of a moving or
Therefore, the architecture should be designed before any controls
functional piece of equipment. Controls for any system can be as
component manufacturers or vendors are selected.
simple as electromechanical devices such as pressure switches and
The following are the basic steps in designing a refrigerated
timer relays or as complex as a complete digital control system with
facility control system:
analog sensors and a high-speed communications network con-
nected to a supervisory computer station. Because controls are Step 1. Define the control tasks. This step should provide a
required in every industry, there is a wide variety from which to complete and detailed I/O listing, including quantity and type. With
choose. In recent years, the industrial refrigeration industry has this list and a little experience and knowledge of available hard-
migrated away from the use of electromechanical devices and ware, the type, quantity, and processing power of the necessary con-
toward the use of specialized microprocessors, programmable logic trollers can be determined.
controllers, and computers for unit and system control. Step 2. Determine the physical locations of the controlled
Electromechanical devices for control will continue to be used devices and the measurements to be taken. If remote I/Os or multi-
for some time and may never be replaced entirely for certain control ple controllers are located close to the devices and sensors, field
functions (e.g., use of relays for electrical high current isolation and wiring installation costs can be reduced. In order to avoid extra costs
float switches for refrigerant high level shutdowns). See Chapter 45 or impracticalities, the environments of the various locations must
for more information. be compared with the environmental specifications of the hardware
to be placed in them. Maintenance requirements can also affect the Once the control system architecture is designed, specifics of
selection of physical location of the I/Os and controller. software operation should be determined. This includes items such
Step 3. Determine the control task integration requirements. as set points necessary for a control task, control algorithms and cal-
Control tasks that require and share the same information (such as a culations used to determine output responses, graphic screen lay-
discharge pressure reading for starting both a condenser fan and a outs, report layouts, alarm message wording, and so forth. More
condenser water pump) must be accomplished either with the same detail is necessary, and more time could be spent determining the
controller or with multiple controllers that share information via details of software operation than is needed and spent defining the
interconnecting media. Tasks that do not share information can be system architecture. However, if the system architecture is solid, the
performed by separate controllers. The use of multiple controllers software can always be modified as needed. With improper archi-
minimizes the chance of catastrophic control failures. With multiple tecture, functional additions or corrections can be costly, time con-
controllers that share information, the interconnecting media must suming, and sometimes impossible.
be robust. In particular, the speed of data transfer between control-
lers must be suitable to maintain the control accuracy required. If INSULATION TECHNIQUES
the task is critical, the chance of failure of the interconnecting media
must be minimal. The two main functions of an insulation envelope are to reduce
Step 4. Determine the operator interface requirements. This the refrigeration requirements for the refrigerated space and to pre-
includes noting which controllers must have a local operator inter- vent condensation.
face, which controllers must have a remote operator interface, and
how many remote operator interface stations are required, and Vapor Retarder System
defining the hardware and software requirements of the local and The primary concern in the design of a low-temperature facility
remote operator interfaces. is the vapor retarder system, which should be as close to 100% effec-
Step 5. Select the interconnecting media between controllers and tive as is practical. The success or failure of an insulation envelope
their remote I/Os, between controllers and controllers, and between is due entirely to the effectiveness of the vapor retarder system in pre-
controllers and operator interfaces. The interconnecting medium to venting water vapor transmission into and through the insulation.
the remote I/Os is typically defined by the controller manufacturer; The driving force behind water vapor transmission is the differ-
it must be robust and high-speed because controllers’ decisions ence in vapor pressure across the vapor retarder. Once water vapor
depend on real-time data. The interconnecting medium between passes a vapor retarder, a series of detrimental events begins. The
controllers themselves is also typically defined by the controller water migrating into the insulation diminishes the thermal resis-
