Basic Electrical Engineering

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Basic Electrical Engineering Electric Utilities and Protection 19EEE15
BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

By
B S MOHAN
Senior Assistant Professor
EEE Department
Module - 4
DIFFERENT SOURCES OF ENERGY
Figure 1: Various energy sources (from creativemarket.com)

ELECTRICAL ENERGY IS SUPERIOR TO ALL OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY DUE TO THE
FOLLOWING REASONS
(1) Convenient form. Electrical energy is a very convenient form of energy. It can be easily converted into other
forms of energy. For example, if we want to convert electrical energy into heat, the only thing to be done is to pass
electrical current through a wire of high resistance e.g., a heater. Similarly, electrical energy can be converted into
light (e.g. electric bulb), mechanical energy (e.g. electric motors) etc.
(2) Easy control. The electrically operated machines have simple and convenient starting, control and operation.
For instance, an electric motor can be started or stopped by turning on or off a switch. Similarly, with simple
EEE Department NHCE B S MOHAN
arrangements, the speed of electric motors can be easily varied over the desired range.
(3) Greater flexibility. One important reason for preferring electrical energy is the flexibility that it offers. It can
be easily transported from one place to another with the help of conductors.
(4) Cheapness. Electrical energy is much cheaper than other forms of energy. Thus it is overall economical to use
this form of energy for domestic, commercial and industrial purposes.
(5) Cleanliness. Electrical energy is not associated with smoke, fumes or poisonous gases. Therefore, its use
ensures cleanliness and healthy conditions.
(6) High transmission efficiency. The consumers of electrical energy are generally situated quite away from the
centres of its production. The electrical energy can be transmitted conveniently and efficiently from the centres of
generation to the consumers with the help of overhead conductors known as transmission lines.
STRUCTURE OF ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM

 The energy is neither be created nor be destroyed but it can be converted from one form to another.
 Generation of electricity energy is nothing but conversion of various other forms of energy into electrical
energy. The various energy forms used to convert to electrical energy is shown in figure 2.
 The electrical power generated in bulk at the generating stations which are also called as POWER
STATIONS.
 Depending upon the source of energy used, these stations are called Thermal, Hydro, diesel, nuclear, solar,
wind, Geo-thermal power stations etc…
Structure of electrical power system consists of three important components

1. Generation Station
2. Transmission Network
3. Distribution Network
A typical transmission and distribution scheme is shown in figure 2.
A scheme shows a generating station which is located too far from cities and towns.
 Generating Station: At 11 kV or more than that up to 25 kV voltage level is maintained at alternator
stator terminals to generate electrical power in the generating station.
 Primary Transmission: From this generating substation power is sent to the nearer substation to increase
the voltage level higher than previous. This level of voltage is increased at different suitable levels; it may
be at 400 kV or 765 kV or 1000 kV. This high voltage or extra high voltage level is maintained to transmit
the power to a long distant substation.
 Secondary Transmission: At the end point of primary transmission of power, in the receiving
substation, the step down transformers are used to step down the voltage level to 220 kV/33kV or 66kV.
 Primary Distribution: Power transformer, at the end of the secondary transmission, in the secondary
substation, steps down to 33 kV/ 11 kV or 6.6kV. From this point, the primary distribution of power
starts to distribute power to different distribution stations.
o Large industries receive power from secondary substation.
 Secondary Distribution: At the end of the primary distribution, in the secondary distribution, the step
down transformers are used to step down the voltage level to 11 kV or 415 V (Line Voltage) for three
phase and 230V for single phase. From these distribution stations to consumer ends, 415 V is kept to
sustain for utilization purpose.
o Small industries and residences consume at this level. It is known as secondary distribution.

Figure 2: Schematic representation of a tipical transmission and distribution scheme

Types of Power Lines:
ELECTRICAL TARIFF
 The electrical energy produced by a power station is delivered to a large number of consumers.
 The consumers can be persuaded to use electrical energy if it is sold at reasonable rates.
 The tariff i.e., the rate at which electrical energy is sold naturally becomes attention inviting for electric
supply company.
 The supply company has to ensure that the tariff is such that it not only recovers the total cost of producing
electrical energy but also earns profit on the capital investment.
The rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a consumer is known as tariff.
Objectives of tariff. Like other commodities, electrical energy is also sold at such a rate so that it not only returns
the cost but also earns reasonable profit. Therefore, a tariff should include the following items:
(i) Recovery of cost of producing electrical energy at the power station.
(ii) Recovery of cost on the capital investment in transmission and distribution systems.
(iii) Recovery of cost of operation and maintenance of supply of electrical energy e.g., metering equipment, billing
etc.
(iv) A suitable profit on the capital investment.

Types of Tariff
1. Simple tariff.
When there is a fixed rate per unit of energy consumed, it is called a simple tariff or uniform rate tariff.
In this type of tariff, the price charged per unit is constant i.e., it does not vary with increase or decrease in number
of units consumed. The consumption of electrical energy at the consumer’s terminals is recorded by means of an
energy meter. This is the simplest of all tariffs and is readily understood by the consumers.
Disadvantages
(i) There is no discrimination between different types of consumers since every consumer has to pay equitably for
the fixed charges.
(ii) The cost per unit delivered is high.
(iii) It does not encourage the use of electricity.
2. Flat rate tariff.

When different types of consumers are charged at different uniform per unit rates, it is called a flat rate tariff.
In this type of tariff, the consumers are grouped into different classes and each class of consumers is charged at a
different uniform rate. For instance, the flat rate per kWh for lighting load may be 60 paise, whereas it may be
slightly less† (say 55 paise per kWh) for power load. The different classes of consumers are made taking into
account their diversity and load factors. The advantage of such a tariff is that it is more fair to different types of
consumers and is quite simple in calculations.
Disadvantages
(i) Since the flat rate tariff varies according to the way the supply is used, separate meters are required for lighting
load, power load etc. This makes the application of such a tariff expensive and complicated.
(ii) A particular class of consumers is charged at the same rate irrespective of the magnitude of energy consumed.
However, a big consumer should be charged at a lower rate as in his case the fixed charges per unit are reduced.
3. Block rate tariff.

When a given block of energy is charged at a specified rate and the succeeding blocks of energy are charged at
progressively reduced rates, it is called a block rate tariff.
In block rate tariff, the energy consumption is divided into blocks and the price per unit is fixed in each block. The
price per unit in the first block is the highest and it is progressively reduced for the succeeding blocks of energy.
For example, the first 30 units may be charged at the rate of 60 paise per unit ; the next 25 units at the rate of 55
paise per unit and the remaining additional units may be charged at the rate of 30 paise per unit.
The advantage of such a tariff is that the consumer gets an incentive to consume more electrical energy. This
increases the load factor of the system and hence the cost of generation is reduced. However, its principal defect is
that it lacks a measure of the consumer’s demand. This type of tariff is being used for majority of residential and
small commercial consumers.
4. Two-part tariff.
When the rate of electrical energy is charged on the basis of maximum demand of the consumer and the units
consumed, it is called a two-part tariff.
In two-part tariff, the total charge to be made from the consumer is split into two components viz., fixed charges
and running charges. The fixed charges depend upon the maximum demand of the consumer while the running
charges depend upon the number of units consumed by the consumer. Thus, the consumer is charged at a certain
amount per kW of maximum demand plus a certain amount per kWh of energy consumed i.e.,

Total charges = Rs (b × kW + c × kWh)

where, b = charge per kW of maximum demand
c = charge per kWh of energy consumed
This type of tariff is mostly applicable to industrial consumers who have appreciable maximum demand.
Advantages
(i) It is easily understood by the consumers.
(ii) It recovers the fixed charges which depend upon the maximum demand of the consumer but are independent of
the units consumed.
Disadvantages
(i) The consumer has to pay the fixed charges irrespective of the fact whether he has consumed or not consumed
the electrical energy.
(ii) There is always error in assessing the maximum demand of the consumer.
5. Maximum demand tariff.

