Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Problem Solving and Creativity

Elements of a problem scenario

Problem Solving refers to cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal for which the
problem solver does not initially know solution method (Mayer.2013)

This definition consists of four (4) Major Elements (Mayer & Wittrock, 2006) namely:

1. Cognitive: Problem solving occurs within the problem solver’s cognitive system and
can only be inferred indirectly from the problem solver’s behavior (including biological
changes, introspections, and actions during problem solving)

2. Process: Problem solving involves mental computations in which an operation is

applied to a mental representation, sometimes resulting in the creation of new mental
representation.

3. Directed: Problem solving is aimed at achieving a goal.

4. Personal: Problem solving depends on the existing knowledge of the problem solver so
that what is a problem for one problem may not be a problem for someone who already
knows a solution method.

Types of Problem:

 Well-defined Problem provides all the information required to solve it. (Jonassen 1997)

Consider it as a problem requiring the application of a definite number of concepts, rules

 and principles being studied to a constraint problem situation. The problem tells you
everything you know to solve it or whether you need to work out for yourself what you
are supposed to do. Likewise, it tells you whether or not there is only one answer or
solutions, or there are many solutions.

 Ill-defined Problem

Characteristics of ill-defined problem:

1. Scenario is not well specified.

2. Problem descriptions are not definite

3. The information needed to solve it is not expressed to the problem statement

(Chi & Glaser, 1985).

Approaches to Problem Solving:

1. Behaviorist Approach: is reproducing previous knowledge/behavior to solve a problem

and this can be called reproductive approach.

2. Gestaltic Approach: this approach is a productive process for problem situation.

Problem Solving Cycle

Problem solving is a complex process. It is not a single skill, but rather an overlapping of some
thinking skills, as logical thinking, lateral thinking synthesis, analysis, evaluation, sequencing,
decision making, research and prediction are likely to be involved (Teary, 2006).

Metacognitive thinking creativity and transfer of learning interplay in the process. These
cognitive and metacognitive skills are expressed in the several models proposed to undertake
problem solving.

The IDEAL model (Bransford & Stein, 1993) is adopted to explain the process of problem
solving. Figure 12 indicates the specific steps to solve a problem.
 Figure 12: The IDEAL
model of the problem-solving – process

Step 1: Identify the problem and opportunities.

Problem solving initially identifies the problem or potential problems. Identify the problems
that have gone unnoticed. People who identify important problems and treat then as
opportunities are often among the most successful in their fields.

Step 2: Define goals

Define goals in the problem situation. Of course, this is different from identifying the problem
since this is defining. All of us have different problems and even two of them have the same
problems another student with the same problem situation may have a different goal. Remember
different goals can lead people to explore different strategies for solving problem.

Step 3: Explore possible strategies

This step involves looking back at your goals and finding possible strategies to solve the
problem. (Recall Procedural knowledge from long term memory) Think of an alternative to
solve problems based on the goal set. Think of appropriate strategies. Bransford and Stein
(1993) argued that even when people explicitly try to solve problems, they open fail to use
appropriate strategies.
Strategies to make problem solving easier:

1. Heuristic is a rule of thumb. Mental shortcut that works for solving a problem, especially
those about decision making tasks.

Newell and Simon (1972) suggested three general problems solving using heuristic
which is moving from current state to a goal state, such as random trial and error, hill
climbing, and means- ends analysis.

Random trial and error involve randomly selecting a legal move and applying it to
create a new problem state and repeating that process until the goal state is reached,
Random trial and error may work for simple problems but not for complex ones. The
means-ends analysis involves creating goals and seeking moves that can accomplish the
goal.

Hill climbing involves selecting the legal move that moves the problem solver closer to
the goal state. Hill climbing will not work for problems in which the problem solver must
take a move that temporarily moves away from the goal as is required in many problems.

The means-ends analysis involves creating goals and seeking moves that can accomplish
the goal. If a goal cannot be directly accomplished, a sub-goal is created to remove one or
more obstacles.

2. The next strategy is an algorithm, the use of series of steps to solve a problem. The
elements of an algorithm include clarity of what is to be done, defined inputs, outputs,
results and Preconditions.

In teaching origami (the art of paper folding) steps presented should eb followed one at
a time to arrive at the correct art piece. When withdrawing money using the ATM card,
one needs to follow the electronic cues to succeed.

Barriers to Problem Solving as listed by Anderson (1996)

 Mental set: the person is fixated on the use of former strategy that previously produced
the right solution.
 Functional fixedness: this is a phenomenon when individual fail to recognize that
objects can have other purposes, aside from the use where they made for.

 Failure to distinguish relevant and irrelevant information: This happens when an

individual cannot discern the relevant information needed in planning the strategy to
solve a problem or when the irrelevant information is given more emphasis in the
process, thereby it will lead to a wrong solution.
Creativity in Problem Solving

What is Creativity?