manufacturer; the speed requirements depend upon the tasks being tance of the insulation and eventually destroys the envelope. Ice for-
performed with the shared information. For the interconnecting mation inside the envelope system usually grows and physically
media between the controllers and the operator interfaces, speed is forces the building elements apart to the point of failure.
typically not as critical because the control continues even if the Another practical function of the vapor retarder is to stop air
connection fails. For the operator interface connection, the speed of infiltration. The driving force behind infiltration can be atmospheric
accessing a controller’s data is not as critical as having access to all pressure or ventilation.
the available data from the controller.
After condensing or freezing, some of the water vapor in the
Step 6. Evaluate the architecture for technical merit. The first
five steps should produce a list of controllers, their locations, their insulation revaporizes or sublimes. This vapor is eventually drawn
to the refrigeration coil and disposed of via the condensate drain, but
operator interfaces, and their control tasks. Once the list is com-
the amount removed is usually not sufficient to dry out the insula-
plete, the selected controllers should be evaluated for both proces-
sor memory available for programming and processor I/O capacity tion unless the vapor retarder discontinuity is located and corrected.
available for current and future requirements. The selected intercon- The vapor retarder must be located on the warm side of the insu-
necting media should be evaluated for distance and speed limita- lation. Each building element inside the prime retarder must be
tions. If any weaknesses are found, a different model, type, or even more permeable than the last to permit moisture to move through it,
manufacturer of the component should be selected. or it becomes a site of condensation or ice. This precept is aban-
Step 7. Evaluate the architecture for software availability. The doned for the sake of sanitation at the inside faces of coolers. How-
best microprocessor is of little good if no software exists to make it ever, the inside faces of freezers are usually permitted to breathe by
operate. It must be ascertained that software exists or can easily be leaving the joints uncaulked in the case of panel construction or by
written to provide (1) information transfer between controllers and using less permeable surfaces for other forms of construction. Fac-
operator interfaces; (2) the programming functions needed to per- tory-assembled insulation panels endure this double vapor retarder
form the control tasks; and (3) desired operator interface capabilities problem better than other types of construction.
such as graphics, historical data, reports, and alarm management. In walls with insufficient insulation, the temperature at the inside
Untested or proprietary software should be avoided. wall surface may during certain periods reach the dew point of the
Step 8. Evaluate the architecture for failure conditions. Deter- migrating water vapor, causing condensation and freezing. This can
mine how the system will operate with a failure of each controller. also happen to a wall that originally had adequate insulation but,
If the failure of a particular controller would be catastrophic, more through condensation or ice formation in the insulation, lost part of
controllers can be used to further distribute the control tasks, or its insulating value. In either case, the ice deposited on the wall will
electromechanical components can be added to allow manual com- gradually push the insulation and protective covering away from the
pletion of the tasks. For complex tasks that are impossible to control wall until the insulation structure collapses.
manually, it is essential that spare or backup control hardware be in It is extremely important to properly install vapor retarders and
stock and that operators be trained in the trouble-shooting and rein- seal joints in the vapor retarder material to ensure continuity from
stallation of control hardware and software. one surface to another (i.e., wall to roof, wall to floor, or wall to ceil-
Step 9. Evaluate the proposed architecture for cost, including ing). The failure of vapor retarder systems for refrigerated facilities
field wiring, components, start-up, training, downtime, and mainte- is almost always due to poor installation. The contractor must be
nance costs. All these costs must be considered together for a fair competent and experienced in the installation of vapor retarder sys-
and proper evaluation. If budgets are exceeded, then Steps 1 through tems to be able to execute a vaportight system.
8 must be repeated, removing any nonessential control tasks and Condensation on the inside of the cooler is unacceptable because
reducing the quantity of controllers, I/Os, and operator interfaces. (1) the wet surface provides the culture base for bacteria growth,
Table 2 Recommended Insulation R-Values