It is similar to two-part tariff with the only difference that the maximum demand is actually measured by installing
maximum demand meter in the premises of the consumer. This removes the objection of two-part tariff where the
maximum demand is assessed merely on the basis of the ratable value. This type of tariff is mostly applied to big
consumers.
However, it is not suitable for a small consumer (e.g., residential consumer) as a separate maximum demand meter
is required.
6. Power factor tariff.

The tariff in which power factor of the consumer’s load is taken into consideration is known as power factor
tariff.
In an a.c. system, power factor plays an important role. A low power factor increases the rating of station
equipment and line losses. Therefore, a consumer having low power factor must be penalised.
The following are the important types of power factor tariff :
(i) k VA maximum demand tariff : It is a modified form of two-part tariff. In this case, the fixed charges are made
on the basis of maximum demand in kVA and not in kW. As kVA is inversely proportional to power factor,
therefore, a consumer having low power factor has to contribute more towards the fixed charges. This type of tariff
has the advantage that it encourages the consumers to operate their appliances and machinery at improved power
factor.
(ii) Sliding scale tariff : This is also know as average power factor tariff. In this case, an average power factor, say
0·8 lagging, is taken as the reference. If the power factor of the consumer falls below this factor, suitable
additional charges are made. On the other hand, if the power factor is above the reference, a discount is allowed to
the consumer.
(iii) kW and kVAR tariff : In this type, both active power (kW) and reactive power (kVAR) supplied are charged
separately. A consumer having low power factor will draw more reactive power and hence shall have to pay more
charges.
7. Three-part tariff.
When the total charge to be made from the consumer is split into three parts viz., fixed charge, semi-fixed charge
and running charge, it is known as a three-part tariff. i.e.,
Total charge = Rs (a + b × kW + c × kWh)
where a = fixed charge made during each billing period. It includes
interest and depreciation on the cost of secondary distribution and labour cost of collecting revenues,
b = charge per kW of maximum demand,
c = charge per kWh of energy consumed.

SERVICE MAINS
The conductors which bring electrical energy from the nearest pole carrying the secondary distribution system to
the consumer’s premises are known as the service mains.
The length of these lines run from poles to the meter board of the premises.
For all domestic requirements, only single phase supply is required and hence only two wires are used for
the service mains, one is the phase wire and the other is the neutral wire.
Normally ACSR (Aluminum core steel reinforced) conductor is used as service main.
There are two types of service mains:

1. Overhead service mains
2. Underground service mains
METERBOARD AND DISTRIBUTION BOARD
Supply is taken through service mains, fuse and to the input terminal of the energymeter which is fixed in a
wooden or Galvanized Iron (GI) or Mild Steel (MS).
The main switch which is used to switch ON ar switch OFF the supply to the building is provided next to the
energymeter and the output terminals of the energymeter are connected as input terminals of the main switch.
The output terminals of the main switch are connected to the distribution board. The main switch is usually an Iron
Clad Double Pole (ICDP) switch.
The distribution board is a rectangular box made of seasonal wood or Galvanized Iron (GI) or Mild Steel (MS).
In addition to the main switch, two bus bars are fixed, one is the neutral bus bar and the other is the phase bus bar.
The domestic load is distributed to various sub-circuits from the distribution board.
Each sub-circuits are controlled by MCB (miniature circuit breaker) as shown below
Brief Discussion on Concealed Conduit Wiring

In this system PVC (polyvinyl chloride) or VIR (Vulcanized India Rubber) cables are run through metallic or PVC
pipes providing good protection against mechanical injury and fire due to short circuit.
They are either embedded inside the walls or supported over the walls, and are known as concealed wiring or
surface conduit wiring (open conduit) respectively.
The conduits are buried inside the walls and the wires are drawn through them.
The system is best suited for public buildings, industries and workshops. This type of system is adopted in all
urban construction.
Advantages:
1. No risk of fire and good protection against mechanical injury.
2. The lead and return wires can be carried in the same tube.
3. Earthing and continuity is assured.
4. Waterproof and trouble shooting is easy.
5. Durable and maintenance free.
6. Aesthetic in appearance.
7. The weather conditions cannot effect on this system.
Disadvantages:
1. Very expensive system of wiring.
2. Requires good skilled workmanship.
3. Erection is quiet complicated and is time consuming.
4. Risk of short circuit under wet conditions (due to condensation of
water in tubes).
5. Alternations are difficult.
6. Finding fault is difficult.
Two-way and three-way control of lamps
Two-way Control of Lamp
 Two way switching is most commonly found on

staircase and long corridors.
 It consist of two, two-way switches. A two-way
switch operates always in one of the two possible
positions.
 Let the position of switch S1 be at 1 and that of
switch S2 at 3, thus the circuit is closed and bulb
glows.
 A person changes the position of S1 from 1 to 2
and of S2 remain at position 3, the circuit
continuity is opened and the bulb goes off.
Table.1 Two control of a lamp
 Positional changes of S1 and S2 and the condition
Position of S1 Position of S2 Condition of Lamp
1 3 ON of lamp is tabulated in Table.1.
1 4 OFF
2 3 OFF
2 4 ON
Three-way Control of Lamp
Position of Position of Position of Condition of Lamp Position of Position of Position of Condition of

S3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 Lamp
Straight 1 3 ON Cross 1 3 OFF
Connection 1 4 OFF Connection 1 4 ON
2 3 OFF 2 3 ON
2 4 ON 2 4 OFF
 This is also a type of staircase
 It consists of two, two-way switch S1 & S2 with one intermediate switch S3
 Three - way control of lamp can be divided in to two parts, Straight and Cross connection.
 Straight connection:- A and B are connected; C and D are connected. By switching S1 & S2 at different
positions the lamp can be switched ON or OFF.
 Cross Connection:- A and D; C & B are connected. By switching S1 & S2 at different positions the lamp can be
switched ON or OFF.
Auditorium Wiring
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
A. The system shall operate as a manually preset, digitally controlled, multiplexed, microprocessor based system that
allows control and dimming of auditorium (house) and stage lighting by a lighting technician at the portable control
console. House lights may also be controlled and dimmed at the back stage remote control station.
B. The overall lighting scheme is preplanned by the lighting director. The lighting technician programs the lighting
scheme into the system.
1. An assignment of dimmer to channel is programmed utilizing the electronic patch panel.
2. The level values of each dimmer are also programmed.
3. The patch panel allows preview of all assignments (dimmers assigned to channel, channels that dimmer is
assigned to, dimmer level value).
4. A library cassette player/recorder allows lighting schemes to be stored on cassette for future use.
C. The control console is then used to control and dim lighting through the dimmer board according to the lighting
scheme.
Electric shock: precautions against shock

