3 Scientific M

Planning G
Introducing the
Measurement
Guide
BIGIDEA: QUANTIFYING MATTER
IIn many aspects
t off chemistry,
h i t it iis vital
it l to know the amount of material with which you are dealing.

NSES Lessons and Objectives Print Resources

For the Student For the Teacher
A-2 3.1 Using and Expressing Measurements Reading and Study Class Activity, p 64:
p 62–72 Workbook Lesson 3.1 Precision and Accuracy
3.1.1 Write numbers in scientific notation. Lesson Assessment 3.1 p 72 Class Activity, p 67: Olympic
3.1.2 Evaluate accuracy and precision. Quick Lab Accuracy and Times
3.1.3 Explain why measurements must be Precision p 72 Class Activity, p 68: Significant
reported to the correct number of Zeros
significant figures.

A-2, E-2 3.2 Units of Measurement p 74–82 Reading and Study Teacher Demo, p 76: Volume
3.2.1 Explain why metric units are easy to use. Workbook Lesson 3.2 Measurements
3.2.2 Identify the temperature units scientists Lesson Assessment 3.2 p 82 Class Activity, p 77: Mass of a
commonly use. Penny
3.2.3 Calculate the density of a substance. Teacher Demo, p 81: Density
Calculations

A-2 3.3 Solving Conversion Problems p 84–91 Reading and Study Class Activity, p 85: Expanding
3.3.1 Explain what happens when a Workbook Lesson 3.3 a Recipe
measurement is multiplied by a conversion Lesson Assessment 3.3 p 91 Class Activity, p 89:
factor. Small-Scale Lab Now What Sports Stats
3.3.2 Describe the kinds of problems that can be Do I Do? p 92
easily solved using dimensional analysis.

Assessing the BIGIDEA: QUANTIFYING MATTER

Essential Questions Study Guide p 93
1
1. How do scientists express the degree of Math Tune-Up p 94
uncertainty in their measurements? STP p 99
2. How is dimensional analysis used to solve Reading and Study
problems? Workbook Self-Check
and Vocabulary Review
Chapter 3

60A Chapter 3
 Materials List
FFor the
h S d
Student
Quick Lab p 72
Digital Resources • 3 x 5 in. index cards
• metric ruler
Editable Worksheets PearsonChem.com Small-Scale Lab p 92
ESSON • meter stick

L
3.1 Lesson Overview • balance

OV

W
ERVIE

CHEM

Significant Figures • pair of dice

TU
TOR

in Multiplication and • aluminum can

Division • calculator
• small-scale pipet
ET
KIN IC
Measuring Using • a pre- and post-1982 penny
ART

Significant Figures • 8-well strip

• plastic cup

Small-Scale Lab Manual Lab 3: ESSON

L
OV
3.2 Lesson Overview For the Teacher
W
ERVIE

Design and Construction of a

Small-Scale Balance NCEP

Using SI Units
CO

TS

Class Activity p 64 Class Activity p 81

IN

ACTI

Small-Scale Lab Manual Lab 4:

O

CHEM • a small object, such as a • 3 or 4 different-sized

Design and Construction of a Set Converting Between
TU
TOR
lead fishing weight cubes of a material such
of Standardized Weights Temperature Scales
• triple-beam balance as wood, metal, or marble
• metric ruler
Lab 4: Mass, Volume, and Density Class Activity p 67
• balance
Lab Practical 3-1: Basic • almanacs or Internet access
Measurement Class Activity p 85
Class Activity p 68
Lab Practical 3-2: Density • recipe
• scientific literature
• lists of equivalents and
Small-Scale Lab Manual Lab 5: ESSON
• index cards
L

3.3 Lesson Overview conversions among the

OV

ERVIE

Massing Activities for a Small-

Class Activity p 76 following measurements:
Scale Lab ET
KIN IC
Conversion Factors
ART • sets of Erlenmeyer flasks teaspoon, tablespoon,
CHEM • buret 1/4 cup, 1/2 cup, and
Using Dimensional
TU
TOR
• graduated cylinder beaker 1 cup
Analysis
• volumetric flask
Class Activity p 89
CHEM

Using Density as a • water

TU
TOR • media guides containing
Conversion Factor • food coloring
vital statistics, such as
CHEM Class Activity p 77 heights and weights, of
Converting Ratios of
TU
TOR • balance with a precision sports players
Units
of at least 0.01 g
• sets of 10 pennies each
separated according to
minting dates between
1970 and the present
(Be sure that sets include
Exam View Assessment Suite NLIN pre- and post-1982
Chapter 3 Problem Set
O

minting dates.)
PR

OBLE

Classroom Resources Disc

M

MATH
(includes editable worksheets) TU
TOR
Converting Rate
• Lesson Reviews Measurements
• Practice Problems MATH

• Interpret Graphs TU
TOR
Scientific Notation
Additional Digital Resources
• Vocabulary Review
• Chapter Quizzes and Tests Online Student Edition
• Lab Record Sheets Online Teacher’s Edition
U
IRT A

Chemical Reactions
V

LAB

Scientific Measurement 60B

 3
CHAPTER 3
What’s Online
CHEM Students access guided, step-by-step
TU tutorials for solving various measurement
TOR
and conversion problems.
NLIN Students can practice key problem-solving Scientific
O

skills in an online problem set.

PR

Measurement
O BL E
M

MATH Identify the students who struggle with

TU
TOR
math by assigning an online math skills
diagnostic test. These students can then
improve and practice math skills using the
MathXL tutorial system. INSIDE:
IRTUA Students go on an animated virtual lab tour t
3.1 6

TJOH
BOE
&YQSFTTJOH

V

LAB
in which density is studied in a simulated .FBTVSFNFOUT
laboratory environment. t
3.2 6OJUT
PG
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t
3.3 4PMWJOH
$POWFSTJPO
1SPCMFNT

NCEP ET
KIN IC IRTUA
CO

TS

L
IN

ACTI ART LAB

O

MATH NLIN CHEM

O

E
NET
KI IC Student watch animations of a selected
TU TU
PR

figures from the chapter followed by TOR O BL E TOR

M

AR T
questions to check for understanding.
NCEP Watch an overview of a key chapter
CO

TS

concept using real-world contexts and

IN

ACTI
O

concrete examples and analogies. Each

activity includes an interactive animation
followed by analysis questions.
A surveyor in Antarctica
uses a device called a
theodolite to measure
the landscape for a
future airstrip.

National Science Education Standards 60

A-2, E-2

Focus on ELL
1 CONTENT AND LANGUAGE Read the title of the chapter aloud to the class. List
reasons why the word scientific is in front of the word measurement. Discuss what
it means if a measurement is not scientific. Have students document the discussion
with a KWL chart.
BEGINNING: LOW/HIGH Have students identify tools used to measure distance,
mass, volume, and time, and order the tools based on their accuracy for small
measurements.
INTERMEDIATE: LOW/HIGH Have students relate the measures provided with various
tools to a familiar object, such as: the mass of a paperclip is about one gram.
ADVANCED: LOW/HIGH Have students practice identifying measurements as a
length, a mass, a time, a temperature, or a volume.

