Pad 111
Pad 111
Pad 111
1
Public administration is essentially culture bound and develops its own
peculiar characteristics in different cultural areas or environment. A
look at the structure and functions of the public administration in
different countries reveals that though there is manifest similarity in
formal organisation, yet their informal and behavioural pattern reflect
considerable diversity, each being shaped by its society culture. As the
establishment that interact with the general public, public
administration is part of the optical process, and therefore helps in
policy formulation through a feedback mechanism.
2
organisation in the pursuit of desired public goals and objectives. The
ultimate goal of public administration is how to maximise, the
efficiency and social effectiveness of public administrative institutions.
Public administration is decision-making, planning the work to be
done, formulating objective and goals establishing and reviewing
organisations, directing and supervising employees... exercising
controls and other functions performed by government, the means by
which the purposes and goals of government are realized (Coronand
Harri, 1969).
3
study of public administration which must go with policy
implementations and become important areas of attention in the
study of public administration. While Mohme (2003) states that public
administration means the manner in which central or federal,
provincial or state, local institutions with their procedural, legal
regulatory, financial, human resources and asset aspects are
organised, institutionalized and managed with aspect to their
regulatory, revenue extraction and spending/procurement functions
as well as the provision of such service as defence, social services and
economic infrastructure.
4
objectives or goals of an organisations. Administration is therefore
said to commence immediately two or more people agree to co-operate
to undertake a task aimed at maximizing goal achievement by relating
means to an end. While the major aim of administration is to achieve
efficiency of human efforts.
5
(1998), administration includes activities connected with keeping
records and processing information paper work and activities
concerned with applying rule, procedure and policies determined by
others. Heady (1979) argued that the essence of administration is a
determined action in pursuit of conscious purpose.
6
determine and accomplish the objectives by the use of people and
resources (Terry, 1971), Follett (1920), defines management as the art
of getting thing done, through people, which implies that management
is an art (that is, depends on personal qualities), manager must have
subordinates and that they do not do the same thing as other
employees. Manager‟s tasks include making good use of the
enterprises employees to perform whatever task that may be
necessary to achieve organisational goals. Management is concerned
with human beings whose behaviour is highly unpredictable. Most
people would prefer to use administration for government businesses
and refer to any other organisation that is non –governmental
management. Koontz (1961), state that management is the art of
getting things done through and with people in formally organised
group. To manage is to forecast and to plan, to organise, to command
to coordinate and to control (Fayol, 1930). Management is a multi-
purpose organ that manage business and manages managers and
manages workers and work. Drucker, 1985), Hiemann (1983) state
that management has three different meaning, viz... management a
noun: refer to a group of managers. 2 Management as a process:
refers to the functions of management i.e. planning, organising,
directing, controlling, etc. 3. Management as a discipline refer to the
subject of management. Management is an individual or a group of
individuals that accept responsibilities to run an organisation. They
plan, organise, direct and control all the essential activities of the
organisation. Management does not do the work themselves. They
motor the other to do the work and co-ordinate (i.e. bring together) all
the work for achieving the objectives of the organisations.
7
Breach (1975), states that management requires a sequence of
coordinated activities undertaken by one person or group of persons
in the most effective and efficient way to direct the activities of others
for the purpose of accomplishing organisational goals. He further state
that management is a set of activities which is classified as concerning
with planning, organising or unit rolling. Sheridon (2011) sees
management as the process of planning what needs to be done to
achieve a particular result, organising and directing appropriate
resources to achieve the plan, controlling each steps of the plan and
making adjustment as needed; motivating all those involved to ensure
that plan is achieved. The key four words are: plan, organise, control
and motivate = management (POCM: for short).
8
should as it and how decides what is to
should he do it. be done & when it
is to be done.
Function Management is a doing Administration is a
function because thinking function
managers get work done because plans and
under their supervision. policies are
determined under
it.
Skills Technical and Human Level Middle & lower
skills Conceptual and level function Top
Human skills level function
Sources : http://www.managementstudy guide.com.
1.2
Basic Management Administration
Applicability It is applicable to business It is applicable to
concerns i.e. profit- non -business
making organization. concerns i.e.
clubs, schools,
hospitals etc.
Influence The management decisions The
are influenced by the administration
values, opinions, beliefs is influenced by
& decisions of the public opinion,
managers. govt. policies,
religious
organizations,
customs etc.
Status Management constitutes Administration
9
the employees of the represents
organization who are paid owners of the
remuneration (in the form enterprise who
of salaries & wages). earn return on
their capital
invested &
profits in the
form of
dividend.
Sources : http://www.managementstudy guide.com.
10
1.3
Administration
Top Level
Management
Middle Level
Lower Level
Source: http://www.managementstudyguide.com
11
managing every different angle of a business so it can run, expand,
grow and succeed.
Woodrow (1887), public administration means the most obvious part of
government or government in action. It is most visible side of
government, particularly the executive arm that implement the plans
and activities of the government. Public administration is the
machinery, as well as the integral processes, through which the
government performs its function. It is a network of human
relationship and associated activities extending from the government
to the lowest paid and powerless individual charged with keeping in
daily touch with all resources natural and human and all other aspect
of life of the society with which the government is concerned. (Nwoli,
2001), Adebayo (1986), public administration mean the art of
planning, assessment, appraising performance by the government
executives and supervisors. Public administration is commonly used
to refer to both the activities concerned with the management of
government business and the study of these activities. However, it is
used in district senses, a science or an art since it is concerned with
the practical management of human resources and as a science as it
is concerns with the knowledge of the ways and method for efficient
fulfilment of public policy (Adamolekun, 1983). Thus, public
administration and public management are used interchangeably.
12
place are Nigeria Breweries Limited (NBL), United African Company of
Nigeria (UACN), Lever Brothers Nigeria Plc, Globalcom Plc, Nestle Plc,
Shell Chevron, MTN etc. Private organisation render services.
Therefore, private administration is the administration for the private
sectors. It is followed by a private company. The government is not
controlling the administration of private sector but it‟s examine the
rules and regulation made by private sectors.
Administration within the two categories and forms of public and private
organisation differ in a number of important aspect, namely:
i) Political direction
ii) Profit-motive
iii) Nature of functions
iv) Public responsibility
v) Organisational procedure
vi) Uniform treatment
13
iii. Nature of Functions: Public administration provide essential
service to the benefit of the people at cheap rate while private
administration engage in a business where public organisations
are not capable of establishing due to huge resource that is
required.
iv. Public Responsibility: Public administration has responsibility to
the public, they are constantly subjected to outside scrutiny by
politicians, the media, and other private groups and individuals.
The emphasis is always on accountability in public administration
much more than in private administration.
v. Organisational Procedure: Public administration is more complex
than private administration. Private has a narrow focus, in the fact
that it concentrates attention and resources on one line of activity.
This is usually economic in nature and concerns one specified or
specific aspect of economic life.
vi. Uniform Treatment: Public administration should be consistent
in procedure and uniform in dealing with the public. It cannot
accord preferential treatment to some segments of the community
to the exclusion of other. Private administration can and very often
does practice discrimination in selling its services.
14
Now that you have come to the end of this study session do you know
how well you have fared? Would you like to test your understanding of
the session? Then see if you could answer the following assessment
questions. Do not forget to write down in your notebook any topic you
do not understand or that needs further clarification. Discuss this
with your lecturer/facilitator in the next tutorial you will have.
15
References and Suggestions for Further Reading
Abasili, C.O (2008). Elements of Public Administration, Lagos:
Concept Publication, Limited.
Adamolekun, L. (1983). Public Administration: A Nigerian
Comparative Perspective; Lagos: London Ltd.
Adebayo, A. (1986). Power in Politics; Ibadan: Spectrum Book
Limited.
Balogun M.J (1983). Public Administration in Nigeria. A
Developmental Approach, Lagos: Macmill.
Breach, Bran (1975). An Introduction to Public Administration;
London: Macmillan.
Chisholm, Huge, ed (1911). Encyclopaedia Britannica (11thed)
Cambridge University Press.
Drucker, P.F (1925). Principles and Management, New York:
Amazon Publisher.
Eneanya, A.N (2009). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principle
Techniques and Applications, Lagos: Concept Publication
Limited.
Fatile J, Majekodunmi et al (2013). Issues in Public Administration
and Local Governments. The Comparative Perspective. (Lagos:
Concept Publications Limited).
Fayol, Henri (1930). Industrial and General Administration,
London: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons.
George R. Terry (1971). Principles of Management, New York:
HugstonCp; Inc.
Gulick and Urwick, (1937), Organisation as a Technical Problem, A
Paper on the Science of Administration, New York: Institution of
Public Administration
16
Haimann, Theo (1983). Concepts and Practices of Management,
Element Edition, Journal of Political Science and Administration
Vol. 14 no 2 Boston.
Koontz, Harald (1961). The Journal of the Academy of
Management – vol 4, No 3 Dee, pp. 174-188 Loss Angeli:
University of California.
Nnoli, O. (1986). Introduction to Politics, Ibadan: Longman Group
Limited
Remi Anifowose and Francis C. Enemuo (1999). Elements of
Politics, Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited.
Sharma, M.P et al (2012), Public Administration in Theory and
Practise, Allahabad: Kitaab Mahal.
iag@dli.unilag.edu.ng
08033366677
17
Study Session 2: Concept, Nature and Scope of Public
Administration
Introduction
This study session introduces you to the basic concept of public
administration though learner have already had an idea of what
public administration is all about. This study of public administration,
scope of public administration as well as public administration as a
discipline.
18
examine various definitions of different scholars even though, there
was no acceptable definition of public administration.
19
Adamolekun (1983), states that, public administration is commonly
used to refer to both the activities concerned with the management of
government business and the study of these activities. However, it is
used in distinct sense, as science or as an art since it is concerned
with the practical management of human resources and as science as
it concerns with the knowledge of the ways and methods for efficient
fulfilment of public policy.
20
However, public administration, in a wider sense, has sought to expand
it ambit by including any administration that has considerable,
impact on the public.
2.2. Nature of Public Administration
Public administration is a specialised academic field, its nature is broad
and complex. The nature focuses on the concept of public
administration as earlier discussed, the evolution of public
administration and the factors that made it important. The nature of
public administration will help you understand the relevance of these
issues in improving effectiveness and efficiency in the public sector.
The conditions that led to the evolution of public administration are (i)
The existence of extensive empires (ii) the rise of absolute monarchy
(iii) The need for central management of scare resources (iv) the
introduction of money economy (v) lack of adequate communication
(vi) increase in literacy rate and (vii) introduction of codified laws.
Many scholars have written and argued about these condition and
how these factors have helped the emergence of public administration.
21
Service Structure. During the period, the colonial masters hardly
distinguished or separated administrative system/structure from the
constitutionalism and political events. In other words, all these three
(3) institution (Political event, constitutionalism, and Administration
were combined under one umbrella. That is to say, everything was
under administration/bureaucracy. So, the functions of the
legislature, executive and judiciary were under administration. In
essence, there was no kind of separation of powers, the same people
controlled the legislature, executive and judiciary. However, the
introduction of indirect ruled system in which the British
administered her colonies through natures. Through this system, the
traditional rulers were made to enforce the colonial policies, due to the
centralised nature of the Northern Nigeria, indirect rule system was
highly successful. Also, because of the centralised system of
administration in the Yoruba land. The indirect ruled system was also
successful. In the eastern part, it was more turbulent than what was
witnessed in the western province. In the east, there was no
traditional chief, Oba or Emir as in other provinces. It was difficult to
be applied or implemented. What the British did was to appoint some
individuals or troublesome people as chiefs that is „Warrant chiefs‟ to
assumed leadership position of the community. The chiefs were
arrogant and often imposed arbitrary levies on the people which led to
Aba Women Riot of 1929. As a result of, the system was dropped in
the East, and the British system of local government was to replace it
which spread to other part of the country.
22
the so called Nigeria. This amalgamation went extra-mile to spread
ethnic rivalry in the country. That is to say, it sowed the seed of
discord among the different ethnic groups in the country and the
legacy so far, has penetrated into public service till present and thus
undermining the smooth running of the present Nigeria
Administration.
23
aggrieved citizen or party can role a civil or criminal suit in the
court if his rights have been violated or if any particular act of
the legislature is ultra vires or unconstitutional that it is not in
spirit of the constitution and has a corrupt objectives. However,
the independence of the judiciary has enabled it to insert some
sanity into the Nigeria public administration.
iv) Pressure Group Control: Pressure group has considerable
influence and control on government policy. Good or bad
governance has brought these group into the limelight and they
are of great importance to the government while formulating as
well as implementing policies. Thus, they hold the government
and administration accountable on various time by ensuring
public participation and making administration transparent.
v) The control of Ombudsman: It is also known a public
compliant commission in Nigeria. Appointed by the legislature
and deal with complaints made against the legislature or
government. They deal with all complaints of corruption made by
any citizen against the government. However, the public
complaint commission was set up to enable the less privileged in
the society to obtain redress to their grievances and to get
protection against human right by any functionaries or agent
whether government, public or private.
24
services, notably education, health and social infrastructure. It is
widely accepted that public administration is concerned with activities
of all the three branches of government. However, recent trends show
that it has more to do with activities of the executive branch of
government at all levels – national, state and local. For example in
Nigeria, government activities are currently carried within the federal
and state civil service: government institutions, public
enterprises/government agencies and local governments.
25
It is no longer debatable that public administration now exists as an
important academic field of study. Initially, public administration is
under political science since political science is the study of
government, can government laid down policies on how the state
affairs should be administered mean that government and public
administration is interwoven; administration and government are so
close that it need no separation. As the time goes on, the society
become so complex as a result of that administration is no more given
due attention, the policies formulated by government are no longer
executed properly due to large functions of government. Therefore,
public administration as a field of study deals with systematic,
analytical and procedural method of arriving at facts which will in
turn help in finding solutions to the problem of the society. However,
public administration has gained added impetus as scientific methods
are now employed to gather and analyse data and reach logical
deductions.
26
questions. Do not forget to write down in your notebook any topic you
do not understand or that needs further clarification. Discuss this
with your lecturer/facilitator in the next tutorial you will have.
27
References and Suggestions for further Readings
Abasili, C.O (2008). Elements of Public Administration, Lagos:
Concept Publication, Limited.
Adamolekun, L. (1983). Public Administration: A Nigerian
Comparative Perspective; Lagos: London Ltd.
Balogun M.J (1983). Public Administration in Nigeria. A
Developmental Approach, Lagos: Macmill.
Emeaya, A.N (2009). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principle
Techniques and Applications, Lagos: Concept Publication
Limited.
Fatile J, Majekodunmi et al (2013). Issues in Public Administration
and Local Governments. The Comparative Perspective. (Lagos:
Concept Publications Limited).
Gulick and Urwick, (1937). Organisation as a technical problem, a
paper on the science of administration, New York: Institution of
Public Administration
Nnoli, O. (1986). Introduction to Politics, Ibadan: Longman Group
Limited
Olojode, I. (2007). Ecology of Public Administration in Olojode I
and Fajonyomi, B. (eds), Essentials of Public Administration.
(Lagos: Department of Public Administration Lagos State
University).
Remi Anifowosse and Francis C. Enemuo (1999). Elements of
Politics, Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited.
Should you require more explanation on this study session, please do not hesitate to contact your e-
tutor via the LMS.
28
Are you in need of General Help as regards your studies? Do not hesitate to contact the DLI IAG Center
by e-mail or phone on:
iag@dli.unilag.edu.ng
08033366677
29
Study Session 3: Public Administration as an Art and Science
Introduction
There has been a controversy over the status of Public Administration.
Some scholars consider it as a science while most of the practitioners of
management theory stress that it is an art. Let us now consider and
then try to establish whether Public Administration is a Science or an
Art.
Considering Pubic Administration as Science has two implications i.e. it
could be a Science or it could be a Social Science.
30
Considering Pubic Administration as Science has two implications i.e. it
could be a Science or it could be a Social Science.
Let us first examine as to how Public Administration can be considered
as a science. “Science” has 2 branches i.e. „Pure Science” and “Social
Science”. The „Pure Science‟ has the following characteristics:
(i) Universality of laws
(ii) Exactness of the results based on these laws
(iii) Predictability of events.
But such universal laws have so far not been established. Similarly the
results are in essence to some degree and the events, since they
involve human behaviour, are also not totally predictable. Hence
Public Administration cannot be considered to be a „Pure Science‟ in
its present status of understanding.
31
1. It contains a body of exact knowledge derived from
experiences and observations which are applicable in practical
situations.
Hence in this respect it is as much a general science as economics
or psychology or biology
2. Through continued efforts, a body of principles which is
applicable in any administrative set up has been developed.
These principles are required to be applied in order to secure
efficiency in administration.
3. It employs scientific methods of investigations in its study e.g.
research and analysis is an indispensable part of any public
policy.
4. It uses scientific process i.e. facts and data are collected
and analyzed and based on these analysis generalizations are
arrived at.
Hence an administrator applies science in much the same manner
as an Engineer or a Medical Doctor.
5. It has also developed its own body of subject matter as
distinct from other social science disciplines, though it is inter-
disciplinary and multi-disciplinary.
Therefore, it can be said that Public Administration is a corpus of
demonstrated truths and hence a social science.
32
1. Public Administration involves dealing with human
behaviour in organization which is not amenable to
experimentation in laboratory conditions. Besides, most part of
the subject matter of Public Administration is not amenable to
experiments.
