SURVEY CAMP REPORT

Venue: Anna University and Palayaseevaram

CE7613 SURVEY CAMP

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING GUINDY,

ANNA UNIVERSITY,
CHENNAI-25.

Submitted by
KISHORE KUMAR.K.C
 ANNA UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING GUINDY
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Name : KISHORE KUMAR.K.C

Class : B.E. CIVIL ENGINEERING
Roll no : 2015102024
Semester : VI

Certified that this is the bonafide record of work done by the above student in
the SURVEY CAMP during the year 2017-2018
Date of submission : 15-12-2017

Signature of Signature of
Course Instructor Head Of the
Department
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to extend my sincere thanks to Dr.C.Udaya Kumar sir who took
great effort in organizing this camp and assisted myself and my fellow
colleagues in doing all the experiments and enlightened us in this camp.
I would like to thank Mrs.Gouthama priya ma’am for guiding us when we take
survey in palayaseevaram whenever sir was unable to clear our doubts.
 CONTENTS
1. GEODETIC SURVEYING
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What is surveying
1.3 Surveying techniques
1.4 Horizontal positioning
1.5 Vertical positioning
2. MAPPING AND ESTIMATIMATING PERIMETER OF
ATHLETIC TRACK AND CEG GROUNG USING
STADIA TACHEOMETRY
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Parts of theodolite
2.3 Description of main components
2.4 Theodolite Vs transit level
2.5 Advantages of theodolite
2.6 Caring for digital theodolite and helpful hints
2.7 Use of theodolite
2.8 Measurement of horizontal angles
2.9 Measurement of vertical angles
2.10 Levelling
2.11 Optical distance measurement
2.12 Sources of error
2.13 Theodolite checks
2.14 Tacheometric surveying Introduction
2.15 Principles of tacheometric surveying
2.16 Advantages of tacheometric surveying
2.17 Uses of tacheometric surveying
2.18 Method of tacheometric surveying
2.19 Tacheometry (stadia method)
2.20 Tacheometry procedure
2.21 Experiment
3. LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS SECTIONING OF ROAD
USING DUMPY LEVEL
3.1 Levelling
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Equipment
3.4 Temporary adjustments
3.5 Advantages
 3.6 Disadvantages
3.7 Experiment
4. PREPARATION OD CONTOUR BY RADIAL METHOD
USING THEODOLITE
4.1 Contouring
4.2 Methods of contour surveying
4.3 Direct method
4.4 Indirect method
4.5 Method of squares
4.6 Method of cross section
4.7 Radial line method
4.8 Drawing contour
4.9 Contour maps and uses
4.10 Characteristics of contour mapping
4.11 Uses of contour maps
4.12 Experiment
5. PLANE TABLE SURVEYING
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Equipment used
5.3 Arrangement of plane table
5.4 Method of plane table surveying
5.5 Advantages
5.6 Disadvantages
5.7 Experiment
6. PERFORMING TRIANGULATION USING
THEODOLITE
6.1 Triangulation
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Classification
6.4 Selection of layout of triangles
6.5 Well conditioned triangle
6.6 Strength of figure
6.7 Station mark
6.8 Measurement of baseline
7. DAYWISE REPORT
8. CONCLUSION
 SURVEYING
INTRODUCTION:
The art of measuring the distances and angles on ground in such
a way that it becomes reproducible on a map which is drawn to scale later on, is
called surveying. Surveying is a science as well as an art, by which studies are
made of the objects present on the ground and below the ground at different
points. Although the earth is spherical but during survey of small areas, we
consider it flat. If large areas are to be surveyed, it is considered spherical, while
making maps of the different countries. In that case it is called Geodetic survey.

WHAT IS SURVEYING?
Knowing about the relative position of various objects, determination
of distances between them, measurement of angles, measurement of height,
determination of boundaries and relative heights of various points come under
the purview of surveying. It is very essential to mark the various points on the
land, boundary lines of the proposed construction sites and levels (heights) of
the various locations before starting the construction of building, bridge,
embankment, railway line etc. After performing the measurements of the shape,
size and location of objects on ground, the details are plotted on paper (drawing
sheet). After the completion of drawing which may be one or more than one,
describing the details, the construction process is started. After determining the
details of the soil strata below ground and bearing capacity of soil which is
called Geotechnical survey, the depth of earth work is decided by the engineer.
All these things are interrelated and forms the part of the total survey work. At
first sight the job of survey looks very simple but it actually requires special
knowledge about it and the understanding of the job. The students who have
studied or who have the knowledge of Mathematics and Physics can acquire the
knowledge about survey in a nice manner. The pace of development which is
going on in India and throughout the world has increased the importance of
survey, related works.

SURVEYING TECHNIQUES
Surveying is classified into
1. Horizontal Positioning
2. Vertical Positioning
HORIZONTAL POSITIONING:
It is classified into

 Astronomical methods
 Triangulation
 Trilateration
 Traverse
 Satellite techniques.

VERTICAL POSITIONING:
It is classified into
 Differential levelling
 Trigonometric levelling
 Barometric levelling
 Satellite techniques

MAPPING AND ESTIMATIMATING

PERIMETER OF ATHLETIC TRACK
AND CEG GROUNG USING STADIA
TACHEOMETRY
INTRODUCTION:
• The theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles. The accuracy
with which these angles can be measured ranges from 5mins to 0.1secs. It is a
very important instrument in plane surveying.
• Its essential components are:
- A telescope which can rotate or transit through 360° about a transverse
horizontal axis.
- The bearings for this horizontal or trunnion axis are mounted in two vertical
pillars or standards. The standards are mounted on a horizontal upper plate.
- The upper plate rotates through 360° about a vertical or alidade axis, the
bearing for the alidade axis is mounted in a lower horizontal plate.
 - Rotation of the upper plate about the alidade axis is known as traversing the
instrument. The horizontal plates can be levelled by means of three foot screws
located beneath the lower plate, in a similar way to a level.

PARTS OF THEODOLITE:

DESCRIPTION OF MAIN COMPONENTS

1. TELESCOPE:
• It has the same features as in a dumpy level with eyepiece and internal
focussing for the telescope itself. The same precautions for focussing the
eyepiece and eliminating parallax should be applied.
2. VERTICAL SCALE (OR VERTICAL
CIRCLE):
• The vertical circle is a full 360° scale. It is mounted within one of the
standards with its centre co-linear with the trunnion axis. It is used to measure
the angle between the line of sight (collimation axis) of the telescope and the
horizontal. This is known as the vertical angle.
• Note that the side of the instrument where the standard containing the scale is
found is referred to as the face of the instrument.

3. VERTICAL CLAMP AND TANGENT

SCREW:
• In order to hold the telescope at a particular vertical angle a vertical clamp is
provided. This is located on one of the standards and its release will allow free
transiting of the telescope. When clamped, the telescope can be slowly transited
using another fine adjustment screw known as the vertical tangent screw.

4. UPPER PLATE:
• The upper plate is the base on which the standards and vertical circle are
placed. Rotation or transiting of the upper plate about a vertical (alidade) axis
will also cause the entire standards/telescope assembly to rotate in an identical
manner. For the instrument to be in correct adjustment it is therefore necessary
that the upper plate must be perpendicular to the alidade axis and parallel to the
trunnion axis. Also, before the instrument is used, the upper plate must be
"levelled". This is achieved by adjustment of three foot screws and observing a
precise tube bubble. This bubble is known as the plate bubble and is placed on
the upper plate.

5. THE LOWER PLATE:

• The lower plate is the base of the whole instrument. It houses the foot screws
and the bearing for the vertical axis. It is rigidly attached to the tripod mounting
assembly and does not move.