60 Chapter 3
 CHAPTER 3
Understanding by Design
Students are building toward understanding how
to use scientific measurement as a method of
quantifying matter.
BIGIDEA PERFORMANCE GOALS At the end of Chapter 3,
students will be able to answer the essential
QUANTIFYING MATTER questions by applying their knowledge of scientific
measurement. Students will also be able to convert
Essential Questions: between common units of measurement and solve
1. How do scientists express the degree problems involving density.
of uncertainty in their measurements? ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS Read the essential questions
2. How is dimensional analysis used to aloud. Ask When you make a measurement, what
solve problems? are some possible sources of uncertainty? (Sample
answers: You might make a mistake when reading
CHEMYSTERY the measurement. The instrument you use might
have increments so large that you are unable to
Just Give obtain an accurate measurement.) Ask What do the
Me a Sign terms “dimension” and “analysis” mean? Based
While traveling in on this, what do you think “dimensional analysis”
a foreign country, is? (“Dimension” is a unit of measurement, such
you happen to get as meter or liter. “Analysis” is trying to explain
lost, as many tourists
do. But then you spot something by examining its parts. “Dimensional
these signs along the analysis” is trying to explain something by using
road. If you know the its units.)
distance to your destination, you can find your
way. However, in the signs shown here, the Use the photo of the surveyor to
distances are listed as numbers with no units BIGIDEA help students connect to the
attached. For example, is Preston 8 kilome-
ters away or 8 miles away? Is there any way to concepts they will learn in this chapter. Activate prior
know for sure? knowledge by asking students how they decide
ɀ Connect to the BIGIDEA As you read which units to use when making a measurement.
the chapter, try to familiarize yourself with Explain that the surveyor in the photo is using the
common metric units used in science. theodolite to make very accurate measurements of
angles. Ask Why is it important for his measurements
NATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION STANDARDS to be so accurate? (Sample answer: The airstrip
A-1, E-2 needs to be located on a flat surface for safety.)
Ask What are some sources of uncertainty in his
measurements? (Sample answers: He could read the
instrument markings incorrectly. The instrument may
not have very small increments.)

Have students read over the

CHEMYSTERY CHEMystery. Connect the
CHEMystery to the Big Idea of Quantifying Matter by
Introduce the Chapter engaging students in a discussion of different units
IDENTIFYING PRECONCEPTIONS Students may think that measurements are either they might use for different types of measurements.
correct or incorrect. Use the activity to help them realize that measurements can Point out that some descriptions of distances are not
be correct but have degrees of uncertainty. quantified. Examples include far, close, and nearby.
When descriptions are quantified, a unit is needed to
Activity Divide the class into groups of two or three students, and provide each
avoid ambiguity. Have students suggest ways that they
group with a meter stick and a metric ruler. Have different groups measure
might know for sure whether the distances on the
and record the length of a wall to the nearest meter, decimeter, centimeter, or
sign are in kilometers or miles. As a hint, have them
millimeter. Afterwards, have groups compare their measurements. Ask Were the
try to draw a map showing the locations of the cities
measurements for each type of unit the same? (Answers will vary.) Ask Which
relative to each other.
units do you think gave measurements closest to the actual length of the wall?
(millimeters)

Scientific Measurement 61
LESSON 3.1
Key Objectives
3.1.1 WRITE numbers in scientific notation.
3.1.2 EVALUATE accuracy and precision.
3.1 Using a
Measu
and Expressing
Measurements
3.1.3 EXPLAIN why measurements must be
reported to the correct number of significant figures.

Additional Resources
CHEMISTRY &YOU
Y U
YO
Q: How do you measure a photo finish? You probably know that a 100-meter
• Reading and Study Workbook, Lesson 3.1 dash is timed in seconds. But if it’s a close finish, measuring each runner’s
Core Teaching Resources, Lesson 3.1 Review time to the nearest second will not tell you who won. That’s why sprint times
are often measured to the nearest hundredth of a second (0.01 s). Chemistry
also requires making accurate and often very small measurements.

Scientific Notation
Key Questions How do you write numbers in scientific notation?
How do you write numbers Everyone makes and uses measurements. A measurement is a quantity that
Engage in scientific notation? has both a number and a unit. Your height (66 inches), your age (15 years),
How do you evaluate
&
and your body temperature (37°C) are examples of measurements.
CHEMISTRY Y
YO
YOU U Have students study accuracy and precision? Measurements are fundamental to the experimental sciences. For that
Why must measurements be reason, it is important to be able to make measurements and to decide
the photograph and read the text that opens the whether a measurement is correct. In chemistry, you will often encounter
reported to the correct number of
section. Ask How do you think scientists ensure significant figures? very large or very small numbers. A single gram of hydrogen, for example,
measurements are accurate and precise? (Acceptable contains approximately 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 hydrogen atoms.
Vocabulary The mass of an atom of gold is 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 327 gram.
answers include that scientists make multiple
t
NFBTVSFNFOU Writing and using such large and small numbers is cumbersome. You can
measurements by using the most precise equipment t
TDJFOUJGJD
OPUBUJPO work more easily with these numbers by writing them in scientific notation.
available. They use samples with known values to t
BDDVSBDZ
t
QSFDJTJPO In scientific notation, a given number is written as the product of two
t
BDDFQUFE
WBMVF
check the reliability of the equipment.) t
FYQFSJNFOUBM
WBMVF
numbers: a coefficient and 10 raised to a power. For example, the number
602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 can be written in scientific notation as
t
FSSPS
t
QFSDFOU
FSSPS
Activate Prior Knowledge t
TJHOJGJDBOU
GJHVSFT
6.02 ñ 1023. The coefficient in this number is 6.02. The power of 10, or expo-
nent, is 23. In scientific notation, the coefficient is always a number
Discuss the various everyday activities that involve greater than or equal to one and less than ten. The exponent is an integer.
measuring, as well as the tools used to make those A positive exponent indicates how many times the coefficient must be
measurements. Ask a volunteer to be measured multiplied by 10. A negative exponent indicates how many times the coeffi-
cient must be divided by 10. Figure 3.1 shows a magnified view of a human
for height. Hand out a tape measure, a yardstick, hair, which has a diameter of about 0.00007 m, or 7 ñ 10Ź5 m.
and a metric ruler to three students. Have each of When writing numbers greater than ten in scientific notation, the expo-
these students measure the height of the volunteer nent is positive and equals the number of places that the original decimal
with their tool and state aloud their measures. point has been moved to the left.
Ask Which measurement appears to be the most 6,300,000.
â
6.3
ñ
106 94,700.
â
9.47
ñ
104
accurate? Why? (The tool that seems to be the most Figure 3.1 Just a Hair
Numbers less than one have a negative exponent when written in scien-
A hair’s width expressed in meters
appropriate for measuring height is probably the is a very small measurement.
tific notation. The value of the exponent equals the number of places the deci-
most accurate in this case.) 0.00007 m ä
7 ò 10Ľ5 m
mal has been moved to the right.
Decimal point moves Exponent is Ľ5
0.000 008
â
8
ñ
10 Ľ6 0.00736
â
7.36
ñ
10 Ľ3
5 places to the right.

