Morphological Identification Pharmacognosy
Morphological Identification Pharmacognosy
Morphological Identification Pharmacognosy
weil as a
parasiticide
Chemical Tests: 1. Answers tests for anthracene
rysarobin 2mg+ Fuming nitric acid (2 drops)derivatuves olor On
- Red brown colour. On additiorn
adoon
o ew drops of dil. ammonia solution the colour changes to violet red. A
'
dark brownish red colour is produced dissolving 0.1 gof chrysarobin in
on
of hot soln. of a deep red
NaOH. On
4. dissolving 0.1 g of chrysarobin in HSO,
SOin.is produced. Pour the soln. in water, chrysarobin separates.
CINCHONA
Source: Cinchona is the dried bark of cultivated trees of Cinchona calisaya Wedd.,
C. ledgeriana Moens, C. officinalis L, C. succirubra Pav. ex-Klotzsch or of hybrids
of either of the last two species with either of the first two (Fam. Rubiaceae).t
contains not less than 6% of total alkaloids of Cinchona.
Synonyms
Cinchona bark, Jesuit's
bark, Peruvian bark
double quill fractured surface Morphology
Condition dry
Shape-flat, channelled,
single quill or double quill
ridges Size varies; Outer
surface yellowish
brown or reddish brown
or greyish. Surface is rough
outer surface
striations
inner surface
CINCHONA BARKSs
40
due to longitudinal and transverse ridges, fissures and wrinkles. At times greyish
patches of lichens may be seen; Inner surface: dark reddish brown or pale yellowish
brown with longitudinal striations; Fracture short in the outer region and fibrous
in the phloem region; Taste bitter and astringent; Odour characteristic.
Microscopy (Transversé Section)
T. S. Shows a well developed periderm, a wide cortex and a large secondary
phioem.
PERIDERM
Cork consists of several layers of radialy arranged rows of thin walled cells with
dark brown contents. The cork cells are impregnated with suberin.
cORK
PHELLOGEN
-PHELLODERM
cORTEX
STARCH
E MICRO. SPHEN
CRYST
-SECRE CELL
MEDUL RAY
PHLOEM FBAE
SEC. PHLOEM
41
eogen 2 to 3
layers of thin walled rectangular cells without any cellular contents.
Phelloderm 6 to 8 layers of thin walled rectangular cells without any cellular contents.
Like cork,
they are arranged at times in radial rows.
Cortex several layers of thin walled and cells
yellowish brown matter. Some
tangentially elongated
containing
of the cortical cells are filled with
microsphenoida
crystals of calcium oxalate and the rest with minute starch grains. Besides, isolated
secretion cells (latex ducts) also found in the cortical
are
parenchyma.
SECONDARY PHLOEM consists of phloem parenchyma, phloem fibres and medullary
rays
Phloem fibres,
characteristic of Cinchona bark occur intermingled with phloem
parenchyma and in between medullary rays. Fibres numerous, mostly isolated, at
times in groups of 2 or 3, rounded
to oval, in various sizes, yellow in coiour, thick
walled, strongly lignified with a small lumen and
stratifications.
MEDULLARY RAYS traverse radially the phloem parenchyma; 1-3 cells wide, extend
upto cortex, cells radially elongated and contain starch
grains.
Active Constituents: ALKALOIDS
(6-7%)-Quinoline alkaloids. uinine
50 60%), Quinidine, Cinchonine, Cinchonidine.
QUINOVIN- a bitter
glycoside also responsible for the bitter taste, yields on
hydrolysis quinovaic acid and quinovose, a sugar derivative.
TANNINS - Phiobatannins.
CINNAMON
Source: Cinnamon is the dried inner bark of the shoots of
coppiced tree of
Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume. (Fam. Lauraceae) and is known in commerce as
Ceylon Cinnamon. It contains not less than 1.0% v/w of volatile oil
42
nts Synonyms and
nts Regional Namès
Ceylon cinnamon
Ben. Dalchini
ing Guj. Ceylon Taj
idal Hin. Dalchini
ted
Kan. Dalchini
lavangapatte
lary Mal. Karuvappatta,
lavangam
e Mar. Dalchini
,a Tam. Lavangapattai
hick Tel. Lavangapatta
Morphology: Condition
- dry; Shape- single,
end
double or compound
quills; Size - varying
nt.
dil.
ent aromatic; Odour-fragrant.
ald Active Constituents: VOLATILE OIL (0.8-
1.4%) -Cinnamic aldehyde (60-75%)
Phenol (chiefly Eugenol, 4-10%)
Hydrocarbons, Alcohols etc.
ae.
ark PHLOBATANNIN and MUCILAGE
cal
Uses: 1. Flavouring Agent 2. As a mild
Therapeutical and Pharmaceutical
(oil).
and astringent 3. Powerful germicide
n chloride soln. is added to 5 ml alcohol
Chemical Test: When a drop of ferric
cinnamon oil, a pale green colour is obtained because
of
containing one drop of
the following reactions:
Cinnamic aldehyde + FeCh-Brown colour. Eugenol (with phenolic OH
an intermediate green colour.
group)+FeCly-Blue; together gives
bark (page 34) is often sold in place of Cinnamon
Substitutes and Adulterants: Cassia
based on the presence or absence of cork.
which is of superior quality. However,
size of starch grains and the presence or
length and breadth of phloem fibres, the two.