2. Simon in “Administrative Behaviour” has criticized that the
principles propounded in the discipline of Public Administration
are mutually contradictory and he has said that they are
nothing but homely proverbs.
3. The subject matter of Public Administration is not free
from values and hence its study can‟t be completely objective,
while objectivity is the prime criterion for a discipline to be
considered as a science.
4. Public Administration is also culture-bound i.e. Public
Administration in one country is quite different from Public
Administration in another country.
33
c) It is both a positive and a normative science i.e. it is
concerned with what “is” in the administration and also what
“should be” in the administration. In other words it takes
account of existing facts and tendencies and hence it is more
than a mere wishful thinking.
d) It is a progressive science meaning thereby that its
“generalizations” and “principles” are bound to be constantly
revised and restated.
34
3.6 Conclusions that could be drawn from the two cardinal
positions of Public Administration being a Science and an
Art
In the light of the above discussions, the following two conclusions may
be arrived at:
1. There are strong reasons to believe that Pubic
Administration is both – a „Science” and an “Art” i.e. though it
can make predictions, the predictions are not absolutely correct.
It also means that a contingency approach is required in the
practice of administration i.e. there is a need to modify the
science of administration to suit the situation and then apply it.
The ability to modify it and to apply it is an art.
2. The word “Science” could be used here in the connotation
of a „social Science‟. It has the traits of a science since
predictability is there though limited only up to some degree.
Hence one can say that the methodology applied in Public
Administration is scientific while its application is an art
35
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) For Study Session 3
Now that you have come to the end of this study session, do you know
how well you have fared? Would you like to test your understanding of
the session? Then, see if you could answer the following assessment
questions. Do not forget to write down in your notebook any topic you
do not understand or that needs further clarification. Discuss this
with your lecturer in the next tutorial you will have.
37
SAQ 3.8 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.6)
8. From our conclusion in this study session, it means that a
______________ approach is required in the practice of
administration
a) contingency
b) emergency
c) congruency
d) diplomatic
38
References and Suggestions for further readings
Eneanya, A. N. (2010) Public Administration in Nigeria; Principle,
Techniques and Application. Lagos, Concept Publication.
Ezeani, E.O. (2006). Fundamentals of Public Administration.
Enugu: Snap Press.
Madaubm, C. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in
Nigeria. Lagos. Concept Publications Ltd.
Maduabum, C. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in
Nigeria. Lagos. ASCON Printing Press, Topo-Badagry
NOUN (2012) MPA 740- THEORIES AND PRACTICE OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION, Noun, Lagos.
NOUN (2012) PSM 803- ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION,
Noun, Lagos.
Nnoli, O. (2003), Introduction to Politics, Revised Second Edition,
Enugu: Pan African Center for Research and Conflict Resolution
(PACREP)
Should you require more explanation on this study session, please
do not hesitate to contact your e-tutor via the LMS.
iag@dli.unilag.edu.ng
08033366677
39
Study Session 4: Importance and Functions of
Public Administration
Introduction
Public administration is a distinct field of administration, which is very
important for the success of any government. This peculiarity arises
out of the fact that public administration is an action part of
government, the means by which the purposes and goals of
government are realized. Specific issues to be covered here are:
absorption of the work of government, meeting the challenges of
government activities, implementation of government decisions,
detaching of political activities from administrative work, negotiation,
conciliation and arbitration and communication.
40
4.3 Explain how public administration is used in management
of the economy
4.4 Discuss how public administration helps in serving public
interests
4.5 Explain the role of public administration as a change agent
4.6 Describe how public administration ensures continuity of
government activities
4.7 Explain how public administration provides employment
opportunities
4.8 State the position of public administration in the
identification and management of state resources
4.9 List the responsibilities of public administration in the
provision of social welfare services to the populace
4.9.1 Describe the role of public administration in regulating
government agencies
4.9.2 Explain how public administration is used in conducting
Foreign Affairs
41
4. Some to post letters, keep documents, write memoranda,
gather statistics, negotiate with individuals and groups, and so
on and so forth.
It is not efficient for one individual to perform many of these functions at
the same time. Experience has shown that more is produced or
achieved under conditions of a division of labour than under
conditions where no such division of labour exists. Therefore, the
demands of increased productivity, performance or achievement
require a complex division of labour in which many more people are
involved than those in government.
42
Engineers that invent operate and maintain equipment‟s and
machines procured to serve various purposes in all departments
of government
Soldiers whose responsibility is to maintain both internal and
external security etc.
43
6. Defence: the task of ensuring both internal and external
security remains one of the topmost activities of government,
security challenges have increased over the years
7. Management of Finance: aware of the vast needs of the
public and the lean resources always at the disposal of
governments, governments have the responsibilities of employing
effective measures for management of state resources
8. Encouragement of development in science and technology:
governments embark on measures aimed at encouraging
scientific and technological innovations
9. Promotion of Sporting Activities: Various sporting activities
are encouraged by the government to keep her citizens healthy
and entertain the populace (Nnoli, 2003)
44
Regulatory functions involve the making of rules and regulations and
the issuing of policy directives. For the rational and effective
performance of these roles there must be prior planning, and
gathering of information and data. It will also be necessary to hold
consultations with representatives of sectional groups and to reconcile
conflicting interests and points of view. All these tasks rest on public
administration. It is after these essential preliminaries have been
carried out that rules and regulations, and directives are issued by
government.
45
are usually enclosed in paper jackets known as files. Each file bears a
reference number by which it is easily identified. For the purpose of
tidy arrangement and easy reference, each file is devoted to a single
specific subject.
46
4.6 Ensures continuity of government activities;
The most fundamental and important function of public administration
is to ensure the continuity of government activities. This involves
certain measures:
47
4.7 Provision of employment opportunities for the citizens
An important function of public administration is the provision of
employment for the population. This function can be quite crucial in
the ex – colonial societies of Asia and Africa where the government is
often the largest employer of labour. Most, if not all, of those thus
employed work within the public administration. Such employment
opportunities include:
National and Regional Ministries like education, health, science
and technology, finance, information, sports, defence, external
affairs, interior, agriculture, industry etc. Public enterprises,
such as agro – allied industries, petrochemical companies,
power generating companies, transport companies, mining
industries, communication companies, etc.
Government agencies which include financial regulatory
agencies, import and export promotion bodies, anti-graft,
agencies, human rights bodies etc.
Educational and health institutions at the primary, secondary
and tertiary levels
Local government departments etc.
In this way the civil service is a source of the means of livelihood, in the
form of wages and salaries, for thousands, if not millions, of the
population.
48
bureaucracy that is responsible for conducting or supervising surveys
to assess the existence of:
Various minerals within the country
The unused agricultural potential of the nation
Resource endowment with respect to the organization of
industrial enterprises
The availability of the various categories of labour force and
The various resources that can be procured from external
sources, as well as the prices for their procurement.
Such resource management has as its goal the task of ensuring that
government programs are tailored to the resources available to the
government, and to eliminate all waste in harnessing these resources
to the relevant government programs.
49
The dredging of rivers, the building of port facilities, irrigation facilities,
the organization of famine relief when necessary, sanitation, drainage
facilities, the control of erosion and other natural disasters. the
payment of pension and other labour benefits. In some countries it
organizes the provision of housing, day care facilities for pre –school
children and public transportation. In this way public administration
influences directly the standard of living and the life style of the
people.
4.9.1Role of Public Administration in Regulating Government
Agencies
The practical details and the equitable and fair use of the instrument of
justice, as well as law and order, are also the responsibility of public
administration. Public administration must ensure that the courts
function smoothly and are not overloaded, that the prisons are not
congested or run inhumanly, and that the law enforcement agencies
do not act arbitrarily.
50
Summary of Study Session 4
It has been ascertained that public administration is the hub through
which social, political and economic development takes place within a
state. Indications are apt that through professionalism, administrative
duties lean more towards national interest than individual interest.
Textbooks are the main source for the exercise; ideas from various
scholars have been employed.
51
the session? Then, see if you could answer the following assessment
questions. Do not forget to write down in your notebook any topic you
do not understand or that needs further clarification. Discuss this
with your lecturer in the next tutorial you will have.
52
3. One of the identified importance‟s of Public Administration is its
ability to________________
a) absorb the work of governments
b) inhibit the work of government
c) disturb the work of government
d) catalyse the work of government
54
SAQ 4.9.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.9)
9.1 Public administration is also very crucial in the
organization and provision of _____________ services to the
population.
a) social welfare
b) crucial welfare
c) subordinate
d) inordinate
55
References and Suggestions for further readings
Eneanya, A. N. (2010) Public Administration in Nigeria; Principle,
Techniques and Application. Lagos, Concept Publication.
Ezeani, E.O. (2006). Fundamentals of Public Administration.
Enugu: Snap Press.
Madaubm, C. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in
Nigeria. Lagos. Concept Publications Ltd.
Maduabum, C. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in
Nigeria. Lagos. ASCON Printing Press, Topo-Badagry
NOUN (2012) MPA 740- THEORIES AND PRACTICE OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION, Noun, Lagos.
NOUN (2012) PSM 803- ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION,
Noun, Lagos.
Nnoli, O. (2003), Introduction to Politics, Revised Second Edition,
Enugu: Pan African centre for Research and Conflict Resolution
(PACREP)
Should you require more explanation on this study session, please do not hesitate to contact your e-
tutor via the LMS.
Are you in need of General Help as regards your studies? Do not hesitate to contact the
DLI IAG Center by e-mail or phone on:
iag@dli.unilag.edu.ng
08033366677
56
Study Session 5 – Ecology of Public Administration
Introduction
It is pertinent to know that man must relate and interact constantly
with the environment, and probably use his intellectual and physical
endowment to subdue and/or conquer the environment to suit his
purpose on earth. The interplay of the forces of nature poses many
challenge to man in his environment, thereby compelling him to
proffer means of adapting in the society (Samihah and Salihu, 2011).
Therefore, public administration cannot operate in a vacuum, it has to
interact with the political executive, socio political interest groups,
commercial and economic organisations etc. and above all with the
people. A study of such interaction would constitute what has come to
be known as the ecological approach to the study of public
administration.
57
internally and it relates with its externally environment; political,
economic, social, cultural, technology etc. (Olojede, 2007). Public
administration can be taken as a sub-system of the overall social
system and has to interact with other sub-systems. Therefore, the
recognition of the importance of specific environment of the
administrative system and its impact and influence on the functioning
of its institutions. The ecology of public administration investigates
management effectiveness and practices in the context of impinging
on environmental variables such as legal, social, political, and cultural
factors, affecting goal attainment in an efficient manner. The findings
are that there is nothing like come best way of doing things, as what
worked in one environment might not work in another.
58
5.2 Public Administration in the Pre-Colonial Era
5.2.1Political Structure of Public Administration in Northern
Region in the Pre-colonial Era.
SULTAN
EMIRS
DISTRICT HEADS
MA'AJI GALADIMAS
MADAWAKI
WAZIRI
59
He make and enact laws for the whole of Hausaa/Fulani Empire.
Emirs Sultan was an absolute monarch and his powers cannot be
checked.
b) Executive: The executive responsibilities of implementing laws
made by the Sultan of Sokoto is carried out by the Emirs who
constituted executive arm of the empire. They had power over
property and life of the property of the empire Sultan of Sokoto
was the head of the Hausa/Fulani Empire and equally the head of
the executive.
c) Judiciary: These arm consisted of Islamic lawyers who are vast in
Islamic teaching and adjudicate and punish anyone that
contravene Sharia law which emanated from Qur‟anic injunctions
through Alkali Court.
During the pre-colonial era in the Northern region the region was
dominated by the Hausa/Fulani. The system of administrative was
centralized system. The region was headed by the Sulatan of Sokoto
whose power was absolute (that is the powers cannot be checked). The
Sultan ruled the region through the influence of Islamic jurisdictions
that is Islamic law. The system of public administration in the
northern region was highly successful due to the traditional structure
of the region, power of the Sultan of Sokoto and influence of the
Islamic religion.
60
equally responsible to the emirs who also perform various
responsibilities for effective and efficient administration at the empire.
Such are:
1. Wazim – Head official the prime minister for the empire.
2. Galadima – Administration of the capital Officer in charge of the
daily administration of the Northern region.
3. Ma’oyi– Finance minister and a treasurer in charge of internally
generated revenue.
4. Dongans – Officer in charge of internal security and maintaining
laws and order.
5. Alkalis – Officers in charge of interpretation of Sharia laws and
punishment of the offenders.
6. Sarkin Ruwas – Officer in charge of fishing and other related
aquatic activities in the region.
7. Sarkindawa – Officer in charge of butchers and other related
activities.
8. Madawaki – Calvary commanders (cemeteries) and other related
activities.
61
5.2.2 Public Administration in the Pre-colonial Western
Region of Nigeria
ALAFIN
BASHORUN
(PRIME MINISTER)
OYOMESI
( MINISTER)
5.2
Structure of Public Administration the Western Region of Nigeria
Source: (Bello and Ojodu, 2004).
62
God on earth. While the Basorun (Prime Minister) was next to Alafin
he administered the domain on behalf of the Alafin. The oyomesi were
also ministers whose major role is to check the excesses of the Alafin
especially if he goes beyond the power being allotted to him and
therefore, he could be depose and be banish from that domain by the
Oyomesi. The Aare Ona-kakanfo is the commander in charge of army,
he exercised military and policy function and see to the compliance of
the order of Alafin. Native Doctors, Diviner, Babalawo‟ and
Soothsayers are departments that helped Alafin in the day –to – day
administration of the kingdom while Alafin consult the oracle for the
peaceful co-existence of the kingdom.
VILLAGE HEAD
(OKPARA TITLE)
VILLAGE GROUPS
(OZO TITLE)
AGE GRADES
SACRED SOCIETIES
5.3.
63
Structure of Public Administration in the Eastern Region of Nigeria
Source: (Bello and Ojodu , 2004)
64
5.3. The Organisational Structure of Colonial Civil Service
QUEEN
COLONIAL SECRETARY
GOVERNOR GENERAL
PROVISIONAL COMMISSION
RESIDENT OFFICERS
DISTRICT COMMISSIONER
DISTRICT OFFICERS
The organisational structure of the civil service in colonial era are highly
centralised, the power and authority reside in the Queen of England
she was the head of administration of the colonial civil service in
Nigeria. She was commander in chief which means all powers and
authorities are confined to the Queen. Colonial secretary is next to the
Queen both of them makes and enact law for the civil servant at the
colony, while the colonial Secretary is directly responsible for the
British Cabinet and member of the Parliament constituted by the
queen. The Governor-General was directly answerable to the colonial
secretary who in turn fed the Queen with the information while the
65
Governor-General acted as the representative of the Queen of London.
However, the provincial commissioner acts as the Chief Secretary to
the Governor-General. They coordinate the activities of the civil
service. Resident officers assisted provincial Commissioner in the
initiation of policies and supervision in the execution of the approved
policies as may be directed by the Queen of |London. Hence, the
district officers are responsible to the district commissioner in
discharged of their duties and responsibilities.
66
c) Nigeria
d) Internationally
SAQ 5.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.1)
2. _________________ can be taken as a sub-system of the overall social
system and has to interact with other sub-system
a) Ecology
b) Business Management
c) Public Management
d) Public Administration
67
a) Sarkindawa
b) Madawaki
c) Galadima
d) Dongari
68
SAQ 5.9 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.2.3)
9. The most eldest among the Okpara‟s titled holders are
crowned with ____________
a) Eze title
b) Okpara title
c) Igwe title
d) Obi title
69
References and Suggestions for further Readings
Adamolekun, L. (1983), Public Administration: A Nigerian
Comparative Perspective; Lagos: London Ltd.
Akinbade, J.A (2008), Government Explained Plus Questions and
Answers, Lagos: Macak Book Ventures.
Bello, S.A, Ojodu H.O et al (2004), Public Administration System in
Nigeria, Lagos: Raamson Printing Service.
Emeaya, A.N (2009). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principles,
Techniques and Applications, Lagos: Concept Publication
Limited.
Fatile J, Majekodunmi et al (2013). Issues in Public Administration
and Local Governments. The Comparative Perspective. (Lagos:
Concept Publications Limited).
Obiajulu, S.O and Obi E.A (2004), Public Administration in
Nigeria: A Denelo Prudential Approach. Book point Limited
Olojode, I. (2007). Ecology of Public Administration in Olojode I
and Fajonyomi, B. (eds), Essentials of Public Administration.
(Lagos: Department of Public Administration Lagos State
University).
Oyebola, A. And Ojelabi, A. (1971), A textbook of Government for
West Africa, Ibadan: Educational Research Institute.
RemiAnifowosse and Francis C. Ememuo (1999). Elements of
Politics, Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited.
70
Are you in need of General Help as regards your studies? Do not
hesitate to contact the DLI IAG Center by e-mail or phone on:
iag@dli.unilag.edu.ng
08033366677
71
Study Session 6: Administration, Organization and Approaches to
Public Administration
Introduction
The specific issues that will be examined in this unit include the
definition of administration, administrative principles, administrative
theories, and how organization functions. In this unit, therefore, the
meaning of administration and organization will be examined in
details.
Also, this unit teaches you the different approaches to public
administration. The bulk of the literature on public administration
deals mainly with approaches. One sees public administration as
essentially management, each perspective has a different set of values,
offers distinctive organizational approaches for these values, and each
considers the individual citizen in different ways.