National Science Education Standards 62 $IBQUFS

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A-2

Focus on ELL
1 CONTENT AND LANGUAGE Review the abbreviations used in the lesson. Supply
the class with a listing for each abbreviation and its meaning. Read aloud each
abbreviation and have students repeat.
2 FRONTLOAD THE LESSON Put together a display of common and uncommon
measuring tools that students can examine prior to the lesson. Ask students to
group the tools on the basis of the type of measurement for which they believe the
tools are used: distance, time, volume, and so forth. Have students predict which
tools in each group are the most and least accurate. Revisit students’ predictions
after completing the lesson.
3 COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT When discussing Figure 3.2, assist students in
completing the associated analogy by allowing them to test their answers with an
unzeroed balance.
62 Chapter 3 • Lesson 1
 LESSON 3.1
Multiplication and Division To multiply numbers written in scientific notation,
multiply the coefficients and add the exponents.

(3 ñ 104) ñ (2 ñ 102) â (3 ñ 2) ñ 104à2 â 6 ñ 106

Foundations for Reading
(2.1 ñ 103) ñ
4.0
ñ
10Ź7) â (2.1 ñ
4.0) ñ 103à(Ź7) â 8.4 ñ 10Ź4 BUILD VOCABULARY Have students write definitions
of the words accurate and precise in their own
To divide numbers written in scientific notation, divide the coefficients and
subtract the exponent in the denominator from the exponent in the numerator. words. As they read the text, have students
compare the definitions with those of accuracy
3.0 ñ 105
6.0 ñ
102
â ( 6.0
3.0
) ñ 105Ź2
â 0.5 ñ 103 â
5.0 ñ 102 and precision given in the text.
READING STRATEGY After reading each section,
Addition and Subtraction If you want to add or subtract numbers expressed create a bulleted list summarizing the meaning of
in scientific notation and you are not using a calculator, then the exponents must the key words or summarizing the rules to follow.
be the same. In other words, the decimal points must be aligned before you add
or subtract the numbers. For example, when adding 5.4 ñ 103 and 8.0 ñ 102, first
Have students compare their lists with others.
rewrite the second number so that the exponent is a 3. Then add the numbers. Break the class into small groups and have each
group consolidate their individual efforts into a
(5.4 ñ 103) à (8.0 ñ 102) â (5.4 ñ 103) à (0.80 ñ 103)
â (5.4 à 0.80) ñ 103 group summary.
â 6.2 ñ 103

Explain
Sample Problem 3.1 Scientific Notation
USE VISUALS Have students study Figure 3.1.
Using Scientific Notation Ask How is the exponent of a number expressed
Solve each problem and express the answer in scientific notation. in scientific notation related to the number of
a. (8.0 ñ 10Ź2) ñ (7.0 ñ 10Ź5) b. (7.1 ñ 10Ź2) à
(5 ñ 10Ź3)
places the decimal point is moved to the right in
— Analyze Identify the relevant concepts. To multiply numbers in scientific notation, a number smaller than 1? (They are equal.)
multiply the coefficients and add the exponents. To add numbers in scientific notation, the
exponents must match. If they do not, then adjust the notation of one of the numbers. Sample Practice Problem
˜ Solve Apply
pp y the concepts
p to this p
problem. Calculate the following and express your answers in
scientific notation.
Multiply the coefficients and add
a. (8.0
ò
10Ľ2)
ò
(7.0
ò
10Ľ5 )
ä
(8.0 ò 7.0)
ò
10Ľ2 à (Ľ5) 1. (3.0 × 10–3) × (2.5 × 10–4) =?
the exponents.



ä
56
ò
10Ľ7 (7.5 × 10–7)



ä
5.6
ò
10Ľ6 2. (4.2 × 10–3) + (7.0 × 10–4) =?
Rewrite one of the numbers so that

(4.9 ×10–3)
the exponents match. Then add the b. (7.1
ò
10Ľ2)
á
(5
ò
10Ľ3)
ä
(7.1
ò
10Ľ2)
á
(0.5
ò
10Ľ2)
coefficients.


ä
(7.1
á
0.5)
ò
10Ź2


ä
7.6
ò
10Ľ2

1. Solve each problem and express the answer in 2. Calculate the following and write your
scientific notation. answer in scientific notation:
a. (6.6 ñ 10Ź8) à (5.0 ñ 10Ź9) 6.6 ñ
106
b. (9.4 ñ 10Ź2) Ź (2.1 ñ 10Ź2) (8.8 ñ 10Ź2) ñ (2.5 ñ 103)

Scientific Measurement 63

Foundations for Math

CALCULATIONS INVOLVING SCIENTIFIC NOTATION Tell students that solving
problems in chemistry often involves numbers written in scientific notation.
Explain that when multiplying or dividing numbers written in scientific notation,
the exponents do not have to be the same. However, when adding or subtracting
without a calculator, the exponents must be the same. Point out that another
way to combine numbers written in scientific notation is to write both numbers in
standard form first, perform the operation, and then convert the resulting answer
back to scientific notation.
In Sample Problem 3.1b, each number can be written in standard form first. Some
students may find this easier than changing the exponent for one of the numbers to
Answers
make them match. 1. a. 7.1 × 10–8 b. 7.3 × 10–2
2. 3.0 × 104
7.1 × 10–2 = 0.071
5 × 10–3 = 0.005
Scientific Measurement 63
Now add: 0.071 + 0.005 = 0.076 = 7.6 × 10–2
LESSON 3.1 Accuracy, Precision, and Error
How do you evaluate accuracy and precision?
Explain Your success in the chemistry lab and in many of your daily activities
depends on your ability to make reliable measurements. Ideally, measure-
ments should be both correct and reproducible.
Accuracy, Precision, and Error
USE VISUALS Have students inspect Figure 3.2. Accuracy and Precision Correctness and reproducibility relate to the con-
cepts of accuracy and precision, two words that mean the same thing to many
Ask If one dart in Figure 3.2c were closer to the people. In chemistry, however, their meanings are quite different. Accuracy
bull’s-eye, what would happen to the accuracy? is a measure of how close a measurement comes to the actual or true value of
(The accuracy would increase.) Ask What would whatever is measured. Precision is a measure of how close a series of
happen to the precision? (The precision would measurements are to one another, irrespective of the actual value. To
evaluate the accuracy of a measurement, the measured value must be com-
increase.) Ask What is the operational definition pared to the correct value. To evaluate the precision of a measurement, you
of error implied by this figure? (The error is the must compare the values of two or more repeated measurements.
distance between the dart and the bull’s-eye.) Darts on a dartboard illustrate accuracy and precision in measurement.
Let the bull’s-eye of the dartboard in Figure 3.2 represent the true, or correct,
value of what you are measuring. The closeness of a dart to the bull’s-eye cor-
Explore responds to the degree of accuracy. The closer it comes to the bull’s-eye, the
more accurately the dart was thrown. The closeness of several darts to one
another corresponds to the degree of precision. The closer together the darts
are, the greater the precision and the reproducibility.
Class Activity
Figure 3.2 Accuracy vs. Precision
PURPOSE Students will explore the concepts of The distribution of darts illustrates the difference between accuracy and precision.
precision and accuracy. Use Analogies Which outcome describes a scenario in which you properly
measure an object’s mass three times using a balance that has not been zeroed?
MATERIALS a small object (such as a lead fishing
weight), triple-beam balance
PROCEDURE Place the object and a triple-beam
balance in a designated area. Set a deadline
by which each student will have measured the
mass of the object. After everyone has had an
opportunity, have students compile a summary of
all the measurements. Illustrate precision by having
the students find the average and compare their
measurement to it.
EXPECTED OUTCOME Measured values should be
similar, but not necessarily identical, for all students. Good Accuracy, Good Precision Poor Accuracy, Good Precision Poor Accuracy, Poor Precision
USE ANALOGIES Guide students to think of other Closeness to the bull’s-eye indicates Precision is high because of the The darts land far from one
analogies that may be useful in explaining precision a high degree of accuracy. The closeness of grouping—thus, the another and from the bull’s-eye.
closeness of the darts to one high level of reproducibility. But The results are both inaccurate
vs. accuracy, such as casting a fishing line, pitching another indicates high precision. the results are inaccurate. and imprecise.
horseshoes, or marching in a precision marching band.
Determining Error Suppose you use a thermometer to measure the boil-
ing point of pure water at standard pressure. The thermometer reads 99.1°C.
You probably know that the true or accepted value of the boiling point of pure
water at these conditions is actually 100.0°C.