Plucker et al. (2004) defined creativity as “the interaction among aptitude, process and the
environment by which an individual or group produces a perceptible product that is both novel
and useful as defined within a social context.”

According to plucker et. Al. (2004), aptitude represents a dynamic set of characteristics (e.g.,
openness, tolerance for ambiguity, flexibility in thinking, perseverance, motivation for
creativity, need for self-expression), as well as abilities pertaining to the creative process, that
can be shaped by experience, learning and training (Grohman & Szmidt, 2013). Others call
aptitude as creative attitude.

Theories Explaining Creativity

There are different theories that explained how creativity is developed. According to Kozbelt
et.al., 2010, one among the different theory is the developmental theory, which advocates that
creativity develops over time (from potential to achievement). It is mediated by an interaction of
person and environment. It emphasizes the influence of the place and family structures.

Meanwhile, the cognitive theory of creativity states that ideational thought processes are
foundational to creative persons and accomplishment. Individuals who are good in divergent/
convergent thinking and conceptual combination and metacognitive processes are likely to be
more creative.

The stage and componential process of creativity point out that creative expression proceed
through a series of stages of components. The process can have linear and recursive elements. It
highlights the importance of preparation, incubation and insight and verification and evaluation
in creative thinking.
One of the first models was advanced by Guilford (1967). He considered creativity as a
divergent act. He claimed that creativity is the result of several processes: FLUENCY,
FLEXIBILITY, ORIGINALITY AND ELABORATION.

 Fluency is defined as the ability to produce a great number of ideas or problem situations
in a short period.

 Flexibility is the ability to simultaneously propose a variety of approaches to a specific

problem.

 Originality refers to the ability to produce new, original ideas, as well as products.
(Original, no other learner gave the same idea).

 Elaboration the ability to systematize and organize the details of an idea in one’s head
and carry it out.

The creative process follows certain stages (Boden, 2002; Sadler – Smith, 2015). It includes
preparation, incubation, illumination and verification.

Figure 13: Stages of the Creative Process

 A. Preparation involves becoming passionate about an idea. Motivates you to gather
materials (read, observe, compare). The information gathered seeps into your
subconsciousness, eventually remaining there momentarily.

B. Incubation is the period where you unconsciously continue to work on the idea, but
there is no active attempt to solve the problem.

C. Illumination, a sudden idea pops in your mind. The subconscious thoughts find the
connection with the consciousness resulting in the AHA and Eureka moments.

D. Verification, after the concretized idea it needs verification and verification is the final
stage of the creative process. It involves working with the idea into a form that can be
tested and once proven; it could be communicated to others.

Transfer of Learning in Problem solving Creativity

Problem solving is made easier if the learner can retrieve declarative knowledge, procedural
knowledge, and conditional knowledge from the long-term memory. If the problem-solving task
requires convergent answers, problem solving can be quite easy if the learner has mastered
algorithm techniques.

Nevertheless, even if the problem-solving task require divergent thinking, if there have been
experiences in the past that enabled the learner to answer such task, solving them could be
successfully done.

The phenomenon that past experiences in solving problems are carried over or used in solving
new problems is referred to as the transfer of learning. Transfers of learning are categorized into
the following:

 Near transfer and far transfer. When learners apply their knowledge and skills in
situations and contexts that is very close to those in which the learning occurred. It is
near transfer. When learners perform a skill in a context very much different from the
context it was learned, it’s far transfer.
  Positive and negative transfer. When learners can use their prior knowledge and
experience in solving a new problem situation. It is a positive transfer. When the
previous learning or skill obstructs the acquisition of the new skill or the solving of a
problem, it is a negative transfer.

 Vertical transfer and lateral transfer. When learners use their learning at a lower
level to perform a higher level of a cognitive task, vertical transfer occurs. It is the goal
of the spiral progression of the K to 12 curriculums. When learners use the same skill to
solve a related but different problem of the comparable level of difficulty after learning
it, lateral transfer happens.

 Neutral or zero transfer. This happens when past learning or prior experience does not
enhance or hinder the acquisition of a new skill or in the solution of a problem.

In the transfer of learning, Glass and Holyoak (1986) stated that “the problem-solving process
involves several aspects from which three major facets tend to emerge:

1. The solver’s representation of the problem.

2. The solver’s background of experiences.

3. The solver understanding of the problem.

Different theories that explain the transfer of learning from one situation another (Woolfolk
2017)

 Theory of identical elements by Thorndike maintains that the quality of transfer

depends on the identical elements that are common in both past and new situations. If the
content, method, goal and attitude in the two situations are similar, the transfer is
facilitated.