Realistically, public administration indeed consists of varying mix of
these branches. These approaches to public administration are
discussed in this unit.
72
6.9 The Formal Structural Approach to Public Administration
6.1 Meaning of Administration
Administration can be seen as a rational human activity, which is
inherent in any organized social life, public or private. It occurs even
in such a simple activity as “when two men cooperate to roll a stone
which could not be moved by a man”. Administration consists of all
those operations, which aim at achieving specific purpose shared by
two or more people. To put it differently, administration is a
cooperative human effort toward achieving some common goals. It is
thus a goal – oriented, purposive, cooperative, joint activity
undertaken by a group of people.
73
situation where apiece of work has to be done, and this piece of work
requires the effort of more than one person to accomplish it. We are
involved in administrative behavior when we co-operate with other
people to accomplish such objectives as erecting a community town
hall, constructing and managing schools, churches, hospitals,
vehicles, assembly plants.
Thus, Onuoha (1999) explains further that administration exists
whenever people cooperate to achieve the goals of their groups, and
such achievements require planning, organization, command,
cooperation and control. It involves the mobilization, deployment and
direction of human and material resources to attain the specified
objectives. When viewed from this perspective, certainly
administration is rightly considered a very old and global
phenomenon, which exists, even in the most basic human group.
74
Christian Church also played a remarkable role in the emergence of
administrative practices. A Chinese administrative expert writing in
500 BC remarked that: Whoever pursues a business in this world
must have a system. A business which has attained success without a
system does not exist. From Ministers and Generals down to the
hundreds of craftsmen, every one of them has a system. Now, if we
govern the empire or a large state without a system, we are not even
less intelligent than a common craft man (Adebayo, 2004).
In our modern societies, various groups of people from all walks of life
are woven together in a complicated process to achieve the objectives
of the organization. In both public and private establishments, large
numbers of employees have to be supervised, coordinated and
controlled. Thousands of workers have to be brought together and
distributed for work among the various departments of which the
various organizations are composed.
75
Span of Control: Employees are given authority and
responsibility that commensurate with their offices, which
should not be more or less.
Administrative Management
This theory was first formulated by Henry Fayol, and later Luther Gulick
and Lyndall Urwick. The theory concentrates on attempts to develop
principles of administration which can be applied everywhere.
76
According to them, any administrative principle once developed,
should logically work in any kind of administrative institution. Gulick
and Urwick gave the discipline of public administration, the acronym
POSDCORD which means planning, organizing, staffing, directing,
coordinating, reporting and budgeting. According to Gulick and
Urwick, POSDCORD constitutes the key duties and functions of any
administrator in an organization. The acronym is criticized of having
over –simplified the work of an administrator. On their own part, still
under Administrative Management theory, James D. Mooney and
Allan C. Reilay formulated the four principles of organization which
are: the coordinative principle; the scalar principle (hierarchical
structure); functional principle(division of labour); and the staff/line
principle (Onuoha, 1999).
Bureaucratic Management
Bureaucratic theory was one of the earliest theories of organization. It
was formulated by Max Weber, who is fondly referred to as the father
of bureaucracy and bureaucratic theory.
77
and activities of the bureaucracy, since bureaucracy gives meaning to
organization.
Human Relations
Human relations theory is another method of studying organizations.
The theory is reputed as being a reaction against person as machine
concept of the scientific management school. The human relations
theory of organization examines the informal work group at the
assembly, that is, the line level. It tries to find out what makes these
groups of workers work or refuse to work. The theory tries to establish
what relationship exists between motivation and job satisfaction, and
how these affect efficiency and productivity in the organization.
The formulation of the theory began with the efforts of Elton Mayo in
1927. The study focused on relationship between workers and
managers, and among workers themselves. The development of the
theory continued with the efforts of Abraham H. Maslow, in what is
today known as Maslow‟s hierarchy of human needs. Maslow
perceived human desire to be based first on physiological needs which
provide the foundation for the next greatest need, which is security.
These are followed by love or belonginess, self-esteem, and finally self-
actualization. According to him, all these human needs collectively
determine productivity in any organization.
78
democracy is responsibility to popular control; the responsibility and
responsiveness of the administrative agencies. Bureaucracies of the
elected officials (the chief executives, the legislators) are of central
importance in a government-based organization, which is increasingly
on the exercise of discretionary power by the agencies of
administration.
Public administration was anything but devoid of politics. Once public
administration is considered a political endeavour, emphasis is
invariably placed on a different set of values than those promoted by
the managerial approach. Efficiency in particular becomes highly
suspect, because it has little to do with the bigger questions of
government. The political approach to public administration stresses
the values of representativeness, official responsiveness, and
accountability through elected officials to the citizenry.
79
representation. Over lapping missions and programmes become
common as the administrative structure comes to resemble apolitical
party platform that promises something to almost everyone without
establishing clear priorities for resolving conflicts among them. Agency
becomes adversary of agency and the resolution of conflict is shifted to
the legislature, the office of the chief executive, and the courts.
80
is not necessarily a question for resolution by experts or science.
Rather the public or organized segments of it ought to have a large
role in determining what is in the interest. Indeed, public
administration under political approach reflects public choice and
interests.
81
order to maintain permanent state of equilibrium. When applied to
public administration, it represents inputs from the environment in
form of citizen‟s demand for the provision of goods and services.
82
In this unit, we have dealt with the meaning of administration, meaning
of organization, definition of administration, basic characteristic of
administration, how organization function, administrative theories.
We learned that public administration is the machinery as well as the
internal process through which the government performs its
functions.
Also in this unit, you have learnt that the bulk of the literature on
public administration deals mainly with five approaches. Each of
these approaches-political, bureaucratic, systems, formal structural,
behavioural emphasizes different values and procedural and
structural arrangements for the operation of public administration.
Each views the individual citizen in a remarkably different way, and
each adopts a different perspective on how to develop knowledge.
These approaches are embedded in our political culture.
In this unit, you have learnt about different five approaches to public
administration in any given political system. The political,
bureaucratic, system, formal structural, behavioural approaches to
public administration are highlighted and discussed at length.
83
1. Administration is a cooperative human effort toward achieving
some common__________
a) goals
b) agreements
c) joy
d) arrangement
84
a) avoidable
b) available
c) inevitable
d) adorable
85
SAQ 6.9(Tests Learning Outcome 6.5)
9. Organizations are ____________ units which pursue specific goals
a) local
b) special
c) social
d) total
87
a) politics
b) power
c) capital
d) influence
88
SAQ 6.20 (Tests Learning Outcome 6.7)
9.9.2The political approach often base its decisions on the
opinions of --_______________
a) the public
b) the masses
c) the rich
d) the state
89
b) bureaucratic
c) formal structural
d) political
90
9.9.9 In system theory, the administration of demands in a
conversion process is delivered as
a) outputs
b) inputs
c) feedback
d) opinion
91
References and Suggestions for Further Readings
Adebayo, A. (2000). Principles and Practice of Public Administration
in Nigeria (2nded).Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.
Adebayo, (2004) Principles and Practice of Public Administration in
Nigeria, Ibadan: Spectrum Books and John Wiley
Ekwealor, E.F. (2007). Fundamental of Public Administration.
Onitsha: Abbot Books Limited.
Eneanya A. N. (2010) Public Administration in Nigeria; Principle,
Techniques and Applications, Lagos, Concept Publications.
Fayol, H. (1984) Industrial and General Administration quoted in
Adebayo, A. Principles and Practice of Public Administration in
Nigeria, Ibadan: Spectrum Books and John Wiley
Koontz, H.; et al. (2008). Management: A Global and
Entrepreneurial Perspective (12thed.). New Delhi. McGraw-Hill.
Maduabum, C.P. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in
Nigeria: The Journey So Far. Badagry: ASCON Press.
Maduabum, C.P. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration
in Nigeria. Lagos: Concept Publications Limited.
NOUN (2012) MPA 740- THEORIES AND PRACTICE OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION, Noun, Lagos.
NOUN (2012) PSM 803- ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION,
Noun, Lagos.
Nnoli, O. (2003) Introduction to Politics Revised Second Edition,
Enugu: Pan African Center for Research on Peace and Conflict
Resolution (PACREP)
Nwosu, H.N. (1983) “The Universality of Administration” In,
Nwosu, H. N (ed.) Problems of Nigerian Government, Enugu:
Fourth Dimension
92
Onuaha, B. (1999) “Public Administration: Basic Principles,
Techniques and Process. In Adebayo, Augustus (ed.) Elements of
Politics, Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited.
Polinaidu, S. (2004). Public Administration. New Delhi: Galgotia
Publications PVT.
Sapru, R.K. (2008). Administrative Theories and Management
Thought (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Private
Limited.
Simon, H. Smithburg, D. and Thompson, V (1950) Public
Administration. In Ujo, A.A. (2004). Understanding Public
Administration. Kaduna: Joyce
Graphic Printer & Publishers Company.
Should you require more explanation on this study session, please do not hesitate to contact your e-
tutor via the LMS.
Are you in need of General Help as regards your studies? Do not hesitate to contact the
DLI IAG Center by e-mail or phone on:
iag@dli.unilag.edu.ng
08033366677
93
Study Session 7: Methods of Inquiry in Public Administration
Introduction
Public administration has evolved and developed over time, this has
been possible because of relentless investigations into issues
bothering on the improvement of the discipline. Major methods of
inquiry into the discipline that will be discussed here are historical
method, descriptive method, experimental method, survey method and
case study method.
94
1. Official records, minutes of meetings, committee reports
and legal documents
2. Institutional records, attendance rolls, university bulletins
3. Memoirs, biographies, diaries, personal letters, books on
the philosophy of a known scholar, and so on.
95
practices, beliefs, attitudes and ongoing process. Descriptive inquiry is
that investigation which specifies the nature of given phenomena.
Such surveys provide the basis for eliciting possible policies considered
and those ultimately accepted as a result of the inquiry, represent
value decisions. While the research findings may have been useful, it
cannot be concluded that the policies were determined scientifically.
96
From description the investigator cannot deduce conclusively the cause
of the phenomena or predict what the future phenomena will be.
Descriptive inquiry using the same design done at specified periods of
time can, indeed, show trends in description from which hypotheses
can be gleaned and later tested under controlled experimental
conditions.
97
3. Drawing up the experimental design: This section should
place primary emphasis on the question of control,
randomization, and replication and should include a clarification
of such basic aspects of the design as the place and duration of
the experiment. It is generally advisable to conduct a pilot study
because of the complexity of an experiment in order to ensure
the adequacy of the design.
4. Defining the population: It is important to define the
population precisely so that there can be no question about the
population to which the conclusions are to apply.
5. Conducting the study: It is important here to insist on
close adherence to plans, especially as they relate to the factors
of control, randomization, and replication. The duration of the
experiment should be such that the variable under investigation
is given adequate time to promote changes that can be evaluated
and to insulate the influence of such extraneous factors as
novelty.
6. Assessing the outcomes: Careful consideration must be
given to the selection of the criterion on the basis of which the
results are to be assessed, for the efficiency of the experiment
depends largely on the fairness of the criterion used.
7. Analysing and interpreting the results: The researcher is
concerned with the operation of the factors under investigation.
He must be especially sensitive to the possibility that the results
of his/her study arose through the operation of uncontrolled
extraneous factors. The researcher must further insulate at a
given probability level the possibility that the experimental
findings are simply the results of chance. In no other area of
98
research is the need for competence in statistical procedures so
clearly indicated as in the analysis of experimental data as the
basis for their valid interpretation.
8. Drawing up conclusions: the conclusions of the study
must be based on the findings of the study. Care must be taken
not to over – generalize the results obtained. The results also
pertain only to the conditions under which they were derived,
and, since control may have distorted the natural situation, care
must be taken to restrict the conclusions to the condition
actually present in the experiment.
9. Reporting the result: The study must be reported in
sufficient detail so that the reader can make an intelligent
judgment as to its validity (Fisher, 1957)
99
Survey research focuses on people, the vital facts of people, and their
beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivations and behaviour. Surveys are
particularly versatile and practical, especially for the administrator, in
that they identify present conditions and point to present needs.
Surveys do not make the decisions for the administrator, but they can
provide him with information on which to base sound decisions.
Surveys can be conveniently classified by the following methods of
obtaining information: personal interview, mail questionnaire, panel,
telephone and controlled observation. Of these, the personal interview
far overshadows the others as the most powerful and useful tool of
social scientific survey research (Osuala, 2005)
100
Case study must involve the collection of very extensive data to produce
an understanding of the entity being studied. Shallow studies will not
make any contribution to administrative knowledge (Osuala, 2005).
101
b) archives
c) safes
d) files
102
11.5 In historical method, primary sources are data provided by
_________ to the incident in question.
a) a actual witness
b) b secondary witness
c) c proxy witness
d) d third party witness
103
SAQ 7.9 (Tests Learning Outcome 7.2)
Descriptive method is concerned with the collection of data for the
purpose of ____________ and interpreting existing conditions,
a) describing
b) categorizing
c) classifying
d) manipulating
SAQ 7.10 (Tests Learning Outcome 7.2)
11.9.1 The importance of descriptive inquiry in public administration
clearly implies _____________
a) simplicity of phenomena
b) complexity of phenomena
c) uprightness
d) biases of phenomena.
104
d) description
105
11.9.7 Under the experimental method, the problems amenable to
experimentation generally should be converted into a ___________
a) hypothesis
b) crucibles
c) generalizations
d) explanations
106
c) a minor study
d) a general study
107
SAQ 7.23 (Tests Learning Outcome 7.3)
11.9.9.5 In analysing and interpreting the results, the researcher is
concerned with the __________ under investigation.
a) operation of the factors
b) operation of the factors
c) modulation of the factors
d) inclusion of the factors.
108
b) bias
c) accurate
d) equal
109
Surveys do not make the decisions for the administrator, but they can
provide him with ____________ on which to base sound decisions.
a instruments
b methods
c information
d ideas
110
d) intensive data
Should you require more explanation on this study session, please do not hesitate to contact your e-
tutor via the LMS.
111
Are you in need of General Help as regards your studies? Do not hesitate to contact the
DLI IAG Center by e-mail or phone on:
iag@dli.unilag.edu.ng
08033366677
112
Session 8: Public and Private Administration
Introduction
In the last study session, you had an idea about ecology of public
administration. This session will take you a step further into the public and
private administration. You will be exposed to the meaning of public and
private administration, the features of public organisations, the difference
between public and private administration and the similarities between
public and private administration and the differences between
administration and politics.
113
substantial degree, the implementation of programmes as well as
efficient allocation of resources. Administration, therefore exists
whenever people cooperate to achieve the goals of their groups and
such achievements require planning, organization, command,
coordination and control.
114
Therefore, public administration is part of the political process and
therefore help in policy formulation through a feedback mechanism.
Gulick and Urwick (1937), defines public administration as the
function that has to do with getting things done or the
accomplishment of defined objectives. It is essentially concerned with
the management of organisations in the pursuit of desired public goal
and objectives. The ultimate goal of public administrations is how to
maximize the efficiency and social effectiveness of public
administration as the organisation and direction of human and
material resources to achieve desired ends. However, it is machinery
for implementing government policies and programmes at all level of
government – natural, state and local. Adamolekun (1983), states
that public administration is commonly used to refer to both the
activities concerned with the management of government business
and the study of these activities. Balogun (1987), sees public
administration as the marshalling of human and material resources in
order to achieve the objectives of public policy. This according to him,
brings to the fore two vital aspects in the study of public
administration which must go with policy implementation and become
important areas of attention in the study of public administration.
Public administration means the manner in which central or federal
provincial or state, local institutions within their procedural, legal,
regulatory, financial, human resources and asset aspects are
organised, institutionalized and managed with aspect to their
regulatory, revenue extraction, and spending/procurement functions
as well as the provision of such services a defence, social service and
economic infrastructure. (Mhome, 2003). Public administration is the
process by which the objectives are defined, plan and policies
115
formulated, institutions created and managed, human energies
mobilized, resources utilized and change effected in the overall public
interest. (Stone, 1939).
116
and efficiency of the goal and objectives of public organisation. The
features of public organisations are the following:
1. Public servants must be neutral and impartial in their day-to-day
activities. Which means they are not allowed to be partisan, that is
they should not support any government in power to the extent of
jeopardizing their work.
2. Public servant should be seen and not heard. That is a public
servant does not receive praises or blame for any government
policies, although they advise the minister on what policy to adopt.
Therefore, it is the minister who has ultimate responsibility. This is
the principle of anonymity which the public servant enjoy.
3. Public servant should protect the image of the government at all
time without antagonizing the activities of the government. The
interest and policies of the government must be protected and
must share the visions of the government.
4. Public organizations are established through an Act of
Parliament, which specified the power and functions through the
constitutional provision.
5. Public organisation has hierarchical in structure and also contain
chain of command, unity of control etc. which facilitate efficiency
in such organisations.