Thermal Resistance R, m2 ·K/W
Type of Facility Temperature Range, °C Floors Walls/Suspended Ceilings Roofs
Coolera 4 to 10 Perimeter insulation only 4.4 5.3 to 6.2
Chill coolera -4 to 2 3.5 4.2 to 5.6 6.2 to 7.0
Holding freezer –23 to –29 4.8 to 5.6 6.2 to 7.0 7.9 to 8.8
Blast freezerb –40 to –46 5.3 to 7.0 7.9 to 8.8 8.8 to 10.6
Note: Because of the wide range in the cost of energy and the cost of insulation materials based b R-values shown are for a blast freezer built within an unconditioned
on thermal performance, a recommended R-value is given as a guide in each of the respective space. If the blast freezer is built within a cooler or freezer, consult a
areas of construction. For more exact values, consult a designer and/or insulation supplier. designer and/or insulation supplier.
a If a cooler has the possibility of being converted to a freezer in the future, the owner should
consider insulating the facility with the higher R-values from the freezer section.
and (2) any dripping onto the product gives cause for condemnation APPLYING INSULATION
of the product in part or in whole.
The method and materials used to insulate roofs, ceilings, walls,
Stagnant or dead air spots behind beams or inside metal roof
floors, and doors need careful consideration.
decks can allow localized condensation. This moisture can be from
within the cooler or freezer (i.e., not necessarily from a vapor
Roofs
retarder leak).
The reality is that there is no 100% effective vapor retarder sys- The suspended ceiling method of construction is preferred for
tem. A system is successful when the rate of moisture infiltration is attaining a complete thermal and vapor envelope. Insulating mate-
equal to the rate of moisture removal by refrigeration, with no rials may be placed on the roof or floor above the refrigerated space
detectable condensation. rather than adhered to the structural ceiling. If this type of construc-
tion is not feasible, and the insulation must be installed under a con-
Types of Insulation crete or other ceiling, then the vapor retarder, insulation, and finish
materials should be mechanically supported from the structure
Rigid Insulation. Insulation materials, such as polystyrene, above rather than relying on adhesive application only. Suspending
polyisocyanurate, polyurethane, and phenolic material, have proven a wood or metal deck from the roof structure and applying insula-
satisfactory when installed with the proper vapor retarder and fin- tion and a vapor retarder to the top of the deck is another method of
ished with materials that provide protection from fire and form a hanging ceiling insulation. Skill of application and attention to pos-
sanitary surface. Selection of the proper insulation material should itive air and vapor seals are essential to continued effectiveness.
be based primarily on the economics of the installed insulation, Suspended insulated ceilings, whether built-up or prefabricated,
including the finish, sanitation, and fire protection. should be adequately ventilated to maintain near-ambient condi-
Panel Insulation. The use of prefabricated insulated panels for tions in the plenum space; this minimizes both condensation and
insulated wall and roof construction is widely accepted. These pan- deterioration of vapor retarder materials. A minimum of six air
els can be assembled around the building structural frame or against changes per hour is adequate in most cases. Permanent sealing
masonry or precast walls. Panels can be insulated at the factory with around insulating hanger rods, columns, conduit, and other penetra-
either polystyrene or urethane. Other insulation materials do not tions is needed.
lend themselves to panelized construction. The structural designer usually includes roofing expansion joints
The basic advantage, besides economics, of using insulated when installing insulation on top of metal decking or concrete struc-
panel construction is that repair and maintenance are simplified tural slabs for a building larger than 30 m by 30 m. Because the
because the outer skin also serves as the vapor retarder and is acces- refrigerated space is not normally subject to temperature variations,
sible. This is of great benefit if the structure is to be enlarged in the structural framing is usually designed without expansion or contrac-
future. Proper vapor retarder tie-ins then become practical. tion joints if it is entirely enclosed within the insulation envelope.
Foam-in-Place Insulation. This application method has gained Board insulation laid on metal decking should be installed in two or
acceptance as a result of developments in polyurethane insulation more layers with the seams staggered. An examination of the coef-
and equipment for installation. Portable blending machines are ficients of linear expansion for typical roof construction materials
available with a spray or frothing nozzle for feeding insulation into illustrates the need for careful attention to this phase of the building
the wall, floor, or ceiling cavities to fill without joints the space pro- design.
vided for monolithic insulation construction. This material has no Although asphalt built-up roofs have been used, loosely laid mem-
usable vapor resistance, and its application in floor construction brane roofing has become popular and requires little maintenance.
should be limited.
Precast Concrete Insulation Panels. This specialized form of Walls
construction has been successful when proper vapor retarder and Wall construction must be designed so that as few structural
other specialized elements are incorporated. As always, vapor members as possible penetrate the insulation envelope. Insulated