A sudden agitation of the nervous system of a body, due to the passage of an electric current is called an electric
shock.
There are several causes that have been detected to cause electric shock such as:
 Fault in electric wires
 Exposed wires
 Wet wire
 Open electric sockets
The factors affecting the severity of the shock are:-

 Magnitude of current passing through the body.
 Path of the current passing through the body
 Time for which the current is passed through the body.
 Frequency of current.
 Physical condition of the person.
First aid against shock

 Carry the affected person and lay him in a comfortable position and call the doctor immediately
 Do not make crowd round and let patient get fresh air
 Look for stoppage of breathing.
 Start giving him artificial respiration if breathing is stopped.
 Don't give anything to the person to drink when the person is unconscious.
 The artificial respiration to be continued till doctor or for few some more time.
 The burns caused due to electric shock should be covered with sterile dressing and then bandaged.
Precautions against shock

Electric shock can be avoided or prevented. Follow the recommended practices listed below.
 Faulty installation
 Improper grounding
 Maintenance of electrical equipment.

1. Ground all electrical equipment and the work piece. Prevent accidental electrical shocks. Connect power
source, control cabinets, and work piece to an approved electrical ground. The work lead is not aground lead. It is
used to complete the welding circuit. A separate connection is required to ground the work; or the work lead
terminal on the power source may be connected to ground. Do not mistake the work lead for a ground connection.
2. Use the correct cable size. Sustained overloading will cause cable failure and result in possible electrical shock
or fire hazard. Work cable should be the same rating as the torch cable.
3. Make sure all electrical connections are tight, clean, and dry. Poor electrical connections can heat up, and
even melt. They can also cause bad welds and produce dangerous arcs and sparks. Do not allow water, grease, or
dirt to accumulate on plugs, sockets, or electrical units.
4. Keep dry. Moisture and water can conduct electricity. To prevent shock, it is advisable to keep work areas,
equipment, and clothing dry at all times. Fix water leaks immediately. Make sure that you are well insulated. Wear
dry gloves, rubber-soled shoes, or stand on a dry board or platform.
5. Keep cables and connectors in good condition. Improper or worn electrical connections can cause short
circuits and can increase the chance of an electrical shock. Do not use worn, damaged, or bare cables.
6. Avoid open-circuit voltage. Open-circuit voltage can cause electric shock. When several welders are working
with arcs of different polarities, or when using multiple alternating-current machines, the open-circuit voltages can
be additive. The added voltages increase the severity of the shock hazard.
7. Wear insulated gloves when adjusting equipment. Power should be shut off and insulated gloves should be
worn when making any equipment adjustment to assure shock protection.
Various circuit protective devices – Fuses, MCB

Equipment applied to electric power systems to detect abnormal and intolerable conditions and to initiate
appropriate corrective actions. These devices include lightning arresters, surge protectors, fuses, and relays with
associated circuit breakers and so forth.
From time to time, disturbances in the normal operation of a system occur. These may be caused by natural
phenomena, such as lightning, wind, or snow; by falling objects such as trees; by animal contacts; Accidental
means traceable to reckless drivers, inadvertent acts by plant maintenance personnel, or other acts of humans
Protective devices must therefore be installed to ensure continuity of electrical service, to limit injury to people,
and to limit damage to equipment when problem situations develop. Protective devices are applied
commensurately with the degree of protection desired or felt necessary for the particular system.
The various types of protective devise used in domestic wiring are:
1. Fuse
2. Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
3. Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
4. Residual current circuit breaker (RCCCB)
5. Earthing
Introduction to FUSE
 It's a protective device of simplest form.
 It is connected before any appliance in series for protection. It is always connected to phase wire before an
device.
 It's a small piece of metal. When excessive current (flow of current than its withstand able capacity) flows
through it, the metal melts and thus the circuit is interrupted from the supply.
 Thus fuse is used to protect the devices from excessive flow of current.
 It is used to interrupt fault current.
 Either copper or lead-tin alloy is generally used as fuse wire.
Fuses can also be categorized based on one time or multiple Operations.
1) One time use only Fuse 2) Resettable Fuses
For domestic purpose, kit-kat type fuse unit is used in general.
The phase or incoming wire is inserted from one side and connected to terminal while outgoing connection is
taken from other terminal. the two terminals inside the base are connected through fuse wire.
Limitations:- Fuse cannot be used for large currents as they bear low breaking capacity.
Other limitation, once the fuse blows out, the metal wire must be replaced with new one.
Tin-lead alloy fuse wires are used up to 30A.
Fuse:- It's a protective device, A small piece of metal which is connected in series. When the current through it
increases beyond some predetermined value, the metal melts to interrupt the circuit, which protects the circuit from
excessive high current.
Fuse Element:- The part of the fuse which melts when excessive current flows through it is called fuse element or
fuse wire.
Rated Current or Nominal current:- It is the maximum current that a fuse element can withstand without any undue
overheating or melting of fuse element.
Fusing current:- The current that requires to melt the fuse element. It is always greater than rated current.
Kit-Kat type fuse

Advantage:
Fuse is cheapest type of protection in an electrical circuit.
Operation of fuse is simple and no complexity is involved
The operation time of fuse can be made much smaller than operation of circuit breaker. It is the primary protection
device against short circuits.
It requires no maintenance.
Inverse-time characteristics enables it to use for over load protection.
Disadvantage:-
It requires to be replaced after breaking over a fault.
Time taken for replacing, fuse element; the load in series are switched off, thus interruption of load.
It is not possible to provide secondary protection for fuse.
Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

A miniature circuit breaker is an electromechanical device which makes and breaks the circuit in normal operation
and disconnects the circuit under the abnormal condition when current exceeds a preset value.
MCB is a automatic switching device with thermal and magnetic operation to provide protection against overload
and short-circuit.
Operation of miniature circuit breaker due to thermal effect of over current and other due to electromagnetic
effect of over current.
The thermal operation of miniature circuit breaker is achieved with a bimetallic strip whenever continuous over
current flows through MCB, the bimetallic strip is heated and deflects by bending. This deflection of bimetallic
strip releases mechanical latch. As this mechanical latch is attached with operating mechanism, it causes to open
the miniature circuit breaker contacts.
Electromagnetic effect: During short circuit condition, sudden rising of current, causes electromechanical
displacement of plunger associated with tripping coil or solenoid of MCB. The plunger strikes the trip lever
causing immediate release of latch mechanism consequently open the circuit breaker contacts.
General rating for MCB for single phase is 230V; 400V for three phase or 220V for DC. The current rating is
available from 0.5A to 63A. It is available as single pole, double pole and triple pole switches.
Switch
Miniature circuit breaker
Advantage:
1. MCB is more sensitive to current than fuse. It detects any abnormality in the current flow and
automatically switches off the electrical circuit.
2. In case of MCB, the faulty zone of electrical circuit can be easily identified. Faulty circuit trips to
the off position. On the other hand in case of fuse, the complete fuse wire needs to be checked by opening
fuse grip for confirming the faulty zone.
3. With MCB it is very simple to resume to the supply. You just need to push the knob of MCB back
to on position. But in case of fuse, the entire fuse wire needs to be replaced.
4. MCB provides a better interface with the help of knob than a fuse. In case of fuse the compete handle
needs to be taken care out.
5. Handling MCB is electrically safer than handling a fuse.
6. MCB is reusable and hence has less maintenance and replacement cost. Whereas a fuse needs to be
replaced whenever it goes faulty.
Fuse MCB
 The operation of fuse is highly dependent on selection of its proper  MCB instantly disconnects the supply
rating. If fuse wire is not selected properly then it results in non in the event of short circuit or
operation of fuse even in case of short circuit, or before the value overload.
of rated current  Restarting power supply after tripping
 If the fuse wire operation is replaced with a newer one but go loose due to overload or short circuit is
then it may be dangerous. Also to replace a blown fuse in between easy.
current carrying points is dangerous.  No maintenance and repair is
 During replacement of fuse wire, the exact size of fuse wire may required.
not be available.  The board employing MCB is
 The board employing fuse is not compact compact