117
of political leaders. In democracy, public administrators are
supposed to do things as deemed by the representatives of the
people while private administration is marginally affected by
political factors. It is not subject to political direction, except in
times of the gravest emergency. Its objectives generally do not
depend up political decisions. The end it pursues are of its own
device.
ii.) Personnel Recruitment: In private administration, the
shareholders appoint the board of directions for articulating and
formulating policies, while the board appoints the managing
director to implement the company‟s policies. Employees of
private organisation are recruited based on technical
qualifications and competence. While public organisations, the
president or governors are elected as representatives of the
people. They implement government policies for the welfare of
the citizenry. Employees of private organisations are also
recruited through technical qualification and competence.
iii.) Nature of the Organisation: Public administration is more
complex than private administration. Private administration has
a narrow focus, in the fact that it concentrates attentions and
resources on one line of activity. This is usually economic in
nature and concerns are specified or specific aspect of economic
life. It is for this very reason that the field of public
administration is too broad because each of these services arise
out of different need which press themselves upon individual in
modern society.
iv.) Accountability: Public administrators are accountable to
the Nigerian public through the legislature. This is often used as
118
a yardstick for measuring good governance. In a private
organization, accountability for good management is measured
by the shareholders during organisation annual general meeting.
v.) Test of Efficiency: Efficiency is thus axiom number on
the value scale of administration. In comparison to public
administration, efficiency in private administration can be easily
measured. This is because private business is almost invariably
conducted for profit, and this forms an automatic measure of
efficiency. A private business enterprise is considered to be
more efficient if it earns more profits. But in most cases, the test
of profit cannot be applied to measure the efficiency of
performance of public agencies. In public administration, the
core yardsticks for interpreting efficiency are not always
available, nor are they always appropriate, whereas in private
administration, profit-making is sometimes used as a measure of
efficiency. Thu, the level of efficiency in private administration is
superior to that of public administration.
vi.) Nature of Environment: Public administration inevitably
operates within a political environment. It is the political context
of public administration which make it necessary for it to lay
down and adhere to elaborate rules and regulations and comply
with the consuming procedure. However, a private
administration is not subjected to political direction except in
terms of the gravest emergency. Its objectives generally do not
depend upon political decision. Private administration decides
the course of action on the basis of cost benefit analysis at least,
this is the belief.
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a. Similarities Between Public and Private Administration
Irrespective of the numerous differences that have been listed before,
there are also many areas of commonality shared by both practices.
These features are:
1. They mobilize resources: human, money and material to achieve
specific goals.
2. Both of them review their goals in the context of existing
resources.
3. They motivate their employees for higher performances.
4. Both private and public administration are involved in
bureaucracy, especially as some private organisations have
become large in size, which had made administration complex.
5. Both private and public administration pay attention to social
responsibility in the communities where they operate.
120
to the point of leaving little but administrative tasks for government.
Wilson contended that any “practicable government” it is important to
establish line of demarcation between administrative and political
functions. Wilson (1887) thought that there was a major distinction
between politics and administration in government operations. In
other words, he averred that politics was the proper activity of
legislative bodies and other or policy-making groups, while
government was the proper activity of public administrators, who were
to carry out the policies stated in the laws of the jurisdiction or
government (Chandler and Plano, 1988).
121
own technical process free from the blight of political meddling
(Sharma and Sadana, 2009).
122
d) Their role in marshalling and deploying human and material
resources to achieve policy objectives and in timing
implementation decision.
e) The scope of government policies which correspondingly has
generated more expectations for it. These expectations have
largely fallen on the shoulders of public administrators to
implement public-oriented programmes.
f) Lastly, policy-makers sometimes allow those responsible for
implementing laws and policies the flexibility to make the
adjustment necessary to solve problems and to learn from trial
and error. Policy evaluation requires clear goal and standards
against which policy, implementation efforts can be measured.
But that kind of electricity is often lacking and, when it exists,
the policy (political) tasks overwhelm the resources available to
public administrators.
123
similarities between public and private administration were identified.
Lastly, the dichotomy between politics and administration was
enumerated.
124
d) Public Administration
125
b) Public servant must be neutral and impartial
c) Public servant should be seen and not heard
d) They are hierarchical in structure
126
SAQ 8.10 (Tests Learning Outcome 8.5)
10. __________ stick to its policy determining sphere and leave
administration to apply its own technical process free from the
blight of political meddling.
a) Administration
b) Politics
c) Management
d) Organisation
127
Akpala, Agwu (1988). Management: An introduction and search for
Nigerian System, Unpublished Manuscript.
Akpan, N.U. (1982). Public Administration in Nigeria, Lagos:
Longman Nigeria Ltd
Balogun, M.J (1983). Public Administration in Nigeria: A
Development Approach, Lagos: Macmillan
Eneanya, A.N (2009). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principles,
Techniques and Applications, Lagos: Concept Publication
Limited.
Fatile J, Majekodunmi et al (2013). Issues in Public Administration
and Local Governments. The Comparative Perspective. (Lagos:
Concept Publications Limited).
Pffiffner, J.M (1935). Public Administration, New York: The Ronald
Press Company.
Ugwu, S.C (2007). Introduction to Public Administration Enugu:
Academic Printing Press.
Should you require more explanation on this study session, please do not hesitate to contact your e-
tutor via the LMS.
Are you in need of General Help as regards your studies? Do not hesitate to contact the
DLI IAG Center by e-mail or phone on:
iag@dli.unilag.edu.ng
08033366677
128
Study Session 9: Formal and Informal Organization
Introduction
This study session introduces you to the basic concept of
organization, principles of organization and functions of an
organization. You will be exposed to the types of organization, the
characteristics of both formal and informal organization as well as
merits and demerits of formal and informal organizations.
129
delegating responsibility and authority, and establishing relationship
for the purpose of enabling people to work most effectively together in
establishing of objectives. He states further that the essence of this
definition is that people who work together require a defined system or
structure through which they relate to each other and through which
their efforts can be coordinated. Kossen (1978), states that, an
organization is a group of individuals co-ordinated into different levels
of authority and segments of specialization or the purpose of achieving
the goals and objectives of the organization.
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9.2 Principles of Organization
These principles are guidelines for planning an efficient organization
structure. The principles are the following:
1. Determination of Objectives: The objective of an organization
must be clearly defined for the entire organization, for each
department and even for each position in the organization
structure. Every part of the organization must be directed to
achieve this basic objective.
2. Division of Work: It is also referred to as the division of labour
and specialization. The work should be divided and grouped in
accordance with the nature and objectives of the organization.
The process of grouping work usually known as
departmentalization, is necessary for specialization and
coordination.
3. Unity of Command: No employee should be asked to report to
more than one superior. That means that everyone should have
only one boss and report to him only. This will avoid conflict and
confusion in the organization.
4. Span of Control: No superior or superior should be required to
supervise more subordinates than he can effectively manage
because of the limitation of time and ability. However, the exact
number of subordinates to be supervised will depend upon many
factors like nature of the job, personal capability of the
supervisor, established rules and procedures in the organization
etc.
131
5. Unbroken Line of Authority: It signifies the scalar principles of
the chain of command. Authority and responsibility should be in
a clear unbroken line from the highest executive to the lowest
executive. As far as possible, the chain of command should be
short. The clearer the line of authority from the chief executive in
the organization to every subordinate position, the more effective
will be decision-making and organization communication.
6. Flexibility: The organization must permit growth and expansion
without dislocation of operations. The structure of the
organization should be flexible/enough to adapt easily and
economically itself to changes in the environment and due to
technical motivation. Good organization is not a straight jacket.
7. Continuity: The organization should be structured as to have
continuity of operations. There should be arrangements to enable
people to gain experience in positions of increasing diversity and
responsibility. There should be continuous supply of necessary
personnel and continuous efforts for improvement in different
parts of the organization.
8. Coordination: The performance of various activities by personnel
in the organization who are doing specialized jobs necessitates
that these subdivided activities should be systematically
interrelated. This coordination. Its purpose is to secure unity of
effort and economy in functioning.
9. Stability: The organization should be as stable as possible so
that it may have continuity. It should be able to withstand the
losses of specific personnel without serious loss of its
effectiveness.
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10. Delegation of Authority: Adequate authority should be
delegated to the subordinates for carrying out the jobs assigned to
them. Authority delegated should be commensurate with
responsibility.
133
workers, the tools and machinery used, the nature of the
product the materials employed or some other element.
3. Co-ordination: This principle emerges because of the need in
every organization for the integration of activities and the co-
ordination of individuals and groups of individual performing
their tasks. Co-ordination is achieved through leadership; in the
structural sense, it involves the fixing of responsibility and the
delegation of authority.
134
d) The organization structure is based on division of labour and
specialization;
e) The structure is based on the jobs to be performed and not
according to individuals who are to perform jobs;
f) The organization does not take into consideration emotionally
aspect. It is deliberately impersonal;
g) The authority and responsibility relationships created by the
organization structure are to be honoured by everyone;
h) Organizational charts are usually drawn. All the positions from
General Manager down to lower levels appear on the formal
chart of the organization.
135
relationships and norms of behaviour, irrespective of those defined
within the formal structure.
136
3. It provides a means of motivation for example through status,
social interaction, variety in routine or tedious jobs, and
informal methods of work.
4. It provides a feeling of stability and security, and through
informal „norms‟ of behaviour can exercise a form of control over
members.
5. It provides a means of highlighting deficiencies or weaknesses in
the formal organisation - for example, areas of duties or
responsibilities not covered in job descriptions or outdated
systems and procedures.
6. It may be used when formal methods would take too long, or not
be appropriate to deal with an unusual or unforeseen situation.
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6. Individuals will be selected on the basis of ability to perform
expected tasks. Simplification and specification of job
assignment is possible in a more effective way.
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2. Grapevine Communication: This is a form of communication
through informal and unofficial channels. Informal structures
play the most important role in the grapevine method. Grapevine
can be equally important for both the employees and
management. This is why it is one of the biggest advantages of
informal organization that they make grapevine communication
possible.
3. Feedbacks: Informal organizations make it possible to receive
quick and accurate feedbacks. Either through grapevine
communication or by direct intervention of management,
informal structures can provide accurate feedback on many
important aspects.
4. Better Bonding, Collaboration and Teamwork: Since people
are personally connected with each other in informal structures
it leads to better bonding, collaboration and teamwork among
the individuals. As managers start learning about their sub-
ordinates and employees personalities, motives and personal
needs, they can make better use of their services.
5. Compensate the Shortcomings of Formal Organizations:
Formal structures can be very rigid, tiresome and
unaccommodating for employees. Too much of formal
organizations can demodulate employees, create job stress and
result in job dissatisfaction. Informal structures can make up for
that and compensate the shortcomings of formal organizations.
139
Despite the above advantages, informal organizations can also be a bit
disadvantageous for organizations. Some of the notable disadvantages
of informal organizations are given below:
1. Contrary to Organizational Goals: Informal structures never
contribute directly to organizational goals and objectives. It is
important to remember that it is the formal structure that is
created to support the goals of organizations. On the other hand,
the informal structures are created by the employees, for the
employees.
2. Rumours: Another disadvantage of the informal organization is
that they spread a lot of rumours, instead of factual statements
and meaningful communication. Such rumours not only halt the
development and growth of the organization, but may also create
disturbance and conflict among employees.
3. Leads to Conflicts: They lead to conflicts among employees. It
is well known that not every conflict is necessarily bad and
dysfunctional for the organization. However, informal structures
usually lead to relationship conflict which is considered outright
bad, negative and harmful.
4. Wastage of Time: Informal organizations waste a lot of
important time that could be put to better use. For instance,
when individual involve in personal interaction with each other,
they should be doing their job instead. Similarly, as informal
structures head to relationship conflict, it also requires
managers to intervene and resolve the conflict.
140
In this study session, you have learnt the concept of organization as a
group of people working together co-operatively under authority
towards achieving goals and objectives that mutually benefit the
participants and the organization. Also we are able to explain the
principles, functions and importance of an organization. This study
session has been able to examine the types of organization such as
formal and informal organizations and its characteristics. However,
merits and demerits of formal and informal organization were also
enumerated.
Tutor-Marked Assignment
Question:
a) Define an organization. What are the principles of organization?
b) Explain vividly the functions and importance of an organization.
c) Examine the types of organization and its characteristics.
d) Enumerate the merits and demerits of formal and informal
organization.
141
References and Suggestions for Further Readings
Allen, Louis (1950). Management and Organisation, New York:
McGraw Hill
Kossen, Stan (1978). The Human Side of Organisation, San-
Francisco: Canfield Press.
Mamona, C.B and Gankar, S.V (2011). Personnel Management:
Text and Cases, Mumbai: Himalaya Publishing House.
Mullins, J. Laurie (1999). Management Organizational Behaviour,
London: Financial Times and Pitman Publishing.
Schein, E.H (1988), Organization Psychology, Third Edition. New
York: Prentice Hall, Pg. 15.
Seybold, G. (1964). Personnel Audits and Reports to Top Mgt, in
Studies in Personnel Policies, No 191, NICB, 1964.
Urwick, L. (1945). The Elements of Administration, New York
City: Harper & Brothers.
iag@dli.unilag.edu.ng
08033366677
142
Study Session 10: The Civil Service
Introduction
In order for the government of a country to function effectively and
efficiently, such a government needs the activities and loyalty of
committed citizens to work in the various departments and agencies.
Those people that work in these various departments and agencies are
referred to as civil servants. Therefore, the civil service is an
instrument both for policy advice to the political leadership in the
executive and for policy implementation after policies are decided.
However, recruitment of civil servants on the basis of personal
qualities and professional capacities is a late development in many
countries. Appointments in the past were determined principally
because the government wanted either to reward some services
rendered or because they wanted to assure themselves of good
following.
143
10.9: Itemise ways in which the performances of the civil service may be
improved
10.1 The Civil Service
The executive arm of government is assisted by a body of professional
administrators who are responsible to enforce the will of the state. The
civil service refers to all government ministries and departments. Civil
servants are officials who work in government ministries and
departments, excluding the police and the armed forces. The civil
service is directly under the executive arm of government. The
government use the civil service for the day to-day administration of
the country. Furthermore, the political head of a government ministry
is a minister while the administrative head is the permanent
secretary. It is imperative to note that civil servants are different from
politicians. While civil servants are appointed by the government and
have security of tenure, politicians are usually elected although a few
are appointed to political offices and hold office for a specified period
of time.
144
commission, based on profession of a good university degree and
a pass in competitive examination and an interview. Competent
official from the executive class are sometimes promoted into
administrative class. Officers in this class advise the minister in
the formulation of policies and making decisions.
b) The Professional Class: This comprises officials with
professional or technical qualifications or backgrounds. They are
professionals or specialists such as doctors, lawyers, engineers,
educationist, financial experts, etc. They are employed to give
technical advice and to assist in the execution of government
policies. This class is also a prestigious class. Sometimes there
are conflicts between the general administration and the
specialist administration. They are also recruited by the civil
service commission.
c) The Executive Class: There are executive officers of various
grades. This class is mainly concerned with the execution of
government policies and decisions. It comprises executive
officers, secretaries, technologists, and other intermediate
grades. The minimum qualification for recruitment is a good
university degree or GCE Advanced level holders from lower
classes may be promoted into the class.
d) The Clerical and Manipulation Class: This is the lowest grade
in the civil service. It comprises junior officers of lowest cadre in
the civil service such as receptionists, telephonists, typists,
messengers, drivers, gardeners, security officers, etc. They
constitute the manipulative class. They are recruited by
individual ministers and not by the civil service commission. It
145
must be noted that promotion from one grade to each other in
this class is generally slow.
146
5. It also responsible for the promotion of civil servants and
determining their conditions of service.
6. The commission facilitates efficient salary scheme and provides
a rational wage system in the public service.
147
political belief. He must work for the government in power, give
advice and execute government policies whether he supports
those policies or not.
c) Anonymity: It simply means that the civil servant should be
seen and not heard. That is, a civil servant does not receive
praises or blame for any government policies, although it is the
civil servants that advice the minister on what policy to adopt.
Therefore, it is the minister who has ultimate responsibility. If
the policy turns out to be a good one, he takes the credit. And if
goes bad, he takes the blame too. A civil servant is never called
upon to defend any government policy. That is the responsibility
of the minister. However, the minister goes to the legislature to
defend the ministry‟s policies and he accepts the blame for any
lapses or shortcomings that may be detected in the policies.
10.5 Why the Power of Civil Servant has increased in Recent Years.
The power of civil servant has increased tremendously in recent years
due to the following reasons:
a) Delegated Legislation: In recent times, civil servants and
government departments have been given great powers to make
rules and order. Such powers are given to them by the
legislature.
b) Quasi-Judicial Function: Civil servants have been called upon
to serve on rent control tribunal and other administrative
tribunals. While these tribunals are not courts in the proper
sense of the words, they act as courts in the sense that they
judge cases, settle cases and prosecute offenders.
c) The Advent of Military: Under the military rule, civil servants
tend to exercise a great deal of power. They become directly
148
involved in political decision making and give advice to military
rulers. When soldiers come to power, they tend to rely on top
civil servants for advice, support and guidance. This is because
soldiers have little experience in civil administration. In the
process, civil servants become very powerful.
d) Size of Government Departments: In recent years, the size of
government departments has increased tremendously due to
increasing roles and responsibility of government. It means that
the ministers are not able to supervise the whole of their
ministries effectively and efficiently. They therefore rely on and
whatever their civil servants tell them because they consider
their advice as expert opinion.
149
interest especially when there are conflicting demands among
various groups in the political system.
5. Performance of Quasi-Judicial Functions: Civil servants
perform quasi-judicial functions which are not purely
administrative, such as rent controls, price control, welfare and
administrative tribunals.
