Electrical Machines: Electrical Mechanical Mechanical Electrical Energy Energy Energy Energy

EEEB283 Electrical Machines and Drives – Introduction to Machinery Principles
Electrical Machines
Motor Generator
Electrical Mechanical Mechanical Electrical
energy energy energy energy
We will study the following machines:

 Induction motor
 Synchronous generator and motor
 DC motor
We will also look into transformers – useful in electrical power

distribution.
BUT….
Firstly, we need to look at the basic concepts of electrical

machines:
 Rotational motion and Newton’s Law

 Magnetic field and magnetic circuits
 Principles behind motor, generator and transformer action
 The Linear DC machine
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1
Dr. Ungku Anisa, UNITEN © 2006

Chapter 1: Intro. to Machinery Principles
1.1. Rotational Motion
Machines rotate on a fixed shaft.
 = Angle of rotation measured from a fixed reference

point.

0
Unit: radians (rad) or degrees ().
 = Angular velocity
It is analogous to linear velocity, v. Therefore,
(1.1)
Unit: radians per second (rads-1).
Angular velocity can also be expressed in terms of other

units.
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2

f = Angular velocity in revolutions per second.
(1.2)
n = Angular velocity in revolutions per minute.
(1.3)
 = Angular acceleration
It is analogous to linear acceleration, a. Hence,
(1.4)
Unit: radians per second squared (rads-2).
Torque, T is produced when a force exerts a twisting action on a

body. Unit: Newton-meters (Nm).
Definition:
Perpendicular distance
|T| = Force applied between line of force and
axis of rotor
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3

Direction of
torque T=
Work, W is produced from the application of force, F through a

distance, r.
For linear motion:

W=∫ F dr
For rotational motion, work = application of torque T through an

angle 
(1.5)
However, when the torque applied is constant,
(1.6)
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4

Unit: Joules (J).
Power, P is the rate of doing work.
(1.7)
Unit: Watts (W).
Applying this definition for rotating bodies, and assuming torque is

constant,
(1.8)
Equation (1.8) is very important!

It describes the mechanical power on the shaft of a motor or
generator.
Real, Reactive and apparent Power in AC Circuits
Z̄=Z ∠θ°
Real power, P = power supplied to load.
Unit: Watts (W)
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5

Reactive power, Q = energy that is stored and released in the

magnetic field of inductor or electric field of capacitor
Unit: Volts-ampere reactive (VAr)
Apparent power, S = power that “appears” to be supplied to load

if phase angle differences between voltage and current are ignored.
Unit: Volt-amperes (VA)
1.2. Newton’s Law of Rotation
For an object moving in a straight line, Newton’s Law is given by:
F=ma
where:
F = net force applied to the object
m = mass of object
a = resulting acceleration of object
In analogy, Newton’s Law of rotation for a rotating body is given

by:
(1.9)
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where:
T = net torque applied to the object
J = (unit: )
 = resulting angular acceleration of object
1.3. The Magnetic Field
The conversion of energy from one form to the other in motors,

generators and transformers is through the presence of the
magnetic field.
The production of a magnetic field by a current carrying conductor

is governed by Ampere’s Law:
∮ H⋅dl=I
H is the magnetic field intensity produced by the current I. In SI
units, H is measured in Ampere-turns per meter.
What if we have more than 1 conductor?
Then, use the total current passing through the closed path, i.e. N
turns each carrying the current I. Therefore,
(1.10)
The magnetic field intensity, H can be considered to be a measure

of the “effort” required by the current to create a magnetic field.
The relationship between the magnetic field intensity, H and the

produced magnetic flux density, B is given by:
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(1.11)
The unit of magnetic flux density is Tesla (T).
In (1.11),  is the permeability of the material in which the

magnetic field is produced. It represents the relative ease of
establishing a magnetic field in a given material.
The permeability is usually written as:
where:
0 = permeability of free space = 4 x 10-7 H/m
r = relative permeability of a given material compared to
free space.
Note:
 permeability of air = permeability of free space.
 steels used in modern machines have r of 2000 to 6000.
Finally, we define the magnetic flux present in a given area by the

following equation:
(1.12)
where dA is the differential unit of area. If the flux density, B is

uniform over the cross-sectional area A, then:
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(1.13)
The unit of magnetic flux is Webers (W).
Example: The simple magnetic core
cross-sectional
area, A
1) Obtain an expression for the magnetic field intensity, H

using Ampere’s Law.
2) The magnetic flux density, B of the simple core is:
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3) The total flux in the core due to the current I in the winding:
1.4. Magnetic Circuits
In the simple magnetic core, we find that:
current I in the coil produces magnetic flux  in

of wire the core
Compare this to:
voltage V in an produces current I flowing in

electric circuit the circuit
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It is possible to define a magnetic circuit in which magnetic

behaviour is governed by simple equations analogous to those of
an electric circuit.
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Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit
N turns
V =IR (1.14)
V = voltage or electromotive F = magnetomotive force

force (emf) (mmf)
I = current  = flux
R = resistance of circuit ℜ = reluctance of circuit
We have two new quantities for the magnetic circuit:

 magnetomotive force, F
 reluctance, ℜ
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13

The magnetomotive force, F is equal to the effective current

flow applied to the core, i.e.
(1.15)
The mmf is measured in ampere-turns.
Similar to the voltage source, there is a polarity associated with

the mmf source. This is determined by the flux flow in the
magnetic circuit determined using the ‘right-hand rule’:
“If fingers of the right hand curl in the direction of the current
flowing in a coil of wire, the thumb will point in the direction of
positive mmf.”
Therefore, for the simple magnetic core:
The reluctance ℜ is analogous to resistance R in an electric

circuit. Its unit is ampere-turns per weber
(A. turns/Wb).
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14

Due to the analogy, reluctances in a magnetic circuit obey the same

rules as resistances, i.e.
1. if the reluctances are connected in series:
2. if the reluctances are connected in parallel:
In order to obtain an expression for the reluctance, we look back at

the flux expression for the simple magnetic core obtained
previously:
(1.16)
We know that in the magnetic circuit:
(1.17)
Hence, the reluctance of a material of length l and cross-sectional

area A is given by:
(1.18)
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Permeance, P = reciprocal of reluctance (analogous to

conductance G)
Magnetic circuits assist in analysing magnetic problems. However,

the analysis carried out are approximations due to the following
assumptions employed in the analysis:
1. assumptions in reluctance calculations (mean path length)

2. no leakage flux
3. no fringing effects – cross-sectional area of air gap equals
that of core.
I N
Leakage fluxes present in a simple Fringing effects in airgap.

magnetic core. Hence, effective cross-
sectional area of airgap is
larger than cross-sectional
of core in reality.
4. Permeability of ferromagnetic materials is usually

assumed to be constant or infinite.
Even so, magnetic circuit analysis is the easiest tool for flux
calculations giving satisfactory results.
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16

Example: Magnetic Circuits
A ferromagnetic core is shown in Figure P1-2. The depth of the

core is 5 cm. The other dimensions of the core are as shown in the
figure. Find the value of the current that will produce a flux of
0.005 Wb. With this current, what is the flux density at the top of
the core? What is the flux density at the right side of the core?
Assume that the relative permeability of the core is 1000.
400 turns
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The magnetic circuit:
There are three regions considered for this core. The reluctances of
these regions are:
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The total reluctance is thus
And the magnetomotive force required to produce a flux of 0.005

Wb is
Hence, the required current is
The flux density on the top of the core is
The flux density on the right side of the core is
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1.5. Magnetic behaviour of ferromagnetic materials
Typical B-H curve for ferromagnetic materials:

 (or B)
F (or H)
B=μH
Slope of B-H curve = permeability, 

Clearly,   constant in ferromagnetic materials.
After a certain point, increase in mmf gives almost no increase in

flux, i.e. material has saturated.
“Knee” of curve – transition region, operation point for most

electrical machines.
Advantage: get higher B for a given value of H.
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The most important ferromagnetic material is iron.
What will happen when current changes direction (i.e. have

alternating current)?
I B F
 (or B)
C t
A E
Path BCDEF
F (or H)
A  assume flux in core is zero at t = 0
A-B  current increases, flux increases as well (as in saturation

curve seen previously).
B-C-D  Current decreases but flux traces different path
D-E-F  Current increases again but flux path doesn’t go

through A as seen before.
When MMF is applied and removed, flux path ABC is traced.
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At C, F = 0 but flux  0 
To force flux = zero (i.e. B = 0) 
This phenomenon is known as Hysteresis.

Why does hysteresis occur?
Need to look at the atomic structure before, during and after the
presence of an external magnetic field.
Before magnetic field is applied:
Within a metal, there are small

regions 
In each domain, atoms are aligned

with a small magnetic field.
But each domain field are

randomly aligned in material.
Example of metal structure

before the presence of a
magnetic field.
When external magnetic field is applied:

Direction of external field
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Before external field applied After external field

applied
Domains pointing in direction of field grows.
Domains in other directions realign to follow external field.
Hence, magnetic field increases!
As more domains align, the total magnetic flux will maintain at a

constant level, i.e.
When magnetic field is removed:
Domains will try to revert to its random state.
But some remain aligned.
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23

Hence, to change alignment such that net field = 0,
must apply energy!
Example:
1. apply
2. exert a large mechanical shock
3. heat up the material
So, turning domains in a ferromagnetic structure requires energy.

Energy losses in ferromagnetic core
Two types of losses:
1. Hysteresis loss – energy required to accomplish the

reorientation of domains during each cycle of ac current
applied to the core.
Trajectory of flux built-up in material is different for

increasing and decreasing current applied, i.e. hysteresis
loop.
Every cycle of AC current will drive the material around the

hysteresis loop once.
Energy loss  area enclosed in hysteresis loop.
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2. Eddy current loss – produced by induced currents in the

material. (We will come back to this)
Both losses cause heating of core material and needs to be

considered in machine or transformer design.
Since both occur within the metal core, these losses are lumped
together and called core losses.
Let’s recap….
FACT:
4. Current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field, B.

5. Existence of ferromagnetic material (mainly iron) increases B
and provides easy path for magnetic flux flow.
Electrical machines (motors or generators) and transformers are

devices made up of iron and windings carrying current.
The basic principles behind the operation of these devices are

caused by the effect of magnetic field on its surroundings:
 Effect 1: Presence of a coil of wire in a time-changing

magnetic field induces voltage (transformer action)
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25

 Effect 2: Force is induced on a current-carrying wire in the

presence of magnetic field (motor action)
 Effect 3: A moving wire in presence of a static magnetic field

induces voltage (generator action)
Lets look closer at each of these effects.
1.6. Effect 1: Faraday’s Law
“Flux  passing through a turn of coil induces voltage eind in it that

is proportional to the rate of change of flux with respect to time.”
dφ
Faraday’s Law in equation form: e ind=−
dt
or for a coil having N turns:
(1.19)
Negative sign – induced voltage acts to oppose the flux producing

it (Lenz’s Law).

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Assumption for eq. (1.19): same flux present in each of N turns.

Not true in reality (due to leakages)!
Rewrite Faraday’s Law:
(1.20)
where  is flux linkage of the coil:
(1.21)
Units: Weber-turns.
Faraday’s Law is the basis of transformer action, i.e. have static
coils (or conductors) in a varying magnetic field.
But Faraday’s Law also applies if you have:

 Moving conductor in a stationary field
 Moving conductor in a varying field
Back to eddy current losses…
Cause: The time-varying flux also induces voltage, hence swirls

of currents to flow, within the ferromagnetic core.
Effect: heat is dissipated by the swirls of current flowing within

the resistive core. Energy loss  size of current paths.
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27

Solution: Lamination of ferromagnetic core, i.e. break up core

into thin strips, separated by insulation to limit the areas in which
eddy currents can flow.
1.7. Effect 2: Induced force on a current carrying wire
Charges moving in a magnetic field experience a force.

If the moving charges are a current flowing in a conductor, a force
acting on the conductor is observed.
General equation for the force induced on the conductor:
(1.22)
Magnitude of Magnetic flux

current in wire density vector
Length of wire in
the direction of
Hence, force magnitude: current flow
(1.23)
( = angle between conductor and the flux density vector)
Direction of force: Fleming’s left hand rule
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28

,B First finger:
SeCond finger:
ThuMb :
Or
Manchester United Football Club
First finger:
ThuMb Fiel
: Motion SeCond finger:
Current
First finger: Field
Note: In the book, the right hand is used but with different fingers
representing different quantities. Do not mix them up! Stick to one
convention and remember only it!
Example: A conductor placed on rails connected to a DC voltage

source in a constant magnetic field.
Since all vectors are

perpendicular:
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29

The force can also be observed as result of the interaction between

the original field and the field created by the current in the
conductor.
This effect is basis of electric motor action, i.e. torque (force)

produced to move the motor.
In electrical motors, construction is such that the windings (i.e.

current) and magnetic field are all acting in perpendicular
directions.
Why? To achieve maximum force!
1.8. Effect 3: Induced voltage on a moving wire
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30

Now, take the same conductor on rails example above. But, take of
the DC voltage source and connect and voltmeter instead. (Note:
The conductor is still placed in a constant magnetic field region.)
Then, move the conductor to the right. What do we get?
Voltage is induced in the system!
We know:
And in the example:
Easy because B is constant and all are in perpendicular

directions!
General equation for the induced voltage:
(1.24)
Velocity vector Length vector of

of the wire wire
Magnetic flux
________________________________________________________________________
density
31
vector
Note: The value of l is dependent upon the angle at which the wire
cuts through the magnetic field. Hence a more complete formula
will be as follows:
(1.25)
where  = angle between the conductor and the direction of the

( v×B ) vector.
Direction of force: Fleming’s right hand rule
First finger:
SeCond finger:
ThuMb :
This effect is basis of generator action, i.e. induction of voltages

in a moving wire located in a magnetic field.
1.9. The Linear DC machine
It operates on the same principles and exhibits the same behaviours

as real generators and motors.
Construction: Conducting bar placed on a pair of smooth,
frictionless rails in a constant, uniform magnetic field.
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32

To investigate its behaviour, 4 basic equations are required:
1. Force production on a wire in the presence of a magnetic field:
(1.26)
2. Voltage induced on a wire moving in a magnetic field:
(1.27)
3. Kirchoff’s voltage law for the machine:
(1.28)
4. Newton’s law for the bar lying across the rails:
(1.29)
The fundamental behaviour of the simple DC machine will be

examined through three cases.
Case 1: Starting the Linear DC machine
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33

1. The switch is closed and current is allowed to flow in the bar.

From Kirchoff’s voltage law:
(1.30)
Note: eind = 0 because the bar is at rest.
2. With current flowing downwards in the bar, force is produced

on it.
Direction of movement:
3. Based on Newton’s law, bar will accelerate to the right. This

motion will cause voltage to be induced across the current-
carrying bar.
Direction of induced voltage:

4. The induced voltage will cause the current flowing to be
reduced. Look back to Kirchoff’s voltage low:
________________________________________________________________________
34

5. This reduction in current will be followed by a decrease in the

force production since
Eventually, |F|=0 . At which point:
And the bar will move at a constant no-load speed,
(1.31)
v eind
t t
i F
t t
Case 2: The Linear DC machine as a motor
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35

Assume the linear DC machine is running at no-load and under

steady state conditions, i.e. steady state velocity of vss.
R i(t)
VB eind l v
Event Outcome
Fload applied opposite to the

1
direction of motion (i.e. to left)
2 Negative Bar slows down ( i.e. v )
Induced voltage will

3 Reduction in bar speed (v )
Increase in bar
4 Reduction in induced voltage
Force induced/acting on bar

5 increases to the
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36

This force will increase until it is equal in magnitude but opposite

in direction to the load force, i.e. F=Fload , which will occur
at a lower speed v.
The force F induced in the bar is in the direction of motion of the

bar and power has been converted from electrical form to
mechanical form to keep the bar moving.
The converted power is:
(1.32)
Electrical power Mechanical power

consumed created
The bar is operating as a motor because power is converted

from electrical to mechanical form.
v eind
t t
i F
t t
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37

Case 3: The Linear DC machine as a generator
The DC machine is assumed to operating under no-load steady

state conditions. R i(t)
VB eind l
v
Event Outcome
F app applied in the
1 direction of motion (i.e. to
right)
2 Positive Bar speeds up ( i.e. v )
Induced voltage will

3 Increase in bar speed (v )
Current direction,
When
4
Force induced/acting on bar

5 increases to the
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38

This will continue until

F=F
app which will cause the bar to
reach a new steady state and move at a higher speed v.
The reversal of current means that the linear DC machine is now

charging the battery, i.e. it is acting as a generator that converts
mechanical power into electric power.
The amount of power converted is:
Mechanical power Electrical power

consumed created
Note:
 Same machine can act as both motor and generator.

 Difference lies in the direction of external force applied with
respect to direction of motion.
 In both operations, induced voltage and force are both
present at all times.
 Machine movement is always in the same direction.
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39

Starting problems with the Linear DC machine
As stated previously, when the linear machine is started, there is no

induced emf present, i.e. e ind=0 . Therefore, the starting current
is given by:
(1.33)
As we can see, i start ∝1/ R .
Typical machines have small R and are supplied with rated V,

therefore the istart will be very high (more than 10 times rated
current).
Consequence: Possibility of severe damage to motors.
Solution: insert an extra resistance into the circuit during starting

of motor.
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40

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EEEB283 Electrical Machines and Drives – Introduction to Machinery Principles

We will study the following machines:

We will also look into transformers – useful in electrical power

Firstly, we need to look at the basic concepts of electrical

 Rotational motion and Newton’s Law

Dr. Ungku Anisa, UNITEN © 2006

Chapter 1: Intro. to Machinery Principles

1.1. Rotational Motion

Machines rotate on a fixed shaft.

 = Angle of rotation measured from a fixed reference

Unit: radians (rad) or degrees ().

Unit: radians per second (rads-1).

Angular velocity can also be expressed in terms of other

Dr. Ungku Anisa, UNITEN © 2006

f = Angular velocity in revolutions per second.

n = Angular velocity in revolutions per minute.

Unit: radians per second squared (rads-2).

Torque, T is produced when a force exerts a twisting action on a

Dr. Ungku Anisa, UNITEN © 2006

Work, W is produced from the application of force, F through a

For linear motion:

For rotational motion, work = application of torque T through an

However, when the torque applied is constant,

Dr. Ungku Anisa, UNITEN © 2006

Unit: Joules (J).

Power, P is the rate of doing work.

Unit: Watts (W).

Applying this definition for rotating bodies, and assuming torque is

Equation (1.8) is very important!

Real, Reactive and apparent Power in AC Circuits

Dr. Ungku Anisa, UNITEN © 2006

Reactive power, Q = energy that is stored and released in the

Apparent power, S = power that “appears” to be supplied to load

1.2. Newton’s Law of Rotation

For an object moving in a straight line, Newton’s Law is given by:

In analogy, Newton’s Law of rotation for a rotating body is given

Dr. Ungku Anisa, UNITEN © 2006

The conversion of energy from one form to the other in motors,

The production of a magnetic field by a current carrying conductor

What if we have more than 1 conductor?

The magnetic field intensity, H can be considered to be a measure

The relationship between the magnetic field intensity, H and the

Dr. Ungku Anisa, UNITEN © 2006

The unit of magnetic flux density is Tesla (T).

In (1.11),  is the permeability of the material in which the

The permeability is usually written as:

Finally, we define the magnetic flux present in a given area by the

where dA is the differential unit of area. If the flux density, B is

Dr. Ungku Anisa, UNITEN © 2006

The unit of magnetic flux is Webers (W).

Example: The simple magnetic core

1) Obtain an expression for the magnetic field intensity, H

2) The magnetic flux density, B of the simple core is:

Dr. Ungku Anisa, UNITEN © 2006

1.4. Magnetic Circuits

In the simple magnetic core, we find that:

current I in the coil produces magnetic flux  in

Compare this to:

voltage V in an produces current I flowing in