Earthing
The main reason for doing earthing in electrical network is for the safety. When all metallic parts in electrical
equipments are grounded then if the insulation inside the equipments fails there are no dangerous voltages present
on the equipment case.
Purpose of Earthing:
(1) Safety for Human life/ Building/Equipments:
 To save human life from danger of electrical shock or death by blowing a fuse i.e. To provide an alternative
path for the fault current to flow so that it will not endanger the user
 To protect buildings, machinery & appliances under fault conditions.
 To ensure that all exposed conductive parts do not reach a dangerous potential.
 To provide safe path to dissipate lightning and short circuit currents.
 To provide stable platform for operation of sensitive electronic equipments.
(2) Over voltage protection:
 Lightning, line surges or unintentional contact with higher voltage lines can cause dangerously high voltages
to the electrical distribution system. Earthing provides an alternative path around the electrical system to
minimize damages in the System.
Necessity of Equipment Earthing
a) Safety of personnel
b) Safety of equipment. Prevent or at least minimize damage to equipment as a result of flow of heavy currents.
Consider a single phase apparatus.

The supply positional V volts, Resistance between inner windings and frame is say, Ri called as insulation
resistance.
Resistance of human body of a person is Rbody.
I is the supply current; which includes current required for the apparatus.
Faulty current
flowing through
earth rather
through person
When a person standing on earth touches the faulted
appliance, The current gets an alternative path,
through that person's body and then to earth. When the body of the apparatus is earth, as shown above.
Under faulty condition, the leakage or excess current
Current through the person=Ibody which is equal to flows through the alternative path i.e. earthing and not
V through a person's body because the resistance offered by
Ibody 
Ri  Rbody earthing is very small compared to a person's body.
If the insulation is not damaged then Ri is infinite, The NIOSH states "Under dry conditions, the resistance
the current through body is offered by the human body may be as high as 100,000
Ohms. Wet or broken skin may drop the body's
V
Ibody  0 resistance to 1,000 Ohms,"
  Rbody
Thus Earthing is essential to ensure safety of a person
coming in contact with the faulty apparatus.

Types of Earthing
Plat Earthing:
 Generally for plate type earthing normal Practice is to use
 Cast iron plate of size 60cm x 60cm x 1.2 cm. OR
 Galvanized iron plate of size 60cm x 60cm x 6.35cm. OR
 Copper plate of size 60cm * 60cm * 3.18cm
 Plate placed vertically down burred at the depth of 8 feet and is embedded in alternate layers of coal and
salt for a thickness of 15 cm. In addition, water is poured for keeping the earth electrode resistance value
well below a maximum of 5 ohms. The earth wire is securely bolted to the earth plate. A cement masonry
chamber is built with a cast iron cover for easy regular maintenance.
 GI strip of size 50 mm x 6 mm bolted with the plate is brought up to the ground level.
 These types of earth pit are generally filled with alternate layer of charcoal & salt up to 4 feet from the
bottom of the pit.
Pipe Earthing:
Earth electrode made of a GI (galvanized) iron pipe of 38mm in diameter and length of 2m (depending on the
current) with 12mm holes on the surface is placed upright at a depth of 4.75m in a permanently wet ground. To
keep the value of the earth resistance at the desired level, the area (15 cms) surrounding the GI pipe is filled with a
mixture of salt and coal.. The efficiency of the earthing system is improved by pouring water through the funnel
periodically. The GI earth wires of sufficient cross- sectional area are run through a 12.7mm diameter pipe (at
60cms below) from the 19mm diameter pipe and secured tightly at the top as shown in the following figure
Plate Earthing
Pipe Earthing

19EEE15 - BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
MODULE - 5 MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION
MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS – TYPES OF
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS – STANDARDS , ERRORS AND CALIBRATION-
PRINCIPLE AND TYPES OF ANALOG AND DIGITAL VOLTMETERS, AMMETERS,
MULTIMETERS –SINGLE AND THREE PHASE WATTMETERS AND ENERGY
METERS – CURRENT AND POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS
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MEASUREMENTS:
The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the result of comparison between
the quantity (whose magnitude is unknown) & a predefined standard. Since two quantities are
compared, the result is expressed in numerical values.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF MEASUREMENT
i) The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined & should be
commonly accepted
ii) The apparatus used & the method adopted must be provable.
MEASURING INSTRUMENT:
It may be defined as a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable.
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT:
Most of the measurement systems contain three main functional elements. They are:
i) Primary sensing element
ii) Variable conversion, manipulation & Transmission element
iii) Data presentation element.
Primary Sensing Element: - The Measurand is first detected by primary sensing element. The
primary sensing element transfers the measurand to variable conversion element for further
processing. The output signal of a primary sensing element is a physical variable such as
displacement or voltage.
Variable Conversion Element: - The output signal of a primary sensing element may require to
be converted to more suitable variables while preserving its information content. This function is
performed by variable conversion element and it may be considered as an intermediate
transducer
Variable Manipulation Element: - This element is an intermediate stage of a measuring system. It