retarder continuity is the key to a successful installation. panels applied to the outside of the structural frame prevent conduc-
tion through the framing. Where masonry or concrete wall construc-
Insulation Thickness tion is used, structural framing must be independent of the exterior
The R-value of insulation required varies with the temperature wall. The exterior wall cannot be used as a bearing wall unless sus-
held in the refrigerated space and the conditions surrounding the pended insulated ceiling is used.
room. Table 2 shows generally recommended R-values for different Where interior insulated partitions are required, a double column
types of facilities. The range in R-values is due to variations in cost arrangement at the partition prevents structural members from pen-
of energy, insulation materials, and climatic conditions. For more etrating the wall insulation. For satisfactory operation and long life
exact values, consult a designer and/or insulation supplier. Insula- of the insulation structure, envelope construction should be used
tion with R-values lower than those shown should not be used. wherever possible.
Governing codes for fire prevention and sanitation must be fol- on design requirements. Almost universally, the pipes are made of
lowed in selecting a finish or panel. For conventional insulation plastic.
materials other than prefabricated panels, a vapor retarder system The pipe grid system is usually placed in the base concrete slab
should be selected. directly under the insulation. If the pipe is metal, a vapor retarder
Abrasion-resistant membranes, such as 0.25 mm thick black should be placed below the pipe to prevent corrosion. The fluid
polyethylene film with a minimum of joints, are suitable vapor should be an antifreeze solution such as propylene glycol with the
retarders. Rigid insulation can then be installed dry and finished proper inhibitor.
with plaster or sheet finishes, as the specific facility requires. In The amount of warming for any system can be calculated and is
refrigerated facilities, contraction of the interior finish is of more about the same for medium-sized and large refrigerated spaces
concern than expansion because temperatures are usually held far regardless of ambient conditions. The calculated heat input require-
below installation ambient temperatures. ment is the floor insulation leakage based on the temperature differ-
ence between the 4.4°C underfloor earth and room temperature
Floors (e.g., 27.4 K temperature difference for a -23°C storage room).
Freezer buildings have been constructed without floor insula- The flow of heat from the earth, about 4.1 W per square metre of
tion, and some operate without difficulty. However, the possibility floor, serves as a safety factor.
of failure is so great that this practice is seldom recommended.
Doors
Underfloor ice formation, which causes heaving of floors and
columns, can be prevented by heating the soil or fill under the insu- The selection and application of cold storage doors are a funda-
lation. Heating can be by air ducts, electric heating elements, or mental part of cold storage facility design and have a strong bearing
pipes through which a liquid is recirculated. on the overall economy of facility operation. The trend is to have
The air duct system works well for smaller storages. For a larger fewer and better doors. Manufacturers offer many types of doors
storage, it should be supplemented with fans and a source of heat if supplied with the proper thickness of insulation for the intended
the pipe is more than 30 m long. The end openings should be use. Four basic types of doors are swinging, horizontal sliding, ver-
screened to keep out rodents, insects, and any material that might tical sliding, and double acting. Door manufacturers’ catalogs give
close off the air passages. The ducts must be sloped for drainage to detailed illustrations of each. Doors used only for personnel cause
remove condensed moisture. Perforated pipes should not be used. few problems. In general, a standard swinging personnel door,
The electrical system is simple to install and maintain if the heat- 0.9 m wide by 2 m high and designed for the temperature and
ing elements are run in conduit or pipe so they can be replaced; how- humidity involved, is adequate.
ever, operating costs may be very high. Adequate insulation should The proper door for heavy traffic areas should provide maximum
be used because it directly influences energy consumption. traffic capacity with minimum loss of refrigeration and require min-
imum maintenance.
The pipe grid system, shown in Figure 9, is usually best because
The following are factors to consider when selecting cold storage
it can be designed and installed to warm where needed and can later
doors:
be regulated to suit varying conditions. Extensions of this system
can be placed in vestibules and corridors to reduce ice and wetness • Automatic doors are a primary requirement with forklift and auto-
on floors. The underfloor pipe grid also facilitates future expansion. matic conveyor material handling systems.
A heat exchanger in the refrigeration system, steam, or gas engine • Careless forklift operators are a hazard to door operation and
exhaust can provide a source of heat for this system. The tempera- effectiveness. Guards can be installed but are effective only when
ture of the recirculated fluid is controlled at 10 to 21°C, depending the door is open. Photoelectric and ultrasonic beams across the
Fig. 9 Typical One-Story Construction with Underfloor Warming Pipes