6. HORIZONTAL SCALE (OR

HORIZONTAL CIRCLE)
• The horizontal circle is a full 3600 scale. It is often placed between the upper
and lower plates with its centre co-linear with the vertical axis. It is capable of
full independent rotation about the trunnion axis so that any particular direction
may be arbitrarily set to read zero.
• It is used to define the horizontal direction in which the telescope is sighted.
Therefore a horizontal angle measurement requires two horizontal scale
readings taken by observing two different targets.
• The difference between these readings will be the horizontal angle subtended
by the two targets at the theodolite station.
7. THE UPPER HORIZONTAL CLAMPAND
TANGENT SCREW:
• The upper horizontal clamp is provided to clamp the upper plate to the
horizontal circle. Once the clamp is released the instrument is free to traverse
through 360° around the horizontal circle. When clamped, the instrument can be
gradually transited around the circle by use of the upper horizontal tangent
screw. It is the upper clamp and tangent screw which are used during a
sequence or "round" of horizontal angle measurements

8. THE LOWER HORIZONTAL CLAMP

AND TANGENT SCREW:
• The lower horizontal clamp is provided to clamp the horizontal circle to the
lower plate. Once the clamp is released the circle is free to rotate about the
vertical axis. When clamped, the horizontal circle can be gradually rotated using
the lower-horizontal tangent screw. The lower clamp and tangent screw must
only be used at the start of a sequence or "round" of horizontal angle
measurements to set the first reading to zero (if so desired).

9. CIRCLE READING AND OPTICAL

MICROMETRE:
• Modern instruments usually have one eyepiece for reading both circles. It is
usually located on one of the standards. The vertical and horizontal circles
require illumination in order to read them. This is usually provided by small
circular mirrors which can be angled and rotated to reflect maximum light onto
the circles.

THEODOITE Vs TRANSIT LEVEL:

A theodolite is a precision instrument used for measuring angles both
horizontally and vertically. Theodolites can rotate along their horizontal axis as
well as their vertical axis. Theodolites have a lot in common with transits.

A transit is a surveying instrument that also takes accurate angular

measurements. Along with the transit, theodolites have mounted telescopes that
can be rotated in different directions. Both theodolites and transits can be used
for similar projects, but there are slight differences between the two
instruments. Transits use vernier scales and external graduated metal circles for
angular readings. Theodolites use enclosed graduated circles and angular
readings are taken using an internal magnifying optical system. Theodolites
tend to have a more precise reading and provide greater accuracy in measuring
angles than transits do.
Theodolites are mainly used for surveying, but they are also useful in these
applications:
 Navigating
 Meteorology
 Laying out building corners and lines
 Measuring and laying out angles and straight lines
 Aligning wood frame walls
 Forming panels
 Plumbing a column or building corner

ADVANTAGES OF THEODOLITE:
Theodolites have many advantages when compared to other levelling
instruments:
 Greater accuracy.
 Internal magnifying optical system.
 Electronic readings.
 Horizontal circles can be instantly zeroed or set to any other value.
 Horizontal circle readings can be taken either to the le􀁸 or right of zero.
 Repeat readings are unnecessary.
Theodolites have an internal optical device that makes reading circles much
more accurate than other instruments. Also, because the theodolite allows you
to take fewer repeat readings, these measurements can be made much more
quickly. Theodolites with optical instruments have advantages over other layout
tools. They have more precise measurements, they are unaffected by wind or
other weather factors, and they can be used on both flat ground and sloped
ground.

CARING FOR DIGITAL THEODOLITE AND

HELPFUL HINTS:
 Like other instruments, theodolites require proper care and maintenance
to ensure the best results and reduce wear and tear on the instrument.
 Do not submerge instrument in water or any other chemical.
 Do not drop instrument.
 Make sure theodolite is locked in its case while transporting.
 When raining, use cover over instrument.
 Do not look directly into the sunlight through the telescope on the
instrument.
  Using a wooden tripod can protect the instrument from vibrations better
than an aluminium tripod would.
 Using the sunshade attachment is important; any sudden temperature
changes can cause incorrect readings.
 Never hold the instrument by the telescope.
 Always have a substantial level of battery power on your instrument.
 Always clean the instrument a􀁸er using.
 Dust in the case or on the instrument can cause damage.
 If the theodolite is damp or wet, allow it time to dry out before storing it
in its case.
 When storing, make sure that the telescope on the instrument is in the
vertical position.
 When the theodolite is being re-levelled, the position over the ground
point must be checked and rechecked to ensure the same position.
 When the theodolite is being repositioned over a ground point, the level
must be checked and rechecked to ensure its accuracy.

USE OF THEODOLITE
The theodolite is used for the following tasks.

 Measurement of vertical angles

 Setting out horizontal angles

 Ranging

 Levelling

 Optical distance measurement

 Controlling verticality

MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL
ANGLES:

The reiteration method is a common method of observing horizontal angles. 

The procedure is as follows:

a) Accurately center and level the theodolite over a ground mark

b)    Sight the left hand target (face left) with a small reading on the plate using
the lower plate clamp and slow motion screw.  Do not touch the lower plate
again 

during this round of angles.  If several rounds of angles are to be observed, the
initial plate setting is changed by about 90 each time.

c)      Sight on to the right hand target(s) using the upper plate clamp and slow
motion screw, noting the reading each time.

d)      When the last target has been sighted, change face,  This is done by
rotating the telescope vertically through 180 and the upper plate horizontally
though 

180 to sight back onto the last target.

e)      If face right re-observe all the targets.

f)      It is essential that the plate readings are checked for accuracy on
completion of each round of angles.  Check that there is 180 difference between
the readings.  Any variation from the 180 difference is an indication of
instrumental error and should be reasonably constant.  This will discover gross
errors due to misreading scales, using wrong slow motion screws, sighting
wrong targets, etc. The targets can be re-sighted and the readings corrected
before changing the lower plate.

g)        Horizontal plate readings and reduced angles can be recorded in a

standard field book.

Note the different initial plate settings for each round, the use of the remarks
column and the summary of angles.

The operation of one second theodolites is practically the same as that outlined
above.  The only difference occurs during the initial sighting of the left hand
target. 

Sight the target first and then set the required plate reading.

MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL ANGLE:

Vertical angles are useful in applying slope corrections to distance measurement
and for determining reduced levels of inaccessible points.
The observing procedure is practically the same for all theodolites.

a)      Sight the target with the horizontal cross wire.

b)      Level the altitude bubble, unless the instrument has automatic vertical
indexing in which case there may be a release button to press.

c)      After adjusting the micrometre note the plate reading.

d)      Change face and repeat

LEVELLING:
The theodolite could be used for levelling provided a number of precautions are
taken.

a) The altitude bubble should be centred and the telescope locked with a vertical
angle of exactly 00-00-00,

b) Read the staff.

a). Change face and repeat the above steps

b). The mean of the two staff readings will give a reasonable result over short
distances.

c). Levelling by theodolite must never be regarded as an acceptable alternative

to the surveyor’s level where accuracy is needed.

OPTICAL DISTANCE MEASUREMENT:

d) Horizontal distances can be measured using theodolite and levelling staff. 
These distances can be accurate to 0.1 m and cannot be used where accuracy
is required.

e) Sight a vertically held levelling staff and read the staff where it is cut by the
horizontal crosswire and the two stadia hairs.

f) Check the staff readings.  The difference between centre and top readings
should equal difference between centre and bottom readings.  Read the staff
again if there is a disagreement.
g) Note the vertical angle after levelling the altitude bubble.

Compute the horizontal distance from

100 x s x cos2 vertical angle

where s= difference between top and bottom stadia readings

SOURCES OF ERROR:
(a) Instrumental errors
      The geometry of a theodolite comprises three axes directly related to ech
other called vertical, trunnion and optical axes.

When the theodolite is in adjustment:

i) The vertical axis is vertical

ii) The trunnion axis is at right angles to the vertical axis

iii) The optical axis is at right angles to the trunnion axis.

iv) The zero line of the vertical circle is horizontal when the altitude bubbis
level.

v)The crosshairs are vertical

vi)The optical plummet provides a vertical line of sight once the instruments
is level

Changing face will eliminate errors due to (ii), (iii), (iv)

Note: Changing face will not eliminate errors crept in while levelling  the
instrument.
b)Manipulation errors:
i)Parallax not properly eliminated

ii)Sighting wrong target, or part of target

ii)Using stadia hair in vertical angle measurement

iii)Incorrect use of upper and lower plate clamps and slow motion screws

iv)Poor centering of instrument over a ground mark

v) Targets not properly centred over ground marks

vi) Incorrectly set up tripod

c) Reading and booking errors

i) Incorrect reading of scales

ii)Incorrect booking of plate readings

iii) Arithmetic errors – there is no convenient arithmetic check.

iv) Check left and right face readings – is there the correct difference
between them?

v) If several rounds of angles have been observed, look for the odd one out.