modifies the direct signal by amplification, filtering, etc; so that a desired output is produced the
physical nature of the variable remains unchanged during this stage.
1
Data Transmission Element: - when the functional elements of the measuring system are
spatially separated then it becomes necessary to transmit signals from one element to another.
This function is performed by data transmission element. It is an essential functional element
where remote control operation is desired.
Data Presentation Element: - usually information about the quantity being measured is to be
communicated to human observer for monitoring control and analysis purpose. This is
therefore, to be presented in form of human sensory capability. This function is done by data
presentation element.
In case data is to be monitored, visual display devices are needed These devices may be
analog or digital indicating instruments like ammeters, voltmeters etc. In case data is to be
recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes, high speed camera & TV equipment, CRT, printers
may be used. For control & analysis is purpose microprocessor or computers may be used.
The final stage in a measurement system is known as terminating stage’
Classification of Measuring Instruments
The instrument used for measuring the physical and electrical quantities is known as the
measuring instrument. The term measurement means the comparison between the two
quantities of the same unit. The magnitude of one of the quantity is unknown, and it is
compared with the predefined value. The result of the comparison obtained regarding
numerical value.
The measuring instrument categorised into three types;
Electrical Instrument
Electronic Instrument
Mechanical Instrument
The mechanical instrument uses for measuring the physical quantities. This instrument is
suitable for measuring the static and stable condition because the instrument is unable to give
the response to the dynamic condition. The electronic instrument has quick response time.
The instrument provides the quick response as compared to the electrical and mechanical
instrument.
The electrical instrument is used for measuring electrical quantities likes current, voltage,
power, etc. The ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter are the examples of the electrical measuring
instrument. The ammeter measures the current in amps; voltmeter measures voltage and
Wattmeter are used for measuring the power. The classification of the electric instruments
depends on the methods of representing the output reading.
Types-of-measuring-instrument
The different types of electrical instrument are,
Absolute Instrument
The absolute instrument gives the value of measures quantities regarding the physical
constant. The physical constant means the angle of deflection, degree and meter constant. The
mathematical calculation requires for knowing the value of a physical constant.
The tangent galvanometer is the examples of the absolute instruments. In tangent

galvanometer, the magnitude of current passes through the coil determines by the tangent of
the angle of deflection of their coil, the horizontal component of the earth magnetic field,
radius and the number of turns of wire used. The most common applications of this type of
instrument are found in laboratories.
Secondary Instrument
In the secondary instrument, the deflection shows the magnitude of the measurable quantities.
The calibration of the instruments with the standard instrument is essential for the
measurement. The output of this type of device is directly obtained, and no mathematical
calculation requires for knowing their value.
Digital Instrument
The digital instrument gives the output in the numeric form. The instrument is more accurate
as compared to the analogue instrument because no human error occurs in the reading.
Analog instrument
The instrument whose output varies continuously is known as the analogue instrument. The
analogue instrument has the pointer which shows the magnitude of the measurable quantities.
The analogue device classifies into two types.
Null Type Instrument

In this instrument, the zero or null deflection indicates the magnitude of the measured
quantity. The instrument has high accuracy and sensitivity. In null deflection instrument, the
one known and one unknown quantity use. When the value of the known and the unknown
measuring quantities are equal, the pointer shows the zero or null deflection. The null
deflection instrument is used in the potentiometer and in galvanometer for obtaining the null
point.
Deflection Type Instrument

The instrument in which the value of measuring quantity is determined through the deflection
of the pointer is known as the deflection type instrument. The measuring quantity deflects the
pointer of the moving system of the instrument which is fixed on the calibrated scale. Thus,
the magnitude of the measured quantity is known.
The deflection type instrument is further sub-classified into three types.
Indicating Instrument – The instrument which indicates the magnitude of the measured
quantity is known as the indicating instrument. The indicating instrument has the dial which
moves on the graduated dial. The voltmeter, ammeter, power factor meter are the examples of
the indicating instrument.
Integrating Instrument – The instrument which measures the total energy supplied at a
particular interval of time is known as the integrating instrument. The total energy measured
by the instrument is the product of the time and the measures electrical quantities. The energy
meter, watt-hour meter and the energy meter are the examples of integrating instrument.
Recording Instrument – The instrument records the circuit condition at a particular interval
of time is known as the recording instrument. The moving system of the recording instrument
carries a pen which lightly touches on the paper sheet. The movement of the coil is traced on
the paper sheet. The curve drawn on the paper shows the variation in the measurement of the
electrical quantities.
The response time of the electronic instrument is very high as compared to the electrical and
mechanical device.
Standard
All the instruments are calibrated at the time of manufacturer against measurement
standards. A standard of measurement is a physical representation of a unit of measurement.
A standard means known accurate measure of physical quantity. The different size of
standards of measurement are classified as
i) International standards
ii) Primary standards
iii) Secondary standards
iv) Working standards
International standards
International standards are defined as the international agreement. These standards, as
mentioned above are maintained at the international bureau of weights an d measures and are
periodically evaluated and checked by absolute measurements in term s of fundamental units
of physics. These international standards are not available to the ordinary users for the
calibration purpose. For the improvements in the accuracy of absolute measurements the
international units are replaced by the absolute units in 1948. Absolute units are more
accurate than the international units.
Primary standards
These are highly accurate absolute standards, which can be used as ultimate reference
standards. These primary standards are maintained at national standard laboratories in
different countries. These standards representing fundamental units as well as some electrical
and mechanical derived units are calibrated independently by absolute measurements at each
of the national laboratories. These are not available for use, outside the national laboratories.
The main function of the primary standards is the calibration and verification of secondary
standards.
Secondary standards
As mentioned above, the primary standards are not available for use outside the national
laboratories.The various industries need some reference standards. So, to protect highly
accurate primary standards the secondary standards are maintained, which are designed and
constructed from the absolute standards. These are used by the measurement and calibration
laboratories in industries and are maintained by the particular industry to which they belong.
Each industry has its own standards.
Working standards
These are the basic tools of a measurement laboratory and are used to check an d calibrate
the instruments used in laboratory for accuracy and the performance.
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
The types of errors are follows
i) Gross errors
ii) Systematic errors
iii) Random errors
The gross errors mainly occur due to carelessness or lack of experience of a human being.
These errors also occur due to incorrect adjustments of instruments
These errors cannot be treated mathematically
These errors are also called¶ personal errors’.
Ways to minimize gross errors:
The complete elimination of errors is not possible but one can minimize them by the
following ways:Taking great care while taking the reading, recording the reading &
calculating the result. Without depending on only one reading, at least three or more readings
must be taken preferably by different persons.
2. Systematic errors:
A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is known as a Systematic
error. The Systematic errors are mainly due to the short comings of the instrument & the
characteristics of the material use d in the instrument, such as defective or worn parts, ageing
effects, environmental effects, etc.
Types of Systematic errors:
There are three types of Systematic errors as:
i) Instrumental errors
ii) Environmental errors
iii) Observational errors
i .Instrumental errors:
These errors can be mainly due to the following three reasons:
a) Short comings of instruments:
These are because of the mechanical structure of the instruments. For example friction in the
bearings of various moving parts; irregular spring tensions, reductions in due to improper
handling , hysteresis, gear backlash, stretching of spring, variations in air gap, etc .,
Ways to minimize this error:
These errors can be avoided by the following methods:
Selecting a proper instrument and planning the proper procedure for the measurement
recognizing the effect of such errors a n d applying t h e proper correction factors calibrating
the instrument carefully against a standard
b) Misuse of instruments:
A good instrument if used in abnormal way gives misleading results. Poor initial adjustment,
Improper zero setting, using leads of high resistance etc., are the examples of misusing a
good instrument. Such things do not cause the permanent damage to the instruments but
definitely cause the serious errors.
C) Loading effects
Loading effects due to im proper way of using the instrument cause the serious errors. The
best ex ample of such loading effect error is connecting a w ell calibrated volt meter across
the two points of high resistance circuit. The same volt meter connected in a low resistance
circuit gives accurate reading.
Thus the errors due to the loading effect can be avoided by using an instrument intelligently
and correctly.
ii. Environmental errors:
These errors are due to the conditions external to the measuring instrument. The various
factors resulting these environmental errors are temperature changes, pressure changes,
thermal emf, ageing of equipment and frequency sensitivity of an instrument.
The various methods which can be used to reduce these errors are:
i) Using the proper correction factors and using the information supplied by the
manufacturer of the instrument
ii) Using the arrangement which will keep the surrounding conditions Constant
iii) Reducing the effect of dust, humidity on the components by hermetically sealing the
components in the instruments
iv) The effects of external f i e l d s can be minimized by using the magnetic or electro static
shields or screens
v) Using the equipment which is immune to such environmental effects.
iii. Observational errors:
These are the errors introduced by the observer.
These are many sources of observational errors such as parallax error while reading a meter,
wrong scale selection, etc.
Ways to minimize this error