64 $IBQUFS

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Striving for Scientific Accuracy

The French chemist Antoine Lavoisier worked hard to establish the importance of
accurate measurement in scientific inquiry. Lavoisier devised an experiment to test the
Greek scientists’ idea that when water was heated, it could turn into earth. For 100
days, Lavoisier boiled water in a glass flask constructed to allow steam to condense
without escaping. He weighed the water and the flask separately before and after
boiling. He found that the mass of the water had not changed. The flask, however,
lost a small mass equal to the sediment he found in the bottom of it. Lavoisier proved
that the sediment was not earth, but part of the flask etched away by the boiling
water.

64 Chapter 3 • Lesson 1
 LESSON 3.1
There is a difference between the accepted value, which is the correct
value for the measurement based on reliable references, and the experimental
value, the value measured in the lab. The difference between the experimen-
tal value and the accepted value is called the error.
Explain
READING SUPPORT
Build Reading Skills: Inference
START A CONVERSATION Review the concept of
Error ä
experimental value
ź
accepted value As you read, try to identify absolute value. Ask What is the meaning of a
some of the factors that cause positive error? (The measured value is greater than
experimental error. What
Error can be positive or negative, depending on whether the experimental factors might result in inaccurate the accepted value.) Ask What is the meaning of a
value is greater than or less than the accepted value. For the boiling-point measurements? What factors negative error? (The measured value is less than the
measurement, the error is 99.1°C Ľ 100.0°C, or Ľ0.9°C. might result in imprecise
The magnitude of the error shows the amount by which the experimental measurements?
accepted value.) Explain that the absolute value
value differs from the accepted value. Often, it is useful to calculate the rela- of the error is a positive value that describes
tive error, or percent error. The percent error of a measurement is the abso- the difference between the measured value and
lute value of the error divided by the accepted value, multiplied by 100%. the accepted value, but not which is greater.
ƐƐerrorƐƐ
Percent error
ä
ò
100% Sample Practice Problem
accepted
t d value
l
Diamonds and other gemstones are measured in
carats. The accepted value for the weight of a carat
is 0.2 gram. A jeweler measured the weight of a
Sample Problem 3.2 carat of opals to be 0.192 gram. What is the percent
error? (4%)
Calculating Percent Error
The boiling point of pure water is measured to be 99.1°C. Calculate the percent error.

— Analyze List the knowns and unknown. KNOWNS UNKNOWN

The accepted value for the boiling point of pure water
is 100°C. Use the equations for error and percent error Experimental value
ä
99.1°C Percent error ä


to solve the problem. Accepted value
ä
100.0°C

˜ Calculate Solve for the unknown.

error
Start with the equation for percent error. Percent error
ä
ò
100%
accepted value

Substitute the equation for error, and experimental value ź accepted value
then plug in the known values.
Percent error
ä

ò
100%
accepted value
99.1°C ź 100.0°C
ä ò
100%
™ Evaluate Does the result make 100.0°C
sense? The experimental value was off 0.9°C
0.
1
by about 1°C, or 100 of the accepted ä ò
100%
ä
0.9%
10
100.0°C
value (100°C). The answer makes sense.

3. A student measures the depth of a

swimming pool to be 2.04 meters at its Think about it: Using the absolute
deepest end. The accepted value is 2.00 m. value of the error means that percent
What is the student’s percent error? error will always be a positive value.

Scientific Measurement 65

Foundations for Math

ABSOLUTE VALUE Remind students that the absolute value of a number is its
distance from zero on a number line and is always written as a positive number.
So, |4.2| = 4.2 and |–4.2| = 4.2.
Answers
In Sample Problem 3.2, the numerator in the fraction of the formula is the absolute
READING SUPPORT Inaccurate measurements
value of the error. Regardless of whether the experimental value or the accepted
may be due to uncalibrated instruments or
value is larger, the percent error will always be a positive value.
incorrect experimental procedure; imprecise
measurements may be due to poor instrument
operation, variable experimental conditions, or
errors in reading output values.
FIGURE 3.2 poor accuracy, good precision
3. 2%

Scientific Measurement 65
LESSON 3.1 Figure 3.3 Degrees Celsius
The temperature shown on this
Celsius thermometer can be
Explain reported to three significant figures.