 Theory of Generalization developed by Judd, states that skills learned are

transferrable to other situations. It argues that if the learner has fully understood the
lesson and masters the competency, there is greater likelihood that such skill can be
transferred to a similar situation.
  Theory of Configuration, anchored on Gestalt theory, emphasizes the important role
of perception in the transfer of learning. It argues that what is learned in one situation
can be shifted directly to another situation only when similarity in content, method, or
attitude of the two situations is perceived by the learner.

Classroom applications of Cognitive Learning Theories

Teachers can benefit from the teaching principles associated with cognitive learning theories.
Along with problem solving, Woolfolk (1017) recommended the following:

1. Ask students if they understand the problem. Let them separate relevant from irrelevant
information. Test their awareness of the assumptions. Encourage them to visualize the
problems by diagramming or drawing it. Ask them to explain the problem to someone
else.

2. Encourage attempts to see the problem from different angles. Suggest several different
possibilities yourself, and then ask students to offer some. Give students practice in
taking and defending different points of view on an issue.

3. Let students think, do not just hand them solutions. Offer individual problems as well as
group problems, so that each student has the chance to practice. Give partial credit if
students have good reasons for wrong solutions to problems. If students are stuck, resist
the temptations to give too many clues. Let them think about the issue overnight.

4. Help students to develop systematic ways of considering alternatives. Tell them to think
out loud as they solve problem. Ask: What would happen “if”?” keep a list of
suggestions.

5. Teach heuristics. Encourage them to use analogies to solve problems.

In teaching creativity, Woolfolk (2017) also recommended the following strategies in teaching
learners:

 Accept and encourage divergent thinking. Reinforce attempts at unusual solutions to

the problems, even if the final product is not perfect. Offer choices in topics for projects
or modes of presentation (written, oral, visual or graphic, using technology).

 Tolerate dissent. Ask students to support dissenting opinions. Make sure that
nonconforming students receive an equal share of classroom privileges and rewards.

 Encourage students to trust their judgment. When students ask questions that you
think they can answer, rephrase or clarify the questions and direct them back to the
students. Give ungraded assignments from time to time.

 Emphasize that everyone is capable of creativity in some form. Avoid describing the
feats of great artists or inventors as if they were superhuman accomplishments.
Recognize creative efforts in each student’s work. Have a separate grade for originality
on some assignments.

 Provide time space and materials to support creative projects. Here are some
examples: collect “found” materials for collages and creations—buttons—stones, shells,
paper, fabric, beads, seeds drawing tools, clay—and try flea markets and friends for
donations. Have mirrors and pictures for drawing faces…. Make a well- lighted space
available

 Be a stimulus for creative thinking. Use class brainstorming sessions whenever

possible; Model creative problem solving by suggesting unusual solutions for class
problems. Encourage students to delay judging a particular suggestion for solving a
problem until all the possibilities have been considered.

 Capitalize on new technology. Ask the students use free apps to create visual maps of
ideas and share their ideas with others.
To promote the transfer of learning, the following leaning strategies are helpful (Woolfolk,
2017):

1. Keep families informed about their child’s curriculum so they can support their learning.
At the beginning of units or major projects, send a letter summarizing the key goals, a
few of the major assignments, and some common problems that students have in
learning adjustments. Parents’ suggestions about their child’s interest could be
connected to the curriculum topics.

2. Ask the families if they can encourage their children to practice at home what they have
learned in school. However, parents should be given ideas of what had transpired in
school to promote a near transfer of learning.

3. Show connections between learning in school life and life outside of school. Ask
families to talk about and show how they use the skills their children are learning in
their jobs, hobbies or community involvement projects.

4. Partner with families in practicing learning strategies. Focus on one learning strategy at
a time. Ask families to simply remind their children to use a particular strategy for
homework that week.

Experience

Data revealed that the program succeeded in improving strategic knowledge is by allowing for
more effective practice time for the student (practice effect) and or by focusing on the
systematic use of the available help (systematic hint use effect).

If the activity is one of the desired learning goals, then teacher capacity is pivotal in teaching for
creativity. (Tan et.al. 2016). Davies et.al. (2012) identified from a vast creativity literature that
pedagogical practice is one of the key environmental features in melding student creativity.

Among the practice found are designing learning task that are novel to stimulate students’
creativity, planning for a structured yet flexible, self-directed learning experience, setting a
mutual respect atmosphere, open dialogue and collaborative activities.

A study on the transfer of learning (Brion and Cordero, 2018) indicated that most of the transfer
of learning happens in areas not requiring mindset and behavioral changes. The facilities in
which the training took place, the facilitator’s dispositions and knowledge, the adequacy of the
materials, as well as the testimonials and certificate of completion enhanced the transfer of
learning.