THEODOLITE CHECKS:
 Thereare six standard checks on a conventional theodolite and these should
be done on a regular basis.

a) Plate bubble:
  Simply levelling the theodolite and “freezing” the bubble will check
for plate bubble error.  If the bubble “freezes” away from the central
position, the theodolite is still levelled.  Centralising the bubble by adjusting
the bubble tube is not a necessary adjustment.

b) Verticality of crosshairs
With the instrument correctly levelled the vertical crosshair should
be truly vertical.  To check this sight on to a well-defined distant object and
move the telescope up and down.  The object should remain on the vertical
crosshair throughout its entire length.

c) Horizontal collimation
This check determines whether the optical axis of the telescope is
at right angles to the trunnion axis.  With the theodolite set up and levelled
 sight a well-defined mark, say 50 m away with the lower plate clamped. 
Record the horizontal plate reading.  Change face and sight on to the mark
again.  Record this plate reading.  The difference between the two readings
should be 180 and any variation from 180 is twice the collimation error. 
Collimation errors of 40 seconds or less are acceptable for most site
applications.  This error will be eliminated by observing on both faces of the
instrument.

d) Trunnion axis error

This check determines whether the trunnion (or horizontal) axis is
at right angles to the vertical axis.  With the instrument set up and levelled,
sight a high target using the vertical crosshair (vertical angle approximately
40 – 50).  Depress the telescope and read a staff or other graduated scale laid
horizontal under the target and facing the theodolite.  Change face and repeat
this operation.  If the two staff readings re within 5 mm the trunnion axis
error is within 5 mm the trunnion axis error is within acceptable limits for
mot site applications. By observing on both faces of the instrument, this error
will be eliminated. However, this is quite impractical if the theodolite is used
for plumbing purposes.

e) Vertical collimation error

The zero line of the vertical circle should be horizontal when the
altitude bubble is levelled or the automatic compensator is in operation.  The
difference between the two reduced vertical angles is twice the vertical
collimation error.  Collimation errors of 40 seconds or less are acceptable for
mot site applications.  By observing on both faces of the instrument, this
error will be eliminated.

(f) Optical plummet:

Set up and level the theodolite.  Place on the ground a white card
with a cross, drawn on it.  Position this card so that that the cross is exactly
in the centre of the plummet graticule. Tum the instrument through 180 and
observe whether the cross remains in the centre of the circle.

TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING
INTRODUCTION:
Generally, horizontal distances are measured by direct methods, i.e.
laying of chains or tapes on ground. These methods are not always convenient if
the ground is undulating, rough, difficult and inaccessible. Under these
circumstances, indirect methods are used to obtain distances. One such method
is “Tacheometry”. Using tacheometric methods, elevations can also be
determined. It is in fact a branch of angular surveying in which both the
horizontal and vertical positions of points are determined from the instrumental
observations, the chain surveys being entirely eliminated.

PRINCIPLES OF TACHEOMETRIC
SURVEYING:
The main principle of Tacheometry is based on the basic principle of isosceles
triangle.

In any two side equal triangle means isosceles triangle, there is one property
which is used in the Tacheometry.
It state that

“Ratio of the perpendicular to vertex on their base and

their base is always constant in isoceles triangle”.
It means if object is far from vertex than it cover more area and if it is near than
it cover less area because ratio is constant.

By this principle, Tacheometer is work.

There is object which is far from instrument but if we take reading in instrument
then it appears as low distance in diaphragm. Now, Let see the some
Advantages of using survey from Tacheometer instead of other methods of
surveying.

ADVANTAGES OF TACHEOMETRY:
There is many advantages of doing survey by Tacheometry which is as follow:

 It is not necessary to do chain operation that is required in other method

of surveying.
 We can do survey in area like Hill and mountain where it is very difficult
to do survey by other methods.
 If we not need very high standards and accuracy then this is right method.
 It require low amount of time compare to other ways of surveying.
 Because Tacheometry is indirect method that we do not require some
instrument that is necessary in plan table surveying or in theodolite
surveying.
Generally this survey is used when it is not necessary to have high accuracy in
observation.
There is many applications of tacheometey. It show that where to use
tacheometric surveying. Let's see uses of tacheometry in detail.

USES OF TACHEOMETRY:
Tacheometry have many applications like below. It is due to fact that it does not
need chaining or horizontal measurement.

 It is used for the preparation of contour map in case when both horizontal
and vertical distances needed.
 It is very useful for triangulation surveying also.
 Sometimes work of surveying is in difficult areas when it is not possible
to use some direct methods like Theodolite traversing or plane table
surveying.
 Tacheometry is reconnaissance survey for highways, roadways and
railways.
  It can be used as establishment of secondary control points.
There may be many more uses. Now, let's see method. There is two main
method which is generally used. Let's see method of Tacheometry in detail.

METHOD OF TACHEOMETRIC
SURVEYING:
There is basically two method and one of this method is further classified
into sub methods.
Main two clarification is as follow:
1. Stadia Method
2. Tangential Method

TACHEOMETRY (STADIA METHOD):

Tacheometry is a method which is used to determine the location of
topographic details. Stadia method determines the polar coordinates of detail
points via horizontal angle and horizontal distance from stations and their
elevation via slope distance and vertical angle. Tacheometric observations can
be carried out by using a theodolite or total station and rods.

Tacheometry Procedure:
 Set up the instrument at a station point. (Settings, Centring, Levelling,
Focusing).
 Measure the height of instrument (Vertical distance between horizontal
(trunnion) axis and station point on the ground).
 Select a suitable station point to be observed and horizontal direction is taken
as 0.0000 grad.
 Then a referencing point which can be identified clearly is selected and an
horizontal direction observation is compiled to the referencing point. And check
the horizontal direction of referencing point after about 10-15 detail point
observations.
Then observations are made to detail points on which levelling rod set up.
Read the upper, middle, and lower hairs for each detail points.
 Levelling Rods: Cross-hair readings; levelling instruments have three
horizontal crosshair; the top and the bottom hair, the centre hairs. The three wire
levelling gives check on readings.
Centre = (Upper + Lower) / 2 Distance = 100*(Upper – Lower) If Upper
reading > lower reading
•A suggestion for rod readings; upper rod readings can be fixed at 1.000m or
2.000m to make computation easier.

 Record the horizontal and vertical direction for each points.

 Calculate horizontal distance from station point to detail points.
 Calculate elevation of each detail points with the help of stadia observation
on the field.
Z = zenith angle
S = horizontal distance
h = tacheometric height
T = middle cross hair reading
n = (upper crosshair – lower crosshair).k
If lower reading > lower reading
n = (lower crosshair – upper crosshair).k
k = is the stadia interval factor.
If rod reading is recorded in meter k = 100.
If rod reading is recorded in cm k = 1.
MAPPING AND ESTIMATING
PERIMETER OF ATHLETIC TRACK
AND CEG GROUND
AIM:
To map and estimate perimeter of athletic track and CEG ground using
stadia tachometry.

INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:
Theodolite, Tripod, leveling staff, ranging rod.