3absence of eugenol, one can easily distinguish
43
gstutos
CLOVE v to lb e
Ously
le.
Tel budsap
Lavangalu.
pressing
C o v e s
petal DIesent
stamen c o n t a i n
enilargee
sepal-
inoffici
of clove
and lars
Ovary
hypanthium clove p
ovule
Cove
only ar
flowerbudx3 columella 8e dis
The sir
oil gland bud.
detect
3own
3so am
L.S.x 10
CLOVE
3. Aromatic.
44
should contain
and Adulterants: As per the official definition, clove bud
Substitutes will have
oil between 15 and 21% and not less. Sub-standard products
clove
not contain the
less than 15%. Over ripe buds and immature buds do
obviously and cloves
percentage of oil. At times the oil is withdrawn intentionally
prescribed The following are the usual
mixed with genuine drug sold such.
free of oil is
or as
adulterants.
As a result
1. Exhausted clove: Volatile oil is partly or completely removed.
no oil even after
buds appear dafker in colour, shrunken in form and yield
pressing hard between the fingers.
when
Clove stalks: The stalks, which creep-in while collecting the buds,
2.
2.
These stalks do not
present in excess are considered as adulterants.
to spot them out
contain essential oil but only to the tune of 5%. It is easy
as they appear dark brown, angular,
trichotomously branched, with nodes
The crude fibre
enlarged and with high percentage of crude fibre (13.6%).
in official clove varies between 6.2 to 9.8%.
If in powdered form, excess
of calcium oxalate prisms
of clove stalk can be made out by the presence
in official
and thick walled stone cells which however are absent
large
clove powder.
also contain clove oil but
3 Clove fruit (Mother clove or Anthophylli): These
around 3 to 5% and hence considered as an adulterant. These cloves
only
are distinctly longer (20 to 25
mm/10- 17 mm), ovate and taper below.
contains starch which is absent in clove
The single seed present in the fruit be
bud. Using a simple microchemical test for starch, the adulterant can
detected.
corolla and stamens are
4 Blown clove: Here mature clove flowers without
in their oil content.
also admixed. These eventually are very low
Tess SO 9
CORIANDER
sativumL. (Fam.
Source: Coriander consists of the dried ripe fruits of Coriandrum
Umbelliferae). It contains not less than 0.3% v/w of volatile oil.
Hin.
Synonyms and Regional Names: Coriander fruit; Ben. Dhane; Guj. Dhane;
Dhaniya Kan. Kottambari bija; Mal. Kottam Malli palari; Mar. Kotimbir; San.
Dhanyakam; Tam. Kottammali; Tel. Dhaniyalu.
with 5 calyx
Morphology: Type of fruit-Cremocarp; Shape-subglobular or oval
at
teeth and a short stylopod at the apex and some times a short stalk (pedicel)
has
the base. A cremocarp is made of 2 hemispherical mericarps. Each mericarp
2 surfaces a flat surface called the commisural surface and a rounded surface
-
called
the dorsal surface. Dorsal surface of each mericarp shows 5 primary and 4 secondary
and alternate with prominent
ridges. The primary ridges are wavy, inconspicuous
commisural surface shows the carpophore, a thin
straight s«condary ridges. The
the pedicel below and continued upto the upper end
elongated structure, attached to
Size 2.3 to 4.3 mm(d): Colour-
of mericarp, and holds both the mericarps together.
-
or brownish yellow;
Odour aromatic and Taste- spicy and agreeable.
-
straw yellow
Based the size of the fruit, two varieties are recognized: Coriandrum sativum var.
on
sativum var. microcarpum (1.5 to 3 mm).
vulaare macrocarpum (3 to5 mm) and C.
48
stylopod
calyx teeth
secondary ridge
primary ridge
carpophore-
position of vitta
pedicel
CORIANDER FRUIT
Active Constituents: VOLATILE OIL
(0.2 1%) -Linalool (60 70%) - Terpenes
(20%)-Geraniol, Borneol, Citronellol.
Therapeutical and Pharmaceutical
Uses:
FATTY OIL (13-20%), PROTEIN
(17%).