doorway or proximity loop control on both sides of the doorway and protected from damage when open. Also, because leading edges
can provide additional protection by monitoring objects in the of both leaves have safety edges, personnel, doors, trucks, and prod-
door openings or approaches. These systems can also control uct are protected. A pull cord is used for opening, and a time-delay
door opening and closing. relay, proximity-loop control, or photoelectric cell controls closing.
• The selection of automatic door systems to suit traffic require- Potential for major door damage may be reduced by proper location
ments and the building structure may require experienced techni- of pull-cord switches. Doors must be protected from moisture and
cal guidance. frost with heat or baffles. Automatic doors should have a preventive
• To ensure continuous door performance, the work area near the maintenance program to check gaskets, door alignment, electrical
doors must be supervised, and the doors must have planned switches, safety edges, and heating circuits. Safety releases on lock-
maintenance. ing devices are necessary to prevent entrapment of personnel.
• Cooled or refrigerated shipping platforms increase door effi- Fire-Rated Doors. Available in both swinging and sliding types,
ciency and reduce door maintenance because the humidity and fire-rated doors are also insulated. Refrigerated buildings have
temperature difference across the doorway is lower. Icing of the increased in size, and their contents have increased in value, so insur-
door is lessened, and fogging in trafficways is reduced. ance companies and fire authorities are requiring fire walls and doors.
Large Door Openings. Door openings that can accommodate
Bi-parting and Other Doors. Air curtains, plastic or rubber strip forklifts with high masts, two-pallet-high loads, and tractor-drawn
curtains, and bi-parting doors, give varied effectiveness. Strip cur- trailers are large enough to cause appreciable loss of refrigeration.
tains are not accepted by USDA standards if open product moves Infiltration of moisture is objectionable because it forms as conden-
through the doorway. Often the curtain seems to the forklift driver sate or frost on stacked merchandise and within the building struc-
to be a substitute for the door, so the door is left open with a con- ture. Door heights up to 3 to 3.7 m are frequently required,
current loss of refrigerated air. Quick-operating powered doors of especially where drive-through racks are used. Refrigeration loss
fabric or rigid plastic are beneficial for draft control. and infiltration of moisture can be particularly serious when doors
Swinging and Sliding Doors. A door with hinges on the right are located in opposite walls of a refrigerated space and crossflow of
edge (when observed from the side on which the operating hardware air is possible. It is important to reduce infiltration with enclosed
is mounted) is called a right-hand swing. A door that slides to the refrigerated loading docks and, in some instances, with one-way
right to open (when observed from the side of the wall on which it traffic vestibules.
is mounted) is called a right-slide door.
Vertical Sliding Doors. These doors, which are hand or motor
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
operated with counterbalanced spring or weights, are used on truck
receiving and shipping docks. Temperature Pulldown
Refrigerated Room Doors. Doors for pallet material handling
are usually automatic horizontal sliding doors, either single-slide or Because of the low temperatures in freezer facilities, contraction
biparting. of structural members in these spaces will be substantially greater
Metal or Plastic Cladding. Light metal cladding or a reinforced than in any surrounding ambient or cooler facilities. Therefore, con-