6. Preparation of Answers to Legislative Questions: Civil
servants assist ministers in answering questions pertaining to
their ministries. They provide necessary data and information as
well as answers to questions which are likely to be put to the
minister
150
misconduct. It may issue writs of mandamus to compel the
performance of official duties and injunctions to prevent
wrongful act by the civil servants. This measure of control is
more effective on the civil service.
d) Public Control: Public criticism of the civil servants'
performance indirectly leads to greater efficiency on the part of
the civil servants. This criticism may instigate reform that will
lead to more administrative efficiency on the part of the civil
service.
151
previous years brought this into limelight. In fact, senior civil
servants embezzled and misappropriated large sums of public
money. They converted public property to private use and
directed public funds into private accounts.
5) Ineffective Organization: Critics also say that the civil service
is poorly organized. There are no effective links between
departments in the same ministry or among different ministries.
As a result of this poor organization, files and important
documents are often misplaced, functions are duplicated and
records are not properly kept.
6) Waste of Manpower: in the civil service, there are many people
doing the same job. The result is that staff are underutilized,
many civil servants have too little work to do and yet they are
paid.
7) Bureaucracy and Red-tape: In the civil service, decision making
involves long and unnecessary processes. Therefore, many
obstacles and unnecessary rules are to be observed. The result
is unnecessary delay in file processing, decision making and
policy implementation.
152
3) The civil service commission should exercise greater disciplinary
control one civil servants who are corrupt or engage in acts of
indiscipline that will be inimical to the progress of the civil
service.
4) Civil servants should be granted facilities such as housing loans,
car loans and scholarships for their children all at low interest
rates.
5) There should be a reorganization of the civil service in order to
avoid waste of manpower and duplication of duties which lead to
under-utilization of staff.
6) The salaries of the civil servant should be increased and
improved of their conditions of services and other fringed
benefits.
7) Bureaucratic practices and redtapism should be eliminated. All
these are inimical to improved performance of the civil servants.
8) Constant training and overseas courses should be encouraged in
order to facilitate professionalism.
153
Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how
well you have achieved the learning outcomes by answering the
following questions. Write your answers in your study diary and
discuss them with your study support meeting members. You can
check your answers at the end of this course material.
154
d) The manipulative class
155
7. ________________ is simply means the civil servants should be seen
and not heard and does not receive praises or blame for
execution of government policies.
a) Neutrality and impartiality
b) Anonymity
c) Permanence
d) Continuity
156
157
References and Suggestions for Further Readings
Akinbade, J.A (2008). Government Explained (Plus Questions and
Answers) (Lagos: Macak Book Ventures)
Anifowose, Remi and Enemuo Francis (eds). (1999). Elements of
Politics, Lagos: Malthouse Press Ltd.
Ball, A.R. (1975). Modern Politics & Government, London: The
Macmillan Press Limited.
Diamond, Larry; A. Kirk- Greene and Oyeleye Oyediran (eds (1997).
Transition without end: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society under
Babangida, Ibadan: Vantage Publishers.
Dudley, B.J (1973). Instability and Political Order: Politics & Crisis
in Nigeria, Ibadan: Ibadan University Press.
Olusanya, G.O (1975). The Evolution of Nigeria Civil Service 1861-
1960: The Problems of Nigerianisation, Lagos: University of Lagos.
Oyebola, A. and Ojelabo, A. (1971). A Textbook of Government for
West Africa, Ibadan: Educational Research Institute.
Oyediran Oyeleye (2007). Introduction to Political Service. Oyediran
Consult International: Ibadan.
Oyediran Oyeleye (ed), (1984). Nigeria Government and Politics
Under Military Rule, London: Macmillan Publishers.
Sanni, H.A (1999). Control of Nigeria Civil Service Size. Okene:
Desmond Tutu Publisher.
iag@dli.unilag.edu.ng
158
08033366677
phone on:
159
Study Session 11: Local Government Administration
Introduction
In this study session, attempt is made to present the basic idea about
local government administration. This study session we shall be
looking at the meaning of evolution of local government institutions,
in pre and post-colonial era, the principle underlying the creation of
local government, the legal framework of local government
administration in Nigeria as well as reasons, functions, sources of
finance and control of local government will be discussed.
160
legal perspectives. They see it as a political administrative unit that is
empowered by and to administer a specific loyalty. Akpan (2008:3)
define local government as a separate tier of government that enjoys
some reasonable measure of autonomy, with elected representatives
as officials especially in democracy. Ola (1984:8) claimed that local
government exist to bring about democracy and provide the local
people the opportunity to participate politically in activities that
revolve around them. He opined that local government is equally
established as a training ground to socialise the citizens politically. He
explained further that local government exist to provide essential
services and serve as a vehicle for rural development.
Adamolekun(1983) posited that the goal of local government is to
provide efficient service delivery vis-a-vis rural development.
Therefore, local governments are established as an avenue by which
people can participate in decision making at the grass roots level.
Aluko, (20110 described local governance as a product of
decentralized administrative. It is a government at a local level that
operates through a representative council established by law to
exercise specific powers within defined area. It is responsible for the
creation of an appropriate and conducive environment in which all
sectors of the economy can performed optimally and it is this catalytic
role of local governments that propelled governments all over the
world to search continuously for better ways to deliver their services.
From the above definitions, one can say that local government is the
third tier system of administration and government at the grass roots
level. It is a device to give local expression to purely local opinion, with
the fundamental objective of spreading development to every work and
corner of a country. In a nutshell, local government is an autonomous
161
or independent body created by law and dealing with matters of local
importance within the area defined by that law.
11.2 Evolution of Local Government Administration in Nigeria
Evolution of the modern local government system in Nigeria, shall be
discussed in six stages/phases, which are:
a) The pre-colonial period
b) Post –colonial period
c) Early military Era (1967-1976)
d) Late Military Era (1976-1979)
e) The Second Military 1979
f) The second military Era
162
administration. The policies were transmitted to the traditional rulers
who hardly understood the logic and rationale of the policies.
Nevertheless, they transmitted those policies to their people and
expected compliance. In a nutshell, lack of exposure to Western
education and modern governance hampered their administrative and
service delivery capacity in the Native Authority system. The Native
Authority system comprised of four main interdependent parts which
are: The resident who provided direction and control; The Native
Authority usually headed by a chief who enjoyed legitimacy under the
indigenous political system, and often supported by a council of
elders. The Native Treasury, and the native courts composed of
representatives of the native administration. Hence, due to the corrupt
attitude of the traditional institution, the power of these institutions
was allegated.
163
11.2.3 Early Military Era (1967-1976)
Under military administration and during the Gowon regime which
lasted from 1967 – 1975, different state operated different system of
local government. In the northern states, the emirs retained some of
their powers and influence because the councillors appointed by the
military governors were traditionally and spiritually expected to defer
to the authority of the emir.
The eastern states and the Midwest abandoned the councillor system
adopted in the 1950s for development administration, modelled after
the French system of decentralisation
164
11.2.5 The Second Republic 1979
By virtue of the provision of the 1979 constitution regarding the status
of local governments in Nigeria, based on the 1976 local government
reforms, the local governments, as the third tier of the government,
should be co-ordinate (rather than subordinate) to both the state and
federal governments in the country.
165
1. The councils should be directly funded and granted autonomy
status.
2. The abolition of the local government ministries
3. Decentralisation of the service provided by local governments.
166
However, local government institutions is set up by laws and therefore
its existence is continuous. The powers and function of local
government is clearly spelt out by the constitution which give it a
legal entity.
167
v. Political Education and Training: Local government not only
facilitates the exercise of democratic self-government but also
encourages initiative and leadership potentials. The electorates
are educated on the principles and working of democracy.
Therefore, it serves as training grounds for future national
leaders.
168
government policies and programmes or to carry out self-help
projects.
6. Administration of Justice: Local government are vested with
judicial power. Therefore, they assist in protecting the rights and
privileges of the people. For example, local councils operate
minor courts such as customary courts which help to relieve the
higher courts the large burden of outstanding litigation.
169
taken to finance ambitious projects which grants or subventions
may not be able to cover.
5. License and Permits: Local councils grant license such a dog,
radio, television, liquor and fire arms license.
6. Court Fees: Court fines also supplement the income of local
councils. The principle is that court fines and fees should be
paid to the local governments. They are supposed to be used in
maintaining the court.
170
such a local government will be declare as ultra-vires, null and
void, unconstitutional and illegal by the court.
4. Political Control: There are several method of political control,
the commissioner for local government in Nigeria is required to
approve any bye-law made by a local authority. Local
government submit their development plans and other long term
programmes for ministerial approvals. Also, the state
government man suspend or dismiss local government or it
officials or order an enquiry into their affairs.
171
charge of unscrupulous politicians. As a result, money meant for
economic development is diverted to private pockets.
4. Lack of Funds: There is lack of adequate funds for the local
councils to carry out their functions. Some of the local
governments are so poor that they cannot raise enough funds to
employ and retain the services of qualified professional or skilled
officers.
5. Gradual Erosion of Power and Autonomy: State governments
have taken many services, hence local government councils have
no major roles to play. Sometimes, the state authorities‟
milestone with the affairs of local governments by usurping their
allocations from the federation Account and making nonsense of
financial autonomy.
172
discuss them with your study support meeting members. You can
check your answers at the end of the course material.
173
a) The councils should be directly funded
b) They should be granted autonomy
c) The council should have joint account with the state government
d) Abolition of local government ministries
174
SAQ 11.8 (Tests Learning Outcome 11.6)
8. All are the sources of finance of local government except
__________
a) Oil and gas revenue
b) Special levies
c) Government grants
d) License and permits
175
References and Suggestions for Further Readings
Akamene, F.A (2001). Government and Politics of Nigeria, Lagos:
Olu-Abbey Modem Press.
Akinbade, J.A (2008), Government Explained (Plus Corrections
and Answers), Lagos: Macak Book Ventures.
Eneanya, A.N (2010). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principle,
Techniques and Applications: Concept Publication Limited
Fatile, Jacob, et al (2013), Issues in Public Administration and
Local Government: The Comparative Perspective, Lagos: Concept
Publications Limited.
Imuetinyan, F.O (2002), Issues in Nigerian Government and
Administration: Benin City: Denvic Publishing Company.
Mello, C. (2012), Local Government Cooperation for Joint
Provision: The Experiences of Brazil and Spain with Inter-
Municipal Consortia: International Centre for Public Policy
Working Paper 12-18 March.
Ojofeitimi, T. (2000), Managing at the Grassroots: Local
Government and Rural Development in the 21st Century Lagos:
Centre for Management Development.
Onyishi, A.O; Eme, O.I and Emeh, I.K.F. (2012). Problems of
Personnel Management in Nigeria: The Nigerian Local
Government System Experience. Arabian Journal of Business
and Management Review (OMAN Chapter) 1 (6): January.
176
Are you in need of General Help as regards your studies? Do
not hesitate to contact the DLI IAG Center by e-mail or
phone on:
iag@dli.unilag.edu.ng
08033366677
Introduction
This study session introduces you to another area of study in public
administration which is of public corporations. You will be exposed to
the meaning of Public corporations, characteristics of public
corporations, functions of public corporations, sources of finance for
public corporations, the organizational structure of public
corporations, problems and controls of public corporations as well as
panacea to the problems of public corporations.
177
12.8 Explain the control of public corporations
12.9 Enumerate the panacea in the problems of Public Corporation
178
12.2 Characteristics of Public Corporations
The following characteristics of public corporations can be inferred:
1. Public corporations are owned by the government which may be
federal, state or local government.
2. Public corporations are created by an Act of Parliament, decree
or edict.
3. Public corporations can be sue and be sued, hold property and
enter into contracts.
4. Public corporations enjoy a high degree of financial autonomy
5. The board is responsible for the day to day management of the
corporation
6. Employees of public corporations are not civil servants but
public servants
179
3. Provision of Employment: To provide employment for the
people. Public corporations are large enterprises employing a
large number of people.
4. Control of Economy: Government may set up public
corporation to undertake projects which involve huge capital
outlays. Private business men may not have the means or
capital to unrest in such areas.
5. Economic Development: Public corporation may be set up to
promote economic development and facilitate the country
internal and external trade. For example, Ports, Barriers,
Insurance companies are set up for this purpose.
6. Reduce Foreign Dominate: Some public enterprises are
established to reduce foreign domination and reduce capital
flight. Such as oil and gas industries.
180
5. Public corporations provide employment opportunities to the
people.
6. Through their social responsibility programmes, most public
corporations have extended development to the rural areas. For
example, are known to have built primary schools in the
communities where they carry on their business. They also offer
scholarships to the children of some deserving workers in the
corporation.
7. The public corporation helps to protect the citizens from
exploitation by private companies
181
for the public corporations in his ministry and he is accountable to
the government or legislature for their success or failure.
182
the corporation are clearly spelt out by the parliament while the
same parliament are vested with the power to abolish public
corporation if it is not serving the purpose in which it was
established. The annual accounts of the corporations are put
before the legislature for debate and discussion.
2. Ministerial or Administrative Control: With the powers to
appoint and to dismiss board members, the minister can exert
considerable control upon the activities of the corporation under
him. The government can use annual subvention as a means of
controlling public corporations. Subvention may be reduce
delayed, withheld or increased depending on whether the
performance of a corporation has been satisfactory or not. Also,
all loans applied for by public corporations and all major
schemes of expenditure require approval from the minister. The
minister can set up a commission to investigate any allegation of
improper misconduct or mismanagement, parliament can also
set up a commission of inquiry for this purpose.
3. Judicial Control: Since public corporations are established by
an Act of Parliament, therefore it is a legal entity. It can sue and
be sued for any breaches. The fear of litigation for corporation
misconduct forces the management of public corporations to act
in keeping with the policy guidelines of the statute establishing
the corporation. Therefore the courts exercise control over public
corporations in the following ways:
(a) Prohibition: The court can issue an injunction out on a
particular action of the public corporation
183
(b) Ultra vires: When a public corporation acts beyond power
being allotted to it, such act can be declared as ultra-vires, that
is null and void, unconstitutional or illegal
(c) Mandamus: The court can issue an order of mandamus on
a public corporation. Such an order will compel the corporation
to perform its duties
4. Public Opinion: The activities of public corporations are equally
subject to the influence of public opinion. Criticisms from
members of the public expressed through the mass media go a
long way in controlling the activities of public corporations
which may compel public corporations to improve on its
performances or drop a decision taken earlier.
184
3) Corruption and Embezzlement of Fund: Workers of public
corporation, both junior and seniors staff engage in corrupt and
dishonest practices. For example they engage in pilfering, that
is, stealing corporation property and sell them. While senior
officers divert corporation money into private accounts. They
inflate contracts and received kick back from contractors.
4) Poor Attitude to Work: Many staffs of the public corporations
are not committed to their work. In addition, they are lazy and
engage in truancy, absenteeism and complete an abandonment
of their duties which are major setback for the corporation.
There is usually complete disregard for customer satisfaction
and market competition.
5) Excessive Politicking: The spoils system of politics in Nigeria is
another source of debilitating problems menacing public
corporations. Board members are often appointed not on merit
but on political considerations. Political patronage has been
overriding factor. Campaign managers and other political party
loyalists are usually rewarded through such appointments. Such
appointees end up lacking the qualities and skills required of
people for such posts.
6) Poor Leadership and Managerial Skills: Leadership in public
corporations to some extent is poor. This may be a reflection of
the weak and incompetent leadership in many area of our
national lives. For instance, those who are appointed to manage
public corporations to some extent are not usually the best
materials in that sector. Owing to the nature of their
appointments, these executives pander more to the interest of
their principals than to the public interest.
185
12.9 Panacea to the Problems of Public Corporation
The following are the likely solutions to the problems of public
corporations:
1) Appointment of board members should be dashed on merit
rather than on political or other pre-mordial considerations. This
is necessary to avoid, kill and divide principle that has been the
bane of public corporations.
2) Reliable external auditors should be appointed by the
government to scrutinize their financial records so as to detect
financial misappropriation and embezzlement on time.
Therefore, proper accounting systems should be adopted based
on profit and loss.
3) Qualified personnel should be attracted to these public
corporations through better conditions of service.
4) There is need to insulate the corporations from politics.
Members of the boards of corporations should be qualified and
experienced administrators or experts.
5) Greater autonomy should be encouraged in order for the
management team to use their initiative for increase in
productivity and the efficiency of the corporations.
6) The public corporations should be adequately funded and
provided with equipment to function so that there will be
tremendous improvement in the productivity of the corporations.
186
finance of public corporations are also identified. The study session
has been able to described organizational structure of public
corporations. However, control and problems public corporation was
equally explained. Lastly, panacea to the problems of public
corporation was also enumerated.
187
SAQ 12.3 (Tests Learning Outcomes 12.1)
3. All are the examples of public corporation except _______________
a) NDIC
b) FAAN
c) MTN
d) NPA
188
SAQ 12.7 (Tests Learning Outcomes 12.6)
7. The highest decisions making organs of the public corporation is
__________
a) Parliament
b) Minister
c) President
d) Board of Trustee
189
c) Poor leadership and managerial skills
d) Greater autonomy
190
References and Suggestions for further readings
Akinbade, J.A (2008), Government Explained (Plus Questions and
Answers), Lagos: Macak Book Ventures
Akamere, F.A.C. (2001), Government and Politics of Nigeria, Lagos:
Olu-Abbey Modern Press.