1. Carminative (relieves excessive collection of
2. Aromatic and stimulant. gas in the stomach).
DIOSCOREA
cultivated Dios
a number
of wild and
Source: Dioscorea consists of the tubers of
Burkil and D.
floribunda
Mart
k e D. deltoidea Wall, D.
prazeri Prain &
es
Gal. (Fam. Dioscoreace ae). tuber
.-root
U root scar
chestnut brown
Morphology: Rhizomes of D. deltoidea
-
horizontal tubers, digitate,
with recoiling roots; D. prazeri; stout horizontal creeping, freely branched,branches
fresh white or creamy.
about 10 cm(), 1.5 to 2 cm(w), grey brown-blackish,
Active Constituents
GLYCOSIDES Saponin glycosides -Steroidal sapogenins.
- Diosgenin (5% on dry weight basis).
Glycoside of Prazerigenin
-a new saponin glycoside with diosgenin and 3 glucose molecule
Therapeutical and Pharmaceutical Use: Steroid precursors.
EPHEDRA
Source: Ephedra consists of the dried young stems of Ephedra gerardiana (Wall,
Stapf and also of E. nebrodensis (Tineo) Stapf, (Fam. Gnetaceae), collected in
autumn. Ephedra contains not less than 1.0% of total alkaloids, calculated as
ephedrine, C1oH15ON.
Synonyms and Regional Names: Ma-Huang, Amsania, Butshur, Chewa.
Morphology: Ephedra plant is.a small woody dioecious shrub of 1 m height;
Size varies; Colour older plants straw coloured and younger
- -
greyish green;
Shape stems cylindrical and much branched; branches whorled, erect or initially
a little spreading and then ascending almost upwards. Nodes and internodes are
seen clearly. Surface-main stem is woody and young twigs are slender, however
the surfaces of both show striations; Leaves reduced to minute
2-toothed sheaths.
These scaly leaves are brownish to whitish brown, connate opposite and decussate
with acute or obtuse apex; Fracture-fibrous in the cortical
region whereas pith
shows brown powdery mass. Odour- when fresh, the herb is aromatic, no odour
54
branch
internod
noge
stristionss
EPHEDRA STEM 2
when dry:; Taste - bitter and astringent. Based on morphological characters like
shape and number or leaves, shape of teeth, number of ridges, length of intemodes
etc., species differentiation is possible. For instancein E. nebrodensis, the leaf apex
is acute whereas it is obtuse in the case of E. gerardiana.
Active Constituent
ALKALOIDs (0.5-3.0%) - Alkaloidal amines-Ephedrine (30-90%)
- Pseudoephedrine- Nor-Pseudoephedrine etc.
similar to adrenaline).
2. It produces lasting increase of blood pressure, causes Mydriasis(dilation of the
pupil) and diminishes Hyperemia (excess of blood in any part).
add 0.2 dil. ml of HCl and 0.1 ml
lestfor Ephedrine: Dissolve 10 mg in 1 ml ofofwater, soln. The resulting
sodium hydroxide
of Copper sulphate soln. followed by 1 ml ether and shake; the ethereal layer will
solution turns violet. Add 1 ml of solvent
turn purple and the aqueous layer blue.
ERGOT
55
CQ.
apex
late, scythe shaped sessile o
petiolate; ,Colour-greyish
green; Surface -glabroug
with characteristic margina
marginal vein vein, thin and wax coated
Nature of Oil: Colour - colour.
less or pale yellow liquid
margin Odour-aromatic camphora
ceous; Taste-pungent
camphoraceous and cool
feeling
Actve Constituents: VOLATILE
cork tumour OIL ( 3 to 6%) - Eucalyptol
Therapeutical and
Pharmaceutical Uses
base 1. Antiseptic, anti-bacteria
and anti-tuberculosis
petiole (citriodoroi).
2. Diaphoretic.
3. Expectorant.
FENNEL
Source: Fennel conssts of the dried ripe fruits of Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (Fa
Umbeliferae), from cutivated plants. It contains not less than 1.4% v/w of volat
oil
58
Synonyms and
stylopod Regional Names
Fennel fruit
primary tidgo
Ben. Pan-Mauri
Guj. Variyali
carpophore Hin. Bari Sauf
(Badi Saunph)
Kan. Bade Soppu
Mal. Sombu
position of vitta
Mar. Bhadi Sheb
San. Madhurika
Tam. Sohikere-virai
pedicel
Tel. Peddajila kurra
entire tremocerp Commisural surface
of a mericarp
FENNEL FRUITx 15
or slightly curved, oblong, laterally compressed, tapering towards the base and apex.
At the apex a short curved bifid structure called as stylopod is present. A thin pedicel
is seen at the base; Size - 5 to 10 mm(), 2 to 4 mm(b); Surface- each mericarp
has two surfaces-the dorsal and the commisural surface. Dorsal surface is glabrous
with 5 straight, prominent primary ridges and stylopod at the apex. Commisural
surface is flat and shows the carpophore which holds the two mericarps together:
Colour-greenish or yellowish brown; Odour and Taste strongly aromatic.