plastic skin protects most doors. Areas of abuse must be further pro- traction joints must be properly designed to prevent structural dam-
tected by heavy metal, either partial or full-height. age during facility pulldown.
Heat. To prevent ice formation and resultant faulty door opera- The first stage of temperature reduction should be from ambient
tion, doors are available with automatic electrical heat—not only in down to 2°C at whatever rate of reduction the refrigeration system
the sides, head, and sill of the door or door frame, but also in can achieve.
switches and cover hoods of power-operated units. Such heating The room should then be held at that temperature until it is dry.
elements are necessary on all four edges of double-acting doors in Finishes are especially subject to damage when temperatures are
low-temperature rooms. Safe devices that meet electrical codes lowered too rapidly. Portland cement plaster should be fully cured
must be used. before the room is refrigerated.
Bumpers and Guard Posts. Power-operated doors require pro- If there is a possibility that the room is airtight (most likely for
tection from abuse. Bumpers embedded in the floor on both sides of small rooms, 6 m by 6 m maximum), swinging doors should be par-
the wall and on each side of the passageway help preserve the life of tially open during pulldown to relieve the internal vacuum caused
the door. Correctly placed guard posts protect sliding doors from by the cooling of the air, or vents should be provided. Permanent air
traffic damage. relief vents are needed for continual operation of defrosts in small
Buck and Anchorage. Effective door operation is impossible rooms with only swinging doors.
without good buck and anchorage provisions. The recommenda- The concrete slab will contract during pulldown, causing
tions of the door manufacturers should be coordinated with wall slab/wall joints, contraction joints, and other construction joints to
construction. open. At the end of the holding period (i.e., at 2°C), any necessary
Door Location. Doors should be located to accommodate safe caulking should be done.
and economical material handling. Irregular aisles and blind spots An average time for achieving dryness is 72 h. However, there
in trafficways near doors should be avoided. are indicators that may be used, such as watching the rate of frost
Door Size. A hinged insulated door opening should provide at formation on the coils or measuring the rate of moisture removal by
least 300 mm clearance on both sides of a pallet. Thus, 1.8 m should capturing the condensation during defrost.
be the minimum door width for a 1.2 m wide pallet load. Double- After the refrigerated room is dry, the temperature can then be
acting doors should be 2.4 m wide. Specific conditions at a partic- reduced again at whatever rate the refrigeration equipment can
ular doorway can require variations from this recommendation. A achieve until the operating temperature is reached. Rates of 6 K per
standard height of 3 m accommodates all high-stacking forklifts. day have been used in the past, but if care has been taken to remove
Sill. A concrete sill minimizes the rise at the door sill. A thermal all the construction moisture in the previous steps, faster rates are
break should be provided in the floor slab at or near the plane of the possible without damage.
front of the wall.
Power Doors. Horizontal sliding doors are standard when elec- Material Handling Equipment
tric operation is provided. The two-leaf biparting unit keeps open- Both private and public refrigerated facilities can house high-
ing and closing time to a minimum, and the door is out of the way volume, year-round operations with fast-moving order pick areas
backed by in-transit bulk storage. Distribution facilities may carry Apertures

