1.

1 Overview of Network Infrastructure Design

 Network Infrastructure: - is a set of physical and logical components that provide
connectivity, security, routing, management, access, and other integral features on a
network.
 During a network’s planning phase, engineers select the hardware and software
components that will compose the network infrastructure and specify the particular
location, installation, and configuration of those components
When you plan your network infrastructure, a number of key elements need to be clarified or determined:
 Determine which physical hardware components are needed for the network infrastructure
which you want to implement.
 Determine the software components needed for the network infrastructure.
 Determine the following important factors for your hardware and software components:
 Specific location of these components.
 How the components are to be installed.
 How the components are to be configured.
 In most cases, the elements of a network infrastructure are both inherited and designed.
 If you are building a network that will be connected to the Internet, for example, certain
aspects of the network, such as the use of the TCP/IP protocol suite, are inherited from the
Internet.
 Other network elements, such as the physical layout of basic network components, are
chosen by design when the network is first conceived and are then inherited by later
versions of the network as it evolves.
 Implementing a network infrastructure is the process of evaluating, purchasing, and
assembling the specified components, and installing them in the manner prescribed
by the design plan.
 The implementation process begins with engineers installing the network’s hardware
infrastructure, including computers, cables, and connectivity devices such as hubs,
switches, and routers, as well as printers and other peripherals.
 When you implement a network infrastructure, you need to perform a number of
activities that can be broadly grouped as follows
• Determine the hardware and software components needed.
• Purchase, assemble and install the hardware components.
• Install and configure the operating system, application and all other
software.
 Once the hardware is in place, the engineers install and configure the operating systems,
applications, and other software.
  The operating systems running on the computers are the primary software components in
the network infrastructure, because they incorporate the protocols and other routines that
make network communications possible.
 In addition to the standard communication protocols common to all network operating
systems, the Microsoft Windows Server 2008 family also includes a collection of
applications and services that implement important security and special communications
capabilities on the network.
 The significance of the network infrastructure does not end when the construction of the network is
complete, however.
 The personnel responsible for maintaining the network must have an intimate knowledge of
the network’s infrastructure to expand the network, perform upgrades, and troubleshoot
problems.

1.2 Identifying and selecting Internet infrastructures requirements

In this topic, we will discuss about the appropriate solutions

 Identify important factors in network design
 Find appropriate structure
1.2.1 Identify important factors in network design
When designing a new computer network, whether for small size or bigger one, it's important to
weigh the needs and desires of those who will be using the network with the budget of those who
will be paying for it. Some important things to consider that may not be on anyone's wish list
include balancing security issues with the desire for easy access to information; building
redundancy into the network in anticipation of breakdowns; and standardizing hardware and
software to keep maintenance costs in check. In case something terrible happens, a disaster
recovery plan should be in place. In case things go well for the organization, room for future
growth should be built into the network design.

The Important things to consider include balancing security issues with the desire for easy access
to information; building redundancy into the network in anticipation of breakdowns; and
standardizing hardware and software to keep maintenance costs in check.

 Connectivity and Security:

Network connectivity today means more than Ethernet cables and wireless access points.
People today are more connected while mobile than ever before and many of them want
access to company email and data while they are out of the office. Balancing those needs
while maintaining security is a challenge that needs to be addressed in the design phase of
 any network.

This includes where data is stored, either in-house or offsite with cloud-based solutions,
what types of information should be accessible, who should be able to access it, and which
types of devices should be included. Firewalls and access servers need to be secure
without slowing down operations.

 Redundancy and Backing Up

Redundancy means having backup devices in place for any mission-critical
components in the network. Even small organizations should consider using two servers.
Two identical servers, for example, can be configured with fail-safes so that one will take
over if the other fails or requires maintenance. A good rule of thumb is to have redundant
components and services in place for any part of a network that cannot be down for more
than an hour.

If an organization hosts its own Web servers, or cannot be without Internet connectivity, a
second connection should be in place. Having an extra switch, wireless router, and a spare
laptop onsite is a good practice for ensuring that downtime is kept to a minimum.

 Standardization of Hardware and Software

Standardization of the hardware and software used in a network is important for
ensuring the network runs smoothly. It also reduces costs associated with
maintenance, updates and repairs. Conducting a full audit of the current computer
systems, software and peripherals will help to determine which should be
standardized.

A CEO or director may require special consideration, but if 90 percent of the employees
use the same notebooks, with the same word processing and email programs, a software
or hardware patch across the organization can be conducted much less expensively than if
everyone used a different computer model with different software installed on each.