Eneanya, A.N. (2009), Public Administration in Nigeria: Principles,
Techniques and Applications, Lagos; Concept Publication
Limited
Should you require more explanation on this study session, please do not hesitate to contact your e-
tutor via the LMS.
Are you in need of General Help as regards your studies? Do not hesitate to contact the
DLI IAG Center by e-mail or phone on:
iag@dli.unilag.edu.ng
08033366677
191
Study Session 13: Scientific Management Theory
Introduction
There are two major sub-groupings of classical approach, they are: the
scientific management founded by Frederick W. Taylor and
bureaucracy formulated by Max Weber. The scientific management
coined by Louis Brandeis was perceived as a way to achieve greater
efficiency in the management of public business.
192
In 1911, Frederick W. Taylor published his famous work titled the
“Principles of Scientific Management.” This book had three goals, the
goals include the followings.
i. To demonstrate the great losses by the United States of America
as a result of the daily inefficiencies practiced by its people.
ii. To suggest that the solution to this problem lay in
employing people of ability and in the practice of systematic
management.
iii. To prove that systematic management was based on
definite rules, laws and principles.
193
13.3 Explain the criticisms and relevance of scientific management
13.4 Components of Scientific Management
13.5 Aims of Scientific Management
194
(2008:95) Taylor‟s approach to the management problem is direct and
simple.
Define the problem, analyse the work situation in all its facets, apply
measuring devices to all facets capable of being measured, experiment
by holding all aspects of the job constant except one which would be
varied, development of guide or principle of management from the
observations and study, and finally, prove the validity of the principle
by subsequent application.
Taylor‟s main thesis is that prosperity to the society can come only
through the joint endeavour of the management and labour in the
application of scientific methods. He calls for mental revolution on the
part of both management and labour so that they might in the spirit of
work harmony with a view to improving their respective lots–attaining
high wages for labour and increased output at low costs for
managements. Frederick Winslow Taylor observed that management is
neglecting its functions and pushing the burden of methods and
output on labour. He suggested that management must do the work of
planning, organizing, controlling, determining methods and the like
for which it is best suited.
195
The Development of True Science: According to Taylor, the
development of true science consists of a deliberate gathering together
of mass traditional knowledge by the management, using motion
study, time study, recording it, tabulating it, reducing it, in most
cases to rules, laws, and in many cases, to mathematical formula,
which are applied to the work of the employees. The principle,
therefore, entails the establishment of a large daily task, classified
after scientific investigation as the amount to be done by a suitable,
selected and trained person under optimum conditions. The result of
the development of a time science according to Taylor is immense
increase in output by both the employer and the employee.
196
the maximum. Unless there is someone who will make the men and
the science come together, they will stay apart. He noted that the
greatest resistance to scientific management comes from the side of
management. The workers, he noted are willing to cooperate in
learning to do a good job for a higher pay.
A Uniform Division of Work and Responsibility between
Management and Workers: This is the last principle of scientific
management. Here, the management and workers should share equal
responsibility – with each sector performing the work for which it is
best suited. With this intimate cooperation, the opportunities for
discord and conflict are almost eliminated since the exercise of this
authority is not arbitrary. Thus, under scientific management, science
would replace the rule-of thumb, harmony would replace discord,
cooperation would replace individualism, maximum output would
replace restricted output, and each man would be developed to his
greatest efficiency and prosperity. In his quest for a science of
management, Taylor discovered or implemented a series of
innovations pertaining to the machinery of production, the
organizational environment, and the people who use the machines.
Some of these developments include the invention of mechanical
devices, the development of cost accounting techniques, machine
room layout and design, purchase and store methods, tool
standardization and room re-organization, and mnemonic
classification systems.
197
1. time and motion studies
(ii) wages incentive system
(iii) functional organisation.
198
vii. An allowance to the extent of 20 to 27 percent should be
added to the actual working time to allow for unavoidable
delays.
viii. Allowances should be made for the time it takes a new
employee to learn the job.
ix. Allowance should be made for rest required for a worker to
recover from body fatigue.
199
Under this, the worker is assigned a defined task with detailed
instructions and a specified time allowed for performing the task.
When this has been accomplished, the worker is to be paid
extraordinary wages for performing the task within the allotted time
and ordinary wages if the time allotment is exceeded.
Taylor was against the method of award for day work, piecework, and
task work with a bonus or differential piecework. He also objected to
gain-sharing plans, such as those suggested by Towne and Halsey. In
Taylor‟s views, factors such as special incentives, higher wages,
shorter working hours, better working conditions, and individual
reward far overshadow the importance of the specific method of
payment.
Fredrick Winslow Taylor based incentives on prior standards of work
performance with each worker rewarded on an individual basis and
performance linked reward. Thus, under Taylor‟s incentive system,
like other pay plans, success is rewarded by higher wages and failure
is penalised by financial loss.
200
a continuous earning opportunity while on the payroll by
planned and balanced operations.
iii. Earn through a waste-saving management and processing
technique, a larger income from a given expenditure of human
and material energies, which shall be shared through increased
wages and profits by workers and management.
iv. Make possible a higher standard of living because of
increased income to workers.
v. Assure a happier home and social life to workers through
removal, by increase of income, of many of the disagreeable and
worrying factors in the total situation
vi. Assure healthful as well as individually and socially
agreeable conditions of work
vii. Assure the highest opportunity for individual capacity
through scientific ways of work analysis and of selection,
training, assignment, transfer and promotion of workers.
viii. Assure by training and instructional foremanship the
opportunity for workers to develop new and higher capacities,
and eligibility for promotion to higher positions.
ix. Develop self-confidence and self-respect among workers
through opportunity afforded for understanding of one‟s own
work specifically, and of plans and methods of work generally.
x. Develop self-expression and self-realization among workers
through the simulative influence of an atmosphere of research
and valuation, through understanding of plans and methods,
and through the freedom of horizontal as well as vertical
contacts afforded by functional organization.
xi. Build character through the proper conduct of work
201
xii. Promote justice through the elimination of discrimination
in wage rate and elsewhere.
xiii. Eliminate factors of the environment, which are irritating,
and the causes of frictions, and to promote common
understandings, tolerances and the spirit of teamwork.
202
vi. The scientific management has greatly influenced both
theory and practice of public administration.
Drucker argued that the central theme of Taylor‟s work was not
inefficiency but the need to substitute industrial warfare by industrial
203
harmony. Taylor sought to do this through higher wages from
increased output; and removal of physical strain from doing work the
wrong way; development of the workers and the opportunity for them
to undertake tasks they were capable of doing; and elimination of the
boss by the duty of management to help the workers.
204
Scientific Management has been criticized on the following grounds.
i. It lays much emphasis on economy, efficiency and material
welfare to the neglect of the emotional and psychological needs
of the workers.
ii. Scientific management dehumanizes employees. It
considered the organization as a machine and the human beings
working in the organization as parts of the machine. Workers
were meant to do the work at a standardized rate. If they
produced below the standardized rate, they were thrown out.
iii. It encourages authoritarian leadership. This is because the
traditional approach to public administration and management
on which scientific management is based does not tolerate
composite decision – making.
iv. Scientific management recommends specialization, which
it assumes as the best way of getting things done. Yet,
specialization may be boring because of its repetitiveness and
monotony.
v. There is no one best way to carry out functions related to
values. For instance, what is the one best way to eliminate
corruption in Nigeria? Or what is the one best way to be
president of Nigeria?
vi. Scientific management wrongly assumes that individuals
first look for their own best interests before those of the group.
The Hawthorne experiment shows that workers realize that they
are disadvantaged and helpless unless they exist as a group.
vii. The scientific management techniques have been severely
criticized by the Marxists as mere efficient tools to exploit
labour.
205
Summary of Study Session 13
The above discussion showed that, the views and concepts generated by
scientific management, though new and radical at that time, are
widely applied in today; they are accepted as standards for managerial
practice. This acceptance is itself indicative of the total effect of
scientific management.
In the next unit, you will be taken through the discussion on the
classical theory.
206
Now that you have come to the end of this study session, do you know
how well you have fared? Would you like to test your understanding of
the session? Then, see if you could answer the following assessment
questions. Do not forget to write down in your notebook any topic you
do not understand or that needs further clarification. Discuss this
with your lecturer in the next tutorial you will have.
207
c) spiritual
d) calculating
208
8.7 The school of scientific management thought is strongly
influenced by the _________________systems of theoretical
thinking.
a) notional
b) national
c) rational
d) motional
209
b) task force
c) skill
d) organisation
210
SAQ 13.9.5(Tests Learning Outcome 13.5)
8.9.5 All but one are the intents of time-and-motion study
a) to establish standards for the performance of a task
b) make possible a higher standard of living because of increased
income to workers.
c) promote justice through the elimination of discrimination in
wage rate and elsewhere
d) plot the overthrow of management by the labour
211
b) deficiency
c) exigencies
d) expediency
212
c) the management
d) the people
213
References and Suggestions for further readings
Basu, R. (2004). Public Administration: Concepts and Theories (4th
Ed.). New Delhi: Sterling Publishers.
Eneanya, A. N. (2010) Public Administration in Nigeria; Principle,
Techniques and Application. Lagos, Concept Publication.
Ezeani, E.O (2006), Fundamental of Public Administration. Enugu:
Ziks-Chuks Publishers.
Madaubm, C. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in
Nigeria. Lagos. Concept Publications Ltd.
Maduabum, C. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in
Nigeria. Lagos. ASCON Printing Press, Topo-Badagry
NOUN (2012) MPA 740- THEORIES AND PRACTICE OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION, Noun, Lagos.
NOUN (2012) PSM 803- ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION,
Noun, Lagos.
Ekwealor, E.F. (2007). Fundamentals of Public Administration.
Onitsha: Abbot.
Ezeani, E.O. (2006). Fundamentals of Public Administration.
Enugu: Snaap Press.
Sapru, R.K. (2008). Administrative Theories and Management
Thought (2nd Ed.). New Delhi: Prentice-Hall.
214
Are you in need of General Help as regards your studies? Do
not hesitate to contact the DLI IAG Center by e-mail or
phone on:
iag@dli.unilag.edu.ng
08033366677
215
Study Session 14: Classical Theory of Organizations
Introduction
Herbert Simon propounded the classical theory of organization. Other
contributors of early 20th century are administrative practitioners and
theorists such as Henri Fayol, Luther Gulick, Lyndall Urwick, J.D.
Mooney and A.C. Reiley. They were the French and American
specialists in different fields who searched for ideal administrative
structure. These early writers are known to belong to the classical
school of thought in organization theory.
216
14.5 Criticisms of Classical Theory
217
v. Classical theory advocated the use of authority as a system
of controlling personnel.
vi. The aim of this theory is the maximum organizational
economy, efficiency and productivity.
vii. The theorists had a dogmatic faith in their findings and
found them as the only one best way.
218
machine. The organization chart is regarded as the basic tool for
monitoring and controlling the entire administrative process.
ii. Classical writers hold the generic view of administration,
Henri Fayol and Lyndall Urwick, for instance, are of the opinion
that the distinction between public and private administration
does not exist. Henri Fayol opined, “We are no longer confronted
with several administrative sciences, but with one which can be
applied equally well to public and private affairs. In other words,
in the opinion of classical writers, administration is
administration wherever it is found and whatever kind of work it
undertakes. Therefore, public and private organizations share
common administrative principles and processes and the
distinction between them tend to minimize.
iii. The classical writers believe that administration is
governed by certain principles, which are said to be of universal
applicability of all forms of organization in all types of
environments. Because of this belief, all the classical
administrative theorists engaged themselves in evolving
principles of management. Gulick advocated a set of 10
principles of organization while Urwick propounded eight
principles of organization. Later he (Urwick) developed 29
principles by integrating the various principles developed by
other classical writers.
The classical writers believed that these common operating
principles of administration could guide administrators in
creating effective organization and improving administrative
practice. An organization built on these principles could achieve
efficiency and economy. It is also their belief that these
219
principles could be built into a framework from which a general
theory of administration would emerge.
iv. The classical theory views public administration as a non-
political, technical, organization designed to implement public
policies with efficiency and economy. To the classical writers
such as Gulick, efficiency is not only the axiom number one in
the value scale of administration, but also the ultimate good of
all administrative activity. The objective of administration is to
achieve the maximum results with the least expenditure of
people and materials.
v. The classical writers upheld the distinction between the
line and staff activities. Line activities are concerned with the
fulfilments of the primary purpose of the organisation, while the
staff activities are concerned with the provision of specialized
advice and assistance to the line agencies. Thus, in the classical
organization theory, staff members are typically differentiated
from line members by their advisory capacity to line personnel.
The line people have considered the decision makers or order
givers. For classical theorists, this distinction between line and
staff people is fundamental.
vi. According to classical thinkers, people are motivated to
work by cash rewards such as increase in pay, and fringe
benefits and the threat of punishment. They believed that more
of such monetary rewards could keep people happy. The
classical theory manifests four features.
1. Impersonality
2. Division of work
3. Hierarchy, and
220
4. Efficiency
221
He did not consider these principles as immutable or one best way,
but maintained that the principle is the lighthouse fixing the bearings,
which can only serve those who already know the way to the port.
Fayol divided the industrial activities into six groups. These are as
follows.
i. The technical activities, which include production, manufacture
and adaptation.
ii. The commercial activities, which include buying, selling
and exchange.
iii. The financial activities that is, search for and optimum use
of capital.
iv. The security activities, which include protection of property
and persons.
v. The accounting activities, which include stocktaking,
balance sheet, costs, statistics etc.
vi. The managerial activities, which include planning,
organization, command coordination, control, etc.
222
iii. Commanding: This involves instilling sense of discipline in
the subordinates through knowledge of the task and constant
contact.
iv. Coordinating: This involves building, harmonizing and
uniting all efforts and activities.
223
1. Planning: it is the act of forecasting future and drawing up
the plan of action.
2. Organizing: it refers to structuring the human resources
of the undertaking into jobs, departments and so on to enable
them to put the plans into action. It also involves the use of
material resources.
3. Commanding: it consists of setting the human resources
into activity toward the organization‟s objective. This is what we
today call leading.
4. Coordinating: it involves unifying and harmonizing all
activities and efforts. It permeates the other four basic functions.
5. Controlling: it means, ensuring that everything occurs in
conformity with established rule and expressed command. It
serves to make certain that all operations are proceeding
according to plan to accomplish the goals.
224
performed would empower the manager to organize and run any
undertaking. To Fayol, good administration is a process, which is
distinct from the particular management task at hand. To put it
differently, Fayol treated administration as a universal process, which
is equally applicable to both public and private organizations. In
Fayol‟s theory, the organization chart graphically depicts the essence
of the organization. According to him, such charts of managerial staff
show each man‟s immediate superior and subordinates and are a kind
of framework of the organization at a given moment.
Fayol’s Fourteen Principles
i. Division of Work: It refers to specialization of work or
labour in both managerial and non-managerial jobs. Division of
labour allows individuals to build up skills and increases
organization productivity.
ii. Authority and Responsibility: These refer to the right of a
manager to give commands and require conformity to those
commands. Responsibility must go with authority and must
match authority.
iii. Discipline: It implies that employees obey orders of
management, if it provides good leadership.
iv. Unity of command: This specifies that each employee
should receive orders from only one superior. It eliminates
conflicting lines of command.
v. Unity of direction: this denotes that people engaged in a
group of activities must have the same objectives in a plan.
vi. Subordination of individual interest to general interest:
This implies that the interest of one employee or a group of
225
employees must be subordinated to the overall interest of the
organization.
vii. Fair remuneration for effort: this principle states that
since payment is an important motivator, it should be a matter
for manager‟s constant attention.
viii. Centralisation or decentralisation: this principle states
that centralization or decentralization of an organization should
depend on the condition of the business and the quality or
culture of its staff.
ix. Scalar chain: this refers to the line of authority, from
superior to subordinate, running from the top to the bottom of
an organization. This principle is necessary for unity of
direction.
x. Order: This principle state that both material order and
social order are necessary for the proper and efficient working of
the organization.
xi. Equity: it states that all employees should be treated with
fairness, kindness and justice.
xii. Stability of tenure: stability of tenure among personnel is
necessary for the successful running of the undertaking.
xiii. Initiative: all personnel in an organization must be
allowed to show their initiative in some way. This represents a
great source of strength for business, although it requires the
manager to sacrifice some personal vanity.
xiv. Esprit de corps: This is essential for management to foster
the morale of its employees.
226
He did not believe that the principles of organization and administration
were immutable laws. They may, at best, serve as guidelines for
managers in performing their duties. These principles have to be
flexible and adaptable to varying situations because management
deals with people in a wide variety of circumstances. The process of
applying them would be more of an art than a science. Fayol raised
general management to the level of science. Unlike Taylor, he was not
focused on the shop floor but found mismanagement or lack of clear
principles of management as the reason for low efficiency and
productivity. He defined management in terms of the functions of
planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling.
There are two noticeable points in Fayol‟s, which is different from the
“one best way” theorists.
First, he never insisted that this list of principles is the final one. He
believed that principles can be added and subtracted according to the
requirement of the organization. Fayol observed that every
administrative rule or advice strengthens the human part of an
organization or facilitates its working and has its place among the
principles for so long as experience proves it to be worthy of this
important position.
Secondly, unlike his contemporaries, Fayol is not rigid about the use of
the term “principles”. He opined that, “for preference I shall adopt the
term principles while disassociating it from any suggestion of rigidity,
for there is nothing rigid or absolute in management affairs, it is all
the question of proportion.” Seldom do we have to apply the same
principle twice in identical conditions; allowance must be made for
different changing conditions to allow for flexibility in propounding
227
principles, which have made functional management a universally
applicable theory.
228
command implies that each person in an organization should receive
orders from one boss to avoid confusion. However, this principle is
incompatible with the principles of specialization. The principles of
specialization lead to a situation in which their formal superiors also
receive directives from the specialists in the headquarters. The result
is dual chain of command, which violates the principle of unity of
command. In a similar fashion, Taylor‟s „function of foremanship‟ also
violates unity of command principle. These contradictions reveal the
unreality of the principle of unity of command.
For all the reasons stated above, the administrative principles promoted
by the classical theorist cannot claim the status of empirically tested
229
scientific principles. They have little scientific validity. They can, at
best, be regarded as administrative homilies comparable to folklore or
folk wisdom. Considerable doubt also exists as to their relationship to
actual behaviour in real administrative situations. For this reason, it
is said that the so called principles of administration are of no use as
practical guides to the administrator. Therefore, Simon has
characterized the classical administrative theory as narrow and one
that lacks realism. Furthermore, there is no unanimity among the
classical theorist‟s as regards the principles of administration. Thus,
the contention of classical administrative theorists that public
administration had already developed as a science with universally
valid and generally applicable principles was largely discredited by
Simon‟s attack against the classical approach.
230
The classical theory treats an organization as a closed system,
completely unconnected with and not influenced by its external
environment. In fact, organizations actually engaged in constant
contact with their environment. An organization and its environment
influence each other. The environment of public or government
agencies is complex and the connection between them and the outside
world are highly significant. Government agencies, for example, have
to deal with legislative committees, interest groups, the press, the
court system, individual citizens and others. The influence of this
complex external environment on the decision making process of
public agencies is highly significant. Therefore, it is said that
organizations are considered cybernetic in their behaviour with regard
to the external environment
Other Criticisms
The classical theory is accused of a pro management bias, because it
attached much importance to the efficiency and greater productivity of
the organization.
231
It is also said that in today‟s large, complex organizations, the
distinction between line and staff have lost much of their clarity and
significance because superior–subordinate relationships are becoming
less authoritarian and more advisory.
The classical approach has some value even today. Owing to its
influence, such management techniques as reporting, accounting and
budgeting have come to be used in public administration. Gulick‟s
POSDCORB formula serves even today as a handy checklist of the
functions of managers both in public and private sectors.
232
The idea that administration was a separate activity and was worthy of
intellectual investigation was first propounded by the classical writers.
The classical approach formulated a set of concepts of administration
that evolved a terminology, which has provided a base for subsequent
research in the field of administration. The limitations of the classical
theory stimulated further research in organisational behaviour, thus,
becoming an important milestone in the development of organization
theories such as human relations, behavioural and social
psychological theories. In fact, the classical theory is regarded as the
foundation of the 20th century administrative thought.
The unit has thrown light on the classical theory of organization. The
basic themes of classical theories are considered along with the main
features of the classical theory. The contributions of Henri Fayol, his
definitions of management and its elements, Fayol‟s 14principles of
233
management, the significance, and the criticisms of classical theory
were also highlighted and discussed. In the next unit, you will be
taken through the human relations theory or school.
234
a) economy
b) harmony
c) commerce
d) honesty
235
7. The aim of the classical theory is the maximum organizational
economy, efficiency and_______________
a) productivity
b) profitability
c) suitability
d) accountability
236
c) after the Second World War
d) before the First World War
237
SAQ 14.14 (Tests Learning Outcome 9.3)
14. To the classical writers such as Gulick, efficiency is not
only the axiom number one in the value scale of administration,
but also the _____________ of all administrative activity.
a) ultimate goal
b) ultimate end
c) ultimate necessity
d) ultimate sight
238
b) one and the same thing
c) two separate entities
d) incompatible.
239
a) closed system
b) open system
c) class system
d) thorough system
240
d) the Caribbean
241
References and Suggestions for further readings
Basu, R. (2004). Public Administration: Concepts and Theories (4th
ed.). New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited.
Eneanya, A. N. (2010) Public Administration in Nigeria; Principle,
Techniques and Application. Lagos, Concept Publication.
Ezeani, E.O (2006), Fundamental of Public Administration. Enugu:
Ziks-Chuks Publishers.
Hughes, O. E. (1998), Public Administration and Administration: An
Introduction. London: Macmillan Press Ltd.
Goodnow, F. J. (1914), Politics and Administration, New York,
Macmillan. Gross, B. A. (1964),The Managing of Organizations,
Glencoe.
Madaubm, C. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in
Nigeria. Lagos. Concept Publications Ltd.
Maduabum, C. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in
Nigeria. Lagos. ASCON Printing Press, Topo-Badagry
NOUN (2012) MPA 740- THEORIES AND PRACTICE OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION, Noun, Lagos.
NOUN (2012) PSM 803- ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION,
Noun, Lagos.
Polinaidu, S. (2004). Public Administration. New Delhi: Galgotia
Publications PVT.
Singh, A. (2005). Public Administration: Roots and Wings. New Delhi:
Ashok Galgotiafor Galgotia Publishing Company.
242
Should you require more explanation on this study session, please do
not hesitate to contact your e-tutor via the LMS.
iag@dli.unilag.edu.ng
08033366677
Introduction
The human relations approach is an attempt to improve some of the
defects inherent in the classical management approach. This
approach emerged from the result of the Hawthorne studies, which
was conducted by Elton Mayo and his fellow researchers from Harvard
University. The proponents of this school argue that since
management involves getting things done with and through people,
the study of management should be centred on interpersonal
relations. The scholars of this school have a heavy orientation to social
psychology. They believed that if the management of an organization
showed concern for employees, increased productivity would result.
243
individual. In this school, there are scholars who lay emphasis on
human relations and why the manager should develop the skill to
understand and practice. The human relations school argued that
organizations could be improved by making it less formal and by
permitting more subordinate participation in decision-making. Elton
Mayo is regarded as the founder of the human relations movement.
Some of the major contributors to this group include Robert K.
Merton, Argyris, Likert, Alex Balevas, McGregor, and Keith Davis etc.
In this unit, you shall be made aware of the relevance of human
relations theory.
245
experiments which became the basis of all humanistic studies across
the world. The relevant experiments for the students of public
administration are as follows.
246
In 1927, the Harvard Industrial Research team directed by Elton Mayo
took over the Hawthorne experiments, which had produced
unexpected results in employee performance. Mayo and his colleagues
undertook the Relay Assembly Test Room Experiment at the plant. Its
objective was to determine the effect of changing work conditions on
the efficiency and output of the workers as a group. The researchers
also wanted to examine the role of fatigue and monotony on group
productivity. In this experiment, the researchers segregated a group
of` six women who were assembling telephone relays and placed them
in a test room. For two years the researchers studied the response of
the women to various changes in their working conditions. As many
as 10changes such as shorter hours, varied rest pauses, refreshments
and a number of incentives where the team spent a great deal of time
with the work group discussing the changes before they were put into
effect. Output increased each time a change was made. Yet, when the
women reverted to their original working conditions with a 48-hour
week, no refreshments, no rest pauses, and no other incentives,
output rose again– indeed to the highest ever recorded at Hawthorne.
247
production, irrespective of what particular form that attention took. In
other words, people responded more favourably to attention than they
did to physical factors or to other material inducements.
248
more output. However, most illogically, the men did not produce as
many pieces of work as they could, even though they were being paid
in accordance with their output. They had developed a work culture of
their own. They had become a cohesive and compact group with their
own codes, rules and norms. Among these rules were prohibitions
against doing too much or too little work. They informally established
a standard level for daily output and decided not to exceed that fair
range of production. Contrary to the researchers and management‟s
expectations of a great jump in productivity, the output of the men
remained the same as before.
In this experiment, the male workers‟ reaction to the wage incentive plan
of the management was not at all like that of rational economic men.
Instead, they rationalized that plan as an attempt by the management
to eventually cut some jobs or to reduce wage rates. Though the
company assured the workers that such things would not happen,
employees remained unconvinced. Taylor‟s scientific management
could not explain the irrational behaviour of the employees. In this
experiment, the employees work behaviour was very much influenced
by group norms, group pressure and acceptance, and the concomitant
security. One conclusion from his experiment is that people do not
work simply to make money. It also made it clear that economic
incentives and material rewards would never be as powerful as social
norms and social controls in increasing productivity.
249
i. The output or the amount of work of a worker is not determined
by his physical capacity but by his social capacity.
ii. Non-economic rewards and sanctions significantly affect
the worker‟s behaviour.
iii. A worker often does not act or react to management as an
individual but as a member of groups.
iv. Communication, participation, and leadership play a
central role in worker‟s behaviour
250
situations with them, the interview also programme revealed that the
workers derive meaning and motivation from the social situations in
work groups. They can have marked effects on the attitudes and
behaviours of organization members. These interviews brought to light
the existence and functioning of the informal organization with the
formal organization. Mayo‟s generalization is that work satisfaction
depends to a large extent on the informal social pattern of the work.
251
has always depended upon the evolution of a non-logical social
code, which regulates between persons and their attitudes to
one another. The small informal groups are found to be
exceedingly significant in the functioning of organizations. They
affect organization members‟ perceptions and serves as medium
of communications.
Small informal group propagate norms – expected behaviours –
about such matters as how groups deal with one another and
with superiors, which types of formally prescribed actions will be
resisted by employees, and how much will actually be
performed.
iii. Social rewards and sanctions are the strongest motivators
on the job. The workers in the Hawthorne plant responded to the
respect, recognition, affection, sense of belonging and security
and the appeals to group loyalty provided by their fellow
workers. These social and psychological factors were found to be
more powerful as motivators than the management system of
economic incentive and material rewards. Thus, non–economic
factors played an important role in determining workers‟ morale
and motivation. They are more important than the physical
conditions under which the workers operate. The behaviours of
workers cannot be separated from their feelings and sentiments.
The general hypothesis, which main emphasis is on human
relations theory, is that, motivation to work, productivity, and
quality of work are all related to the nature of the social relations
among the workers and between the workers and their boss.
iv. Mayo and his colleagues found that formal structure by no
means described the totality of an actual, functioning
252
organization. The formal organization is always supplemented by
an informal organization, a pattern of social relations that crops
up outside of – and sometimes in conflict with- those prescribed
by organization charts or management. In fact, Mayo‟s most
important discovery was the existence of informal organization
within each formal organization. Mayo explained that
management could only succeed in leading an organization‟s
employees if the workers, in their informal groups, accepted that
leadership without reservation. Organizations are therefore,
social as well as technical entities.
v. The human relations theory emphasized the participative
style of management or supervision and democratic system of
administration. The Hawthorne experiments made it clear that
effectiveness and productivity of the workers will increase if
there is effective communication between the management and
the workers, and if the management is willing to allow the
workers participate in decision making. This type of
management requires every change in the work schedule and
should be preceded by manager‟s close consultation with the
informal work groups and their informal leaders.
The experiments also revealed that workers will do better if allowed to
manage their own affairs without being told what to do. While the
participative type of supervision wins the worker‟s acceptance of
organizational objectives, the democratic system of administration
would alienate the workers. The participative type of supervision
coupled with democratic system of administration would lead to the
highest level of workers‟ effectiveness and the resultant productivity.
253
The human relations approach is built on socio-psychological findings,
theories and applications, which call attention to the fact that work
environment, cannot function in terms of technical efficiency, profit
and wages. Workers are very much influenced by friendships with
colleagues, group pressures and standards, and the social
environment. Thus, the essence of human relations approach was a
focus on the organization as a social system.
From the preceding discussion, one should not conclude that Mayo was
against Taylor‟s scientific management theory. Mayo was really not
254
against Taylorism. What he did was that he debunked Taylor‟s rigid
application of scientific management.
Taylor felt that high wages would generally suffice to elicit employee‟s
cooperation and compliance. Mayo on the contrary, suggests such
devices as participative style of supervision from the behavioural side
of administration. He always insisted that the understanding of
human factors such as workers morale was important to his system.
In these aspects, Taylor‟s philosophy is related to that of Mayo‟s
human relations. Both were motivated to improve the productivity of
the American industry in the early twentieth century.
255
dysfunctions caused by overspecialization, alienating hierarchical
arrangements and general dehumanization of the classical approach.
Thus, the classical and human relations theories are alike in their
objectives but they differ in the methods and techniques adopted to
accomplish those objectives. The human relations theory also differs
from the classical theory in the following respects.
i. The classical theory emphasizes the formal organization
structure consisting of jobs and job descriptions as spelled out
in organization charts and manuals. In contrast, the human
relations theory is concerned with the informal organization,
that is, the life or individual workers and workgroup within the
organization.
ii. The, classical theory takes the atomistic view of man and
views workers as various cogs in a machine. On the contrary,
the human relations theory considers workers essentially as
social beings who have the tendency to form the informal groups
in the work situation.
iii. In determining workers‟ motivation, economic rewards and
physical conditions of work are regarded by the classical
theorists as important factors. Contrastingly, the social–
psychological, factors and sanctions are considered by the
human relationists as important motivators to work.
iv. The classical theory emphasizes the authoritarian style of
supervision, while the human relations theory lays emphasis on
democratic and participative style of supervision. The preceding
discussion clearly shows that the classical and human relations
approaches have taken two different views of organizations. If
256
the classical theory viewed organizations as formal structures,
the human relations approach emphasized informal relations
within organizations. Neither of the two approaches is wholly
right, although each is partially right. In reality, an organization
is both a formal structure and informal relations. These aspects
of an organization are not contradictory but allied to each other.
It is good to recognize that informal organizations exist in all
formal organizations and are not necessarily harmful, but may
facilitate teamwork and collaboration. Therefore, it would be in
the interest of management to develop harmony between the
informal social systems and the formal organization by dealing
effectively with the dynamics of informal groups and sentiments
of the workers.
257
is a natural community between workers and management has
yet to be proved. In fact, the conflicts between the employers and
employees are real, based on real class differences. One of the
frequent attacks leveled against Mayo‟s philosophy is that he
failed to appreciate the value of competition and conflict in
assuring the freedom of workers. It is said of Mayo that he had a
tendency to draw conclusions than the data supported. In
addition, it is said that Mayo had failed to demonstrate any
commonality of interest between workers and management.
iii. Like the scientific management, the human relations
theory is also one sided. If Taylor and his colleagues focused on
organizations without people, Mayo and his team of researchers
concentrated on people without organizations. The human
relations theorists looked at organization members, their
motivation, satisfaction, and so on but neglected (or rather
ignored) the roles of formal structure, technology, and conflict in
influencing the behaviour of workers. Thus, Mayo‟s theory lacks
capacity to explain the multifaceted organizational behaviour
and relationships.
iv. The human relationists have overdrawn the sweeping
contrast between the formal and informal organizations and
failed to synthesize these two aspects of organization in a
harmonious way. This is an important defect of Mayo‟s theory of
human relations.
v. The Hawthorne experiments of 1927 to 1932, conducted by
Mayo and his colleagues, covered the behaviour of small groups
only and did not deal with the entire organisation. The
observations made by them about the behaviour of the small
258
experimental groups in the Hawthorne plant may not be valid
when applied to the entire organization, and its behaviour may
be at variance with the behaviours of the small informal groups
within it. They lacked a theory that could explain the set of
observations they had made about workers‟ motivation.
vi. The Mayo‟s group thought that the benevolence of
executives towards employees coupled with improved
communications with the work groups would raise productivity
and make the workers happy. The critics found this emphasis
superficial and irrelevant to the needs of the workers. The
researchers also thought that labour unions were driving
management and workers apart, increasing conflicts, and
preventing effective communication. However, the critics pointed
out that union, in fact, protected the employees against
executive power.
259
According to Carol Kennedy, Mayo‟s contribution to management
thinking was seminal.
It revealed the importance, in hard bottom–line terms, of human
emotions, reactions, and respect for the business of managing
others. The Hawthorne studies constituted the first systematic
research to expose the human factor in work situations and
their impact led to a fuller realization and understanding of
human beings as workers in organizations.
ii. Central to the understanding of the human factor was the
discovery of the informal group as an outlet for the aspirations of
the worker. The informal groups could be encouraged to greater
productivity by being led to do it themselves through interest
and respect on the part of their managers. These groups are
found to be exceedingly significant in the functioning of
organizations. In the words of F.A. Nigro and L.G. Nigro, the
Hawthorne studies… established the informal group as a major
explanation of behaviour in organization and extended the
conceptual horizons of organization theory to include a huge
range of social psychological variables. The human relations
raised the status of informal work group equal to that of formal
organization as an administrative and managerial concern.
Obviously, human relations promoted a particular vision of
human nature in organizational settings; it urged cooperation
over competition and interdependence over individualism. In
fact, the Hawthorne studies allowed Mayo and the others to test
social theories that stressed values as the bases of human social
action.
260
iii. Mayo‟s Hawthorne studies pioneered the whole concept of
proper management–worker communication. He emphasized the
importance of an adequate communicating system, particular
upwards from workers to management. It is a new idea because
of the respect for the individual it required between bosses and
workers. Mayo explained that management could only succeed
in leading an organization‟s employees if the workers in their
informal groups, accepted it as authority and leader without
reservation.
261
iv. Lastly, the human relations approach to organisation
theory has made some valuable contributions to administrative
thought as well. It literally created the humanist school of
administrative thought, finally convincing the field that social
leadership skills for managers were at least as important as
technical knowledge. The new administrator needed to strive
toward social consolidation with workers.
According to Nesta Gallas and Laurence J.O. Toore, Jr., in their human
relations approach, attention to the social psychology of bureaucratic
life, its discovery of the informal organisation, its development of a
more complex and realistic model for human nature and its innovative
approach to organizational design, this school of theorists improved
markedly on the ideas of its predecessor.
Although, the human relations heyday (1930s to 1950s) was over, the
research and theory building continue today on many of the issues
first raised in the Hawthorne studies in the late twenties and the early
thirties. The human relations approach has great impact initially on
business administration, and later on public administration. Indeed, it
is regarded as a major development in the American administrative
through the period 1900–1939. This approach marked a major
turning point in the history of administrative theory and practice.
262
structure and principles of organization. However, it must be stated
that these two approaches are not mutually exclusive but rather
supplement each other.
263
do not understand or that needs further clarification. Discuss this
with your lecturer in the next tutorial you will have.
264
SAQ15.4 (Tests Learning Outcome 15.1)
4. The formulation of the human relations theory began with the
efforts of Elton Mayo in __________________
a) 1927
b) 1827
c) 2007
d) 1727
265
7. The great illumination experiment gave rise to what is called the
___________, the theory that workers perform more efficiently
because special attention is being devoted to them.
a) Canadian effect
b) American effect
c) Hawthorne effect
d) production effect
266
10. In the relay assembly test room experiment people
responded more favourably to ________________ than they did to
physical factors or to other material inducements.
a) money
b) punishment
c) attention
d) instructions
267
13. In the bank writing observation room experiment, the
male workers‟ reaction to the wage incentive plan of the
management was not at all like that of ______________
a) rational economic men
b) national economic men
c) notional economic men
d) independent economic men
268
16. One of the major findings of the Hawthorne studies is that
a worker often does not act or react to management as an
individual but as __________________
a) a staff
b) a person
c) a wage earner
d) a member of groups
269
a) a management
b) b profit
c) c machines
d) d workers
270
b) the benevolence of the management
c) the timing of work
d) the generosity of the workers
271
26. The human relations theory is concerned with the______________
a) formal organization
b) informal organization
c) former organization
d) informer organization
272
b) theory
c) concept
d) proof
273
SAQ15.33 (Tests Learning Outcome 15.7)
33. The humanistic theory has given importance to the
development of human ___________ in the organization
a) personalities
b) dignity
c) reasoning
d) relationships
274
References and Suggestions for further readings
Basu, R. (2004). Public Administration: Concepts and Theories (4th ed.).
New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited.
Eneanya, A. N. (2010) Public Administration in Nigeria; Principle,
Techniques and Application. Lagos, Concept Publication.
Ezeani, E.O (2006), Fundamental of Public Administration. Enugu: Ziks-
Chuks Publishers.
Hughes, O. E. (1998), Public Administration and Administration: An
Introduction. London: Macmillan Press Ltd.
Goodnow, F. J. (1914), Politics and Administration, New York, Macmillan.
Gross, B. A. (1964), The Managing of Organizations, Glencoe.
Madaubm, C. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in Nigeria.
Lagos. Concept Publications Ltd.
Maduabum, C. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in Nigeria.
Lagos. ASCON Printing Press, Topo-Badagry
Ekwealor, E.F. (2007). Fundamental of Public Administration. Onitsha:
Abbot Books Limited.
Ezeani, E.O. (2006). Fundamentals of Public Administration (Revised
Edition). Enugu. Snaap Press Limited.
NOUN (2012) MPA 740- THEORIES AND PRACTICE OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION, Noun, Lagos.
NOUN (2012) PSM 803- ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, Noun,
Lagos.
Polinaidu, S. (2004). Public Administration. New Delhi: Galgotia
Publications PVT.
Sapru, R.K. (2008). Administrative Theories and Management (2nd ed.).
New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited.
Singh, A. (2005). Public Administration: Roots and Wings. New Delhi:
Galgotia
Publishing Company.
275
Answers to Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 1
(1) Public administration has been vigorously defined by numerous
thinkers, the following definitions of the discipline by some of its
leading authorities may be put in perspective.
276
which the purposes and goals of government are realized (Coronand
Harri, 1969).
277
regulatory, revenue extraction and spending/procurement functions
as well as the provision of such service as defence, social services and
economic infrastructure.
278
Gulick and Urwick (1939) conceptualised administration as getting
things done with the accomplishment of the defined objectives.
According to them, the severe of administration is the system of
knowledge whereby one may and extend relationships, predict results
and influence outcomes in any situation where people are organised
and work together for a common purpose. In the opinion of Hughes
(1998), administration includes activities connected with keeping
records and processing information paper work and activities
concerned with applying rule, procedure and policies determined by
others. Heady (1979) argued that the essence of administration is a
determined action in pursuit of conscious purpose.
279
efficient allocation of resources. In addition to all these calculated
decisions, a typical administrative action takes into consideration the
goal of the organisation as well as the environment within which the
actions place.
280
subject of management. Management is an individual or a group of
individuals that accept responsibilities to run an organisation. They
plan, organise, direct and control all the essential activities of the
organisation. Management does not do the work themselves. They
motor the other to do the work and co-ordinate (i.e. bring together) all
the work for achieving the objectives of the organisations.
281
and activities of the government. Public administration is the
machinery, as well as the integral processes, through which the
government performs its function. It is a network of human
relationship and associated activities extending from the government
to the lowest paid and powerless individual charged with keeping in
daily touch with all resources natural and human and all other aspect
of life of the society with which the government is concerned. (Nwoli,
2001), Adebayo (1986), public administration mean the art of
planning, assessment, appraising performance by the government
executives and supervisors. Public administration is commonly used
to refer to both the activities concerned with the management of
government business and the study of these activities. However, it is
used in district senses, a science or an art since it is concerned with
the practical management of human resources and as a science as it
is concerns with the knowledge of the ways and method for efficient
fulfilment of public policy (Adamolekun, 1983). Thus, public
administration and public management are used interchangeably.
282
controlling the administration of private sector but it‟s examine the
rules and regulation made by private sectors.
283
to the lowest paid and powerless individual charged with keeping in
daily touch with all resources natural and human and all other aspect
of life of the society with which the government is concerned. (Nwoli,
2001), Adebayo (1986), public administration mean the art of
planning, assessment, appraising performance by the government
executives and supervisors. Public administration is commonly used
to refer to both the activities concerned with the management of
government business and the study of these activities. However, it is
used in district senses, a science or an art since it is concerned with
the practical management of human resources and as a science as it
is concerns with the knowledge of the ways and method for efficient
fulfilment of public policy (Adamolekun, 1983). Thus, public
administration and public management are used interchangeably.
Administration within the two categories and forms of public and private
organisation differ in a number of important aspect, namely:
284
vii) Political direction
viii) Profit-motive
ix) Nature of functions
x) Public responsibility
xi) Organisational procedure
xii) Uniform treatment
285
xi. Organisational Procedure: Public administration is more complex
than private administration. Private has a narrow focus, in the fact
that it concentrates attention and resources on one line of activity.
This is usually economic in nature and concerns one specified or
specific aspect of economic life.
xii. Uniform Treatment: Public administration should be consistent
in procedure and uniform in dealing with the public. It cannot
accord preferential treatment to some segments of the community
to the exclusion of other. Private administration can and very often
does practice discrimination in selling its services.
286
define objectives. It is essentially concerned with the management of
organisations in the pursuit of desired public goal and objective. The
ultimate goal of public administration is how to maximise the
efficiency and social effectiveness of public administrative institutions.
287
it concerns with the knowledge of the ways and methods for efficient
fulfilment of public policy.
288
colonial period and colonial period till date. British colonised Nigeria
and established her public service system in the country. This alone
influenced the growth and development of the public administration in
Nigeria. It all began in 1861 till 1954 when regional government was
introduced. Within this period, public administration in Nigeria was
purely British pattern both in term of ethics or values, culture and
tradition as well a training and procedures. Virtually, all these are of
British Public Service Structure. During the period, the colonial
masters hardly distinguished or separated administrative
system/structure from the constitutionalism and political events. In
other words, all these three (3) institution (Political event,
constitutionalism, and Administration were combined under one
umbrella. That is to say, everything was under
administration/bureaucracy. So, the functions of the legislature,
executive and judiciary were under administration. In essence, there
was no kind of separation of powers, the same people controlled the
legislature, executive and judiciary. However, the introduction of
indirect ruled system in which the British administered her colonies
through natures. Through this system, the traditional rulers were
made to enforce the colonial policies, due to the centralised nature of
the Northern Nigeria, indirect rule system was highly successful. Also,
because of the centralised system of administration in the Yoruba
land. The indirect ruled system was also successful. In the eastern
part, it was more turbulent than what was witnessed in the western
province. In the east, there was no traditional chief, Oba or Emir as in
other provinces. It was difficult to be applied or implemented. What
the British did was to appoint some individuals or troublesome people
as chiefs that is „Warrant chiefs‟ to assumed leadership position of the
289
community. The chiefs were arrogant and often imposed arbitrary
levies on the people which led to Aba Women Riot of 1929. As a result
of, the system was dropped in the East, and the British system of local
government was to replace it which spread to other part of the
country.
(c) The scope of public administration is wide and complex. The complex
nature of our modern society make public administration to be more
complex. Public administration now covers not only regulatory
activities but management of public wealth, and provision of welfare
services, notably education, health and social infrastructure. It is
widely accepted that public administration is concerned with activities
of all the three branches of government. However, recent trends show
that it has more to do with activities of the executive branch of
government at all levels – national, state and local. For example in
Nigeria, government activities are currently carried within the federal
and state civil service: government institutions, public
enterprises/government agencies and local governments.
290
The tremendous increase in the number of these public organisations
has been due to the constant restructuring of the federal
administrative system, especially since independence in 1960.
Furthermore, the scope of public administration has increased with
concomitant increase in societal complexity, specialization and
differentiation. All aspects of citizens‟ lives involve public
administration or increased public regulation over private
organisations. The expectations of citizens are continually rising and
public administration is being increasing loaded with additional
responsibilities either in the name of promoting efficiency, democratic
governance, egalitarianism or in the transformation of socio-economic
development and fulfilment of public policy.
291
(vi) increase in literacy rate and (vii) introduction of codified laws.
Many scholars have written and argued about these condition and
how these factors have helped the emergence of public administration.
292
1. B
2. D
3. A
4. C
5. C
6. B
7. C
8. D
9. B
10. B
293
17) A
18) B
19) C
20) D
21) A
22) A
23) C
24) A
25) A
26) A
27) A
294
23) A
24) A
25) C
26) C
27) A
28) A
29) A
30) C
31) D
32) A
33) B
295
is a person or group of people intentionally organized to accomplish
an overall, common goal or set of goals. An organization is a
mechanism with which a management directs, co-ordinates and
controls the activities of man. However, it is also the formation of an
effective machine, the management of an effective executive and the
administration of an effective direction.
296
Span of Control: No superior or superior should be required to
supervise more subordinates than he can effectively manage because
of the limitation of time and ability. However, the exact number of
subordinates to be supervised will depend upon many factors like
nature of the job, personal capability of the supervisor, established
rules and procedures in the organization etc.
Unbroken Line of Authority: It signifies the scalar principles of the
chain of command. Authority and responsibility should be in a clear
unbroken line from the highest executive to the lowest executive. As
far as possible, the chain of command should be short. The clearer the
line of authority from the chief executive in the organization to every
subordinate position, the more effective will be decision-making and
organization communication.
Flexibility: The organization must permit growth and expansion
without dislocation of operations. The structure of the organization
should be flexible/enough to adapt easily and economically itself to
changes in the environment and due to technical motivation. Good
organization is not a straight jacket.
Continuity: The organization should be structured as to have continuity
of operations. There should be arrangements to enable people to gain
experience in positions of increasing diversity and responsibility.
There should be continuous supply of necessary personnel and
continuous efforts for improvement in different parts of the
organization.
Coordination: The performance of various activities by personnel in the
organization who are doing specialized jobs necessitates that these
subdivided activities should be systematically interrelated. This
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coordination. Its purpose is to secure unity of effort and economy in
functioning.
Stability: The organization should be as stable as possible so that it
may have continuity. It should be able to withstand the losses of
specific personnel without serious loss of its effectiveness.
Delegation of Authority: Adequate authority should be delegated to the
subordinates for carrying out the jobs assigned to them. Authority
delegated should be commensurate with responsibility.
298
Co-ordination: This principle emerges because of the need in every
organization for the integration of activities and the co-ordination of
individuals and groups of individual performing their tasks. Co-
ordination is achieved through leadership; in the structural sense, it
involves the fixing of responsibility and the delegation of authority.
(c) Formal Organizations: It is an organization that is deliberately
planned, designed and only sanctioned by competent authority. It is
the organization as shown on the organization chart or as described in
the manual and rule. Schein, (1988), defined formal organization as
the planned co-ordination of the activities of a number of people for
the achievement of some common, explicitly purpose or goal, through
division of labour and function, and through a hierarchy of authority
and responsibility. Therefore, the formal organization can be seen as a
coalition of individuals with a number of sub-coalitions. Examples of
the formal organization are rules and regulations, policy manuals,
standing orders and job descriptions.
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The organization does not take into consideration emotionally
aspect. It is deliberately impersonal;
The authority and responsibility relationships created by the
organization structure are to be honoured by everyone;
Organizational charts are usually drawn. All the positions from
General Manager down to lower levels appear on the formal
chart of the organization.
Informal Organisation
Informal organization can be described as a shade organization. It grows
within the formal organization. Therefore there cannot be an informal
organization without a formal organization. It is a shadow of the
formal organization because it reflects the latter. Informal organization
is loose, flexible and hazy usually. It is difficult to precisely determine
the membership in an informal organization, and the interaction
among its members is without definite objectives. In other words,
members of an informal organization, do not have clearly defined
objectives or organizational objectives on which consensus might have
been reached. However, an informal organization is the pattern of the
actual behaviours and often differs from the behaviour as expected in
the formal organization. The informal organization arises from the
interaction of people working in the organization, their psychological
and social news, and the development of groups with their own
relationships and norms of behaviour, irrespective of those defined
within the formal structure.
300
understandable. This is what an informal organisation also does.
People think and act alike in groups and this continuous
cooperation gives rise to common values and common code of
behaviour.
The leadership in it is also informal
There is satisfaction also within an informal organisation in
which is based on several factors.
It forces the members of the group to observe the common rules.
It is a very effective organisation to impose penalties on or
punish those who violate these rules.
301
Very often the fixed relationships and times of authority seem
inflexible and difficult to adjust to meet changing needs.
Individual creativity and originality may be shifted by the rather
rigid determination of duties and responsibilities.
Interpersonal communication may be slowed or stopped as a
result of strict adherence to formal lines of communication.
Workers may become less willing to assume duties that are not
formally a part of their original assignment.
Organizations tend to fail to account for important differences in
workers as human beings.
They produce anxiety in individual workers by pressing to
heavily for routine and conformity.
302
Feedbacks: Informal organizations make it possible to receive quick and
accurate feedbacks. Either through grapevine communication or by
direct intervention of management, informal structures can provide
accurate feedback on many important aspects.
Better Bonding, Collaboration and Teamwork: Since people are
personally connected with each other in informal structures it leads to
better bonding, collaboration and teamwork among the individuals. As
managers start learning about their sub-ordinates and employees
personalities, motives and personal needs, they can make better use
of their services.
Compensate the Shortcomings of Formal Organizations: Formal
structures can be very rigid, tiresome and unaccommodating for
employees. Too much of formal organizations can demodulate
employees, create job stress and result in job dissatisfaction. Informal
structures can make up for that and compensate the shortcomings of
formal organizations.
303
meaningful communication. Such rumours not only halt the
development and growth of the organization, but may also create
disturbance and conflict among employees.
Leads to Conflicts: They lead to conflicts among employees. It is well
known that not every conflict is necessarily bad and dysfunctional for
the organization. However, informal structures usually lead to
relationship conflict which is considered outright bad, negative and
harmful.
Wastage of Time: Informal organizations waste a lot of important time
that could be put to better use. For instance, when individual involve
in personal interaction with each other, they should be doing their job
instead. Similarly, as informal structures head to relationship conflict,
it also requires managers to intervene and resolve the conflict.
304
2. D
3. A
4. C
5. A
6. C
7. B
8. A
9. B
10. D
305
7) C
8) A
9) B
10) A
11) C
12) A
13) B
14) D
15) A
16) A
17) A
18) A
19) B
20) B
306
13) C
14) A
15) A
16) D
17) A
18) A
19) D
20) A
21) A
22) B
23) A
24) A
25) B
26) A
307
13. A
14. B
15. A
16. D
17. A
18. A
19. D
20. A
21. A
22. A
23. C
24. A
25. B
26. C
27. A
28. B
29. A
30. A
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DLI IAG Center by e-mail or phone on:
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308
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309