Significant Figures
START A CONVERSATION Point out that the concept
of significant figures applies only to measured Significant Figures
quantities. If students ask why an estimated digit Why must measurements be reported to the
is considered significant, tell them a significant correct number of significant figures?
figure is one that is known to be reasonably Look at the reading of the thermometer shown in
reliable. A careful estimate fits this definition. Figure 3.3. If you use a liquid-filled thermometer that
is calibrated in 1°C intervals, you can easily read the
USE VISUALS Direct students’ attention to temperature to the nearest degree. With the same ther-
Figure 3.3. Point out that when calibration marks mometer, however, you can also estimate the temper-
on an instrument are spaced very close together ature to about the nearest tenth of a degree by noting
the closeness of the liquid inside to the calibrations.
(e.g., on certain thermometers and graduated Looking at Figure 3.3, suppose you estimate that the
cylinders), it is sometimes more practical to temperature lies between 22°C and 23°C, at 22.9°C.
estimate a measurement to the nearest half of the This estimated number has three digits. The first two
smallest calibrated increment, rather than to the digits (2 and 2) are known with certainty. But the right-
most digit (9) has been estimated and involves some
nearest tenth. uncertainty. These reported digits all convey useful
CRITICAL THINKING As students inspect Figure 3.4, information, however, and are called significant figures.
model the use of the top meter stick by pointing The significant figures in a measurement include all of
the digits that are known, plus a last digit that is esti-
out that one can be certain that the width of the
mated. Measurements must always be reported to
door is between 0 and 1 m, and one can say that the correct number of significant figures because cal-
the actual width is closer to 1 m. Thus, one can culated answers often depend on the number of sig-
estimate the width as 0.8 m. Similarly, using the nificant figures in the values used in the calculation.
Instruments differ in the number of significant fig-
middle meter stick, one can say with certainty that
ures that can be obtained from their use and thus in the
the width is between 70 and 80 cm. Because the precision of measurements. The three meter sticks in
width is very close to 80 cm, one should estimate Figure 3.4 can be used to make successively more pre-
the width as 77 cm or 0.77 m. Have students study cise measurements.
the bottom meter stick and use similar reasoning
to describe the measurement and estimation ET
KIN IC
process. Ask If the bottom meter stick were divided 0.8 m More on precision in
measurements online.
into 0.001 m intervals, as are most meter sticks, ART
1m
what would be the estimated width of the door in Figure 3.4 Increasing Precision
meters? (Acceptable answers range from 0.7715 to Three differently calibrated meter sticks
0.77 m
are used to measure a door’s width. A
0.7724 m.) In millimeters? (771.5 to 772.4) meter stick calibrated in 0.1-m (1 dm)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1m intervals is more precise than one
calibrated in a 1-m interval but less
0.772 m precise than one calibrated in 0.01-m
(1 cm) intervals. Measure How
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1m many significant figures are reported
in each measurement?

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Check for Understanding

The Essential Question How do scientists express their uncertainty
in measurement?
Assess students’ understanding of the Essential Question by asking students
to complete the following statement:
A measured value’s uncertainty is expressed by its _____ digit. (final; last; rightmost)
ADJUST INSTRUCTION If students are having difficulty answering, refer them to
Figure 3.3. Point out that the rightmost digit in each measurement is an estimated
value. The fact that the rightmost digit is estimated gives the digit its uncertainty.

66 Chapter 3 • Lesson 1
 LESSON 3.1
Determining Significant Figures in Measurements To determine whether a
digit in a measured value is significant, you need to apply the following rules.
Explore
1. Every nonzero digit in a reported measurement 24.7 meters Each of these measurements
is assumed to be significant. 0.743 meter has three significant figures.
714 meters Class Activity
2. Zeros appearing between nonzero digits are 7003 meters Each of these measurements
PURPOSE Students will explore how similar
significant. 40.79 meters has four significant figures. measurements from different eras may vary
1.503 meters in precision.
MATERIALS Almanacs or Internet access
3. Leftmost zeros appearing in front of nonzero 0.0071 meter ä
7.1 ò 10ź3 meter
digits are not significant. They act as
PROCEDURE Have students look up the winning
0.42 meter ä
4.2 ò 10ź1 meter times for the men’s and women’s 100-meter dashes
placeholders. By writing the measurements 0.000 099 meter ä
9.9 ò 10ź5 meter
in scientific notation, you can eliminate such at the 1948 and 2008 Olympic Games. Ask Why do
placeholding zeros. Each of these measurements the more recently recorded race times contain more
has only two significant figures.
digits to the right of the decimal? (The technology
used for timekeeping improved to allow for more
precise measurements.)
4. Zeros at the end of a number and to the right 43.00 meters EXPECTED OUTCOME Students should find that the
Each of these measurements
of a decimal point are always significant. 1.010 meters has four significant figures.
9.000 meters race times from 1948 were recorded to the nearest
tenth of a second. The race times from 2008 were
recorded to the nearest hundredth of a second.
5. Zeros at the rightmost end of a measurement that 300 meters (one significant figure)
lie to the left of an understood decimal point are 7000 meters (one significant figure)
not significant if they serve as placeholders to
show the magnitude of the number. 27,210 meters (four significant figures)

The zeros in these measurements

are not significant.

If such zeros were known measured values, 300 meters ä
3.00 ò 102 meters
however, then they would be significant. (three significant figures)

Writing the value in scientific notation makes it
clear that these zeros are significant. The zeros in this measurement
are significant.

6. There are two situations in which numbers have 23 people in This measurement is a counted
an unlimited number of significant figures. The your classroom value, so it has an unlimited number
first involves counting. A number that is counted of significant figures.
is exact.

The second situation involves exactly defined 60 min ä
1 hr Each of these numbers has an
quantities such as those found within a system 100 cm ä
1 m unlimited number of significant
of measurement. figures.

Scientific Measurement 67

Differentiated Instruction
LPR LESS PROFICIENT READERS Have students write in their own words the rules for

determining the number of significant digits. Help them if necessary. Direct them to
make several measurements, and then use their rules to correctly determine the
correct number of significant digits in the measurements.
L1 STRUGGLING STUDENTS Create one set of flash cards for each rule. Write three

numerical values on each card—two values that follow the rule and one that does
not follow the rule. Have students identify the two values that follow the rule and Answers
explain why the third values does not. FIGURE 3.4 0.8 m, one significant figure;
ELL ADVANCED LEARNERS Have students determine how a measurement, such as 0.77 m, two significant figures; 0.772 m,
area or volume, can be precise without being accurate. three significant figures

Scientific Measurement 67
LESSON 3.1 Sample
1SPCMFN
3.3
Explore Counting Significant Figures in Measurements
Make sure you understand the
rules for counting significant
figures (on the previous page)
How many significant figures are in each measurement? before you begin, okay?
Class Activity a. 123 m d. 22 meter sticks
b. 40,506 mm e. 0.070 80 m
PURPOSE Students will practice applying the c. 9.8000 ñ 104 m f. 98,000 m
rules governing the significance of zeros in
measurements. — Analyze Identify the relevant concepts. The location of each zero in the measurement
and the location of the decimal point determine which of the rules apply for determining
MATERIALS textbook and scientific literature, significant figures. These locations are known by inspecting each measurement value.
index cards
˜ Solve Apply the concepts to this problem.
PROCEDURE Have students search their textbooks
and other sources for length, mass, volume, or
Apply the rules for determining a. three (rule 1) d. unlimited (rule 6)
temperature measurements that contain zeros. significant figures. All nonzero digits
Have them include some examples written in are significant (rule 1). Use rules 2
through 6 to determine if the zeros b. five (rule 2) e. four (rules 2, 3, 4)
scientific notation. Ask them to write each are significant.
measurement on the front of an index card; on c. five (rule 4) f. two (rule 5)
the back of each card, have them write (1) all
the rules governing the significance of zeros that
apply to the measurement, and (2) the number of 4. Count the significant figures in each 5. How many significant figures are in each
significant figures in the measurement. Have pairs measured length. measurement?
of students exchange index cards and agree on the a. 0.057 30 meter a. 143 grams
appropriateness of the rules and the answers. b. 8765 meters b. 0.074 meter
c. 0.000 73 meter c. 8.750 ñ 10Ź2 gram
EXPECTED OUTCOME Students should be able d. 40.007 meters d. 1.072 meters
to apply correctly rules 2–5 listed on page 69.