300 to 3000 items or as many as 30 000 lots. Palletized loads stored
either in bulk or on racks are transported by forklifts or high-rise • Remind personnel to close doors quickly to reduce frosting in
storage/retrieval machines in a -18 to -29°C environment. Stan- rooms.
dard, battery-driven forklifts that can lift up to 7.6 m can service • Check the rollers and door travel periodically to ensure that the
one-deep, two-deep reach-in, drive-in, drive-through, or gravity seal at the door edge is effective. If leaks are detected, adjust the
flow storage racks. Special forklifts can lift up to 18 m. door to restore a moisture- and airtight condition.
Automated storage/retrieval machines make better use of storage • Check doors and door edges to detect damage from forklifts or
volume, require fewer personnel, and reduce the refrigeration load other traffic. Repair any damage immediately to prevent door
because the facility requires less roof and floor area. This equipment icing or motor overload due to excessive friction.
operates in a height range of 7 to 30 m to service one-deep, two-deep • Lubricate doors according to the maintenance schedule from the
reach-in, two- to twelve-deep rollpin, or gravity flow pallet storage door manufacturer to ensure free movement and complete closure.
racks. On-line computers and bar code identification allow a system • Periodically check seals around openings for ducts, piping, and
to automatically control the retrieval, transfer, and delivery of wiring in the walls and ceiling.
products. In addition, these systems can record product location and
inventory and load several delivery trucks simultaneously from one BIBLIOGRAPHY
order pick conveyor and sorting device. Aldrich, D.F. and R.H. Bond. 1985. Thermal performance of rigid cellular
A refrigerated plant may have two or more material handling foam insulation at subfreezing temperatures. In: Thermal performance of
systems if the storage area contains fast- and slow-moving reserve the exterior envelopes of buildings III, pp. 500-09. ASHRAE.
storage, plus slow-moving order pick. Fast-moving items may be Baird, C.D., J.J. Gaffney, and M.T. Talbot. 1988. Design criteria for efficient
delivered and order picked by a conventional forklift pallet opera- and cost effective forced air cooling systems for fruits and vegetables.
tion with up to 9 m stacking heights. In the fast-moving order pick ASHRAE Transactions 94(1):1434-54.
section, the storage room internal height is raised to accommodate Ballou, D.F. 1981. A case history of a frost heaved freezer floor. ASHRAE
Transactions 87(2):1099-1105.
storage/retrieval machines; reserve pallet storage; order pick slots;
Beatty, K.O., E.B. Birch, and E.M. Schoenborn. 1951. Heat transfer from
multilevel palletizing; and the infeed, discharge, and order pick con- humid air to metal under frosting conditions. Journal of the ASRE
veyors. Mezzanines may be considered in order to provide maxi- (December):1203-7.
mum access to the order pick slots. Intermediate level fire Cole, R.A. 1989. Refrigeration load in a freezer due to hot gas defrost and
protection sprinklers may be required in the high rack or mezzanine their associated costs. ASHRAE Transactions 95(2).
areas above 4.3 m high. Coleman, R.V. 1983. Doors for high rise refrigerated storage. ASHRAE
Transactions 89(1B):762-65.
Fire Protection Corradi, G. 1973. Air cooling units for the refrigerating industry and new
equipment. Revue generale du froid 1(January):45-51.
Ordinary wet sprinkler systems can be applied to refrigerated Courville, G.E., J.P. Sanders, and P.W. Childs. 1985. Dynamic thermal per-
spaces above freezing. In rooms below freezing, entering water will formance of insulated metal deck roof systems. In: Thermal performance
freeze if a sprinkler head malfunctions or is mechanically damaged. of the exterior envelopes of buildings III, pp. 53-63. ASHRAE.
If this occurs, the affected piping must be removed. In lower tem- Crawford, R.R., J.P. Mavec, and R.A. Cole. 1992. Literature survey on rec-
perature spaces, a dry air or nitrogen-charged system should be ommended procedures for the selection, placement, and type of evapo-
selected. rators for refrigerated warehouses. ASHRAE Transactions 98(1).
The design of a dry sprinkler system operating in areas below D’Artagnan, S. 1985. The rate of temperature pulldown. ASHRAE Journal
0°C requires special knowledge and should not be undertaken with- 27(9):36.
out expert guidance. Freezer storage with rack storages 9 m high or Downing, C.G. and W.A. Meefert. 1993. Effectiveness of cold storage infil-