 Disaster Recovery Plan

A detailed disaster recovery plan should be a part of any network design. This
includes, but is not limited to, provisions for back-up power and what procedures
should be followed if the network or server crashes. It should also include when data
is backed up, how it is backed up and where copies of the data are stored. A
comprehensive disaster recovery plan includes office disasters, building disasters,
and metropolitan-wide disasters.
 In most cases, important data should be backed up daily. Many organizations do a
full weekly backup, with daily incremental backups that copy any files that have been
modified since the last weekly backup. Backup files should be stored in a secure
location off-site in the event of a building disaster, such as a fire.

 Future Growth of the Organization

While it is not always possible to anticipate how large an organization may be five
years in the future, some allowances for future growth must be built into the
network design. For Example, Microsoft Small Business Server can be an excellent
choice for many small organizations. However, if your office already has sixty employees,
Small Business Server could soon be a wasted investment, as it has a limit of only 75
users. Network design should factor in at least 20 percent growth per year, including
everything from switch ports to data backup systems.

1.2.2 Find appropriate structure

Internet infrastructures design considerations/requirements are
 Budget
 Nature of applications
 Availability of expertise /know-how or skill to implement the infrastructure
 Fault tolerance in terms of applications, system and network access
 Ease of configuration
 Management
Internet infrastructures structure will vary based on the size of the network
infrastructures. There are three network/internet infrastructures sizes.
I. Small sized Network (<80 users)
II. Medium sized Network (<500 users)
III.Large size network (>500 users)
So, based on the network size the network structure, design, requirement, implementation
will have varied. Example: -
I. Requirements for small sized Network (<80 users)
• Low cost equipment
• Shared bandwidth for most users, switched for a selective few
• A central switch acting as a backbone
• Flat network design
• Little fault tolerance
• Minimal management required
• High growth provisioning of 20-50%
II. Requirements for Medium sized Network (<500 users)
• medium cost/ fixed annual budget for IT expenditure
• MIS (management information system) department taking care of the information system
• Develop own in-house applications
• Availability of one or a few dedicated network engineers
• Invest in server/host fault tolerance features
• May provide dial-in service to mobile workers/ remote access
III.Requirements for Large Sized Network
• Internetwork of networks, with a mix of technologies such as Ethernet,
• Token-ring, FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) and ATM (asynchronous Transition Mode).
• Involves multiprotocol such as TCP/IP, IPX, SNA or NetBIOS.
• Fault tolerance features for mission-critical applications, such as hardware
redundancies, network path redundancies and extensive investment on backup
services.
• Fairly large MIS department to take care of the information system
• In-house application development teams that constantly look at the deployment
of new Internet technologies such as Java and multimedia applications.
• Availability of experts in areas such as system management, network
infrastructure and management.
• Substantial amount of company’s annual budget is spent on IT investment.

1.3 Physical Vs. Logical Network Infrastructure

A. Physical Network Infrastructure: -
The physical design of the network, along with hardware components such as
cabling, routers, switches, hubs, servers, and workstations.
 The hardware you select when planning the network’s physical infrastructure is frequently
dependent on elements of the network’s logical infrastructure.
 For example, if you decide to use Ethernet for your network’s data-link layer
protocol, you are limited to certain specific cable types supported by Ethernet, and
the network’s connectivity components—hubs, routers, and switches—must be
designed for use with Ethernet as well.
 For a small network, the physical infrastructure can be very simple—computers, a
hub, and a few cables are generally all you need.
 For medium-to-large networks, however, the physical infrastructure can be
extraordinarily complex.
 Fig.-1: Sample Example of Physical diagram for small sized network

B. Logical Network Infrastructure: -

comprises the many software elements that connect, manage, and secure hosts on the
network.
 Logical network infrastructure is made up of all the software components required
to enable connectivity between devices and to provide network security. The
network’s logical infrastructure consists of the following:
• Software products
• Networking protocols/services.
 The logical components of the network topology define a number of important elements:
• Speed of the network.
• Type of switching that occurs.
• Media which will be utilized.

 The logical infrastructure of a network consists of both abstract software elements, such
as networking protocols, and concrete elements, such as specific software
products.
 In addition to basic communication protocols such as TCP/IP, the abstract elements of
the logical infrastructure can include security technologies such as digital certificates
and the IP Security (IPSec) protocols.
 Fig.-2: Sample example of logical design for small sized network

1.4 Ensure infrastructure requirements of agreed business and

user specification
To ensure business requirements agreed, given these concepts, how do we describe requirements
for a network?
 Need a process to filter or classify requirements
• Network requirements (often have high, medium, low priorities)
• Future requirements (planned upgrades)
• Rejected requirements (remember for future ref.)
• Informational requirements (ideas, not required)
1.4.1 Requirement analysis
 Requirements can come from many aspects of the network system
• User Requirements
• Application Requirements
• Device Requirements
• Network Requirements
• Other Requirements
A. User Requirements
 User requirements are often qualitative and very high level
 What is ‘fast enough’ for download? System response
(RTT)?
 How good does video need to be?
 What’s my budget?
B. Application Requirements
 What types of apps are we using?
 Mission-critical
 Rate-critical
 Real-time and/or interactive
 How sensitive are apps to RMA (reliability, maintainability, availability)?
 What capacity is needed?  What delay time is acceptable?
 What groups of apps are being used?
 Telemetry/command and control remote
 Teleservice – VOIP, teleconference
devices
 Operations, admin, maintenance, and
 Visualization and simulation
provisioning (OAM&P) – DNS, SMTP,
 Distributed computing
SNMP
 Web development, access, and use
 Client-server – ERP, SCM, CRM
 Bulk data transport – FTP
 Where are the apps located?
 Are some only used in certain locations?
C. Device Requirements
 What kinds of devices are on your
network?
 Generic computing devices include normal PCs, Macs, laptops, handheld computers,
workstations
 Servers include all flavors of server – file, print, app/computation, and backup
 Specialized devices include extreme servers (supercomputers, massively parallel
servers), data collection systems (POS terminals), industry-specific devices, networked
devices (cameras, tools), stoplights, ATMs, etc.
 We want an understanding of the device’s performance – its ability to process data from the
network
 Device I/O rates  Delay time for performing a given app
function
 Performance results from many factors
  Storage performance, that is, flash,  Bus performance (bus capacity and
disk drive, or tape performance arbitration efficiency)
 Processor (CPU) performance  OS performance (effectiveness of
 Memory performance (access times) the protocol stack and APIs)
 Device driver performance
 The device locations are also critical
 Often generic devices can be grouped by their quantity
 Servers and specialized stuff are shown individually
D. Network Requirements
 Issues with network integration include
 Scaling dependencies – how will the size of the existing network affect the new one?
i. Will the existing network change structure, or just add on a new wing/ extension?
 Location dependencies – interaction between old and new networks could change the
location of key components
 Performance constraints – existing network could limit performance of the new one
 Network, system, and support service dependencies
i. Addressing, security, routing protocols and network management can all be affected by
the existing network
 Interoperability dependencies
i. Changes in technology or media at the interfaces between networks need to be
accounted for, as well as QoS guarantees, if any
 Network obsolescence – do protocols or technologies become obsolete during
transition?
 Network management and security issues need to be addressed throughout
development
 How will the network be monitored for events?
 Monitoring for network performance?
i. What is the hierarchy for management data flow?
 Network configuration?
 Troubleshoot support?
 Security analysis can include the severity (effect) of an attack, and its probability of
occurrence
E. Other Requirements
 Requirements can come from other outside sources – your customer, legal requirements,
larger scale organization (enterprise) requirements, etc.
 Additional requirements can include
 Operational suitability – how well can the customer configure and monitor the system?
  Supportability – how well can the customer maintain the system?
 Confidence – what is the data loss rate when the system is running at its required
throughput?
 Financial requirements can include not only the initial system cost, but also ongoing
maintenance costs
 System architecture may be altered to remain within cost constraints
 This is a good reason to present the customer with design choices, so they see the
impact of cost versus performance.
 Enterprise requirements typically include integration of your network with
existing standards for voice, data, or other protocols
1.4.2 Requirements Spec and Map
 A requirements specification is a document which summarizes the requirements
for (here) a network
i. Often it becomes a contractual obligation, so assumptions, estimates, etc. should be
carefully spelled out
 Requirements are classified by Status, as noted earlier (core/current, future, rejected,
or informational requirement)
 Priority can provide additional numeric distinction within a given Status
(typically on a 1-3 or 1-5 scale)
 Sources for Gathering requirements can be identified, or give basis for Deriving it
 Type is user, app, device, network or other

Requirements Specification/ sample specification form/

ID/Name Date Type Description Gathered/Derived Locations Status Priority

• Requirements Mapping can show graphically where stuff is, what kind of apps are
used, and existing connectivity
• So, how do we determine what the requirements are for our network?
• Collect requirements service metrics, and delays to help develop
and map requirements
 Planning, Implementing and Maintaining
Information Sheet 2
Network Infrastructure

2.1 Planning a Network Infrastructure

 Planning the infrastructure is by far the most complicated part of building a network
because during this phase you create the blueprint you will use to implement the
network and maintain it later. Example using Visio, Packet Tracer, EdrawMax
 A complete network infrastructure plan consists of a great deal more than a physical
infrastructure layout and a list of hardware and software products.
 To plan the infrastructure properly, a network designer must consider the
requirements of the network’s users, its owners, and its hardware and software
components.
 What tasks do the network users have to accomplish?
 In addition to selecting applications, a network designer must also be conscious of
the services the network’s users need for their computers to function properly
 Security is also an omnipresent consideration in planning a network infrastructure.
 The designer must attempt to anticipate all possible dangers to the network and plan
a suitable security infrastructure to protect it from those dangers.
 The security infrastructure might include advanced configuration of the operating
systems, services, and applications, as well as the use of additional components,
such as IPSec and digital certificates.
2.2 Implementing a Network Infrastructure
 The network infrastructure plan planned should be implemented at this stage.
 The process of implementing the technologies outlined in a network infrastructure plan
typically involves a number of disciplines.
 The elements of the implementation process focus largely on the selection of protocols,
operating systems, applications, and security mechanisms that satisfy the requirements of
a network’s owners, administrators, and users, as determined in the planning process.
 This course focuses on the deployment of TCP/IP protocols (selecting IP addresses &
subnet mask), the DNS (DNS name space) and WINS name-resolution mechanisms, and
the IPsec (Creating IPsec policies) protocol extensions technologies on a medium-to-large
network, and it concentrates more on the organizational elements of the deployment than
on the process of configuring an individual computer.
 2.3 Maintaining a Network Infrastructure

 To maintain the network properly, administrators must have an intimate knowledge of the
infrastructure and the technologies used to implement it.
 Network infrastructure maintenance includes tasks such as updating operating systems
and applications, monitoring ongoing processes, and troubleshooting problems.
 Keeping the network’s operating systems and applications updated is more complicated
than simply downloading the latest patch releases and installing them on all the computers.
 For a large and complex network infrastructure, you must be careful to test each release
before deploying it on the production network.
 Administrators must monitor many services that are essential to a large network at regular
intervals to ensure they are operating properly.
 This monitoring can include regular examination of logs, function testing, and network traffic
analysis.
 The network administrator must be capable of configuring these services to log the
appropriate information and of using Windows Server 2008 tools such as Network Monitor
and the Performance console.
 Troubleshooting is one of the primary maintenance functions of a network administrator.
 Although much of the infrastructure design and implementation process revolves around the
creation of a robust network, problems do occur, and in a large organization, network
failures can mean reduced productivity and loss of revenue.

Fundamental Design Goals

When examined carefully, these requirements translate into four fundamental network design goals
2.4 Determining Internet protocol addresses

2.4.1 Internet protocols

 What is the Internet Protocol (IP)?
The Internet Protocol (IP) is a protocol, or set of rules, for routing and addressing packets of data
so that they can travel across networks and arrive at the correct destination. Data traversing the
Internet is divided into smaller pieces, called packets. IP information is attached to each packet,
and this information helps routers to send packets to the right place. Every device or domain that
connects to the Internet is assigned an IP address, and as packets are directed to the IP address
attached to them, data arrives where it is needed.
Once the packets arrive at their destination, they are handled differently depending on which
transport protocol is used in combination with IP. The most common transport protocols are TCP
and UDP.

 What is a network protocol?

In networking, a protocol is a standardized way of doing certain actions and formatting data so
that two or more devices are able to communicate with and understand each other.
To understand why protocols are necessary, consider the process of mailing a letter. On the
envelope, addresses are written in the following order: name, street address, city, state, and zip
code. If an envelope is dropped into a mailbox with the zip code written first, followed by the street
address, followed by the state, and so on, the post office won't deliver it. There is an agreed-upon
protocol for writing addresses in order for the postal system to work. In the same way, all IP data
packets must present certain information in a certain order, and all IP addresses follow a
standardized format.
 What is an IP address? How does IP addressing work?
An IP address is a unique identifier assigned to a device or domain that connects to the Internet.
Each IP address is a series of characters, such as '192.168.1.1'. Via DNS resolvers, which
translate human-readable domain names into IP addresses, users are able to access websites
without memorizing this complex series of characters. Each IP packet will contain both the IP
address of the device or domain sending the packet and the IP address of the intended recipient,
much like how both the destination address and the return address are included on a piece of
mail.
  IPv4 vs. IPv6
IPv4 IPv6
 IPv4 stands for Internet Protocol version 4. It is  IPv6 is the next generation Internet Protocol (IP)
the underlying technology that makes it possible address standard intended to supplement and
for us to connect our devices to the web. eventually replace IPv4, the protocol many Internet
Whenever a device accesses the Internet, it is services still use today. Every computer, mobile phone,
assigned a unique, numerical IP address such home automation component, IoT sensor and any other
as 99.48.227.227. To send data from one device connected to the Internet needs a numerical IP
computer to another through the web, a data address to communicate between other devices. The
packet must be transferred across the network original IP address scheme, called IPv4, is running out
containing the IP addresses of both devices. of addresses due to its widespread usage from the
 IPv4 uses a 32-bit address for its Internet proliferation of so many connected devices.
addresses. That means it can provide support  IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) is the sixth revision to
for 2^32 IP addresses in total around 4.29 the Internet Protocol and the successor to IPv4. It
billion. That may seem like a lot, but all 4.29 functions similarly to IPv4 in that it provides the unique
billion IP addresses have now been assigned, IP addresses necessary for Internet-enabled devices to
leading to the address shortage issues we face communicate. However, it does have one significant
today. difference: it utilizes a 128-bit IP address.