Explain Significant Figures in Calculations Suppose you use a calculator to find the
DRAW A CONCLUSION Explain that due to area of a floor that measures 7.7 meters by 5.4 meters. The calculator would
rounding, there will often be discrepancies between
CHEMISTRY &YYOU give an answer of 41.58 square meters. However, each of the measurements
Q: Suppose that the winner of a used in the calculation is expressed to only two significant figures. As a result,
actual values and calculated values derived from the answer must also be reported to two significant figures (42 m2). In gen-
100-meter dash finishes the race in
measurements. Ask students to draw a conclusion 9.98 seconds. The runner in second eral, a calculated answer cannot be more precise than the least precise meas-
about whether following the rules for significant place has a time of 10.05 seconds. urement from which it was calculated. The calculated value must be rounded
figures introduces error in calculated values. How many significant figures to make it consistent with the measurements from which it was calculated.
are in each measurement? Is one
(Although rounding errors are generally small, measurement more accurate than Rounding To round a number, you must first decide how many significant
they should be acknowledged when performing the other? Explain your answer. figures the answer should have. This decision depends on the given measure-
calculations.) ments and on the mathematical process used to arrive at the answer. Once
you know the number of significant figures your answer should have, round

&
to that many digits, counting from the left. If the digit immediately to the
CHEMISTRY Y
YO
YOU U The time of 9.98 seconds right of the last significant digit is less than 5, it is simply dropped and the
has three significant figures, and the time of value of the last significant digit stays the same. If the digit in question is 5 or
greater, the value of the digit in the last significant place is increased by 1.
10.05 seconds has four significant figures. Both
times have the same accuracy because they are
measured to the nearest 0.01 second. 68 $IBQUFS

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Sample Practice Problem

How many significant figures does the number
103,400 have? (4)
Foundations for Math
ZEROS IN SIGNIFICANT FIGURES Remind students that a number may contain both
significant and nonsignificant zeros. In this situation, more than one rule must be
applied to determine which zeros are significant and which zeros are not significant.
In Sample Problem 3.3e, the number 0.07080 contains both significant and
nonsignificant zeros. Rewriting this number in scientific notation makes it easier to
determine which zeros are significant figures, by removing the nonsignificant zeros
from immediate view:
0.07080 = 7.080 × 10–2
Now it is obvious that the zeros to the left of the 7 act as placeholders and are not
significant, while the remaining two zeros are significant because of their location.

68 Chapter 3 • Lesson 1
 LESSON 3.1
Sample Problem 3.4
Explain
Rounding Measurements
Round off each measurement to the number of significant figures shown in parentheses.
Write the answers in scientific notation.
Significant Figures
a. 314.721 meters (four) SUMMARIZE As a class, summarize the rules for
b. 0.001 775 meter (two) significant figures in a bulleted list or a fishbone
c. 8792 meters (two) map. Students should state the rules in their own
— Analyze Identify the relevant concepts. Using the rules for determining significant words and provide an example for each rule.
figures, round the number in each measurement. Then apply the rules for expressing
numbers in scientific notation. Misconception Alert
˜ Solve Apply the concepts to this problem. Some students may think that because they use
a calculator, that there results are shown with the
Starting from the left, count the first four proper number of significant figures. Explain that
digits that are significant. The arrow
points to the digit immediately following a. 314.721 meters this is not the case, and even scientific calculators or
the last significant digit. graphing calculators do not round answers to the
2 is less than 5, so you do not round up.
314.7 meters
ä
3.147
ò
102 meters correct number of significant figures.

Sample Practice Problem

Starting from the left, count the first two
digits that are significant. The arrow Round each measurement to two significant figures.
b. 0.001 775 meters
points to the digit immediately following Write your answer in scientific notation.
the second significant digit.
7 is greater than 5, so round up. a. 94.592 grams (9.5 × 101 g)
0.0018 meter
ä
1.8
ò
10Ľ3 meter b. 2.4332 × 103 grams (2.4 × 103 g)
c. 0.007438 grams (7.4 × 10–3 g)
Starting from the left, count the first two d. 54,752 grams (5.5 × 104 g)
digits that are significant. The arrow c. 8792 meters
points to the digit immediately following e. 6.0289 × 10–3 grams 6.0 × 10–3 g)
the second significant digit. 9 is greater than 5, so round up. f. 405.11 grams (4.1 × 102 g)
8800 meters
ä
8.8
ò
103 meters

6. Round each measurement to three 7. Round each measurement in

significant figures. Write your answers Problem 6 to one significant figure.
in scientific notation. Write each of your answers in
a. 87.073 meters scientific notation.
b. 4.3621 ñ 108 meters
If you’re already familiar
c. 0.01552 meter with rounding numbers,
d. 9009 meters you can skip to Sample
e. 1.7777 ñ 10Ź3 meter Problems 3.5 and 3.6.
f. 629.55 meters
Answers
4. a. 4 c. 2
Scientific Measurement 69
b. 4 d. 5
5. a. 3 c. 4
b. 2 d. 4
Foundations for Math 6. a. 8.71 × 101 m
COMMON ERROR Stress to students that rounding to a given number of significant
b. 4.36 × 108 m
figures is not necessarily the same thing as rounding to that many decimal places. c. 1.55 × 10–2 m
For example, if 7.376 is rounded to two significant figures, the result is 7.4. d. 9.01 × 103 m
Students often confuse this process with rounding to two decimal places, in which e. 1.78 × 10–3 m
case the result would be 7.38. This number has three significant figures, not two. f. 6.30 × 102 m
In Sample Problem 3.4b, none of the zeros are significant. Stress that the answer is 7. a. 9 × 101 m
not rounded to two decimal places. Rather, the number will be rounded to four decimal b. 4 × 108 m
places because the second significant figure (7) is in the ten ten-thousandths place.
c. 2 × 10–2 m
d. 9 × 103 m
e. 2 × 10–3 m
f. 6 × 102 m

Scientific Measurement 69
LESSON 3.1 Addition and Subtraction The answer to an addition or subtraction cal-
culation should be rounded to the same number of decimal places (not
digits) as the measurement with the least number of decimal places.
Explain Sample Problem 3.5 gives examples of rounding in addition and subtraction.

START A CONVERSATION The rules for rounding Multiplication and Division In calculations involving multiplication and
calculated numbers can be compared with the old division (such as those in Sample Problem 3.6), you need to round the answer
to the same number of significant figures as the measurement with the least
adage, “A chain is only as strong as its weakest number of significant figures. The position of the decimal point has nothing
link.” Explain that an answer cannot be more to do with the rounding process when multiplying and dividing measure-
precise than the least precise value used to calculate ments. The position of the decimal point is important only in rounding the
the answer. Ask In addition and subtraction, what answers of addition or subtraction problems.
is the least precise value? (The measurement with
the fewest digits to the right of the decimal point.)
Ask In multiplication and division, what is the least
precise value? (The measurement with the fewest
Sample Problem 3.5
significant figures.) If students wonder why addition
and subtraction rules differ from multiplication Significant Figures in Addition and Subtraction
and division rules, point out that in addition and Perform the following addition and subtraction operations. Give each answer to the
correct number of significant figures.
subtraction of measurements, the measurements a. 12.52 meters à 349.0 meters à 8.24 meters
are of the same property, such as length or volume. b. 74.626 meters Ź 28.34 meters
However, in the multiplication and division of
measurements, new quantities or properties are — Analyze Identify the relevant concepts. Perform the specified math operation, and
then round the answer to match the measurement with the least number of decimal places.
being described, such as speed (length ÷ time), area
(length × length), or density (mass ÷ volume). ˜ Solve Apply the concepts to this problem.