To eliminate such errors one should use the instruments with mirrors, knife edged pointers,
etc., The systematic errors can be subdivided as static and dynamic errors. The static errors
are caused by the limitations of the measuring device while the dynamic errors are caused by
t h e instrument not responding fast enough to follow the changes in the variable to be
measured.
3. Random errors:
Some errors still result, though the systematic and instrumental errors are reduced or atleast
accounted for. The causes of such errors are unknown and hence the errors are called random
errors.
Ways to minimize this error
The only way to reduce these errors is by increasing the number of observations and using
the statistical methods to obtain the best approximation of the reading.
CALIBRATION
Calibration is the process of making an adjustment or marking a scale so that the
readings of an instrument agree with the accepted & the certified standard. In other words, it
is the procedure for determining the correct values of measurand by comparison with the
measured or standard ones. The calibration offers a guarantee to the device or instrument that
it is operating with required accuracy, under stipulated environmental conditions. The
calibration procedure involves the steps like visual inspection for various defects, installation
according to the specifications, zero adjustment etc., The calibration is the procedure for
determining the correct values of measurand by comparison with standard ones. The standard
of device with which comparison is made is called a standard instrument. The instrument
which is unknown & is to be calibrated is called test instrument. Thus in calibration, test
instrument is compared with standard instrument. Types of calibration methodologies:
There are two methodologies for obtaining the comparison between test instrument &
standard instrument. These methodologies are
i) Direct comparisons
ii) Indirect comparisons
Direct comparisons:
In a direct comparison, a source or generator applies a known input to the meter under
test. The ratio of what meter is indicating & the known generator values gives the meter¶ s
error. In such case the meter is the test instrument while the generator is the standard
instrument. The deviation of meter from the standard value is compared with the allowable
performance limit.
With the help of direct comparison a generator or source also can be calibrated.
Indirect comparisons:
In the indirect comparison, the test instrument is compared with the response standard
instrument of same type i .e., if test instrument is meter, standard instrument is also meter, if
test instrument is generator; the standard instrument is also generator & so on. If the test
instrument is a meter then the same input is applied to the test meter as well a standard meter.
In case of generator calibration, the output of the generator tester as well as standard, or set to
same nominal levels. Then the transfer meter is used which measures the outputs of both
standard and test generator.
VOLTMETER
A Voltmeter is a measuring instrument which measures the voltage between the two nodes
in an electric circuit. In analog voltmeters the pointer moves across a scale in proportional to
the voltage of the circuit. Digital voltmeters have a numerical display of voltage by using an
analog to digital converter.
Permanently mounted voltmeters are used to monitor generators or other fixed apparatus.
Portable instruments are equipped with multimeter to measure current and resistance. They
are the standard test instruments used in electrical and electronics work.
Fig. 1 – Voltmeter
Working Principle of Voltmeter:

Its Working is based on the principle of Ohm’s law. Ohm’s law states that – “Voltage across
a resistance is directly proportional to the current passing through it”. Any basic meter has a
potential difference across its terminals when a full-scale current flows through it. The
symbol to represent the voltmeter is a circle with an enclosed letter V.
Fig. 2 – Circuit Diagram to Represent Voltage

A voltmeter is always connected in parallel to the component in a circuit for which the
voltage is to be measured. A DC volt-meter has polarity signs on it. Therefore one has to
connect the plus (+) terminal of the volt-meter to the higher point of potential and the minus
(-) terminal to the lower point of potential in order to obtain a meter deflection.
In an AC volt-meter there is no polarity signs on it and can be connected anyways. However,

in this case also, the voltmeter is still connected in parallel to the component for which the
voltage is measured. A volt-meter with a high voltage range is built by connecting a
resistance in series with a meter mechanism that has a full scale voltage capability as shown
in the below Figure.
Fig. 3 – Full Scale Voltage Capability
Voltage Equation:
The resistance in series is called a multiplier. Its value is determined from the Voltage
Equation.
Resistance in Series EquationWhere,
V = Voltage,
Im = Full scale current,
Rse = Resistance in Series, and
Vm = Full Scale Voltage
Voltage Sensitivity
Voltage Sensitivity is the reciprocal of the current necessary for full scale deflection.
Voltage Sensitivity Equation:
The smaller the meter current, the larger the voltage sensitivity will be. The actual voltmeter
resistance equals the sensitivity times the complete voltage. The voltmeter resistance will
always be constant even though the voltage reading may not be a full-scale reading.
Types of Voltmeters:
Fig. 4 – Types of Voltmeters
1.Analog Voltmeter:
It includes deflecting type of indicating voltage meters. An Analog Voltmeter can be
categorized in three categories. They are:
Moving Coil Instruments

Moving Iron Instruments
Electrostatic Voltmeter
Fig. 5 – A functional View of Analog Voltmeter
1.1Moving Coil Instruments:

Moving Coil Instruments type Analog Voltmeters are available in two types. They are:
Permanent Magnet Type Moving Coil Instruments

Dynamo Meter Type Moving Coil Instruments
1.1.1 Permanent Magnet Type Moving Coil Instruments:
Permanent magnet type Moving Coil Instruments respond only to direct current. These
instruments have permanent magnet to produce magnetic field. The coil is wounded on a soft
iron piece and it rotates in its own vertical axis. When the current flows through the coil,
deflecting torque is generated according to Lorenz force equation.
Fig. 6 – Moving Coil Voltmeter
1.1.2 Dynamo Meter Type Moving Coil Instruments:

Dynamo meter type Moving Coil Instruments consist of two coils. One coil is fixed and the
other coil rotates around it. The interaction of the two fields produces a deflecting torque.
1.2. Moving Iron Instruments:
Moving Iron Instruments are used in AC circuits and are categorized into Simple Moving
Iron, Dynamo Meter type and Induction types of instruments. It consists of soft iron
containing movable and fixed coils.
Fig. 7 – Moving Iron Voltmeter
The interaction of fluxes produced by these elements produces deflecting torque. The ranges
are extended by keeping the resistors in series with the coil.
1.3. Electrostatic Voltmeter:

It works on the electrostatic principle where the repulsion between two charges plates deflect
at a pointer attached to a spring.
These instruments are used for high voltage AC and DC measurements. These are high
sensitive instruments and are capable of measuring smallest charge voltages as well as high
range voltage nearly 200KV.
Fig. 8 – Electrostatic Voltmeters