tration protection devices. ASHRAE Transactions 99(2).
higher may require special design, and the initial design should be
FDA. 1997. Food code. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Available from
shown to the insuring company. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA. No. PB97-
Local regulations may require ceiling isolation smoke curtains 141204LEU.
and smoke vents near the roof in large refrigerated chambers. These Hampson, G.R. 1981. Energy conservation opportunities in cold storage
features allow smoke to escape and help the fire-fighting crew warehouses. ASHRAE Transactions 87(2):845-49.
locate the fire. If the building does not have a sprinkler system, cen- Hendrix, W.A., D.R. Henderson, and H.Z. Jackson. 1989. Infiltration heat
tral reporting or warning systems are available for hazardous areas. gains through cold storage room doorways. ASHRAE Transactions
95(2).
Inspection and Maintenance Holske, C.F. 1953. Commercial and industrial defrosting: General princi-
ples. Refrigerating Engineering 61(3):261-62.
Buildings can change in dimension due to settling, temperature Kerschbaumer, H.G. 1971. Analysis of the influence of frost formation on
change, and other factors; therefore, cold storage facilities should be evaporators and of the defrost cycles on performance and power con-
inspected regularly to spot problems early, so that preventive main- sumption of refrigerating systems. Proceedings of the 13th International
tenance can be performed in time to avert serious damage. Congress of Refrigeration, 1-12.
Inspection and maintenance procedures fall into two areas: basic Kurilev, E.S. and M.Z. Pechatnikov. 1966. Patterns of airflow distribution in
cold storage rooms. Bulletin of the International Institute of Refrigera-
system (floor, wall, and roof/ceiling systems); and apertures
tion, Annex 1966-1, 573-79.
(doors, frames, and other access to cold storage rooms). Lehman, D.C. and J.E. Ferguson. 1982. A modified jacketed cold storage
Basic System design. ASHRAE Transactions 88(2):228-334.
Lotz, H. 1967. Heat and mass transfer and pressure drop in frosting finned
• Stack pallets at a sufficient distance (460 mm) from walls or ceil- coils; Progress in refrigeration science and technology. Proceedings of
ing to permit air circulation. the 12th International Congress of Refrigeration, Madrid 2:49-505.
• Examine walls and ceiling at random every month for frost Niederer, D.H. 1976. Frosting and defrosting effects on coil heat transfer.
ASHRAE Transactions 82(1):467-73.
buildup. If buildup persists, locate the break in the vapor retarder.
Paulson, B.A. 1988. Air distribution in freezer areas. International Institute
• For insulated ceilings below a plenum, inspect the plenum areas of Ammonia Refrigeration 10th Annual Meeting, No. 10, 261-71.
for possible roof leaks or condensation. Powers, G.L. 1981. Ambient gravity air flow stops freezer floor heaving.
• If condensation or leaks are detected, make repairs immediately. ASHRAE Transactions 87(2):1107-16.
Sainsbury, G.F. 1985. Reducing shrinkage through improved design and Stoecker, W.F., J.J. Lux, and R.J. Kooy. 1983. Energy considerations in hot-
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34. 89(2A):549-68.
Sastry, S.K. 1985. Factors affecting shrinkage of foods in refrigerated stor- Treschel, H.R., P.R. Achenbach, and J.R. Ebbets. 1985. Effect of an exterior
age. ASHRAE Transactions 91(1B):683-89. air infiltration barrier on moisture condensation and accumulation within
Shaffer, J.A. 1983. Foundations and superstructure systems for stacker crane insulated frame wall cavities. ASHRAE Transactions 91(2A):545-59.
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and concepts to reduce energy losses through structural thermal bridges.
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CHAPTER 13

REFRIGERATED FACILITY DESIGN

A REFRIGERATED facility is any building or section of a

• What percentage is anticipated for long-term storage? Products

A room is considered sufficiently sealed if, under uniform tem-

tions should be filled. Where practicable, the wrap insulation should

Air/Vapor Treatment at Junctions

Surface Preparation Electrical Wiring

Schneider System The selection of the refrigeration system for a refrigerated

Fig. 6 Fan-Coil Units for Refrigerated Facilities

Microprocessor controls and electronic sensors generally offer

Table 2 Recommended Insulation R-Values

Fig. 9 Typical One-Story Construction with Underfloor Warming Pipes

backed by in-transit bulk storage. Distribution facilities may carry Apertures

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