Misconception Alert Align the decimal points and add the numbers. a. 12.52
349.0
meters
meters
Students may argue that making one measurement á
8.24 meters
of a dimension, such as length, is adequate. Ask The second measurement (349.0 meters) has the least 369.76 meters
number of digits (one) to the right of the decimal point.
What possible errors may occur when making only So the answer must be rounded to one digit after the 369.8 meters
ä
3.698
ò
102 meters
one length measurement? (Acceptable answers decimal point.
include misreading the ruler or not holding the ruler
parallel to the length of the object.) Align the decimal points and subtract the numbers. b. 74.626 meters
ź
28.34 meters
46.286 meters
Sample Practice Problem The second measurement (28.34 meters) has the least
number of digits (two) to the right of the decimal point.
What is the total mass of three rock samples that So the answer must be rounded to two digits after the 46.29 meters
ä
4.629
ò
101 meters
have measured masses of 20.72 grams, 24.8 grams, decimal point.
and 17.35 grams? (62.9 grams)
8. Perform each operation. Express your answers 9. Find the total mass of three diamonds that
to the correct number of significant figures. have masses of 14.2 grams, 8.73 grams, and
a. 61.2 meters à 9.35 meters à 8.6 meters 0.912 gram.
b. 9.44 meters Ź 2.11 meters
c. 1.36 meters à
10.17 meters
d. 34.61 meters Ź 17.3 meters

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Foundations for Math

ADDITION AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES Explain to students that when performing
calculations that involve measurements with significant figures, the final result must
be rounded to be consistent with the measurements. When adding and subtracting,
if the measurements have different numbers of significant figures, the final result
should be rounded to the same number of decimal places as the number with the
least number of decimal places.
In Sample Problem 3.5, the first step should be to identify the measurement with
the least number of decimal places. Encourage students to underline or circle this
measurement. The result of the calculation should be rounded to the same number
of decimal places (not digits) as this measurement.

70 Chapter 3 • Lesson 1
 LESSON 3.1
CHEM

TU
Sample Problem 3.6
TOR
Explain
Significant Figures in Multiplication and Division
Perform the following operations. Give the answers to the correct number of significant figures.
a. 7.55 meters ñ 0.34 meter
Sample Practice Problem
b. 2.10 meters ñ 0.70 meter A small rectangular container has measured
c. 2.4526 meters2 ó 8.4 meters dimensions of 4.25 inches by 8.5 inches by
d. 0.365 meter2 ó 0.0200 meter 1.75 inches. What is the volume of the container?
— Analyze Identify the relevant concepts. Perform the specified math operation, and then (63 cubic inches)
round the answer to match the measurement with the least number of significant figures.

˜ Solve Apply the concepts to this problem. Evaluate

The second measurement (0.34 meter)
has the least number of significant
Informal Assessment
figures (two). So the answer must be a. 7.55 meters ò
0.34 meter
ä
2.567 (meter)2

Write the following sets of measurements on the
rounded to two significant figures.
ä
2.6 meters2
board.
(1) 70ºC, 70ºC, 80ºC
The second measurement (0.70 meter) (2) 77ºC, 78ºC, 78ºC
has the least number of significant
figures (two). So the answer must be b. 2.10 meters ò
0.70 meter
ä
1.47 (meter)
2 (3) 80.25ºC, 84.50ºC, 86.00ºC
rounded to two significant figures.
ä
1.5 meters2 Ask The temperature of a liquid under similar
conditions was measured every ten minutes by three
The second measurement (8.4 meters2)
different students. Which student had the most
has the least number of significant precise measuring instrument? (Set 3 is the most
figures (two). So the answer must be c. 2.4526 meters2
ô
8.4 meters
ä
0.291 976 meter

precise because the measurements have the greatest
rounded to two significant figures.
ä
0.29 meter
number of significant figures.) Ask What would have
to be known to determine which set is the most
Both measurements have three accurate? (the accepted value of the liquid’s
significant figures. So the answer must d. 0.365 meters2
ô
0.0200 meter
ä
18.25 meters
boiling point)
be rounded to three significant figures.

ä
18.3 meters
Reteach
Use Figure 3.4 to reteach the method of correctly
recording the number of significant figures in a
10. Solve each problem. Give your 11. Calculate the volume of a warehouse measurement. Then have students convert each
answers to the correct number that has measured dimensions of measurement into scientific notation. (8 × 10–1 m,
of significant figures and in 22.4 meters by 11.3 meters by
7.7 × 10–1 m, 7.72 × 10–1 m)
scientific notation. 5.2 meters. ((Volume â l ñ w ñ h))
a. 8.3 meters ñ 2.22 meters
b. 8432 meters2 ó 12.5 meters In Problem 11, the measurement
1 minute with the fewest significant figures is
c. 35.2 seconds ñ
60 seconds 5.2 meters. What does this tell you?

Scientific Measurement 71

Focus on ELL
4 LANGUAGE PRODUCTION Have students work in pairs to complete the lab. Make
sure each pair has ELLs of varied language proficiencies, so that more proficient
students can help less proficient ones. Have students work according to their
proficiency level. Answers
BEGINNING: LOW/HIGH Underline the action verbs in each step of the procedure. 8. a. 79.2 m c. 11.53 m
Work with a partner to follow each step. b. 7.33 m d. 17.3 m
9. 23.8 g
INTERMEDIATE: LOW/HIGH Use a chart to keep track of the different measurements
needed for the lab. 10. a. 1.8 × 101 m2
b. 6.75 × 102 m
ADVANCED: LOW/HIGH With the help of a partner, answer #2 of the Analyze and
c. 5.87 × 10–1 min
Conclude section of the lab.
11. 1.3 × 103 m3