2. VTVMs and FET VMs
These types of instruments can handle both AC/ DC voltages and resistance measurements.
These devices use electronic amplifier in between the input and the meter.
Fig. 9 – Vacuum Tube Voltmeter
If this device uses the vacuum tube in the amplifier then it is called as Vacuum Tube
Voltmeter (VTVM). VTVM’s are used in high power AC measurements.
Field Effect Transistor (FET) is a transistor that uses electric field to control the electrical
behavior of the device. They are also known as unipolar transistors. Field Effect Transistor
based Voltmeter utilizes this property of field effect transistors while measuring voltage.
3. Digital Voltmeter (DVM)

DVM displays the voltage using LEDs or LCDs to display the result. The instrument has to
contain an A/D converter. The device contains programmed micro controller, ADC and LCD
display, to provide accurate digital display of analog values from 0 to 15 volts DC.
Fig. 10 – Digital Voltmeter and Multimeter
They are used because of the properties like accuracy, durability and reduces parallax errors.
The applications of Voltmeter include:
➢ It is very useful in finding the voltage of a charge storing device, such as to test the
voltage of a battery. For example, a new AAA cell will have about 1.6V, a dying one
perhaps 1.1V. A 12V lead-acid car battery will read 12.5V when fully charged, or
14V when being charged by the alternator in a car. If it reads 10V, there is something
wrong with the alternator.
➢ It can be used just to tell whether there is power in a circuit or not, such as a mains
outlet.
➢ Verifying the power is on or off to the appliances.
➢ We can calculate the current by measuring the voltage across a known resistance.
This is useful when you don’t have an ammeter.
➢ They are used to build a continuity checker, with a series battery.
➢ They are used to build an ohm meter, by using a voltage divider with the unknown
resistor.
➢ They are used to build an ammeter by measuring the voltage across a shunt resistor.
AMMETER
As we know a word “meter” is associated with the measurement system. Meter is an
instrument which can measure a particular quantity. As we know, the unit of current is
Ampere. Ammeter means Ampere-meter which measures ampere value. Ampere is the unit
of current so an ammeter is a meter or an instrument which measures current.
Working Principle of Ammeter

The main principle of ammeter is that it must have a very low resistance and also inductive
reactance. Now, why do we need this? Can’t we connect an ammeter in parallel? The answer
to this question is that it has very low impedance because it must have very low amount of
voltage drop across it and must be connected in series connection because current is same in
the series circuit.
Also due to very low impedance the power loss will be low and if it is connected in parallel it
becomes almost a short circuited path and all the current will flow through ammeter as a
result of high current the instrument may burn. So due to this reason it must be connected in
series. For an ideal ammeter, it must have zero impedance so that it has zero voltage drop
across it so the power loss in the instrument is zero. But the ideal is not achievable
practically.
Types of Ammeter:
Depending on the constructing principle, there are many types of ammeter we get, they are
mainly –
➢ Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) ammeter------DC Ammeter.

➢ Moving Iron (MI) Ammeter-------DC and AC Ammeter.
➢ Electrodynamometer type Ammeter.-------- DC and AC Ammeter
➢ Rectifier type Ammeter.
DC Ammeter are mainly PMMC instruments, MI can measure both AC and DC currents, also
Electrodynamometer type thermal instrument can measure DC and AC, induction meters are
not generally used for ammeter construction due to their higher cost, inaccuracy in
measurement.
1)Principle PMMC Ammeter:
When current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force acts on the
conductor, if it is attached to a moving system, with the coil movement, the pointer moves
over the scale.
Explanation: As the name suggests it has permanent magnets which are employed in this kind
of measuring instruments. It is particularly suited for DC measurement because here
deflection is proportional to the current and hence if current direction is reversed, deflection
of the pointer will also be reversed so it is used only for DC measurement. This type of
instrument is called D Arnsonval type instrument. It has major advantage of having linear
scale, low power consumption, high accuracy. Major disadvantage of being measured only
DC quantity, higher cost etc.
Deflecting torque,
Where,
B = Flux density in Wb/m².
i = Current flowing through the coil in Amp.
l = Length of the coil in m.
b = Breadth of the coil in m.
N = No of turns in the coil.
Extension of Range in a PMMC Ammeter:
Now it looks quite extraordinary that we can extend the range of measurement in this type of
instrument. Many of us will think that we must buy a new ammeter to measure higher amount
of current and also many of us may think we have to change the constructional feature so that
we can measure higher currents, but there is nothing like that, we just have to connect a shunt
resistance in parallel and the range of that instrument can be extended, this is a simple
solution provided by the instrument.
In the figure I = total current flowing in the circuit in Amp.

Ish is the current through the shunt resistor in Amp.
Rm is the ammeter resistance in Ohm.
MI Ammeter
It is a moving iron instrument, used for both AC and DC, It can be used for both because the
deflection θ proportional square of the current so whatever is the direction of current, it
shows directional deflection, further they are classified in two more ways-
Attraction type.
Repulsion type.
Its torque equation is:
Where,
I is the total current flowing in the circuit in Amp.
L is the self inductance of the coil in Henry.
θ is the deflection in Radian.
Attraction Type MI Instrument Principle:
When an unmagnetised soft iron is placed in the magnetic field, it is attracted towards the
coil, if a moving system attached and current is passed through a coil, it creates a magnetic
field which attracts iron piece and creates deflecting torque as a result of which pointer
moves over the scale.
Repulsion Type MI Instrument Principle:
When two iron pieces are magnetized with same polarity by passing a current than repulsion
between them occurs and that repulsion produces a deflecting torque due to which the pointer
moves.
The advantages of MI instruments are they can measure both AC and DC, cheap, low friction
errors, robustness etc. It is mainly used in AC measurement because in DC measurement
error will be more due to hysteresis.
Electrodynamometer Type Ammeter
This can be used to measure both i.e. AC and DC currents. Now we see that we have PMMC
and MI instrument for the measurement of AC and DC currents, a question may arise – “why
do we need Electrodynamometer Ammeter? If we can measure current accurately by other
instrument also?”. The answer is Electrodynamometer instruments have the same calibration
for both AC and DC i.e. if it is calibrated with DC, then also without calibrating we can
measure AC.
3)Principle Electrodynamometer Type Ammeter:

There we have two coils, namely fixed and moving coils. If a current is passed through two
coils it will stay in the zero position due to the development of equal and opposite torque. If
somehow, the direction of one torque is reversed as the current in the coil reverses, an
unidirectional torque is produced.
For ammeter, the connection is a series one and φ = 0
Where, φ is the phase angle.
Where,
I is the amount of current flowing in the circuit in Amp.
M = Mutual inductance of the coil.
They have no hysteresis error, used for both AC and DC measurement, the main
disadvantages are they have low torque/weight ratio, high friction loss, expensive than other
measuring instruments etc.
4)Rectifier Ammeter:
They are used for AC measurement which is connected to secondary of a current transformer,
the secondary current is much less than primary and connected with a bridge rectifier to a
moving coil ammeter.
Advantages:
It can be used in high frequency also.
Uniform scale for most of the ranges.
Disadvantages being error due to temperature decrease in sensitivity in AC operation.
MULTIMETER
A Multimeter is an electronic instrument, every electronic technician and engineers widely
used piece of test equipment. Multimeter is mainly used to measure the three basic electrical
characteristics of voltage, current and resistance. It can also be used to test continuity
between two points in a electrical circuit.
Multimeter has multi functionalities like, it acts like ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter. It is a
handheld device with positive and negative indicator needle over a numeric LCD digital
display. Multimeters can be used for testing batteries, household wiring, electric motors and
power supplies.
Types of Multimeters:
There are different types of multimeter like Analog, Digital and Fluke multimeters.
Digital Multimeter:
Mostly used type of multimeter is digital multimeter (DMM). The DMM performs all
functions from AC to DC other than analog. It has two probes positive and negative indicated
with black and red color is shown in figure. The black probe connected to COM JACK and
red probe connected by user requirement to measure ohm, volt or amperes. The jack marked
VΩ and the COM jack on the right of the picture are used for measuring voltages, resistance
and for testing a diode. The two jacks are utilized when LCD display that shows what is
being measured (volts, ohms, amps, etc.). Overload protection that prevents damage to the
meter and the circuit, and protects the user.
Fig.Digital Multimeter
The Digital Multimeter basically consists of a LCD display, a knob to select various ranges of
the three electrical characteristics, an internal circuitry consisting of a signal conditioning
circuitry, an analog to digital converter. The PCB consists of concentric rings which are
connected or disconnected based on the position of the knob. Thus as the required parameter
and the range is selected, the section of the PCB is activated to perform the corresponding
measurement. To measure the resistance, current flows from a constant current source
through the unknown resistor and the voltage across the resistor is amplified and fed to a
Analog to Digital Converter and the resultant output in form of resistance is displayed on the
digital display. To measure an unknown AC voltage, the voltage is first attenuated to get the
suitable range and then rectified to DC signal and the analog DC signal is fed to A/D
converter to get the display, which indicates the RMS value of the AC signal. Similarly to
measure an AC or DC current, the unknown input is first converted to voltage signal and then
fed to analog to digital converter to get the desired output(with rectification in case of AC
signal).
Advantages of a Digital Multimeter are its output display which directly shows the measured
value, high accuracy, ability to read both positive and negative values.
Analog Multimeter:
Fig.Analog Multimeter
Analog multimeter was first of its type, but due to latest technological development after
development of digital multimeters, nowadays it is of less use. However, despite such
advancements, it is still essential, and we can’t neglect it. An analog multimeter is a PMMC
meter. It works based on the d’Arsonval galvanometer principle. It consists a needle to
indicate the measured value on the scale. A coil moves in a magnetic field when current
passes through it. The indicating needle is fastened to the coil. During the flow of current
through the coil, a deflecting torque gets produced due to which the coil rotates at some
angle, and the pointer moves over a graduated scale. A pair of hairsprings is attached to the
moving spindle to provide the controlling torque. In a multimeter, the galvanometer is a left-
zero-type instrument, i.e. needle rests to the extreme left of the scale from where the scale
begins with zero.
Fig: PMMC permanent magnet moving coil instrument
The meter acts as an ammeter with a low series resistance to measure direct current. For
measuring high current, we connect a shunt resistor across the galvanometer so that the
current through the galvanometer does not cross its maximum allowed value. Here, a
significant portion of the current to be measured bypasses through the shunt. With that shunt
resistance, an analog multimeter can measure even milli-ammeter or ammeter ranges of
current.
For DC voltage measurement, the primary instrument becomes a DC voltage measuring

apparatus or DC voltmeter. By adding a multiplier resistance, an analog multimeter can
measure the voltage from milli-volts to kilovolts, and this meter works as a millivoltmeter, a
voltmeter or even as a kilo voltmeter.
By adding a battery and a resistance network, this instrument can work as an ohmmeter. We
can change the range of the ohmmeter by connecting a switch to a suitable shunt resistance.
By selecting different values of shunt resistance, we can obtain different scales of resistance
measurement. Here below we are showing a basic block diagram of an analog multimeter.
Fig:Basic block diagram of a multimeter
Here we are using two switches namely S1 and S2 to select the desired meter. We may use
additional range-selector switches to choose particular range required in reading amperes,
volts, and ohms. We use a rectifier to measure an AC voltage or current with the multimeter.
Fluke Multimeter:
The fluke multimeters are protected against the transient voltage. It is a small portable device
used to measure voltage, current and test diodes. The multi meter has multi selectors to select
the desired function. The fluke MM automatically ranges to select most measurements. This
means the magnitude of the signal does not have to be known or determined to take an
accurate reading, it directly moved to the appropriate port for the desired measurement. The
fuse is protected to prevent the damage, if connected to wrong port.
Fig. Fluke Ammeter

Applications:
The applications of ammeter mainly involves in various electrical and electronic projects for
the purpose of components testing and also used in different measurement applications in
multimeter.
Temperature and Environmental Applications

Low cost weather station
DMM internal temperature
Voltage Measurements
High and low value DC measurement
Peak to Peak and DC average measurement
Current Measurements
DC current measurement
True RMS AC current
Resistance Measurement
Micro ohm meter
Measuring resistance with constant voltage
Measuring resistance with constant current
Time and Frequency measurement
Fast frequency
Time measurement

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DIFFERENT SOURCES OF ENERGY

Figure 1: Various energy sources (from creativemarket.com)

STRUCTURE OF ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM

Structure of electrical power system consists of three important components

A typical transmission and distribution scheme is shown in figure 2.

EEE Department NHCE B S MOHAN

Figure 2: Schematic representation of a tipical transmission and distribution scheme

The rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a consumer is known as tariff.

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2. Flat rate tariff.

3. Block rate tariff.

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Total charges = Rs (b × kW + c × kWh)

5. Maximum demand tariff.

6. Power factor tariff.

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There are two types of service mains:

METERBOARD AND DISTRIBUTION BOARD

Brief Discussion on Concealed Conduit Wiring

Two-way Control of Lamp

 Two way switching is most commonly found on

Three-way Control of Lamp

Position of Position of Position of Condition of Lamp Position of Position of Position of Condition of

Electric shock: precautions against shock

The factors affecting the severity of the shock are:-

First aid against shock

Precautions against shock

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Various circuit protective devices – Fuses, MCB

Kit-Kat type fuse

Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

Miniature circuit breaker

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Consider a single phase apparatus.

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MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

Variable Manipulation Element: - This element is an intermediate stage of a measuring system. It

The measuring instrument categorised into three types;

The different types of electrical instrument are,

The tangent galvanometer is the examples of the absolute instruments. In tangent

Null Type Instrument

Deflection Type Instrument

The deflection type instrument is further sub-classified into three types.

Ways to minimize this error

Working Principle of Voltmeter:

Fig. 2 – Circuit Diagram to Represent Voltage

In an AC volt-meter there is no polarity signs on it and can be connected anyways. However,

Fig. 3 – Full Scale Voltage Capability

Resistance in Series EquationWhere,

Fig. 4 – Types of Voltmeters

Moving Coil Instruments

1.1Moving Coil Instruments:

Permanent Magnet Type Moving Coil Instruments

Fig. 6 – Moving Coil Voltmeter

1.1.2 Dynamo Meter Type Moving Coil Instruments:

Fig. 7 – Moving Iron Voltmeter

1.3. Electrostatic Voltmeter: