Grade 6 GS

1 Early Vedic Period GRADE 6
Learning Objectives
State the importance of the Vedic Age
Describe the political organisation of the Vedic society
Describe the social life of the Vedic people
Represent the varnashrama system of the Vedic Age
2 Early Vedic Period
ORIGIN OF THE ARYANS

After the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization by about 1750 BCE, another glorious civilization
flourished in India. The people who were responsible for the evolution of this civilization called
themselves Aryas or Aryans.
Arya literally means the man of ‘noble character’, and the “free-born”. They belonged to the
group of people known as Indo-Europeans. They entered India from the north-west.
They led a rural, semi-nomadic life as compared to the Indus Valley people who were urbanized.
It is believed that they entered India through the Khyber Pass.
EARLY VEDIC PERIOD OR RIG VEDIC PERIOD – 1500 BC TO 1000 BC

There are four Vedas –
Rig Veda
Yajur Veda
Sama Veda
Atharva Veda
The Rig Veda gives us an insight into the political, social, economic and religious life of the Early
Vedic Period.
Life of the people

Political structure
The Aryans settled down in many tribes known as janas and the land where they settled was
called Janapada. These tribes were constantly involved in battle with one another, either to
protect their cattle or their land. A village or grama was the smallest unit of Jana. A grama would
comprise a number of families.
Each tribe has a chieftain called Rajan, who was chosen for his wisdom and courage and he ruled
each tribe. His chief function was to protect the tribe from external attacks and maintain law ad
order. A rajan could be removed from power if he was inefficient or cruel.
The Rajan was supported by two tribal assemblies – Sabha and Samiti which checked the power
of the king and also advised him on all important matters.
The Senani or commander-in-chief assisted him in warfare. A Raj Purohit or high priest
performed ritual ceremonies and also acted as an adviser. The gramani or the village headman
looked after the village.
Social life
The Aryan kula were joint families. They were patriarchal in nature. The oldest male member was
the head of the family.
Women were held in respect and participated in yajnas. Many learned women attended the
assemblies, participated in debates, and composed hymns. They also enjoyed the right to choose
their husbands in a special ceremony called swayamvara. There was no child marriage and
widows were allowed to remarry.
Emergence of the caste system
The early Aryans differentiated

between themselves according
to the occupations each
followed. The word ‘Varna’
was later used to refer to the
social division, dividing society
into four occupational groups.
Brahmins – high priests performed the religious ceremonies and prayers and imparted
education
Kshatriyas – King and warrior class fought wars and protected the tribe form danger
Vaishyas – people who carried on agriculture, industry and trade, producing goods for
society
Shudras – comprises the dasas, who were the labourers and did menial jobs.
Economy
Agriculture and cattle- rearing were the main occupations of the early Aryans.
Barley, wheat, rice, fruits and vegetables were grown.
They ploughed their fields with the help of wooden ploughs drawn by oxen. Cows, horses, dogs,
sheep, goats and oxen were domesticated. The cow was considered very valuable and a sign of
prosperity. The Aryans introduced the horse in India from Central Asia.
Hunting, pottery, spinning and weaving, carpentry, metallurgy (copper and bronze) and
leatherwork were other important occupations.
Shipping was limited to the navigation of rivers for inland trade. Gold and oxen were used as
money during trading.
Dress
The men wore a dhoti and a piece of cloth over their shoulders. They also tied turbans around
their heads. The women wore a saree and an upper garment woven from the wool of sheep. Both
men and women were fond of ornaments, which were made of gold, silver and other metals.
Amusements
The Aryans were fond of outdoor life. Music, dancing, chariot racing, hunting, gambling and game
of dice were their favourite pastimes. The flute, lute and drums were used for music
Religion
People personified the forces of nature and worshipped them as gods and goddesses. These gods
were classified into three groups according to their abode:
Gods of the sky (Mitra and Varuna)

Gods of mid-air (Indra and Marut)
Gods of the earth (Agni and Soma)
Surya – Sun God
Agni – God of fire
Usha – Goddess of dawn
Indra – God of rain and war
Yama – God of death
There were no temples or image worship. Yajnas were performed.
The following mind map summarises the facts about Early Vedic Period.
1 Later Vedic Period
Learning Objectives
State the importance of the Later Vedic Age
List the different Mahajanapadas
Describe the political organisation of the Later Vedic society
Describe the social life of the Later Vedic people
Represent the Ashrama system of the Later Vedic Age
Compare and contrast the Early Vedic Period and the Later Vedic Period
LIFE IN THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD

The Aryans moved eastward and some of the chieftains carved out kingdoms, called the
Janapadas. Several Janapadas combined to form large independent kingdoms called
Mahajanapadas. By the sixteenth century BC, sixteen Mahajanapadas were established. These
sixteen kingdoms were always fighting to capture each other’s territory.
Mahajanapadas
Anga Vatsa
Magadha Panchala
Malla Matsya
Vajji Sursena
Kosala Avanti
Kasi Ashmaka
Chedi Kamboja
Kuru Ghandara
Among them Magadha, Vatsa, Avanti and Kosala were the most prominent ones. Out of these
four, Magadha emerged as the most powerful kingdom.
Life of the people

Political structure
The most important change in the Later Vedic times was that the King had become the absolute
ruler. All power was concentrated in his hands. He was the supreme commander of the army and
the chief justice of his kingdom. The King called himself ‘maharajadhiraj’ and ‘samrat’.
Kings often performed the rajasuya sacrifice and ashvamedha or horse sacrifice to make a show
on their powers.
The Rajasuya sacrifice was performed to bestow

supreme power on the king.
In the Ashvamedha yajna, a special
horse, accompanied by soldiers, was let
loose for a year by a ruler to wander at
will. The king staked his claim over all
those territories over which the horse wandered. Later the horse
was sacrificed. If the horse was captured, war followed.
The King was assisted by a large number of officials. The Raj Purohita performed the elaborate
rituals and gave advice. The senani came to occupy a prestigious palce in the court. Another
official of importance was the tax collector. There was a change in the composition of sabha and
samiti. Due to large territories, it was not possible for common people to attend these
assemblies. Therefore, the nature of the two assemblies became aristocratic, dominated only by
the upper class, the brahmins and princes.
Social life
A person’s birth became more important than his skill or merit. Each caste had its own code of
laws and marriage outside the caste was forbidden. The society based on Varna became rigid and
hereditary.
The position of women also began to deteriorate and they were thought to be inferior to men.
They were not allowed to read Vedic literature. Their main duty was to look after the husband
and children. Polygamy (men married to more than one woman) was prevalent among princes,
upper class and the rich. However, it was not prevalent among the common people. Women
could not own or inherit property.
Religion
Prajapati or Brahma was considered the creator – the supreme God.
Vishnu was considered the protector – protected the people.
Shiva was considered the destroyer.
The trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva replaced the gods of nature.
Literature
During the Later Vedic Period, the three Vedas – the Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and the Atharva
Veda were composed. It was during this time, around 600 BC, that the Upanishads were
compiled. The epics - Ramayana and Mahabharata were also composed. Literary works were
produced in the fields of grammar, poetry, astronomy, medicine, music and astrology. The
Sanskrit language also owes its origin to the Vedic Aryans.
Economy
Farming remained the most important occupation. Taxes were collected by the king, which
earned him revenue. Wheat, rice, vegetables, cotton and oil seeds were grown.
Weaving, leatherwork, pottery, jewellery designing and carpentry developed. They had
discovered the use of iron apart from gold, silver, copper, lead and tin.
The barter system discontinued and money in the form of gold and silver
coins was used as the medium of exchange. The earlier coins of India are
commonly known as punch marked coins. These coins bear symbols of
various types punched on pieces of silver of specific weight. They have no
defined shapes and they were mostly uniface. These coins lack any
inscriptions.
Education
The Aryans followed the gurukul system of education. A
student or brahmachari lived in the household of the guru
in the ashrama and served him by doing various
household tasks. In return, the guru imparted knowledge.
Guru-shishya or pupil-teacher relationship was
considered very sacred. The rich pupils offered guru-
dakshina or fees. Taxila, Kashi and Ujjain were some of
the important centres of learning.
Ashramas system of life

The life span of Vedic India was divided in four parts, each of 25 years. These were called
Ashramas:
Brahmacharya Ashrama – This phase constituted
the first 25 years of an individual’s life. It thoroughly
prepared the young minds for the world.
Grihastha Ashrama – meant matrimony and life of
a householder.
Vanaprastha Ashrama – meant meditation and
living the life of a hermit.
Sanyasa Ashrama – meant renunciation
A comparative chart of Early Vedic Period and Later Vedic Period
Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period

Period 1500 BC – 1000 BC 1000 BC – 600 BC
Political Structure Rajan – ruler ruled Janas, King – Ruler ruled Mahajanapadas,
Rajpurohit – Chief Priest, Rajpurohit – Chief Priest, Senani –
Senani – Commander-in-chief, Commander-in-chief, Sabha and
Sabha and Samitis – two Samiti (dominated by high officials)
assemblies (made of common
people also)
Literature Rig Veda Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva
veda, Ramayana, Mahabharata,
Upanishads
Social life Patriarchial family, women Women lost respect, not allowed to
given equal status and respect, join in assemblies, read Vedic
widow remarriage allowed, literature. High class people given
swayamvara to choose the respect.
husband. Varna system also
emerged.
Religion Gods of nature – Agni, Indra, Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma
Varuna, Mitra, etc
Economy Agriculture, cattle rearing, Farming, Weaving, leatherwork,
Hunting, pottery, spinning and pottery, jewellery designing and
weaving, carpentry, metallurgy carpentry developed. money in the
(copper and bronze) and form of gold and silver coins was
leatherwork. Barter system used as the medium of exchange. Tax
was used. was collected as revenue to the king.
1 Gupta Dynasty
Learning Objectives
Understand the political conditions during the Gupta period
Analyse why Gupta age is called the ‘Golden period of Indian History’
List the contributions of Gupta rulers
Describe the social life and political administration during Gupta period
Analyse the reasons for the decline of Gupta rule
2 Gupta Dynasty
About 500 years after the Mauryan Empire, a new dynasty rose to power in the Ganga Valley – the
imperial Guptas. For about two centuries, the Guptas brought unity to a very large portion of
India, although they could never control either the north-west or the far south.
The Gupta Empire stretched across northern, central and parts of southern India between c. 320
and 550 CE. The period is noted for its achievements in the arts, architecture, sciences, religion,
and philosophy.
SOURCES ABOUT GUPTA EMPIRE

Various literary sources including the works of Vishakhadatta, the foreign traveler Fa-
hien, the puranas are good sources of Gupta Empire
The Gupta gold coins (which were called as Dinars) during the rule of Chandragupta I,
Samudragupta, Kumargupta, Chandragupta II
The pillar inscriptions at Allahabad and Delhi
POLITICAL HISTORY
Sri Gupta founded the Gupta Empire c. 240-280 CE, and was succeeded by his son,
Ghatotkacha, c. 280-319 CE, followed by Ghatotkacha’s son, Chandragupta, c. 320-335
CE.
Chandragupta I (320 AD – 335 AD)

He belonged to the Vaishya family; he ruled over a small area in Magadha.
He further raised the power and prestige of his family by marrying Kumaradevi, a
Lichchavi princess of Vaishali, which helped in extending his influence over the greater
part of Bihar, and a portion of UP and Bengal.
Chandragupta was known as ‘Maharajadhiraja’, which means ‘the Great King of Kings’.
He was succeeded by his illustrious son Samudragupta
Samudragupta I (335 AD – 375 AD)

He is regarded as the greatest ruler of the Gupta dynasty
He united his empire politically through direct conquests and annual tributes.
Having waged many wars, Samudragupta is known as the ‘Napolean of India’.
He defeated and brought under his rule parts of Western UP and Delhi, Assam, Bengal,
Punjab, forest tribes of the Vindhya region.
He maintained friendly relations with the neighbouring Saka and Kushana rulers.
He was an excellent warrior, a capable ruler, a scholar, a musician and a poet. He was
tolerant of the Buddhist and Jain faiths and a great patron of fine arts. He was an
accomplished veena player
He was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II
Chandragupta II (375 AD – 414 AD)

He is known as Vikramaditya – means ‘as powerful as the sun’.
3 Gupta Dynasty
He defeated the Sakas and became very powerful.

He formed a strong alliance with the Vakatakas by marrying his daughter to the Deccan
King. The region was annexed to his empire and Ujjain was made the second capital.
He is remembered for his rich cultural contribution. He was a great patron of art and
literature.
His court was adorned with the nine gems or navaratna - Kalidasa, Amarasimha,
Varahamihira, Dhanvantri, Ghatakarapara, Shanku, Kahapanaka, Vararuchi and Vetala
Bhatta.
He was a wise and just ruler who worked for the welfare of his subjects
The Chinese pilgrim, Fa Hien who visited India during his rein, speaks in glowing terms of
Chandragupta.
He was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta.
Kumaragupta (414 AD – 455 AD)

The Gupta Empire had reached its zenith during the rule of Kumaragupta.
Adopted the titles of ‘Shakraditya’ and ‘Mahendraditya’.
Performed ‘asvamedha’ sacrifices.
Most importantly, he laid the foundation of Nalanda University which emerged as an
institution of international reputation.
He was succeeded by his son Skandagupta
Skandagupta (455 AD – 467 AD)

Adopted the title ‘Vikramaditya’
Skandagupta, who was celebrated as a great warrior for his victorious clashes with the
Huns during his father’s reign, defeated several rebellions and external threats from the
Huna people
After Skandagupta’s death, many of his successors like Purugupta, Kumaragupta Ⅱ,

Buddhagupta, Narasimhagupta, Kumaragupta Ⅲ and Vishnugupta could not save the Gupta
empire from the Huns. Ultimately, the Gupta power totally disappeared due to a variety of
reasons.
LIFE OF THE PEOPLE

Society
Caste system was prevalent during the Gupta rule
The condition of women deteriorated as many restrictions were imposed on them. They
were not allowed to receive any education, nor were they allowed to participate in any
social and political activities.
Child marriage and sati were also practiced
Agriculture was the main occupation; hence most people lived in villages
4 Gupta Dynasty
Religion
Guptas were mostly Vaishnavas or worshippers of Vishnu
Many people also worshipped Shiva
The rulers performed elaborate rites and rituals, including the Ashvamedha yajna
The Gupta rulers continued to be tolerant towards Buddhism and Jainism.
Samudragupta allowed the Sri Lankan ruler Meghavarman, to construct a monastery at
Bodh Gaya
Trade
Internal and external trade flourished.
The chief port was Tamralipti, which handled trade with South-east Asian countries.
Western ports handled trade with West Asian countries
The main items of exports were spices, precious stones, textiles, sandalwood, indigo,
herbs and ivory
The main items of import ws gold.
Various industries like weaving, carpentry, metallurgy and pottery flourished
Literature
Sanskrit was the court language of the Gupta kings.
Kalidasa was the greatest gem in the court of Chandragupta II. His works include the
famous play Abhijnam Shakuntalam and the epic poem Meghaduta.
Harisena was the court poet of Samudragupta and gave an account of Samudragupta’s
achievements
Pandit Vishnu Sharma wrote the Panchatantra, a collection of fables.
The Bhagavad Gita was compiled and the Puranas were given final shape during this age
Drama, poetry and prose reached their zenith under the Guptas
The greatest work on Sanskrit grammar, Panini’s Ashtadhyayi ws written during this
period.
Art and Architecture

The great centres of art were located at Mathura, Varanasi and Pataliputra
The Vishnu temple at Deogarh and the brick temple at Bhitargaon are great specimens of
the ‘Sarnath School of Art’
The Gandhara and Mathura schools of art attained the peak of development
The art of painting reached the zenith of its splendour under the Guptas as is testified
from the cave paintings seen in the wall frescoes of the temple of Ajanta caves in
Maharashtra
Science and Education

The Gupta period made great progress in the field of Mathematics, Astronomy and
Medicine.
5 Gupta Dynasty
Aryabhatta, an astronomer and mathematician came to the conclusion that the Earth
revolves around the sun and rotates on its own axis.
The concept of zero as well as the system of writing numbers using zero and the numerals
one to nine was formulated by him.
The Indians also used the decimal system
The two great physicians of the period were Vagabhatta and Balabhatta who wrote
treatises in medicine. The Ayurvedi system developed medicines to cure various diseases
using herbs
During this period, great progress was made in the field of higher education.
The universities of Nalanda in Bihar and Taxila in north-west India attracted students
from all parts of India and from foreign countries for advanced studies
Nalanda was the most important seat of Buddhist learning and Taxila specialised in
medicine
Due to these reasons, the Gupta era is called the ‘Golden age of Indian history’ or the ‘Classical
age of Indian History’.
The decline of the Guptas

The decline of the mighty Gupta Empire began from the time of Skandagupta and it finally
collapsed towards the latter half of the sixth century AD. The main causes were as follows:
The Hun invasions
Weak successors of Skandagupta
Absence of Law of Succession
Neglect of Frontier Defenses
Rise of Feudatories
Reduced royal revenues
1 The Mauryan Empire
Learning Objectives
Understand the political conditions leading to the rise of first empire
Analyze the significance of Magadha
List the contributions of Chandra Gupta Maurya and Ashoka
Explain the impact of battle of Kalinga on Ashoka
Describe the administration of Mauryas
SIGNIFICANCE OF MAGADHA
Magadha, which was one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, had many geographical advantages,
which helped it to make it strong and powerful in comparison to other kingdoms. Magadha is
considered significant due to the following reasons.
The Gangetic plain had a very fertile soil.

The dense forests yielded timber, and the land was rich in iron ore deposits.
The river and its ports helped inland trade with other cities.
BIMBISARA
The first ruler of Magadha was Bimbisara. During his reign, Magadha rose to power. He ruled in
the middle of the sixth century from his capital at Rajgir. He expanded his empire and
strengthened his position by marriage alliances and military conquests.
AJATASHATRU
Bimbisara was succeeded his son Ajatashatru. He controlled the Gangetic plain by fortifying the
city of Pataliputra (modern day Patna) which was his capital.
After Ajatashatru, Nandas emerged as the last powerful dynasty before Chandragupta Maurya
captured the throne of Magadha.
THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

The Mauryan empire marks a new epoch in the history of India. It was a period of unification of
the territories, which were fragmented kingdoms under different rulers. It was a period when
art, trade and commerce flourished.
SOURCES ABOUT MAURYAN EMPIRE

Arthashastra by Chanakya or Kautilya is a treatise on statecraft. It gives us a picture of
administration, society and the economy of the country. Chanakya was Chandragupta’s
mentor and minister
The Jataka tales of the Buddhist literature
Indica written by Megasthenes, the Greek traveller gives an account of the Mauryan
capital and its administrative system and social life.
The Ceylonese Chronicles, the Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa give the accounts of the
conversion of Ceylon. They also have helped in reconstructing the history of Ashoka.
The rock edicts of Ashoka also provide information about the Mauryan rule.
During the second half of the sixth century BC, Cyrus established a large
empire in Persia. One of his successors, Darius I annexed Gandhara and the
Indus Valley. During the rule of Mahapadma Nanda, India was invaded by
Alexander, the Greek ruler of Macedonia. He defeated the Persian ruler. Next, he overran
Afghanistan and entered through Khyber Pass in 326 BC. Alexander’s army was tired and
reluctant to move further ahead and face the fierceful Magadha Empire’s army. On his way back,
Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC.
Chandragupta Maurya (324 BC – 297 BC)

He was the founder of Mauryan Empire. After establishing firmly
on the throne of Magadha, Chandragupta set out to expand his
empire. He conquered the whole of northern India up to the
river Indus, Chandragupta had vast resources; hence he could
maintain a huge army.
In 305 BC, he defeated Seleucus Nikator and north-western
India was liberated from Greek control. Seleucus surrendered
Afghanistan and Baluchistan and also gave his daughter Helen’s
hand in marriage to Chandragupta.
In return, Chandragupta presented Seleucus with 500 war
elephants. Seleucus sent Megasthenes as an ambassador to the court of Chandragupta.
Megasthenes stayed with Chandragupta for over five years travelling through the Mauryan
Empire and wrote an account of his travels in his book Indica.
The rule of the remarkable king came to an end in 297 BC. He ruled for twenty-four years.
Chandragupta abdicated (gave up) the throne in favor of his son, Bindusara and became a Jain
ascetic.
His son Bindusara extended the empire into Central India and parts of Southern India. Only the
kingdom of Kalinga was unconquered at the time of his death.
His son, Ashoka succeeded him in 273 BC.
Ashoka, the Sage King

Ashoka ruled the land from the Himalayas, in Nepal and Kashmir to Mysore
in the South, from Afghanistan in the north-west to the banks of the River
Brahmaputra in the east.
Kalinga was one of the kingdoms which remain unconquered and hostile
when Ashoka succeeded the throne.
Kalinga, from Ashoka’s point of view, was important since
the route to South India both by land

and by sea passed through it.
It would also bring added prosperity
to the Mauryan Empire.
It was a prosperous little kingdom
lying between rivers Godavari and
Mahanadi close to the Bay of Bengal.
It had an infantry of 60,000 men,
10,000 horsemen and 600 elephants.
Ashoka wanted to capture this fertile land and so had it surrounded.
Battle of Kalinga
A fierce battle followed in which an enormous amount
of life and property was lost. Kalinga surrendered and
for the first time in Indian history almost the whole
subcontinent except the extreme south was under a
single ruler.
However, this battle affected Ashoka deeply. In the

midst of the battlefield, Ashoka stood with the
wounded, crippled and the dead all around him. The
sight of the terrible carnage (killing of many people) and the miseries of war filled Ashoka with
remorse (to feel sorry). He vowed never to make war again. Ashoka became a Buddhist and
devoted his life to dharma. The turning point in the life of Ashoka was the battle of Kalinga
(Odisha).
Ashoka’s dhamma
Ashoka followed the principles of Buddhism – that of truth, charity, kindness, purity and
goodness. He wanted his people to lead pure and virtuous lives, irrespective of their religion or
culture. He considered all subjects (people) his children. He explained his ideas in his edicts by
engraving his principles on pillars throughout his kingdom. The edicts were written in Prakrit,
which was the language of the common people, so that they could understand and follow them.
The purpose of the edicts was to inform the people of Ashoka’s reforms and to encourage them
to be more generous, kind and moral.
Ashoka was an able administrator, an intelligent being and a devout Buddhist. He attempted to
spread this religion to Syria, Egypt and Macedonia and also sent his son Mahendra and daughter
Sangamitra to Sri Lanka.
LIFE UNDER THE MAURYAN RULERS
EMPIRE
PROVINCES
DISTRICTS
The empire was divided into four provinces, each placed under the charge of a prince of royal
blood. The provinces were further divided into districts and placed under local officials.
The king undertook welfare projects like construction of roads and also planted trees on both
sides of the road; rest houses and wells were also provided for the comfort of travellers. Canals
were dug for irrigation and trade flourished.
The chief source of the state’s income was land revenue, which varied from one-fourth to one-
sixth of the produce. Sales tax, taxes on water, cattle, drinking, gambling and custom duties were
also levied. Fines were charges for offences such as littering public places. The chief collector and
the treasurer were the most important officials in the government.
ECONOMY
People were mostly engaged in agriculture. Shipbuilding, weapon making, crafts were the other
occupation. Trade flourished with South India and north-west; Conch shells, diamonds, other
precious stones, pearls and gold articles, horses, hides and woollen cloth were traded.
ART AND ARCHITECTURE

Ashoka constructed many palaces, stupas, monasteries
and pillars. The most impressive of his pillars is at Sarnath,
which is 23 meters high. It is well polished and shines in
the sunlight. It has four lions carved at the top, seated
back to back. Ashoka constructed viharas where monks could

study and live. Caves were also carved from rocks for the
shelter of meditating monks.
The stupas were
hemispherical, dome-shaped
structures made of brick and
earth. He built a stupa at
Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh that
was expanded by other
dynasties.
DECLINE OF THE MAURYAN DYNASTY

The causes of the decline are:
After Ashoka, a succession of incompetent rulers weakened the central authority

The governors of distant provinces took advantage of the situation and declared
independence.
Administration deteriorated, the complex network of roads was neglected and fell into
disarray. This adversely affected trade and communication between the different regions.
The lack of regular inflow of revenue or decline in its amount, prevented the maintenance
of an efficient administration and a large army.
Officers became corrupt.
The last Mauryan ruler was Brihadratha. Thus, the empire established by Chandragupta Maurya
in 321 BC slowly began to disintegrate.
1 Earth Movements
EARTH MOVEMENTS – ROTATION & REVOLUTION
Define the terms – rotation, revolution, axis, Eclipse, solstice, equinox,

eclipse
Demonstrate the rotation and revolution of Earth around the sun
Explain the reasons for the cause of day and night
Explain the processes of formation of eclipses
Identify the different types of eclipses
2 Earth Movements
Have you ever wondered what causes day and night or why weather
conditions keep changing all the time? Why polar regions always are
very cold and equatorial regions very hot? The extremities in the
climatic conditions are due to the movements of the Earth.
The Earth has two types of motion

Rotation
Revolution
The Earth spins on its axis while orbiting around the sun in an imaginary path. The motion which
involves one complete spin on its axis in 24 hours is called rotation.
The motion of the Earth which involves one complete orbit around the sun is called revolution.
Together, these two movements affect the temperature and the weather, and hence we
experience seasons.
ROTATION
The circular motion of the Earth, around its tilted axis,
in an anti-clockwise direction is called rotation. It
takes the Earth roughly 24 hours to complete one
rotation, which makes for a single day and night.
EFFECTS OF EARTH’S ROTATION

As the Earth rotates on its own axis, the part which faces the Sun experiences daylight while
the part which is away from the sun is dark and experiences night.
As the Earth is tilted at a certain angle, a part of it comes under a shadow. The shadow falls
in such a way that a line seems to separate day from night. This line is known as the
line(circle) of illumination.
Since the Earth rotates in an anti-clockwise direction, the Sun appears to rise in the east
and set in the west.
3 Earth Movements
The Earth’s rotation on its tilted axis causes the

Sun’s rays to fall at different angles on its surface.
If the axis was perpendicular to the plane of
the Earth, all parts of the globe would have
experienced equal length of day and night
throughout the year. Since the Earth’s axis is tilted,
it causes varying lengths of days and nights and
different seasons.
In summer, days are long and nights are short.
But as winter approaches days begin to get shorter.
Places in the equatorial regions have almost equal days and nights throughout the year
because the sun’s rays fall directly here all year round.
As we move away from the equator, the rays of the sun become more slant, thereby causing
greater variation between days and nights.
REVOLUTION
The motion of Earth as it travels along an
imaginary path around the sun is called
Revolution. One complete revolution of the earth
around the sun takes 365 days and 6 hours. One
calendar year has 365 days. An extra day is added
to every fourth year to include the 6 hours of each
of the four years. The extra day is added to the
month of February. The year that has 366 days is
known as leap year.
Do you wonder why countries located in the southern

hemisphere of the Earth have seasonal cycle opposite to that of
the northern hemisphere? Or why winter is cold and summer
hot?
SEASONS
The seasons that we experience throughout the year are caused by the Earth’s revolution.
The tilt of the earth causes a part of the earth to lean towards the sun, while the other part
of it is tilted away from the sun.
Due to this, different parts of the Earth’s surface receive different amounts of sunlight and
heat.
When the northern hemisphere leans towards the sun, it receives more light and heat,
making it warmer.
4 Earth Movements
During the same time, southern hemisphere which is tilted away from the sun, gets lesser
amount of heat and light making it colder.
As a result, the northern hemisphere enjoys summer while the southern hemisphere
experiences winter.
ECLIPSES
Have you witnessed sun appearing as a diamond on the sky? Have you ever seen a red moon?
An eclipse takes place when one heavenly body such as a moon or planet moves into the
shadow of another heavenly body.
There are two types of eclipses on Earth:

eclipse of the moon
eclipse of the sun
5 Earth Movements
What Is a Lunar Eclipse?

The moon moves in an orbit around Earth, and at the same time, Earth orbits the sun. Sometimes
Earth moves between the sun and the moon. When this happens, Earth blocks the sunlight that
normally is reflected by the moon. (This sunlight is what causes the moon to shine.) Instead of light
hitting the moon’s surface, Earth's shadow falls on it. This is an eclipse of the moon -- a lunar
eclipse. A lunar eclipse can occur only when the moon is full.
A lunar eclipse can be seen from Earth at night.
There are two types of lunar eclipses:

Total lunar eclipse
A total lunar eclipse occurs when the
moon and the sun are on exact
opposite sides of Earth. Although the
moon is in Earth's shadow, some
sunlight reaches the moon. The
sunlight passes through Earth's
atmosphere, which causes Earth’s
atmosphere to filter out most of the
blue light. This makes the moon appear
red to people on Earth.
6 Earth Movements
Partial lunar eclipse

A partial lunar eclipse happens when only
a part of the moon enters Earth's
shadow. In a partial eclipse, Earth's
shadow appears very dark on the side of
the moon facing Earth. What people see
from Earth during a partial lunar eclipse
depends on how the sun, Earth and moon
are lined up.
A lunar eclipse usually lasts for a few hours. At least two partial lunar eclipses happen every year,
but total lunar eclipses are rare. It is safe to look at a lunar eclipse.
What Is a Solar Eclipse?
Sometimes when the moon orbits Earth, the moon moves between the sun and Earth. When this
happens, the moon blocks the light of the sun from reaching Earth. This causes an eclipse of the
sun, or solar eclipse. During a solar eclipse, the moon casts a shadow onto Earth.
There are three types of solar eclipses.
Total solar eclipse
When the sun is completely covered by the moon. The sky
becomes so dark that it appears to be night. Only a small area
on the earth can witness it. For a total eclipse to take place,
the sun, moon and Earth must be in a direct line.
Partial solar eclipse

When the moon does not align completely
with the sun and so only a portion of the
sunlight is blocked from reaching earth. The
sun appears to have a dark shadow on only a
small part of its surface.
7 Earth Movements
Annular solar eclipse

When the moon covers the sun but the sun can be
seen around the edges of the moon giving an
impression of the sun is a bright ring surrounding the
dark disc of the moon. An annular eclipse happens
when the moon is farthest from Earth. Because the
moon is farther away from Earth, it seems smaller. It
does not block the entire view of the sun. The moon in
front of the sun looks like a dark disk on top of a larger
sun-colored disk. This creates what looks like a ring around the moon.
Solar eclipses happen once every 18 months. Unlike lunar eclipses, solar eclipses only last for a
few minutes.
NEVER look directly at the sun: It can permanently damage your eyes! You must use proper
safety equipment to look at any type of solar eclipse.
Watch out the following videos and references for further exploration:
Earth movements: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bjal-ozKSL0
Solar Eclipse: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cxrLRbkOwKs
Lunar Eclipse: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VW2xRR75lKE

Exploratory activity for rotation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CQViTzK0AsA
1 Weather Elements
WEATHER ELEMENTS
Learning Objectives:
Define the term weather

Differentiate between weather and climate
List the different weather elements
List the different instruments used to measure the weather elements
Discussion
Is it raining in your place? Or is it sunny? Are you feeling too
hot or too cold? Do you perspire? Are you looking at the clear,
bright sky or gloomy sky? Do you enjoy breeze or a strong wind?
Do you think weather and climate mean the same? Are

they different? Find out the differences between
weather and climate.
2 Weather Elements
WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Weather refers to the day-to-day condition of the atmosphere in a particular area for a
short period of time.
Climate is the sum total of the atmospheric conditions of a larger area and over a longer
period of time which can vary from 30 to 40 years.
WEATHER ELEMENTS
The different weather elements are

Temperature
Pressure
Wind
Humidity
Precipitation
Cloud cover
Sunshine
Weather elements are measured using different instruments.
Temperature is measured using thermometer
Pressure is measured using Barometer
Wind Speed is measured using Anemometer and wind direction is

determined using Wind vane
Humidity is measured using Hygrometer
Rainfall is measured using Rain Gauge
Sunshine is recorded using Sunshine recorder

1 Clouds
CLOUDS
Explain how clouds are formed.
Categorize cloud patterns
Identify the types of clouds (cirrus, stratus, cumulus,
nimbostratus, cumulonimbus) and their shapes
Describe the features of the types of clouds
Able to observe, describe, and draw clouds.
2 Clouds
Clouds can make us happy. Clouds can make us sad. Big puffy white clouds floating through a bright
blue summer sky make us smile. But boiling black storm clouds slashed with jagged lightening and
crashing thunder make us run for shelter. To be precise, a cloud is nothing more than a collection of
water particles or ice crystals floating in the atmosphere.
A cloud is made of water drops or ice crystals floating in the sky. There are many kinds of clouds. Clouds
are an important part of Earth's weather.
How do clouds form?

The sky can be full of water. But most of the time you can't see the water. The drops of water are too
small to see. They have turned into a gas called water vapor. As the water vapor goes higher in the sky,
the air gets cooler. The cooler air causes the water droplets to start to stick to things like bits of dust,
ice or sea salt.
All air contains water. When warm air rises, it expands and cools. Cool air can't hold as much water
vapor as warm air, so some of the vapor condenses onto tiny pieces of dust that are floating in the air
and forms tiny droplets around each dust particles.
Why are clouds white?

Clouds are white because they reflect the light of the sun. Light is made up of colors of the rainbow
and when you add them all together you get white. The sun appears a yellow color because it sends
out more yellow light than any other color. Clouds reflect all the colors the exact same amount so they
look white.
Why do clouds turn gray?

Clouds are made up of tiny water droplets or ice crystals, usually a mixture of both. The water and ice
scatter all light, making clouds appear white. If the clouds get thick enough or high enough all the light
above does not make it through, hence the gray or dark look. Also, if there are lots of other clouds
around, their shadow can add to the gray or multicolored gray appearance.
What are some types of clouds?

Clouds get their names in two ways. One way is by where they are found in the sky. Some clouds are
high up in the sky. Low clouds form closer to Earth's surface. In fact, low clouds can even touch the
ground. These clouds are called fog. Middle clouds are found between low and high clouds.
Classification of clouds
Howard’s cloud classification system uses Latin words that describe the placement (high) and
appearance (spread out) of clouds. For example, using Howard’s system, a high (alto), spread out
(stratus) cloud is called an altostratus cloud.
3 Clouds
Clouds are classified based on the altitude as:

✓ High level clouds
✓ Middle level clouds
✓ Low level clouds
High-Level Clouds
Cirrus (Ci), Cirrocumulus (Cc), and Cirrostratus (Cs) are high level clouds. They are typically thin and
white in appearance but can appear in a magnificent array of colors when the sun is low on the horizon.
It is so cold in the upper atmosphere that high altitude clouds contain ice crystals instead of water
particles.
Cirrus clouds
They form when the wind blows these ice
crystals into wispy streaks that look like thin
horse tails.
High (3+ miles above the Earth), curly, wispy,
feathery white clouds made of ice and usually
found on fair days.
Cirrocumulus clouds
They look like upside down waves rolling across
the sky.
Thin, white patch, sheet, or layered of clouds
without shading.
They are composed of very small elements in
the form of more or less regularly arranged
grains or ripples.
Cirrostratus clouds
High, thin CIRROSTRATUS clouds look much like
stratus clouds, but cirrostratus clouds contain
ice crystals and are much higher.
Transparent, whitish veil clouds with a fibrous
(hair-like) or smooth appearance.
A sheet of cirrostratus which is very extensive,
nearly always ends by covering the whole sky.
4 Clouds
Middle-Level Clouds
Altocumulus (Ac), Altostratus (As), and Nimbostratus (Ns) are mid-level clouds They are composed
primarily of water droplets. However, they can also be composed of ice crystals when temperatures
are low enough. In Latin, alto means 'high' yet Altostratus and Altocumulus clouds are classified as mid-
level clouds. 'Alto' is used to distinguish these "high-level" clouds and their low-level liquid-based
counterpart clouds; Stratus and Cumulus.
Altocumulus clouds
White and/or gray patch, sheet or layered clouds,
generally composed of plates, rounded masses or
rolls.
They may be partly fibrous or diffuse and may or
may not be merged.
ALTOCUMULUS clouds look fleecy and have dark,
shadowed sides.
The most common mid cloud, more than one layer
of Altocumulus often appears at different levels at the same time. Many times, Altocumulus will
appear with other cloud types.
Altostratus clouds
Gray or bluish cloud sheets or layers of striated
or fibrous clouds that totally or partially covers
the sky.
They are flat clouds.
They are thin enough to regularly reveal the sun
as if seen through misty glass.
Low-Level Clouds
Cumulus (Cu), Stratocumulus (Sc), Stratus (St), and Cumulonimbus (Cb) are low clouds composed of
water droplets. Cumulonimbus, with its strong vertical updraft, extends well into the the high level of
clouds.
5 Clouds
Cumulus clouds
Low hanging (less than 1 mile), white, puffy
clouds which change shape very quickly and are
found on warm, sunny days.
These clouds look like giant heads of cauliflower
because they are white and fluffy.
Detached, generally dense clouds and with sharp
outlines that develop vertically in the form of
rising mounds, domes or towers with bulging
upper parts
Over land cumulus develops on days of clear skies and is due diurnal convection; it appears in
the morning, grows, and then more or less dissolves again toward evening.
Stratus clouds
A generally gray cloud layer with a uniform base
which may, if thick enough, produce drizzle, ice
prisms, or snow grains.
When the sun is visible through this cloud, its
outline is clearly discernible.
STRATUS clouds are spread out, dull clouds
usually found at ground level.
Stratus clouds may so close to the ground they
are identified as fog.
Stratocumulus clouds
Gray or whitish patch, sheet, or layered clouds
which almost always have dark tessellations
(honeycomb appearance), rounded masses or
rolls.
These clouds are spread out heaps of dense
cover that rise higher in the atmosphere.
6 Clouds
Nimbostratus clouds
This is a dark gray cloud layer diffused by falling
rain or snow.
It is thick enough throughout to blot out the
sun.
Dark, flat clouds often produce rain or snow.
Cumulonimbus clouds
The thunderstorm cloud, this is a heavy and
dense cloud in the form of a mountain or huge
tower.
The upper portion is usually smoothed,
fibrous or striated and nearly always flattened
in the shape of an anvil or vast plume.
Cumulonimbus clouds also produce hail and
tornadoes.
These clouds are piled up high like scoops of
dark ice cream and they usually bring rain
showers.
1 Theory of Continental drift & Plate tectonics
THEORY OF CONTITENTAL DRIFT & PLATE TECTONICS
Describe Wegener’s Theory of Continental drift
Summarize evidence that supports Wegener’s theory
Understand the plate tectonics theory
List the different plates of the Earth
Identify the plates on a map
Identify the three general categories of plate boundaries recognized by
scientists: convergent, divergent, and transform
Identify the regions on the earth with different plate movements
List the different plate boundaries
Theory of Continental Drift
The continental drift hypothesis was developed in the early part of the 20th century, mostly by
Alfred Wegener. Wegener said that continents move around on Earth’s surface and that they
were once joined together as a single supercontinent. While Wegener was alive, scientists did
not believe that the continents could move. Alfred Wegener proposed that the continents were
once united into a single supercontinent named Pangaea, meaning all earth in ancient Greek. He
suggested that Pangaea broke up long ago and that the continents then moved to their current
positions. He called his hypothesis continental drift.
Evidence for continental drift

Besides the way the continents fit together, Wegener and his supporters collected a great
deal of evidence for the continental drift hypothesis.
Identical rocks, of the same type and age, are found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.
Wegener said the rocks had formed side-by-side and that the land had since moved apart.
Mountain ranges with the same rock types, structures, and ages are now on opposite
sides of the Atlantic Ocean. The Appalachians of the eastern United States and Canada,
for example, are just like mountain ranges in eastern Greenland, Ireland, Great Britain,
and Norway (figure 2). Wegener concluded that they formed as a single mountain range
that was separated as the continents drifted.
Grooves and rock deposits left by ancient glaciers are found today on different continents
very close to the equator. This would indicate that the glaciers either formed in the middle
of the ocean and/or covered most of the Earth. Today glaciers only form on land and
nearer the poles. Wegener thought that the glaciers were centered over the southern
land mass close to the South Pole and the continents moved to their present positions
later on.
Coral reefs and coal-forming swamps are found in tropical and subtropical environments,
but ancient coal seams and coral reefs are found in locations where it is much too cold
today. Wegener suggested that these creatures were alive in warm climate zones and
that the fossils and coal later had drifted to new locations on the continents.
Ancient fossils of the same

species of extinct plants and
animals are found in rocks of
the same age but are on
continents that are now widely
separated (as shown in figure).
Wegener proposed that the
organisms had lived side by
side, but that the lands had
moved apart after they were
dead and fossilized. He
suggested that the organisms
would not have been able to
travel across the oceans.
➢ Fossils of the seed fern
Glossopteris were too
heavy to be carried so far by wind.
➢ Mesosaurus was a swimming reptile but could only swim in fresh water.
➢ Cynognathus and Lystrosaurus were land reptiles and were unable to swim
Scientists argued that there was no way to explain how solid continents could plow through solid
oceanic crust. Wegener’s idea was nearly forgotten until technological advances presented even
more evidence that the continents moved and gave scientists the tools to develop a mechanism
for Wegener’s drifting continents.
Plate tectonics
Increased knowledge about the configuration of the ocean floor and the subsequent formulation
of the concepts of seafloor spreading and plate tectonics provided further support for continental
drift.
By the late 1960s, several American investigators, among them Jack E. Oliver and Bryan L. Isacks,
had integrated this notion of seafloor spreading with that of drifting continents and formulated
the basis of plate tectonic theory.
The idea that the earth’s landmasses have broken apart, rejoined, and moved to other parts of
the globe forms part of the plate tectonic theory.
Most of these changes in the earth’s surface takes place so slowly that they are not immediately
noticeable to the human eye.
The Earth’s layers

The Earth is made of many different and distinct layers.
The deeper layers are composed of heavier materials; they are hotter, denser and under
much greater pressure than the outer layers.
Natural forces interact with and affect the earth’s crust, creating the landforms, or natural
features, found on the surface of the earth.
The Earth's Crust is like the skin of an apple. It is very thin in comparison to the other three
layers.
The crust is only about 3-5 miles (8 kilometers) thick under the oceans (oceanic crust) and
about 25 miles (32 kilometers) thick under the continents (continental crust). The crust is
composed of two rocks. The continental crust is mostly granite. The oceanic crust is
basalt. Basalt is much denser than the granite. Because of this the less dense continents
ride on the denser oceanic plates.
The crust of the Earth is broken into many pieces called plates. The plates "float" on the
soft, semi-rigid asthenosphere.
These pieces of Earth’s top layer are called tectonic plates.

How many plates are there?
There are nine major plates, according to World Atlas. These plates are named after the
landforms found on them. The nine major plates are North American, Pacific, Eurasian,
African, Indo-Australian, Australian, Indian, South American and Antarctic.
The largest plate is the Pacific Plate at 39,768,522 square miles (103,000,000 square
kilometers). Most of it is located under the ocean. It is moving northwest at a speed of
around 2.75 inches (7 cm) per year.
How plate tectonics works
The driving force behind plate tectonics is convection in the mantle. Hot material near the Earth's
core rises, and colder mantle rock sinks. "It's kind of like a pot boiling on a stove”. Meanwhile,
geologists imagine the plates above this roiling mantle as bumper cars; they repeatedly collide,
stick together, then rip apart. Geologists refer to the places where segments meet and divide as
plate boundaries.
plate boundaries
There are many different types of plate boundaries. Each of these types of plate boundaries is
associated with different geological features. Plate boundaries can be categorized in three
fundamental types:
a) Divergent boundaries
b) Convergent boundaries
c) Transform boundaries
Divergent boundaries
where plates separate and move in opposite
directions, allowing new lithosphere to form from
upwelling magma.
This either occurs at mid-ocean ridges (the so-called
seafloor spreading) or at rifted continental margins
A divergent plate boundary often forms a mountain
chain known as a ridge. This feature forms as magma
escapes into the space between the spreading
tectonic plates.
One example of a ridge is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, an
undersea chain of mountains that formed as two
pairs of tectonic plates spread apart: the North
American Plate and the Eurasian Plate in the north,
and the South American Plate and the African Plate
in the south.
Mid Atlantic Ridge

Convergent boundaries
where plates move towards each other.
a convergent plate boundary can result in one
tectonic plate diving unde rneath another. This
process, called “subduction,” involves an older,
denser tectonic plate being forced deep into the
planet underneath a younger, less-dense tectonic
plate.
When subduction occurs, a chain of volcanoes often develops near the convergent plate
boundary.
One such chain of volcanoes can be found on the western coast of the United States,
spanning across the states of California, Oregon, and Washington.
There are three styles of convergent plate boundaries
✓ Continent-continent collision - Both

continental crusts are too light to
subduct so a continent-
continent collision occurs,
creating especially large
mountain ranges. The most
spectacular example of this is
the Himalayas.
✓ Continent-oceanic crust collision - The

denser oceanic plate is subducted,
often forming a mountain range on
the continent. The Andes is an
example of this type of collision.
✓ Ocean-ocean collision -
Where oceanic crust meets
ocean crust. Island arcs and
oceanic trenches occur when
both of the plates are made of
oceanic crust. Zones of active
seafloor spreading can also
occur behind the island arc,
known as back-arc basins.
These are often associated
with submarine volcanoes.
Transform boundaries
where plates move horizontally past each other.
The relative motion of the plates is horizontal. They
can occur underwater or on land, and crust is neither
destroyed nor created.
Because of friction, the plates cannot simply glide
past each other. Rather, stress builds up in both plates
and when it exceeds the threshold of the rocks, the
energy is released – causing earthquakes.
A well-known transform plate boundary is

the San Andreas Fault, which is responsible
for many of California’s earthquakes.
A single tectonic plate can have multiple types of plate boundaries with the other plates that
surround it. For instance, the Pacific Plate, one of Earth’s largest tectonic plates, includes
convergent, divergent, and transform plate boundaries.
1 Earthquakes & Volcanoes
EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
Understand the role of plate tectonics in the process of formation of
earthquakes and volcanoes
Describe the process of earthquakes and volcanoes
Compare and contrast primary, secondary and surface waves
Infer which seismic waves are the most destructive
Identify the different parts of structure of a volcano
Differentiate between the different types of volcanoes based on eruption
and shape
Most geologic activity occurs at the boundaries between plates. Earthquakes are natural
vibrations of the ground, some of which are caused by movement along fractures in Earth’s crust.
Volcanoes develop from magma moving upward from deep within Earth.
What is an Earthquake?
Earthquakes are some of the most powerful natural disasters on earth and a single earthquake
can cause billions in damage and cause extensive loss of life. But what are all the causes and
effects of earthquakes? And how can you prepare for a large earthquake?
Although the ground beneath us seems solid, it is actually in constant motion. We usually do not
see it, but we can experience it through earthquakes.
Earth's crust is broken up into irregular pieces called tectonic plates. These large pieces of crust
were formed by the combination of gravity and rising heat from Earth's core. There are seven
major plates and many smaller ones, all moving in relation to each other. The lithosphere refers
to the crust and upper mantle that make up these plates.
As tectonic plates move past each other along fault zones, they sometimes get stuck. Pressure
builds, and when the plates finally give and slip, energy is released as seismic waves, causing the
ground to shake. This is an earthquake.
The focus is the place inside Earth’s crust where this movement first occurs and energy is
released. The point on the Earth’s surface located directly above the focus is the epicenter. When
energy is released at the focus, seismic waves travel outward from that point in all directions.
There are different types of seismic waves, each one traveling at varying speeds and motions. It
is these waves that you feel during an earthquake.
A sudden violent shaking of the ground, typically causing great destruction, as a result of
movements within the earth's crust or volcanic action.
The seismic waves travel away from the focus in all directions, as given in Fig. 3. Some seismic
waves travel throughout Earth’s interior, and others travel along Earth’s surface.
Types of Seismic waves

Primary waves
Secondary waves
Surface waves
Primary waves
Primary waves also known as P-
waves, travel the fastest through
rock material by causing particles
in the rock to move back and forth,
or vibrate, in the same direction as
the waves are moving.
They are longitudinal waves, their
oscillation is parallel to the
direction the wave is moving
They are transmitted by alternating
pulses of compression and expansion (push-pull)
These waves travel the fastest and are the first to be recorded.
Secondary waves
Secondary waves, known as S-
waves, move through rock
material by causing particles in
the rock to vibrate at right
angles to the direction in which
the waves are moving.
They are transmitted by
alternating series of
sideways(shear) movements in a
solid.
They are transverse waves.
They are the second to be recorded.
Surface waves
Surface waves are the slowest
and largest of the seismic waves.
They cause most of the
destruction during an
earthquake.
The movement of surface waves
are complex.
Some surface waves move along
Earth’s surface in a manner that
moves rock and soil in a backward rolling motion. They have been observed moving
across the land like waves of water.
Some surface waves vibrate in a side-to-side, or swaying, motion parallel to Earth’s
surface. This motion can be particularly devastating to human-built structures.
They are the slowest waves and the last to be recorded.
Earthquake Measurements
Seismologists are scientists who study earthquakes and seismic waves. The instrument they use
to obtain a record of seismic waves from all over the world is called a seismograph.
The measure of energy released by an earthquake is called its magnitude. The Richter Scale
magnitude is based on measurements of amplitudes, or heights of seismic waves as recorded
on seismographs. It describes how much energy an earthquake release.
Another way to measure earthquakes is the Mercalli Intensity scale, which measures the
intensity of the earthquake. Intensity is a measure of the amount of structural and geologic
damage done by an earthquake in a specific location.
Volcanoes
A volcano is an opening in the earth's crust through which magma, ash and gas erupt. Volcanoes
can be different shapes although they are commonly cone shaped mountains. These cone shaped
volcanoes are made up of layers of ash and lava. Most volcanoes are found at plate boundaries.
Where are volcanoes located?

Volcanoes are most commonly found along plate boundaries. The ‘Ring of Fire’, also referred to
as the Circum-Pacific belt is a path along the Pacific Ocean characterized by active volcanoes and
frequent earthquakes.
Inside a volcano
Much like air bubbles that are forced upward toward the bottom of an overturned bottle of
denser syrup, molten rock material, or magma is forced upward toward Earth’s surface by denser
surrounding rock. Rising magma eventually can lead to an eruption, where magma, solids, and
gas are spewed out to form cone-shaped mountains called volcanoes.
As magma flows onto Earth’s surface through a vent, or opening, it is called lava. Volcanoes have
circular holes near their summits called craters. Lava and other volcanic materials can be expelled
through a volcano’s crater.
Some volcanoes form because of collision of large plates of Earth’s crust and upper mantle. This
process has produced a string of volcanic islands.
Volcanoes can erupt from the crater on their peak or from a secondary vent on their side. The
side of a volcano is called the flank. The layers of ash and lava are built up over successive
eruptions. The more eruptions there are, the more layers of ash and lava there will be.
Volcanoes can be active, dormant, and extinct.
An active volcano is one that is known to have erupted in recent times, or which is likely
to erupt again. Eg. Mount Etna in Italy
A dormant volcano is one that has erupted in the last 2000 years but not recently. It is
inactive but not extinct. It is difficult to decide whether a volcano is dormant or extinct.
An extinct volcano is one that is not expected to erupt again. Ex. Mount Kenya is an extinct
volcano
Types of volcanoes
Volcanoes differ in many features such as height, shape and slope steepness. Some volcanoes
are tall cones and other are just cracks in the ground. The shape of a volcano is related to the
composition of its magma.
Composite volcanoes
Also called as stratovolcanoes.
They are typically steep-sided,
symmetrical cones of large dimension
built of alternating layers of lava flows,
volcanic ash, cinders, blocks and bombs
and may rise as much as 8000 feet
above their bases.
Example: Mount Fuji, Mount Cotopaxi,
Mount Shasta, Mount Hood, etc.
Shield volcanoes
They are huge, gently
sloping volcanoes built
of very thin lava
spreading out in all
directions from a
central vent.
They have wide bases
several miles in
diameter with steeper
middle slopes and a
flatter summit.
Eruptions of these volcanoes are not generally explosive but are more like liquid
overflowing around the edges of a container.
Examples: Mount Mauna Loa in Hawaii
Cinder cone volcanoes

They are the simplest and
most common type of
volcano, built from particles
and blobs of congealed lava
ejected from a single vent.
A cinder has a cone shape,
but is much smaller than a
composite volcano.
They are composed of small
fragments of rock, such as
pumice, piled on top of one
another. The rock shoots up
in the air and doesn’t fall far
from the vent.
The exact composition of a
cinder cone depends on the composition of the lava ejected from the volcano.
The cinder cones usually have a crater at the summit.
Example: Sunset crater in Arizona
Explore further about earthquakes and volcanoes from the given links:
https://www.3dgeography.co.uk/earthquakes
https://www.3dgeography.co.uk/earthquake-facts
https://www.amnh.org/explore/ology/earth/earthquakes-tremors-from-below
https://www.amnh.org/explore/ology/earth/earthquakes-tremors-from-below
https://www.amnh.org/explore/ology/earth/volcanoes-magma-rising
https://www.3dgeography.co.uk/what-is-a-volcano
https://www.3dgeography.co.uk/volcano-images
• Government – the group of people with the authority to govern a
country or state; who officially control a country
• Constitution - a written instrument embodying the rules

• the basic principles and laws of a nation, state, or social group that determine
the powers and duties of the government and guarantee certain rights to the
people in it;
• Preamble – an introduction
Learning objectives
• Understand the need of constitution and government
• Define the word ‘Government’ and ‘Constitution’
• Understand the meaning of ‘Preamble’
• List the different key terms of the preamble
• Understand the meaning of Socialist, Republic, Sovereign and
Democratic country
Constitution of India
• Drafted by Constituent Assembly – headed by Dr. B.R Ambedkar
• Passed by the Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949, it came
into effect on 26 January 1950.
• 26th November is celebrated as Constitution Day (Samvidhan Divas)
India is a Secular country…………Why?
It means equal treatment of all religions

by the state.
The state shall have no religion of its

own.
India is a Sovereign country…………Why?
India is supremely independent.
Internally – It has a free government which is directly

elected by the people and makes law that govern the
people.
Externally – free from control of any foreign power

which can dictate the government of India.
India is a Democratic country…………Why?
Democracy is the government of the

people, for the people and by the people.
People select and elect a representative

as their leader.
India is a Socialist country…………Why?
Provides social and economic equality to

all the citizens of India irrespective of
their caste, colour, creed, gender and
religion.
India is a Republic country…………Why?
The head of the country is not a hereditary king or

queen.
President of India is elected by an electoral college for

a period of 5 years.
Executive powers are vested in the Prime Minister

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
You will be able to
1. Understand and define the key terms in the
preamble – justice, equality, fraternity, liberty
2. Define citizen
3. Analyse and give reasons who are called the
citizens of India
The constitution makes sure that all
citizens get JUSTICE – people should be
treated fairly and honestly in all matters,
whether people around you behave well
towards you, whether you are given an
equal chance to earn your living and
whether you can freely vote ,etc
citizens get LIBERTY – freedom to do
various things, like speak and write
openly, to live where one likes, to be free
to choose one’s friends, to choose and
practice one’s religion, to travel and to
form groups, provided you don’t harm
others
citizens get EQUALITY – to be treated in
the same way no matter what their
religion, place of birth, caste, whether
they are women or men, rich or poor, etc.
The constitution makes sure to promote
among people FRATERNITY – all Indians
should be encouraged to be a like a
family and take care of each other like
brothers and sisters. ‘Unity in diversity’
CITIZENSHIP OF INDIA
1. The person who was born in India or
2. Either of person’s parents was born in
India or
3. Person resident in any territory of India for
not less than 5 years immediately before
the commencement of the constitution
4. Indian nationals whose parents or any
grandparents were born in India residing
abroad shall be conferred Indian
Citizenship
WHO ARE THE CITIZENS OF INDIA?
1.Rahul is born in India
2. Arshad is born in Australia
3. Jai lives in USA since 2000 and he was born in India
4. Tim was born in New Zealand; he lives in India since 2015.
5. Kamal was born in Russia. Kamal’s parents are Indian citizens
6. Janvi was born in England. Her father is an Indian and mother is
British. So is Janvi eligible for Indian Citizenship?
7. Samhita’s grandparents migrated to India from Pakistan in 1948.
Samhita’s family lives in New Delhi. Is she an Indian citizen?
1 Fundamental Duties
To list the different fundamental duties.

To appreciate the importance of Fundamental Duties and the need to
perform them as a good and law-abiding citizen of India
Rights and Duties are like two sides of a coin, absolutely inseparable. Whenever and wherever we
have any rights, we must have corresponding duties. Whether it be the home, the society or the
country, in every sphere of life we have rights and duties that go hand in hand. We have rights in
the same as we have duties. The Fundamental duties are a novel feature of the Indian Constitution.
No democratic polity can ever succeed where the citizens are not willing to be active participants in
the process of governance by assuming responsibilities and discharging citizenship duties and
coming forward to give their best to the country.
Key Differences between rights and duties

Rights are legal, social or ethical principles of freedom that people are entitled for by a
governing body.
Fundamental rights are justiciable. It means that the violation of fundamental rights is
punishable
Duties are responsibilities or obligations of an individual, by the governing body, that are
required to done by any individual.
Fundamental duties are non-justiciable. It means that the non-performance of these duties by
citizens is not punishable.
Fundamental Duties
The following ten duties have been listed in the Constitution of India:
to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag,
National Anthem
to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom
to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India
to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do
to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of
India and to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women
to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture
to protect and improve the natural environments including forests, lakes, rivers and
wildlife
to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform
to safeguard public property and not to use violence
to serve towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity.
Besides, a new duty has been added after the passage of Right to Education Act, 2009. “A parent or
guardian has to provide opportunities for the education of his child/ward between the age of six and
fourteen years.”
1 Fundamental Rights of India
To list the different fundamental rights.

To explain the meaning of rights and duties and critically evaluate their need
and importance in our day to day life.
To assess the importance of Fundamental rights given in the Constitution of
India and analyze their exceptions and restrictions.
To understand the process of seeking justice through constitutional means in
case of violation of fundamental rights.
Meaning and Importance of rights and duties

We often talk about rights, but do you know what does the term ‘rights’ mean? Rights are rules of
interaction between people. They place constraints and obligations upon the actions of the state
and individuals or groups. Rights are defined as claims of an individual that essential for the
development of his or her own self and that are recognized by society or state. Rights are often
considered fundamental to civilization, being regarded as established pillars of society and culture.
But the rights have real meaning only if individuals perform duties. A duty is something that
someone is expected or required to do. Parents, for example, have a duty to take care of their
child. You have duties towards your parents. A teacher has a duty to educate students. In fact,
rights and duties are two wheels on which the chariot of life moves forward smoothly. Life can
become smoother if rights and duties go hand in hand and become complementary to each other.
Rights are what we want others to do for us whereas the duties are those acts which we should
perform for others. Thus, a right comes with an obligation to show respect for the rights of others.
The obligations that accompany rights are in the form of duties. If we have the right to enjoy public
facilities like transport or health services, it becomes our duty to allow others to avail the same. If
we have the right to freedom, it becomes our duty not to misuse this and harm others.
Fundamental Rights
Some of the rights which are recognized and
enshrined in the constitution are called
fundamental rights. These rights are
fundamental because of two reasons:
These are mentioned in the
Constitution which guarantees
them.
These are justiciable, that is
enforceable through courts.
The Constitution guarantees six fundamental rights to Indian citizens as follows:

Right to equality
Right to freedom
Right to freedom of religion
Right against exploitation
Cultural and educational rights
Right to constitutional remedies
Originally there were seven fundamental rights in the Constitution. There was the
Right to property also. Since it created a lot of problems, it was removed from the
list of fundamental rights in 1978. Now, it is a just a legal right and not a
Fundamental Right.
Right to Equality
Right to equality is very important in a society like ours. The
purpose of this right is to establish the rule of law where
all the citizens should be treated equal before the law. It
has five provisions (Articles 14-18) to provide for equality
before law or for the protection of law to all the persons in
India and also to prohibit discrimination on the grounds of
religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.
Equality before law: The Constitution guarantees that all citizens will be equal before law.
It means that everyone will be equally protected by the laws of the country. No person is
above law. It means that if two persons commit the same crime, both of them will get the
same punishment without any discrimination.
No discrimination on the bases of religion, race, caste, gender or place of birth: The State
cannot discriminate against a citizen on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or place of
birth. This is necessary to bring about social equality. Every citizen of India has equal access
to shops, restaurants, places of public entertainment or in the use of wells, tanks or roads
without any discrimination. However, the State can make special provisions or concessions
for women and children.
Equality of Opportunity to all Citizens in matter of Public Employment: The State cannot
discriminate against anyone in the matter of public employment. All citizens can apply and
become employees of the State. Merits and qualifications will be the basis of employment.
However, there are some exceptions to this right. There is a special provision for the
reservation of posts for citizens belonging to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other
Backward Classes (OBCs)
Abolition of Untouchability: Practising untouchability in any form has been made a

punishable offence under the law. This provision is an effort to uplift the social status of
millions of Indians who had been looked down upon and kept at a distance because of
either their caste or the nature of their profession. But it is really very unfortunate that
despite constitutional provisions, this social evil continues even today.
Abolition of Titles: All the British titles like Sir (Knighthood) or Rai Bahadur which were
given to the British loyalists during the British rule, have been abolished because they
created distinctions of artificial nature. However, the President of India can confer civil and
military awards to those who have rendered meritorious service to the nation in different
fields. The civil awards such as Bharat Ratna, Padma Vibhushan, Padam Bhushan and
Padma Shri and the military awards like Veer Chakra, Paramveer Chakra, Ashok Chakra are
conferred. Do you know that these awards are not titles? Educational and military awards
can be prefixed with one’s name?
Medals showing civil and military awards
Right to freedom
You will agree that the freedom is the
most cherished desire of every living
being. Human beings definitely want
and need freedom. You also want to
have freedom. The Constitution of
India provides Right to Freedom to all
its citizens.
The following are six freedoms:
Freedom of speech and expression
Freedom to assemble peacefully and without arms
Freedom to form Associations and Unions
Freedom to move freely throughout the territory of India
Freedom to reside and settle in any part of India
Freedom to practise any profession or to carry on any occupation, trade or business
However, the Constitution has authorized the State to impose certain reasonable restrictions
on each of them:
Restrictions may be put on the Right to Freedom of speech and expression in the interests
of the sovereignty, integrity and security of India, friendly relations with foreign States,
public order, decency or morality, or in relation to contempt of court, defamation or
incitement to an offence.
Right to assemble peacefully and without arms may be restricted in the interests of the
sovereignty and integrity of India or public order.
Right to form associations or unions may have restrictions in the interests of the
sovereignty and integrity of India, public order or morality.
Right to move freely throughout the territory of India and to reside and settle in any part
of India may also be restricted in the interest of the general public or for the protection of
the interests of any Scheduled Tribe.
Right to practise any profession or to carry on any occupation, trade or business may have
restrictions in the interests of the general public. The State is also permitted to lay down
the professional or technical qualifications necessary for practising any profession or
carrying on any occupation, trade or business.
Right to freedom of religion
As you know, one of the objectives
declared in the Preamble is “to secure to all
its citizens liberty of belief, faith and
worship”. Since India is a multi-religion
country, where Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs,
Christians and many other communities
live together, the Constitution declares
India as a ‘secular state’.
It means that Indian State has no
religion of its own.
It allows full freedom to all the citizens to have faith in any religion and to worship, the
way they like.
But this should not interfere with the religious beliefs and ways of worship of other
fellow beings. This freedom is available to the foreigners as well.
Right against exploitation

Have you ever thought how many ways exploitations
take place in our society? You might have seen a small
child working in a tea shop or a poor and illiterate
person being forced to work in the household of a rich
person. Traditionally, the Indian society has been
hierarchical that has encouraged exploitation in many
forms. Which is why, the Constitution makes provisions
against exploitation. The citizens have been guaranteed
the right against exploitation. There are two provisions:
Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour: Traffic in human beings and
begar and other similar forms of forced labour are prohibited and any breach of this provision
shall be an offence punishable in accordance with law.
Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc.: As the Constitution provides, no
child below the age of fourteen years shall be employed to work in any factory or mine or
engaged in any other hazardous employment. This right aims at eliminating one of the most
serious problems, child labour, that India has been facing since ages.
Traffic in human beings means selling and buying of human beings as material goods.
Trafficking, especially of young women, girls and even boys is continuing as an illegal
trade.
Cultural and Educational rights

India is the largest democracy in the world having diversity of culture, scripts, languages and religions.
As we know the democracy is a rule of the majority. But the minorities are also equally important for
its successful working. Therefore, protection of language, culture and religion of the minorities
becomes essential so that the minorities may not feel neglected or undermined under the impact of
the majority rule. Since people take pride in their own culture and language, a special right known as
Cultural and Educational Right has been included.
Protection of interests of minorities

Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions
The State shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against any
educational institution on the ground that it is under the management of a minority, whether
based on religion or language.
Right to constitutional remedies

When any of our rights are violated, we can seek justice
through courts. We can directly approach the Supreme
Court that can issue directions, orders or writs for the
enforcement of Fundamental Rights. Every individual has
the right to seek the help from courts, if the fundamental
rights are violated.
Right to education
The Right to Education is added by introducing a new Article 21A in the Chapter on Fundamental Rights
in 2002 by the 86th Constitutional Amendment. It was a long standing demand so that all children in
the age group of 6-14 years (and their parents) can claim compulsory and free education as a
Fundamental Right. It is a major step forward in making the country free of illiteracy. But this addition
remained meaningless, as it could not be enforced until 2009 when the Parliament passed the Right
to Education Act, 2009. It is this Act which aims at ensuring that every child who is between 6-14 years
of age and is out of the school in India, goes to school and receives quality education, that is his/her
right.
Thus, the Constitution guarantees these fundamental rights to every Indian citizen.

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1 Early Vedic Period GRADE 6

ORIGIN OF THE ARYANS

EARLY VEDIC PERIOD OR RIG VEDIC PERIOD – 1500 BC TO 1000 BC

Life of the people

Emergence of the caste system

The early Aryans differentiated

Gods of the sky (Mitra and Varuna)

LIFE IN THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD

Life of the people

The Rajasuya sacrifice was performed to bestow

Ashramas system of life

A comparative chart of Early Vedic Period and Later Vedic Period

Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period

SOURCES ABOUT GUPTA EMPIRE

Chandragupta I (320 AD – 335 AD)

Samudragupta I (335 AD – 375 AD)

Chandragupta II (375 AD – 414 AD)

He defeated the Sakas and became very powerful.

Kumaragupta (414 AD – 455 AD)

Skandagupta (455 AD – 467 AD)

After Skandagupta’s death, many of his successors like Purugupta, Kumaragupta Ⅱ,

LIFE OF THE PEOPLE

Art and Architecture

Science and Education

The decline of the Guptas

The Gangetic plain had a very fertile soil.

THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

SOURCES ABOUT MAURYAN EMPIRE

Chandragupta Maurya (324 BC – 297 BC)

Ashoka, the Sage King

the route to South India both by land

Ashoka wanted to capture this fertile land and so had it surrounded.

However, this battle affected Ashoka deeply. In the

LIFE UNDER THE MAURYAN RULERS

ART AND ARCHITECTURE

back to back. Ashoka constructed viharas where monks could

DECLINE OF THE MAURYAN DYNASTY

After Ashoka, a succession of incompetent rulers weakened the central authority

EARTH MOVEMENTS – ROTATION & REVOLUTION

Define the terms – rotation, revolution, axis, Eclipse, solstice, equinox,

The Earth has two types of motion

EFFECTS OF EARTH’S ROTATION

The Earth’s rotation on its tilted axis causes the

Do you wonder why countries located in the southern

There are two types of eclipses on Earth:

What Is a Lunar Eclipse?

There are two types of lunar eclipses:

Partial lunar eclipse

Partial solar eclipse

Annular solar eclipse

Lunar Eclipse: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VW2xRR75lKE

Define the term weather

Do you think weather and climate mean the same? Are

WEATHER AND CLIMATE

The different weather elements are

Pressure is measured using Barometer

Wind Speed is measured using Anemometer and wind direction is

Humidity is measured using Hygrometer

Rainfall is measured using Rain Gauge