FORMULA:
D=KS

Latitude=D cosƟ

Departure=D sinƟ

Where K=100 is a multiplication constant

D=Distance between Instrument station

Ɵ=Bearing

S=stadia intercept

PROCEDURE:
 Set up theodolite at D and level it. Using compass find out north and set it
up exactly pointing north.
Mapping of ground:
 Place the ranging rod in north direction on boundary of ground.
 Position the leveling staff at the ranging rod. Note the upper, lower
and middle cross hairs.
 Rotate the theodolite to fixed angle of 10 degrees
 Place the leveling staff at the new location and note down the
readings.
 Similarly mark new points on boundary of ground and note the
readings. The readings are tabulated and latitude and departure are
calculate.
Athletic track:
 Set the theodolite at point I and make the preliminary adjustments.
 Fix the ranging rod in boundary of track at north direction.
 Place the leveling staff at this position and note the stadia readings.
 Follow the same procedure for outer edge of the track.
 Note down the readings in all the edges of boundary.
 The readings are tabulated and latitude and departure are
calculated.
The graph is plotted to get the boundary of the ground and
inner and outer edge of the track.

SATELLITE IMAGE OF CEG GROUND

LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS
SECTIONING OF ROAD USING
DUMPY LEVEL
LEVELLING:
Levelling is the measurement of geodetic height using an optical
levelling instrument and a level staff or rod having a numbered scale. Common
levelling instruments include the spirit level, the dumpy level, the digital level,
and the laser level.

OBJECTIVES:
1.) To find the elevation of a given point with respect to the given or assumed
datum.
2.) Establish a point at a given elevation with respect to the given or assumed
datum.

DUMPY LEVEL

A dumpy level (also known as a Builder's Level) is an optical instrument used

to establish or check points in the same horizontal plane. It is used in
archaeological surveying to measure horizontal levels, to demonstrate the
difference in height at the top and base of a slope such as an excavated pit or a
surviving earthwork
EQUIPMENT:
The level 'kit' consists of a level head (in box), staff and tripod.

1.)TRIPOD:
The tripod is composed of aluminium and plastic, with three
Extendable / lockable legs and a base plate with screw fitting with which to
attach the level head. There is a canvas carrying strap and a belt to secure the
legs together.

2.)LEVELLING STAFF:

A level staff, also called levelling rod, is a graduated wooden or

aluminium rod, used with a levelling instrument to determine the difference
in height between points or heights of points above a datum surface. It
cannot be used without a levelling instrument.
 3.)LEVEL HEAD:
Parts of Dumpy Level:
 

Following are the main parts of dumpy level instrument.

1. Telescope 7. Foot Screws

2. Eye-Piece 8. Upper parallel Plate
3. Ray Shade 9. Diaphragm Adjusting Screws
4. Objective End 10.Bubble Tube Adjusting Screws
5. Longitudinal Bubble 11.Transverse Bubble Tube
6. Focusing Screws 12.Foot Plate

1.) Levelling head:

The levelling head consists of two parallel triangular plates having three
grooves to support the foot screws.
2.) Foot screws:
Three foot screws are provided between the trivet and tribrach. By turning
the foot screws the tribrach can be raised or lowered to bring the bubble to the
centre of its run.

3.) Telescope:
1. The telescope consists of two metal tubes, one moving within the other.
 2. It also consists of an object glass and an eye-piece on opposite ends.
3. A diaphragm is fixed with the telescope just in front of the eye-piece.
4. The diaphragm carries cross-hairs.
5. The telescope is focused by means of the focusing screw and may have
either external focusing, or internal focusing.
6. In the external focusing telescope, the diaphragm is fixed to the outer
tube and the objective to the inner tube.
7. By turning the focusing screw the distance between the objective and
diaphragm is altered to form a real image or the plane of cross hairs.
8. In the internal focusing telescope, the objective and eye-piece do not
move when the focusing screw is turned.
9. Here, a double concave lens is fitted with rack and pinion arrangement
between the eye-piece and the objective.
10.This lens moves to and fro when the focusing screw is turned and a real
image is formed on the plane of cross-hairs.
4.) Bubble tubes:
Two bubble tubes, one called the longitudinal bubble tube and other
the cross bubble tube, are placed at right angles to each other. These tubes
contain spirit bubble. The bubble is brought to the centre with the help of foot
screws. The bubble tube are fixed on top of the telescope.
5.) Compass:
A compass is provided just below the telescope for taking the
magnetic bearing of a line when required.
The compass is graduated in such a way that a ‘pointer’, which is
fixed to the body of compass, indicates a reading of 0 degree when the telescope
is directed along the north line. The bearing is obtained by deducting the initial
reading from the final reading of the compass.
6.) Eye piece:
The main purpose of eyepiece is to effect the magnification of cross hair of
the diaphragm, and the image is formed by the object lens.
7.) Object lens or objective:
A combination of double convex lens at the front face and a concave lens at
the back face is used. The image formed by the above compound lens is an
inverted image.
8.) Diaphragm:
 It consists of very fine cross hairs bounded in a braising fitted inside the
body of the telescope .The cross hairs are made of line platinum wires or line
attached on glass plate.

TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS:
Temporary adjustments are to be made at each setup of the instrument. The
following are the temporary adjustments to be made.
1. Setting up of the level
2. Levelling up
3. Elimination of parallax.
1. Setting up of the level
a) Release the clamp screw of the instrument.
b) Hold the instrument in the right hand and fix it on the tripod by turning round
only the lower part with the left hand.
c) Screw the instrument firmly.
d) Bring all the foot screws to the centre of its run.
e) Spread the tripod legs well apart.
f) Fix any two legs firmly into the ground by pressing them with the hand.
g) Move the third leg to the right or left until the main bubble is approximately
in the centre.
h) Then move the third leg in or out until the bubbles of the cross-level is
approximately in the centre.
i) Fix the third leg firmly when the bubbles are approximately in the centre of
their run.
2 .Levelling up
a) Place the telescope parallel to a pair of foot screws.
b) Bring the bubble to the centre of its run by turning the foot screws equally
either both inwards and both outwards.
c) Turn the telescope through 90º so that it lies over the third foot screw.
d) Turn this third foot screw so that the bubble corners to the centre of its run.
e) Bring the telescope back to the original position without reversing the eye-
piece and object glass.
f) Repeat the above operations until the bubble remains in the centre of its run
in both the positions.
g) Turn the telescope through 180º and check whether the bubble remains
central.
3. Elimination of parallax:
a) Remove the lid from the object glass.
b) Hold a sheet of white paper in front of the object glass.
c) Move the eyepiece in or out until the cross hairs are distinctly visible.
d) Direct the telescope towards the staff.
e) Turn the focusing screw until a clear and sharp image in formed in the plane
of the cross hairs.
ADVANTAGES:
The dumpy level is a widely used surveying instrument in surveying. The
advantages which have made the dumpy level so popular is given below.
 Simple construction with fewer movable parts.
 Fewer adjustments to be made.
 Due to the rigidity of dumpy levels, it retains its two adjustment for a
long time.
 High optical power.

DISADVANTAGES:
 Civil Engineers may find it difficult in making accurate measurements.
 Difficulty in using.

LONGITUDNAL AND CROSS

SECTIONING OF ROAD USING
DUMPY LEVEL
Aim:
 To perform longitudinal and cross sectioning of road using dumpy
level.

Instruments required:
1. Levelling staff-1
2. Dumpy level-1
3. Tripod stand-1
4. Tape-1
5. Chain-1
6. Cross staff-2
7. Ranging rod-4
Theory:
1.) Profile levelling: The process of determining elevations at points at
short measured intervals along a fixed line is called Longitudinal or
profile levelling.
2.) Cross sectioning: It is a method of levelling to know the nature of
Ground on either side of the centreline of the proposed route.
 Levels are taken at right angles to the proposed Direction of the road end
at suitable distances and levelling is carried out along this cross Section.
 During location and construction of highways, Rail tracks sewers and
canals strakes or other marks are placed at various aligned points and the
undulation of the ground surface along a predetermined line is adjoined.
 The line of section may be a single straight lines changing directions.
 Levels are taken at right angles to the proposed Direction of the road end
at suitable distances and levelling is carried out along this cross section.
 Cross section are the sections run at right Angles to the centreline and on
the either side of it for the purpose
 They are taken at each 10 m station on the centreline.
 The length of Cross section depends upon the nature of the work if cross
sections are Short they are set square out by edge.
 If long they are set out by the Optical square, box sextant or cross staff.
 They are serially numbered from the beginning of the Centreline and are
taken simultaneously with the longitudinal section they may be taken at
the hand level, level, theodolite.

FORMULA:
 1.) ∑B.S - ∑ F.S.= LAST R.L –FIRST R.L
2.) ∑RISE -∑FALL =LAST RL- FIRST RL
PROCEDURE:
1.) Profile levelling (longitudinal sectioning)
1. Set the levelling staff on the bench mark having some elevation say
100 m.
2. Set up the dumpy level to levelling until the altitude bubble comes
to the centre.
3. Focus the dumpy level to levelling until the cross wire as well as image is
clear.
4. Note the middle hair reading.
5. Taking the centre line of the road as fixed line this is sectional into a
series of straight lines.
6. Intermediate sights are obtained on points along the line till staff
reading is visible.
2.) Cross Sectioning of the road:
1. When the intermediate sight is taken for points along the fixed line
equidistant points are marked on left and right of the central
point(taking two points on either side)
2. Intermediate sights to these points are also taken and tabulated.
3. Set up the instrument on one side of the profile line to avoid short
sights on the points near the instrument.
4. For each setup intermediate sights should be taken after the fore
sight in the next turning station has been taken.
5. The level is then setup in advanced position and backsight is taken on that
turning point.
6. For cross sectioning to check perpendicularity of the points which are
left and right of the point on the profile line, cross staff is used.
7. The position of intermediate points on the profile are simultaneously
located by chaining along the profile and noting their distance from
the point of commencement say 10m,20m.
8. When the vertical angle of the ground is gradually curving or
regular intervals are taken on points at equal distances apart and
generally at intervals of chain length.
9. On irregular ground the points should be chosen near.
2.) Plotting the profile:
1. The horizontal distance are plotted along the horizontal axis to
some convenient scale and the distances are also marked.
2. The elevations are plotted along the horizontal axis.
3. Each ground point is plotted by two coordinates.
4. The various points are joined to form the profile.
3.) Plotting the cross sectioning profile:
1. Cross sections are plotted in same manner as longitudinal
sectioning in case both the scales are kept equal.
2. The point along the longitudinal section is plotted at the centre of
the horizontal axis.
3. The points to the left of the centre point are plotted to the left and
those to the right are plotted at the right.
4. The points obtained are joined by straight line.
CROSS SECTIONAL PROFILE
LONGITUDINAL PROFILE
Result:
The longitudinal and cross sectional profiles are thus drawn.
 PREPARATION OD CONTOUR BY
RADIAL METHOD USING
THEODOLITE

CONTOURING:
Contouring in surveying is the determination of elevation of various
points on the ground and fixing these points of same horizontal positions in the
contour map.

To exercise vertical control levelling work is carried out and

simultaneously to exercise horizontal control chain survey or compass survey or
plane table survey is to be carried out.

If the theodolite is used, both horizontal and vertical controls can be

achieved from the same instrument. Based on the instruments used one can
classify the contouring in different groups.

METHODS OF CONTOUR SURVEYING:

There are two methods of contour surveying:

1. Direct method
2. Indirect method

DIRECT METHOD:
It consists in finding vertical and horizontal controls of the points which
lie on the selected contour line. For vertical control levelling instrument is
commonly used. A level is set on a commanding position in the area after taking
fly levels from the nearby bench mark. The plane of collimation/height of
instrument is found and the required staff reading for a contour line is
calculated.

The instrument man asks staff man to move up and down in the area till
the required staff reading is found. A surveyor establishes the horizontal control
of that point using his instruments.
 After that instrument man directs the staff man to another point where the
same staff reading can be found. It is followed by establishing horizontal
control.

Thus, several points are established on a contour line on one or two contour
lines and suitably noted down. Plane table survey is ideally suited for this work.

After required points are established from the instrument setting, the
instrument is shifted to another point to cover more area. The level and survey
instrument need not be shifted at the same time. It is better if both are nearby to
communicate easily.

For getting speed in levelling sometimes hand level and Abney levels are also
used. This method is slow, tedious but accurate. It is suitable for small areas.

INDIRECT METHOD:
In this method, levels are taken at some selected points and their levels are
reduced. Thus in this method horizontal control is established first and then the
levels of those points found.

After locating the points on the plan, reduced levels are marked and
contour lines are interpolated between the selected points.

For selecting points any of the following methods can be used:

1. Method of squares
2. Method of cross-section
3. Radial line method

METHOD OF SQUARES:
In this method area is divided into a number of squares and all grid points
are marked.
Commonly used size of square varies from 5 m × 5 m to 20 m × 20 m. Levels of
all grid points are established by levelling. Then grid square is plotted on the
drawing sheet. Reduced levels of grid points marked and contour lines are
drawn by interpolation.

METHOD OF CROSS SECTION:

In this method cross-sectional points are taken at regular interval.
By levelling the reduced level of all those points are established. The points are
marked on the drawing sheets, their reduced levels (RL) are marked and contour
lines interpolated.
This figure shows a typical planning of this work. The spacing of cross-section
depends upon the nature of the ground, scale of the map and the contour interval
required. It varies from 20 m to 100 m. Closer intervals are required if ground
level varies abruptly.

The cross- sectional line need not be always be at right angles to the main
line. This method is ideally suited for road and railway projects.

RADIAL LINE METHOD:

In this method several radial lines are taken from a point in the area. The
direction of each line is noted. On these lines at selected distances points are
marked and levels determined. This method is ideally suited for hilly areas. In
this survey theodolite with tacheometry facility is commonly used.

For interpolating contour points between the two points any one of the

following method may be used:
(a) Estimation

(b) Arithmetic calculation

(c) Mechanical or graphical method.

Mechanical or graphical method of interpolation consist in linearly

interpolating contour points using tracing sheet:
On a tracing sheet several parallel lines are drawn at regular interval. Every 10th
or 5th line is made darker for easy counting. If RL of A is 97.4 and that of B is
99.2 m. Assume the bottommost dark line represents 97 m RL and every
parallel line is at 0.2 m intervals. Then hold the second parallel line on A.

Rotate the tracing sheet so that 100.2 the parallel line passes through point B.
Then the intersection of dark lines on AB represents the points on 98 m and 99
m contours.

Similarly the contour points along any line connecting two neighbouring points
may be obtained and the points pricked. This method maintains the accuracy of
arithmetic calculations at the same time it is fast.

DRAWING CONTOURS:
After locating contour points smooth contour lines are drawn connecting
corresponding points on a contour line. French curves may be used for drawing
smooth lines. A surveyor should not lose the sight of the characteristic feature
on the ground. Every fifth contour line is made thicker for easy readability. On
every contour line its elevation is written. If the map size is large, it is written at
the ends also.

CONTOUR MAPS AND USES:

A contour maps consists of contour lines which are imaginary lines
connecting points of equal elevation. Such lines are drawn on the plan of an
area after establishing reduced levels of several points in the area.
 The contour lines in an area are drawn keeping difference in elevation of
between two consecutive lines constant. For example, the contour map in fig. 1
shows contours in an area with contour interval of 1 m. On contour lines the
level of lines is also written.

Fig.1

CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOUR
MAPPING:
The contours maps have the following characteristics:

1.  Contour lines must close, not necessarily in the limits of the plan.
2. Widely spaced contour indicates flat surface.
3. Closely spaced contour indicates steep ground.
4. Equally spaced contour indicates uniform slope.
5. Irregular contours indicate uneven surface.
6. Approximately concentric closed contours with decreasing values towards
centre (Fig. 1) indicate a pond.
7. Approximately concentric closed contours with increasing values towards
centre indicate hills.
8. Contour lines with U-shape with convexity towards lower ground indicate ridge

(Fig. 2).
 Fig. 2

Fig. 3
9. Contour lines with V-shaped with convexity towards higher ground indicate
valley (Fig.3).

10. Contour lines generally do not meet or intersect each other.

11. If contour lines are meeting in some portion, it shows existence of a vertical
cliff (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4
12. If contour lines cross each other, it shows existence of overhanging cliffs or

a cave (Fig. 5).