59
of parquetry
Endocarp: Another typical umbelliferous feature is the presence
directions) of celis of
arrangement (groups of parallel cells arranged in different and testa.
endocarp which however is seen as a single layer between mesocarp
TESTA single layered and yellowish in colour.
Substitutes and Adulterants: Like other volatilé oil drugs, here too the exhausted
2 Fennel is an adulterant. The oil may be removed partly or completely either by steamn
distillation as usual or by solvent extraction using a solvent like alcohol. Fennel
subjected to steam distillation will be darker in colour and shrunken in appearance.
Alcohol exhausted Fennel will have a fusel- oil odour (nauseous oil in spirits distilled
from potatoes, grain etc.). Further the exhausted fennel will sink in water.
GELATIN
L
Nature: Occurs in thin sheets, strips or as granular powder. High grade gelatin is
light yellow, semi-crystalline substance without any odour or taste. Solubility: in
cold water it swells up and slowly dissolves on warming to form viscous soln.
Chemical Constituents: Protein Glutin - Amino acids.
61
as well. The vascular bundles however appear in concentric rings.
Note: Thus there is certainly some confusion about the authenticity of Indian Senega and as such no final
word can be said here.
SENNA
Source: Indian Senna consists of the dried leaflets and fruits of Cassia angustifolia
Vahl. known in commerce as Tinnevelly senna (Fam. Leguminosae).
110
senna; Ben.
Tinnevelly
Synonyms and Regional
Names: Indian Senna,
Sana-ka-pat;
Nelavarike; Mal. Na
Hin. Sunnamaki, Tel.
Sonamukhi; Guj. Nat-ki-sana; Tam. Nilavarai;
Bhumiari;
Vaka; Mar. Sonamukhi; San. Swarnamuki,
Sunamukhi.
apex
Cten
margin
mid rib
lamina
na
base petiolule
leaflet
ring
pods
NIU SENNA
and
compound leaf;
Morphology: Condition dry: Type-a leaflet of paripinnately (w);
Size- 2.5-6 cm() and 7-8 mm
or yeliowish
Venation-pinnately reticulate; Jp. Surface-pale green
asymmetrical; transverse lines; Odour -
none;
Low. Surface-shows prominent
green and glabrous;
egd Taste -mucilaginous and slightly bitter
thin somewhat reniform with
Fruit: Type -
slight; Taste -
Size about
-
LAMINA
with polygonal cells covered on the outerside by
Upper epidermis Single layered contain mucilage. Only covering
a thick warty
cuticle. Some epidermal cells
Trichomes are non-glandular short, thick.
trichomes emergefrom the epidermal layer.
111
unicellular, nonlignified, warty and slightly curved at the bulbous base. Stomata
are seen at regular intervals.
Mesophyllis differentiated into palisade and spongy parenchyma. Being a unitacia
or ispbilateral leaf, palisade is further differentiated into upper and lower palisade.
Upper peisede single layered, compact with elonaated, narrow, columnar cells and
this continues also over the midrib region.
Spongy perenchyma thin, narrow., loosely arranged between the upper and lower
palisade. Vascular strands are seen very frequently. Few sphaeraphides are also
seen in the parenchyma.
Lower palisade is restricted, unlike upper palisade, to lamina region only. Cells are
smaller than those of upper palisade, loosely arranged and their walls are wavy.
Xyelm as usual is towards the ventral surface and pholem towards the dorsal
surface. The vascular bundle is covered on both the sides (dorsal and ventral) by
patches of sclerenchymatous fibres. Characteristic of Folia Senna is that these fibres
are ensheathed by a layer of parenchyma, the individual cells of which contain
calcium oxalate prisms. Such fibres with crystal sheath can also be.seen, if not
frequently, in the lamina.region.
Surface preparation shows typical characteristic Rubiaceous stomata and
trichomes.
polygonal epidermal cells and covering
Active Constituents
GLYCOSIDES Anthracene glycosides Leaves 3% (Pods 1.5 to 2.5%)
Dianthrone glycosides
Sennoside A (0.3 to 0.45% Homodianthrone
Sennoside, B (0.3 to 0.5%) glycosides
Sennoside C and
Heterodianthrone glycosides
SennosideD
emodin aglycones -
Rhein Aloe
FLAVON0ID Kaempferol glycoside
113
layer is separated by a pipette and to this 5 ml of 10% ammonia is
added.
gently and then allow to separate. The formation of a rose-pink coloration Shake
in the
upper ammoniacal layer indicates the presence of
anthraquinones.
Therapeutical and Pharmaceutical Use: Laxative,used specially in case of habitual
constipation.
Activ
Q P aA 0ase