 IPv6 utilizes 128-bit Internet addresses. Therefore, it can

support 2^128 Internet addresses
340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456
of them to be exact. The number of IPv6 addresses is
1028 times larger than the number of IPv4 addresses.
So there are more than enough IPv6 addresses to allow
for Internet devices to expand for a very long time.

 What is an IP packet?
IP packets are created by adding an IP header to each packet of data before it is sent on its
way. An IP header is just a series of bits (ones and zeros), and it records several pieces of
information about the packet, including the sending and receiving IP address. IP headers also
report:
 Header length
 Packet length
 Time to Live (TTL), or the number of network hops a packet can make before it is discarded
 Which transport protocol is being used (TCP, UDP, etc.)
In total there are 14 fields for information in IPv4 headers, although one of them is optional.

An IPv4 packet header has a total of 14 fields; among these 14 fields, only one is optional,
which is aptly known as the options component.

IPv4 Header Format Component: Below is the list mentioned.

1. Version. 8. Fragment Offset

2. Internet Header Length. 9. Time to live.
3. Type of Service. 10. Protocol.
4. Explicit Congestion Notification. 11. A checksum of header.
5. Total Length. 12. Source Address.
6. Identification. 13. Destination Address.
7. Flags. 14. Options.
Let’s take a look at these components, their sizes and what they can do:

1. Version: The first header field is a 4-bit version indicator. In the case of IPv4, the value of
its four bits is set to 0100, which indicates 4 in binary.
2. Internet Header Length: IHL is the 2nd field of an IPv4 header, and it is of 4 bits in size.
This header component is used to show how many 32-bit words are present in the header.
As we know, IPv4 headers have a variable size, so this is used to specify the size of the
header to avoid any errors. This size can be between 20 bytes to 60 bytes.
3. Type of Service: ToS is also called Differentiated Services Code Point or DSCP. This field
is used to provide features related to service quality, such as for data streaming or Voice
over IP (VoIP) calls. It is used to specific how a datagram will be handled.
4. Explicit Congestion Notification: ECN is used to send notifications to the sender or
receive in situations where network congestion happens. This is an optional feature of IPv4
can; if one of the endpoints don’t support it, it is not used.
5. Total Length: This field’s size is 16 bit, and it is used to denote the size of the entire
datagram. The minimum size of an IP datagram is 20 bytes, and at the maximum, it can be
65,535 bytes. Practically, all hosts are required to be able to read 576-byte datagrams. If a
datagram is too large for the hosts in the network, fragmentation is used, which is handled
in the host or packet switch.
6. Identification: The identification or ID field in a packet can identify an IP datagram’s
fragments uniquely. Some have suggested using this field for other things such as adding
information for packet tracing etc.
7. Flags: flag in an IPv4 header is a three-bit field that is used to control and identify
fragments. The following can be their possible configuration:
o Bit 0: this is reserved and has to be set to zero
o Bit 1: DF or do not fragment
o Bit 2: MF or more fragments.
8. Fragment Offset: This field is 13 bit long in length, and it is measured by blocks that units
of 8-byte blocks. These are used to specify the offset of a fragment relative to the start of
the IP datagram, which when it was not fragmented. As you can expect, the first offset of a
fragment is always set to zero. The maximum possible offset is ( 213-1 ) * 8 = 65528, but it
is more than the maximum possible IP Packet length, which is 65,535 bytes long with the
length of a header added in.
9. Time to live: Time to live (or TTL in short) is an 8-bit field to indicate the maximum time the
datagram will be live in the internet system. The time here is measured in seconds, and in
case the value of TTL is zero, the datagram is erased. Every time a datagram is processed,
it’s Time to live is decreased by one second. These are used so that datagrams that are not
delivered are discarded automatically. TTL can be between 0 – 255.
10. Protocol: This is a filed in the IPv4 header reserved to denote which protocol is used in the
later (data) portion of the datagram. For Example, number 6 is used to denote TCP and 17
is used to denote UDP protocol.
11. The header’s checksum: The checksum field is of 16-bit length, and it is used to check
the header for any errors. The header is compared to the value of its checksum at each
hop, and in case the header checksum is not matching, the packet is discarded. Keep in
mind that this is only for the header, and its protocol handles the data field. UDP and TCP,
 for example, have their own checksum fields.
12. Source Address: It is a 32-bit address of the source of the IPv4 packet.
13. Destination Address: the destination address is also 32 bit in size, and it contains the
receiver’s address.
14. Options: This is an optional field of the IPv4 header. It is used only when the value of IHL
is set to more than 5. These options contain values and settings for things related to
security. Record route and time stamp etc. You will find that the list of options component
ends with an End of Options or EOL in many cases.

 How does IP routing work?

The Internet is made up of interconnected large networks that are each responsible for certain
blocks of IP addresses; these large networks are known as autonomous systems (AS). A variety
of routing protocols, including Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), help route packets across
autonomous systems external (ASes) based on their destination IP addresses. Routers have
routing tables that indicate which ASes the packets should travel through in order to reach the
desired destination as quickly as possible. Packets travel from AS to AS until they reach one that
claims responsibility for the targeted IP address. That AS then internally routes the packets to the
destination.
Fig.1- Protocols attach packet headers at
different layers of the OSI model:

- Time to Live (TTL)- amount of time or “hops” that a packet is set to exist inside a network before being
discarded by a router
- AS- The Internet is a network of networks*, and autonomous systems are the big networks that make up the
Internet
- Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is the postal service of the Internet. Similarly, when someone
submits data across the Internet, BGP is responsible for looking at all of the available paths that
data could travel and picking the best route
Packets can take different routes to the same place if necessary, just as a group of people driving
to an agreed-upon destination can take different roads to get there.

 What is TCP/IP?
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a transport protocol, meaning it dictates the way data
is sent and received. A TCP header is included in the data portion of each packet that uses
TCP/IP. Before transmitting data, TCP opens a connection with the recipient. TCP ensures that all
packets arrive in order once transmission begins. Via TCP, the recipient will acknowledge
receiving each packet that arrives. Missing packets will be sent again if receipt is not
acknowledged.
TCP is designed for reliability, not speed. Because TCP has to make sure all packets arrive in
order, loading data via TCP/IP can take longer if some packets are missing.
TCP and IP were originally designed to be used together, and these are often referred to as the
TCP/IP suite. However, other transport protocols can be used with IP.
 What is UDP/IP?
The User Datagram Protocol, or UDP, is another widely used transport protocol. It's faster than
TCP, but it is also less reliable. UDP does not make sure all packets are delivered and in order,
and it doesn't establish a connection before beginning or receiving transmissions.
2.4.2 Using IP address Version 4
• A unique identifier for a computer or device (host) on a TCP/IP network
• A 32-bit binary number usually represented as 4 decimal numbers separated by a
period Example:
206 .40 .185. 73
11001110.00101000. 10111001.01001001
• Each address is 32 bits’ wide
• Valid addresses can range from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
WHY?
Because 11111111b = 25510
• Theoretically, a total of » 4.3 billion addresses are available
WHY?
Because 232 = 4,294,967,29610
 Two addresses in one…
• Each address consists of two parts
1. The network address
2. The host address
• Other systems may use more than one address (Ex: IPX)
  The Five Network Classes
1. Class A – begins with 0
•
00000001 (110) to 01111111 (12610)
2. Class B – begins with 10
•
10000000 (12810) to 10111111 (19110)
3. Class C – begins with 110
•
11000000 (19210) to 11011111 (22310)
01111111 = 12710
Addresses beginning with 127 are reserved for loopback (127.0.0.1 is YOU)
4. Class D – begins with 1110
•
22410 to 23910
•
Reserved for multicasting
5. Class E – begins with 1111
•
24010 to 25410
•
Reserved for future use
These classes D and E should not be used for host addressing
 Which part belongs to the network and which part belongs to the node/host?
Class A – XXXXXXXX.yyyyyyyy.yyyyyyyy.yyyyyyyy
Class B – XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX.yyyyyyyy.yyyyyyyy
Class C – XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX.yyyyyyyy
Where: -
X = Network and
y = node
Or
  IP Addresses*
Class 1st Octet Networks Ids Host IDs
A 1-126 27 = 126 224 = 16M

B 128-191 214 = 16K 216 = 64K

C 192-223 221 = 2M 28 = 255

NB. Numbers not exact

 There are three IP network addresses reserved for private networks

10.0.0.0/8
172.16.0.0/12
192.168.0.0/16

- Private address ranges

Class Internal address range

A 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
B 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
C 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255

 These can be used by anyone setting up an internal network.

 Routers will never forward packets coming from these addresses.
 Connecting a network using private addresses to the Internet requires translation of
the private addresses to public addresses using Network Address Translation (NAT).
2.4.3 Sub-netting
…can be done for a variety of reasons
o To manage organization with different departments
o Use of different physical media
o Preservation of address space /no loss of ip address per network
 o Security
o The most common reason is to control network traffic
In an Ethernet network, all nodes on a segment see all packets transmitted by other nodes on that
segment. Performance can be adversely affected under heavy traffic loads. So, a router is used to
connect IP networks to minimize the amount of traffic each segment must receive. Applying a
subnet mask allows you to identify the network and node parts of the address. A router will then
determine whether the address is local or remote.
In subnet masking: -
 Network bits are masked as 1s
 Node bits are masked as 0s
Example:
 Class A – 255.0.0.0
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
 Class B – 255.255.0.0
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
 Class C – 255.255.255.0
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
 Subnet masking
Performing a bitwise logical AND between the IP address and the subnet mask results in the
network address
Ex: Class - B 140.179.240.200
10001100.10110011.11110000.11001000
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
10001100.10110011.00000000.00000000
Network Address = 140.179.000.000
 A Few Rules…
Each device on a node has a unique MAC address
Each device on a node needs a unique IP address
All devices on the same physical segment share a common network ID (subnet mask)
Each physical segment has a unique Network ID (subnet mask)

 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

Before an IP packet can be forwarded to another host, the MAC address (usually 6 bytes
written in hex (Ex: 02-FE-87-4A-8C-A9) of the receiving machine must be known ARP
determines the MAC addresses that correspond to an IP address.
 A router will choose direct paths for the network packets based on the addressing of the IP
frame it is handling (different routes to different networks)

 Direct and Indirect Routing

Direct – when nodes are on the same network
Indirect – used when the network numbers of the source and destination do not match
o Packet must be forwarded by a node that knows host to reach the destination (a router)

2.4.4 Internet protocol address allocation process

IP address allocation is part of proper network design, which is crucial to the performance and
expandability of a network. Learn how to properly allocate IP addresses for a new network and your
options if you run out of IP addresses. When you are designing or expanding your network, it is
important to know how to manage IP address allocation properly, based we see sub netting in 2.4.3
 OSI Reference Model and Protocols of
Information Sheet 3
Network Infrastructure

3.1 OSI Reference Model

 OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium
to the software application in another computer.
 OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
 OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.
 OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is
assigned a particular task.
 Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.
Characteristics of OSI Model:

 The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
 The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they
are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both
the end user and the application layer interact with the software applications. An upper
layer refers to the layer just above another layer.
 The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer
and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the
lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is
mainly responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.
Functions of the OSI Layers
There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are given
below:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

1- Physical layer

 The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node
to another node.
 It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
 It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
 It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.
Functions of a Physical layer:
 Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected
physically.
 Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex or
full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
 Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
 Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.

2- Data-Link Layer

 This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

 It defines the format of the data on the network.
 It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
 It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local
network.
 It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer
 It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the
receiver that is receiving.
 It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
 It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
 A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer
and the network's physical layer.
 It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
Functions of the Data-link layer
 Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known as
Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which is
added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source address.
  Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the
header.
 Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the
technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no
data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with higher
processing speed does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing speed.
 Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the
message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr, then the
receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
 Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has control
over the link at a given time.

3-Network Layer

 It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.
 It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the
network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
 The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
 Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the
routing services within an internetwork.
 The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols.
Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
Functions of Network Layer:
 Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It
provides a logical connection between different devices.
  Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of the
frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
 Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best
optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
 Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts
them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol
(IP).

4-Transport Layer

 The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in
which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
 The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
 It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as
segments.
 This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection
between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
The two protocols used in this layer are:
 Transmission Control Protocol
o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the data
into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the internet using
multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the destination. The
transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at the
receiving end.
 User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.
Functions of Transport Layer:
  Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this
reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one computer
to another computer but also from one process to another process. The transport layer
adds the header that contains the address known as a service-point address or port
address. The responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data from one computer
to another computer and the responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message
to the correct process.
 Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the
upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned
with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has
arrived at the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their
sequence numbers.
 Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service
and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual
packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A connection-oriented
service makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine before
delivering the packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single
route.
 Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed end-
to-end rather than across a single link.
 Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures
that message reach at the destination without any error.

5-Session Layer

 It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

 The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices.
Functions of Session layer:
  Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two
processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes which
can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
 Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a
sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the
transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.

6-Presentation Layer

 A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems.
 It acts as a data translator for a network.
 This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation
format to another format.
 The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
Functions of Presentation layer:
 Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of
character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding methods,
the presentation layer handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods.
It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the
common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
 Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of
converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting
message over the network.
 Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the
number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such as
text, audio, video.

7-Application Layer
 Training, Teaching and Learning Materials Development

 An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access
network service.
 It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
 An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
 This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Functions of Application layer:
 File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to
access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage
the files in a remote computer.
 Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
 Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is used
to provide that global information about various objects.
Summary
 The OSI Model is a logical and conceptual model that defines network communication
which is used by systems open to interconnection and communication with other systems
 In OSI model, layer should only be created where the definite levels of abstraction are
needed.
 OSI layer helps you to understand communication over a network
 In 1984, the OSI architecture was formally adopted by ISO as an international standard
Layer Name Function Protocols
L-7 Application To allow access to network resources. SMTP, HTTP, FTP, POP3,
SNMP
L- 6 Presentation To translate, encrypt and compress data. MPEG, ASCH, SSL, TLS
L-5 Session To establish, manage, and terminate the NetBIOS, SAP
session
L-4 Transport The transport layer builds on the network TCP, UDP
layer to provide data transport from a
Date April 21, 2021
Plan and Design Internet Infrastructure TTLM Page 32 of 38
By : Meresa H.
 process on a source machine to a
process on a destination machine.
L-3 Network To provide internetworking To move IPV5, IPV6, ICMP, IPSEC,
packets from source to destination ARP, MPLS.
L-2 Data Link To organize bits into frames To provide RAPA, PPP, Frame Relay,
hop-to-hop delivery ATM, Fiber Cable, etc.
L- 1 Physical To transmit bits over a medium To RS232, 100BaseTX, ISDN,
provide mechanical and electrical 11.
specifications

3.2 ICT/IP Model

 The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.

 The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.

 The TCP/IP model consists of four layers: the application layer, transport layer, Internet
layer and network layer.

 The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and
transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these
four layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.

 TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of

them provides specific functionality.

Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more lower-level
protocols.

Functions of TCP/IP layers:

1-Network Access Layer

  A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

 A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in
the OSI reference model.

 It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.

 This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices
on the same network.

 The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into
frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical
addresses.

 The protocols used by this layer are Ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

2-Internet Layer
 An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

 An internet layer is also known as the network layer.

 The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network,
and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire TCP/IP
suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

Video Player is loading.

 IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses.

The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to
provide internetwork routing.

 Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to

be transmitted.

 Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport
layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it
encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.

 Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by
data link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP
datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into
smaller units so that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by
the sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled
to form an original message.
  Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN,
WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant
network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the
IP datagram through various devices such as routers.

ARP Protocol

 ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

 ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP
address.

 The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:

o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device,
it broadcasts the ARP request to the network.

o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and
process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends back
its physical address in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical
address both to its cache memory and to the datagram header

ICMP Protocol

 ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

 It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding

datagram problems back to the sender.

 A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is unable
to route the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a device is
on fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the sender that the
datagram is undeliverable.

 An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:

o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.

o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is
responding or not.

 The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct
them. The responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.

 ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers
because the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not of
the router that it is passed to.

3-Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data which is
being sent over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission
control protocol.

 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.

o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.

o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error
to the sender that user datagram has been damaged.

o UDP consists of the following fields:

Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application
program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the
application program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.

o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does
not contain any ID of a data segment.

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.

o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for
the duration of the transmission.

o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged
frames. Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and
acknowledged
 before the transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is
discarded.

o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known
as segment, and each segment contains a sequence number which is required
for reordering the frames to form an original message.

o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on
sequence numbers.

4-Application Layer
 An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.

 It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.

 This layer allows the user to interact with the application.

 When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer,
it forwards its data to the transport layer.

 There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be placed
inside the application layer except those who interact with the communication system.
For example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web browser
using HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an application
layer protocol.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

 HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the
data over the World Wide Web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video.
It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext
environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.

 SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used
for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.

 SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that
supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to
send the data to another e-mail address.

 DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead
of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is known as
Domain Name System.
 TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between
the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to
be a terminal at the remote system.

 FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used
for transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.