 USES OF CONTOUR MAPS:
Contour maps are extremely useful for various engineering works:

1. A civil engineer studies the contours and finds out the nature of the ground to
identify. Suitable site for the project works to be taken up.
2. By drawing the section in the plan, it is possible to find out profile of the ground
along that line. It helps in finding out depth of cutting and filling, if formation
level of road/railway is decided.
3. Intervisibility of any two points can be found by drawing profile of the ground
along that line.
4. The routes of the railway, road, canal or sewer lines can be decided so as to
minimize and balance earthworks.
5. Catchment area and hence quantity of water flow at any point of nalla or river
can be found. This study is very important in locating bunds, dams and also to
find out flood levels.
6. From the contours, it is possible to determine the capacity of a reservoir.
 CONTOUR SURVEYING
AIM:
To Prepare a contour map by radial method by using theodolite.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
 Theodolite
 Tripod
 Compass with tripod
 Tape
 Arrows
 Levelling staff
 Ranging rod
 Rain cloth
 Flag

PROCEDURE FOR CONTOUR SURVEYING:

 To start with, a temporary B.M is established near the area to be
surveyed with reference to a permanent B.M by fly levelling.

 The level is then set up in such a position so that the maximum

number of points can be commanded from the instrument
station.

 The height of instrument is determined by taking a back sight on

the B.M and adding it to the R.L of bench mark

 The staff reading required to fix points on the various contours

is determined by subtracting the R.L of each of the contours
from the height of instrument.
  The new height of instrument and the required staff readings are
then calculated in a similar manner and the process repeated till
all the contours are located.

 The positions of the contour points are located suitably either

simultaneous with levelling or afterwards.

 A theodolite, a compass or a plane table traversing is usually

adopted for locating these points.

 The points are then plotted on the plan and the contours drawn
by joining the corresponding points by dotted curved lines.

PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

INTRODUCTION:
Plane table surveying is the fast method of surveying. In this type
of surveying plotting of the plan and field observations can be done
simultaneously. In case of plane table surveying Geometrical conditions of site
are manuscript in the map sheet using plane table and alidade after that
topographic details are arranged on the map.

EQUIPMENT USED:
General equipment used for conducting plane table survey are

 Plane table
 Alidade for sighting (telescopic or simple)
 Plumb bob and plumb fork
 Compass
 Spirit level
 Chain
 Ranging rods
  Tripod
 Drawing sheet and drawing tools
 Paper clips or screws
 Flag

Plane table:
A plane table is a device used in surveying and related disciplines to
provide a solid and level surface on which to make field drawings, charts and
maps.

Alidade Surveying instrument used with a plane table for drawing lines of
sight on a distant object and for measuring angles.

Plumb bob:
 A plumb bob, or plummet, is a weight, usually with a pointed tip on the
bottom, suspended from a string and used as a vertical reference line, or plumb-
line

Compass:
A prismatic compass is a navigation and surveying instrument which is
extensively used to find out the bearing of the traversing and included angles
between them, waypoints and direction. Compass surveying is a type of
surveying in which the directions of surveying lines are determined with a
magnetic compass.

Plane table survey equipment is arranged in 4 steps as

follows,

1. Fixing of Plane Table

Fix the plane table to the tripod stand. Arrange the drawing sheet on the
plane table using paper clips or thumb screws. The sheet should be in one position
from first to last.
 2. Leveling of Plane Table
Plane table should be leveled using spirit level. For small works, eye
estimation can be ok.

3. Centering of Plane Table

The table should be centered by using plumbing fork. By which we can
arrange the plotted point exactly over the ground point.

4. Orientation of Plane Table

Whenever we are using more than one instrument station, orientation is
essential. It can be done by using compass or back sighting. In this case, the plane
table is rotated such that plotted lines in the drawing sheet are parallel to
corresponding lines on the ground.

METHODS OF PLANE TABLE

SURVEYING:
Generally there are four methods are available to perform plane table surveying.
They are

1. Radiation

2. Intersection

3. Traversing

4. Resection

RADIATION:
 In this method, plane table is located at one point “o” and perform the
whole from that point. From point O, sight the points A,B,C,D and E using
alidade, locate and plot the points as a, b, c, d and e in the drawing sheet.

INTERSECTION:
In this method we can locate the point by plotting two rays from two known
stations. P and Q are the known station. First the equipment is placed on P and plot the
lines by sighting the stations A, B and Q. then shift the equipment to station Q and
plot the lines by sighting stations A, B and P. Finally, the intersection of A and B rays
is the required location of point of intersection.
 TRAVERSING:
Traversing is the connection of series of straight lines. In case of traversing,
plane table is located at one point for suppose A as shown below. From that point sight
towards B and measure the distance AB. Then shift the plane table to point B and sight
towards A and measure BA. Average distance of AB and Ba are plotted to scale in
drawing sheet. Then Sight the point C from B and measure BC and repeat the same
procedure until last point. Conduct some checks at some points. Finally traverse lines
are plotted on the drawing sheet.

RESECTION:
 Resection is a method of plane table surveying in which location of plane
table is unknown and it is determined by sighting it to known points or plotted points. It
is also called method of orientation and it can be conducted by two field conditions as
follows.
 The three-point problem
 The two-point problem

ADVANTAGES:

 It is suitable for location of details as well as contouring for large scale

maps directly in the field.
 As surveying and plotting are done simultaneously in the field, chances of
getting omission of any detail get less.
 The plotting details can immediately get compared with the actual objects
present in the field. Thus errors as well as accuracy of the plot can be
ascertained as the work progresses in the field.
 Contours and specific features can be represented and checked
conveniently as the whole area is in view at the time of plotting.
 The plane table survey is generally more rapid and less costly than most
other types of survey.
 As the instruments used are simple, not much skill for operation of
instruments is required. This method of survey requires no field book.

DISADVANTAGES:
 It is not suitable for work in wet climate.
 It is heavy, cumbersome and awkward to carry.
  There are several accessories to be carried, and, therefore, they are likely
to be lost.
 It is not intended for accurate work.
 If the survey is to be re-plotted to a different scale or quantities are to be
computed, it is a great inconvenience in absence of the field notes.

MAPPING OF ATHLETIC TRACK USING

PLANE TABLE SURVEYING
AIM:
To Map the Athletic track using Plane Table Surveying.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
 Plane table
 Stand
 Compass
 Tape
 Ranging rods
 Arrows
 Plumbing fork,
 Alidade.

PROCEDURE:
 Fix the point anywhere and that should be outside of the
surveying region.
  Fix the plane table with stand and level it using sprit level.

 Fix the drawing sheet in the table using pins.

 Fix the point in the sheet and transfer it to the ground using
plumbing fork and plumb bob.

 Before taking the reading, fix the ranging rods around the
boundary of athletic track.

 Then focus the ranging rods using alidade from point ‘p’.

 Draw a straight line from that point in the direction of rods.

 Then focus the next rod and draw the line. Repeat the same
procedure around the track.

 Change the position of station at a perpendicular distance(Q)

such that all rods are visible from that point Q.

 The point Q should be the same line of point P.

 Then change the point in drawing sheet by changing the scale.

 Repeat the procedure and draw the lines.

 The lines which are drawn from P and Q should intersect.

Connect the intersecting points which gives the boundary of
Athletic track.

PERFORMING TRIANGULATION
USING THEODOLITE
TRIANGULATION:
• Method of determining distance based on the principles of geometry.
• A distant object is sighted from two well separated locations.
• The distance between the two locations and the angle between the line joining
them and the line to the distant object.

OBJECTIVE:
 To establish relative and absolute positions (Horizontal and Vertical) of a
number of stations accurately.
 to establish accurate control for plane and geodetic surveys of large areas,
by terrestrial methods,
 to establish accurate control for photogrammetric surveys of large areas
 to assist in the determination of the size and shape of the earth by making
observations for latitude, longitude and gravity, and
 to determine accurate locations of points in engineering works such as :
 Fixing centre line and abutments of long bridges over large rivers.
 Fixing centre line, terminal points, and shafts for long tunnels.
 Transferring the control points across wide sea channels, large water
bodies, etc.
 Detection of crustal movements, etc.
 Finding the direction of the movement of clouds.