Scientific Measurement 71
LESSON 3.1 Quick Lab
Explore Purpose To measure the Accuracy and Precision
dimensions of an object as
Quick Lab accurately and precisely as
possible and to apply rules for
Procedure
rounding answers calculated 1. Use a metric ruler to measure in centimeters the length and width of an
OBJECTIVES Af
After completing this activity, students index card as accurately as you can. The hundredths place in your measure-
from the measurements
will be able to measure length with accuracy ment should be estimated.
and precision, apply rules for rounding answers Materials 2. Calculate the area (A â l ñ w) and the perimeter [P â 2 ñ (l à
w)] of the
calculated from measurements, and determine r
3-inch ñ 5-inch index card index card. Write both your unrounded answers and your correctly rounded
r
metric ruler answers on the chalkboard.
experimental error and express it as percent error.
SKILLS FOCUS Measuring, calculating
PREP TIME 5 minutes
Analyze and Conclude
CLASS TIME 15 minutes
1. Identify How many significant figures are in your measure-
MATERIALS 3 inch × 5 inch index cards, ments of length and of width?
metric rulers 2. Compare How do your measurements compare with those of
your classmates?
TEACHING TIPS Emphasize that students should use
3. Explain How many significant figures are in your calculated
an interior, marked line, such as 10.0 cm, as the value for the area? In your calculated value for the perimeter? Do
initial point, instead of the end of the ruler, which your rounded answers have as many significant figures as your
may be damaged. classmates’ measurements?
4. Evaluate Assume that the correct (accurate) length and width
EXPECTED OUTCOME Measured values should be
of the card are 12.70 cm and 7.62 cm, respectively. Calculate the
similar, but not necessarily identical, for all students. percent error for each of your two measurements.
ANALYZE AND CONCLUDE
1. Four for length; three for width
2. See Expected Outcome.

3.1 Lesso
NLIN
O

3. Significant digits for rounded-off answers are

E

area, 3, and perimeter, 4. Some students may LessonCheck

PR

OBLE
M

not round to the proper number of digits.

12. Review How can you express a number in 17. Calculate Solve the following and express
4. Errors of ± 0.03 cm are acceptable. Such errors scientific notation? each answer in scientific notation and to
yield percent errors of 0.2% for length and the correct number of significant figures.
13. Review How are accuracy and precision evaluated?
0.4% for width. a. (5.3 ñ
104) à (1.3 ñ 104)
14. Explain Why must a given measurement always be b. (7.2 ñ 10−4) ó (1.8 ñ 103)
FOR ENRICHMENT Have students devise methods reported to the correct number of significant figures?
c. 104 ñ 10Ź3 ñ 106
of calculating the volume of one card. Point out 15. Calculate A technician experimentally determined the d. (9.12 ñ 10Ź1) Ź (4.7 ñ 10Ź2)
that measuring the thickness of one card with a boiling point of octane to be 124.1°C. The actual boiling e. (5.4 ñ 104) ñ (3.5 ñ 109)
ruler would be very inaccurate. Ask How might point of octane is 125.7°C. Calculate the error and the
percent error.
the measurement of the thickness of the card be BIGIDEA QUANTIFYING MATTER
improved? (Use a more precise instrument, such 16. Evaluate Determine the number of significant figures in
18. Write a brief paragraph explaining
as a micrometer, or measure the thickness of a each of the following measurements:
the differences between the accuracy,
a. 11 soccer players d. 0.010 square meter precision, and error of a measurement.
stack of cards and divide by the number of b. 0.070 020 meter e. 5.00 cubic meters
cards.) Have students determine the thickness of c. 10,800 meters f. 507 thumbtacks
one card and calculate its volume. Using the class
average of the calculated volumes, have each
student determine the percent error using the 72 $IBQUFS

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average as the accepted value.

Lesson Check Answers

12. Write the number as a product of two 15. error = –1.6ºC; 18. BIGIDEA Accuracy compares a
numbers: a coefficient greater than or percent error = 1.3% measured value to an accepted value of
equal to one and less than ten, and 16. a. unlimited d. 2 the measurement; precision compares a
10 raised to an integer power. measured value to a set of measurements
b. 5 e. 3
13. Accuracy compares the measured value made under similar conditions; and error is
to the correct value. Precision compares c. 3 f. unlimited
the difference between the measured and
more than one measurement. 17. a. 6.6 × 104 d. 8.65 × 10−1 accepted values.
14. The significant figures in a calculated b. 4.0 × 10−7 e. 1.9 × 1014
answer depend on the number of c. 107
significant figures of the measurements
and the mathematical operation used in
the calculation.

72 Chapter 3 • Lesson 1
 CHEMISTRY & YOU
CHEMISTRY
Y &YOU:
Y EVERYDAY MATTER
CHEMISTRY & Y
YO
YOU U Have students study
the photographs closely. Point out that the most
Watch What You Measure important decision these professionals make when
they begin their measurement is not whether to use
Just because you live in a digital age doesn’t mean
that you no longer have to do things by hand. In fact, a manual tool or a technologically advanced tool—
manually measuring quantities remains an important the most important decision is to determine the
everyday skill in a number of professions and activities. correct tool for the task. The choice of tool helps
For example, chefs measure volumes of ingredients determine the overall accuracy of the measurement.
in cups (C) or liters (L). Tailors use a tape measure
calibrated in inches (in. or Ń) to measure length, while
7 _34 ” Explain to students that the flexible cloth tape
biologists use metric rulers or calipers calibrated in measure used by the tailor is divided into increments
centimeters (cm). A ship’s navigator uses a sextant to of 1/16 of an inch. Pose the following question to
measure the angle between the sun and the horizon. students: Imagine that the only tool the tailor had
The angle is expressed in degrees (°) and minutes (Ł). available was a wooden ruler divided into 1-inch
The next time you make a measurement in lab, increments. How might the use of the wooden
keep in mind that lots of other measurers are rounding
ruler affect the outcome of the custom-tailored suit
and noting significant figures, just like you are.
the tailor is constructing? You may need to assist
7.92 cm students in the following ways:
• Custom-tailored clothing is designed to fit the
body measurements of the intended wearer.
• Many of the measurements a tailor makes involve
curves or circumferences.
• A typical non-retractable cloth tape measure
ranges in length from 60 to 96 inches.

Extend
42° 31.4’
Connect to ARCHITECTURE

Explain to students that one field which makes use

of manual systems of measurement is architecture.
Discuss how manual tools are utilized by an architect
during both the design stages of a project (such as
Take It Further making blueprints or producing models) and by the
1. Measure What is the measured height
various tradesmen during the implementation of the
of the tomato shown above? How many architect’s design and blueprints. Have students think
significant figures does your answer have? of a specific example of an architectural project and
2. Identify What are some other activities write a brief paragraph discussing how, during each
that involve measurements done by hand? stage of construction, various manual systems
What units and measuring tools are used?
of measurement might be utilized to create a
finished product.
Chemistry & You 73

Differentiated Instruction
L1 STRUGGLING STUDENTS Have students produce a list of several tools used to

manually take measurements. The list should include both the name of the tool and
what quantity it is used to measure.
ELL ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS Have students print out pictures of tools

commonly used measure and arrange them on a poster board. Students should write
Answers
a description of the tool and people who might use such a tool for their work or TAKE IT FURTHER
everyday lives. 1. 32.72 mm (four significant figures)
2. Answers may vary; possibilities include
L3 ADVANCED STUDENTS Have students choose a trade that commonly utilizes
measuring length of fabric (yards and
computerized measuring tools and research how the systems of measurement have yardsticks), measuring weight of a letter (ounces
evolved over time in that trade. Encourage students to be creative in what format and a scale), measuring weight of produce in a
they use to display their findings. store (pounds and a scale).

Chemistry & You 73