CLASSIFICATION:
• First order (primary) - to determine the shape and size of the earth, to cover a
vast area like a country.
• Second order (secondary) - network within first order triangulation, for a
region/province.
• Third order (tertiary) - within second order triangulation, for detailed
engineering and location surveys.
TRIANGULATION FIGURES AND
LAYOUTS:
The triangles in a triangulation system can be arranged in a number of ways.
Some of the commonly used arrangements, also called layouts, are as follows:
1. Single chain of triangles
2. Double chain of triangles
3. Braced quadrilaterals
4. Centered triangles and polygons
5. A combination of above systems.

SINGLE CHAIN OF TRIANGLES:

When the control points are required to be established in a narrow strip of
terrain such as a valley between ridges, a layout consisting of single chain of
triangles is generally used. This system is rapid and economical due to its
simplicity of sighting only four other stations, and does not involve observations
of long diagonals. On the other hand, simple triangles of a triangulation system
provide only one route through which distances can be computed, and hence,
this system does not provide any check on the accuracy of observations. Check
base lines and astronomical observations for azimuths have to be provided at
frequent intervals to avoid excessive accumulation of errors in this layout.
DOUBLE CHAIN OF TRIANGLES:
This arrangement is used for covering the larger width of a belt. This
system also has disadvantages of single chain of triangles system.

BRACED QUADRILATERALS:
 A triangulation system consisting of figures containing four corner
stations and observed diagonals is known as a layout of braced quadrilaterals. In
fact, braced quadrilateral consists of overlapping triangles. This system is
treated to be the strongest and the best arrangement of triangles, and it provides
a means of computing the lengths of the sides using different combinations of
sides and angles. Most of the triangulation systems use this arrangement.

CENTERED TRIANGLES AND POLYGON:

A triangulation system which consists of figures containing interior stations in
triangle and polygon is known as centered triangles and polygons.

This layout in a triangulation system is generally used when vast area in all
directions is required to be covered. The centered figures generally are
quadrilaterals, pentagons, or hexagons with central. Though this system
provides checks on the accuracy of the work, generally it is not as strong as the
braced quadrilateral arrangement. Moreover, the progress of work is quite slow
due to the fact that more settings of the instrument are required.
A COMBINATION OF ALL ABOVE
SYSTEMS:
Sometimes a combination of above systems may be used which may
be according to the shape of the area and the accuracy requirements.

LAYOUT OF PRIMARY TRIANGULATION

FOR LARGE COUNTRIES:
The following two types of frameworks of primary triangulation are provided
for a large country to cover the entire area.
1. Grid iron system
2. Central system.

GRID IRON SYSTEM:

In this system, the primary triangulation is laid in series of chains of
triangles, which usually runs roughly along meridians (north-south) and along
perpendiculars to the meridians (east-west), throughout the country. The
distance between two such chains may vary from 150 to 250 km. The area
between the parallel and perpendicular series of primary triangulation, are filled
by the secondary and tertiary triangulation systems. Grid iron system has been
adopted in India and other countries like Austria, Spain, France, etc.
CENTRAL SYSTEM:
In this system, the whole area is covered by a network of primary triangulation
extending in all directions from the initial triangulation figure ABC, which is
generally laid at the centre of the country. This system is generally used for the
survey of an area of moderate extent. It has been adopted in United Kingdom
and various other countries.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF THE
LAYOUT OF TRIANGLES:
The under mentioned points should be considered while deciding and selecting
a suitable layout of triangles.
1. Simple triangles should be preferably equilateral.
2. Braced quadrilaterals should be preferably approximate squares.
3. Centered polygons should be regular.
4. The arrangement should be such that the computations can be done
through two or more independent routes.
5. The arrangement should be such that at least one route, and preferably
two routes form well conditioned triangles.
6. No angle of the figure, opposite a known side should be small, whichever
end of the series is used for computation.
7. Angles of simple triangles should not be less than 45°, and in the case of
quadrilaterals, no angle should be less than 30°. In the case of centered
polygons, no angle should be less than 40°.
8. The sides of the figures should be of comparable lengths. Very long lines
and very short lines should be avoided.
9. The layout should be such that it requires least work to achieve maximum
progress.
As far as possible, complex figures should not involve more than 12 conditions.
It may be noted that if a very small angle of a triangle does not fall opposite the
known side it does not affect the accuracy of triangulation.

WELL-CONDITIONED TRIANGLES:
The accuracy of a triangulation system is greatly affected by the
arrangement of triangles in the layout, and the magnitude of the angles in
individual triangles. The triangles of such a shape, in which any error in angular
measurement has a minimum effect upon the computed lengths, is known as
well-conditioned triangle.
In any triangle of a triangulation system, the length of one side is generally
obtained from computation of the adjacent triangle. The error in the other two
sides if any, will affect the sides of the triangles whose computation is based
upon their values. Due to accumulated errors, entire triangulation system is thus
affected thereafter. To ensure that two sides of any triangle are equally affected,
these should, therefore, be equal in length. This condition suggests that all the
triangles must, therefore, be isosceles. Let us consider an isosceles triangle ABC
whose one side AB is of known length (Fig. 1.10). Let A, B, and C be the three
angles of the triangle and a, b, and c are the three sides opposite to the angles,
respectively. As the triangle is isosceles, let the sides a and b be equal.
Applying sine rule to ΔABC, we have

Hence, the best shape of an isosceles triangle is that triangle whose base angles
are 56°14' each. However, from practical considerations, an equilateral triangle
may be treated as a well-conditional triangle. In actual practice, the triangles
having an angle less than 30° or more than 120° should not be considered.

STRENGTH OF FIGURE:
The strength of figure is a factor to be considered in establishing a
triangulation system to maintain the computations within a desired degree of
precision. It plays also an important role in deciding the layout of a triangulation
system.
The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Surveys has developed a convenient
method of evaluating the strength of a triangulation figure. It is based on the
fact that computations in triangulation involve use of angles of triangle and
length of one known side. The other two sides are computed by sine law. For a
given change in the angles, the sine of small angles change more rapidly than
those of large angles. This suggests that smaller angles less than 30° should not
be used in the computation of triangulation. If, due to unavoidable
circumstances, angles less than 30° are used, then it must be ensured that this is
not opposite the side whose length is required to be computed for carrying
forward the triangulation series.
The expression given by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Surveys for
evaluation of the strength of figure, is for the square of the probable error (L²)
that would occur in the sixth place of the logarithm of any side, if the
computations are carried from a known side through a single chain of triangles
after the net has been adjusted for the side and angle conditions. The expression
for L² is

Where, d is the probable error of an observed direction in seconds of arc, and R

is a term which represents the shape of figure. It is given by

Where,
D = the number of directions observed excluding the known side of the
figure,
δa, δb, δc = the difference per second in the sixth place of logarithm of
the sine of the distance angles A, B and C, respectively. (Distance angle is the
angle in a triangle opposite to a side), and
C = the number of geometric conditions for side and angle to be satisfied in
each figure. It is given by

Where,
n = the total number of lines including the known side in a figure,
n' = the number of lines observed in both directions including the known
side,
S = the total number of stations, and
S' = the number of stations occupied
For the computation of the quantity
In any triangulation system more than one routes are possible for various
stations. The strength of figure decided by the factor R alone determines the
most appropriate route to adopt the best shaped triangulation net route. If the
computed value of R is less, the strength of figure is more and vice versa.

STATION MARK:
Should be permanently marked on the ground so that the theodolite and signal
may be centered accurately over them.
MEASUREMENT OF BASELINE
• Most important part of triangulation
• Aligned and measured with great accuracy
• Forms the basis of computations of triangulation system
• Equipment- standardized tapes, Hunter’s short base, tacheometric
measurements, EDM.

DAYWISE REPORT
DAY-1 (NOVEMBER 25)
At the First day of our survey camp , all were present at the
Institute Of Remote Sensing and the instruction for the camp is given by
Dr.C.Udhaya Kumar who was our trainer. Then after telling about the
instruction and schedule for the camp, he started telling about the first
experiment which is “TO MAP AND ESTIMATE THE PERIMETER OF
ATHLETIC TRACK AND CEG GROUND USING STADIA
TACHOMETRY”. He explained about the experiment till noon and he also
allotted batch throughout the camp. At 12:15PM, Lunch break was given and
said to assemble at 1:15PM.
After the lunch, each batches collected their instruments and all
headed towards the ground. There, everyone assembled their instruments and
started taking reading. All students were in full throttle in doing the
experiment. After completing the boundary of the entire ground some couldn’t
identify the values of the athletic track. So, some of the batches shifted their
instruments to the center of the football ground and started taking reading of the
inner and outer athletic track. At 4:45PM, all have finished doing the
experiment and the instruments were submitted in the lab room. After
completing the experiment Dr.C.Udhaya Kumar sir gave us information about
how the calculation for the experiment is to be done and he also said to do this
experiment in AUTOCAD and submit it during the submission time. This is a
good initiative that has been given by him and its also brings us interest towards
learning AUTOCAD. That’s all for the first day of the survey camp.

DAY-2 (NOVEMBER 26)

On the second day of our camp, everyone assembled in IRS
department as usual. Then sir came and explained about the second experiment
which has to be done in college itself. The experiment is “TO PERFORM
LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS SECTIONING OF ROAD USING DUMPY
LEVEL”. The lecture on this experiment is given till 10:30AM and a small
interval of 15 minutes is given. After the break everyone collected their
instruments and assembled in front of IRS dept. Everyone started taking the
readings and after some time lunch break was given to all for 1 hour.
After lunch, everyone started working in a full swing. As we are
working on the road there are some obstacles and even there are some traffic
disturbances that came which tend to delay our completion of our experiment.
Since more time is required to complete the experiment sir said to finish taking
reading till “NANDHIYA” hostel and atlast our second day gets over.

DAY-3 (NOVEMBER 27)

Everyone assembled at 8:30AM sharply. Taking all the readings of
the first two experiments in consecutive days, calculation was done on the third
day of the camp. The readings taken were tabulated and calculation was done.
Then all the readings were applied in both graph sheet and also in AUTOCAD.
After doing this the result seems to be similar what we have done in graph
sheet. This reflects our work what we have done in field. After finishing the
calculation we got sign from the sir and then he said about experiment that is
going to be done in Palayaseevaram which is few kilometers away from
Chengalpattu on the banks of river Palar. So he said to accommodate the
dayscholars to stay in hostel as we are departing at 7:30AM in the morning.
And also he allotted the in charge for the instruments and the requirements for
the field visit. After the instructions, everyone dispersed and that is the end of
third day of the camp.

DAY-4 (NOVEMBER 28)

The fourth day of our camp began with us assembling outside the
Institute Of Remote Sensing at 7:30AM. All necessary instruments that are to
be taken is kept in the bus and the bus is started at 8:30AM From the college
and reached the spot at 10:30AM. Then sir split the batches for the four spots
where the readings are to be taken. The four stations are,
TREE STATION - TS
HILL STATION - HS
BRIDGE STATION – BS
FOOT OF HILL STATION – FS
We the students of batch D, assembled in hill station and the
instruments are placed on the steps of the hill and Mrs.Gouthama priya
accompanied with us. We were waiting for other batches to assemble in their
positon. After everyone came to their respective spots they started arranging
the instruments and flag was tied in the ranging rod to give a identification for
the other batches in another spots. But there was a delay in taking reading as
some batches cannot identify the instruments of other spots due to some
obstacles. Then finally everyone are set in taking reading and the reading was
taken. While taking reading, lunch came to our spot and we paused our
experiment and had our lunch. Afterwards the readings are taken we were
waiting for others to finish the experiment for that spot. But unfortunately we
couldn’t shift to the next spot at that day due to lack of time. Then everyone
assembled near the road side and waited for the bus to pick up. Then we
reached the hostel at 8:00PM in college.

DAY-5 (NOVEMBER 29)

 On the second day visit to Palayaseevaram everyone waited for the bus
at 7:30AM opposite to IRS department with the instruments to be taken. This
time the bus was taken sooner than yesterday and we reached early to the spot at
9:00AM. Each batch now shifted the spot as procedure and as we are D batch
we went to bridge station and waited for others to fix the instrument. At initial
it was easy to point the instrument in hill station and in the foot of hill station,
but we felt discomfort to find the instrument of the tree station as it was misty
around and after that we could able to identify them. We have finished taking
the reading and waited for others.
Meanwhile, we had lunch and after everyone finished the experiment
we have shifted the spot to foot of hill station and we started our routine of
taking readings. While taking the reading, the climate is good and comfortable
for us to identify the instruments and there was a drizzle at that time. By
realizing rain might come, sir said to finish the experiment as soon as possible
and after finishing the experiment we reached the bus by 5:00PM and we
reached by 8:00PM due to traffic with heavy rain. Hence our 5th day get over.

DAY-6 (NOVEMBER 30)

On the third day of our visit to Palayaseevaram the bus departed at
8:00AM with rain outside and we reached the spot at 10:00AM. As we are D
batch we are dropped at tree station and took readings.
After having our lunch we reached the old station i.e. hill staion and
took readings. And from that our readings is taken for the triangulation
experiment and we reached the college at 7:30PM.

DAY-7 (DECEMBER 1)
On the last day visit to Palayaseevaram ,we reached the spot at 10:00AM
due to rain and our instructor Dr.C.Udhaya Kumar sir explained the last field
experiment in the place i.e. “CONTOUR MAPPING BY RADIAL METHOD
USING THEODOLITE”. This experiment was done by individual batches and
venue of doing the experiment is same for all that is on the banks of river palar.
Meanwhile taking reading we had our lunch and we continued our
experiment. but unfortunately rain came and so everyone halted the experiment
till they done and sir said that to do the calculation till the readings taken by
each batches. We reached the college by 6:30PM.

DAY-8 (DECEMBER 2)
 After finishing the visit to Palayaseevaram, our instructor Dr.C.Udhaya
Kumar sir explained our last experiment of the survey camp that is “PLANE
TABLE SURVEYING OF ATHLETIC TRACK”. This experiment was done
using the method of intersection. Then at 11:30AM we have started the
experiment and then after having lunch we continued the experiment and then
finished the experiment and returned to the class. In class he said about the
method of calculation that is to be done. Then class was dispersed at 5:00PM.

DAY-9 (DECEMBER 3)
This day was started by assembling us at 9:00PM, where we have to do
calculation. The day fully went on doing the calculation for the experiment
done in Palayaseevaram. And Dr.C.Udhaya Kumar sir gave some queries
about the camp whether everyone have any suggestion in keeping the camp and
the session went good and he said to submit atleast one from each batch to get
signature and it was done and the class was dispersed.

DAY-10 (DECEMBER 4)
On the last day of our camp, our instructor Dr.C.Udhaya Kumar sir
explained about the calculation procedure for triangulation experiment. Then
after having lunch, everyone were asked to submit their observation by
completing all the four experiments. After getting signature from him he then
bid a farewell to us and we finally had a group photo with him. These 10 days
of our camp makes us to be more responsible and punctual in our activities
which will further continue throughout our life. I thank our instructor
Dr.C.Udhaya Kumar sir to accompany with us throughout the camp and lady
assistant Mrs. Gowthama Priya ma’am for being with us and help us. And also
I have to thank the assistance those who helped us taking the instrument.
Finally I thank the almighty for successfully completing our camp without any
difficulties and harm to the society.

CONCLUSION
Eventhough we had a course in previous year these ten days gave us a
brush up in all the experiments that we have come across in that courses. At
initial we find difficult but as days passing we tend to stick to the condition that
one must be a surveyor. Being a surveyor is risky and as well as an adventurous
ride and we had experienced all these in ten days. Learned a lot at the same
time learned some qualities that one should have within himself.