ME 470B - Mechanical Engineering Systems Laboratory

Solar Thermal System Efficiency

Group 15
Lab Performed: February 3rd, 2020
Lab Report Due: February 17th, 2020

“I pledge my honor that I have abided by the Stevens Honor System.”

The report has been prepared by:

Group Leader: Anthony Falconite
Ellen Drennan
Chiyere Emili
Matthew Foerst
Abstract

Solar thermal energy systems concentrate sunlight to absorb solar energy and convert to
generate either thermal energy or electrical energy for usage and storage. In the U.S, solar energy
in the range of 100-350 W/m2 from the sun falls on the ground, and climax at about 1000W/m2
on the upper atmosphere of the earth. Within an hour, the solar energy transferred to the U.S. is
enough energy to last for a year. Most solar thermal energy systems consist of solar energy
collectors with two main components: reflectors capture and center sunlight onto the receivers.
During the operation of this type of system, a heat-transfer fluid is heated and dispersed in the
receiver and used to produce steam which is then converted to energy. This system is generally
used in both the residential homes and chemical industries. The thermal system applied in the
experiment is just one of the many ways solar energy can be utilized as a substitute for energy
source in everyday life. The purpose of this lab experiment was to understand how radiant solar
energy can be converted into thermal energy, and to determine the overall efficiency of a solar
thermal water heating system. This lab utilized a solar water heater typically used to generate hot
water in a residential setting. Heat from the incident solar energy was collected on the absorber
plate which in turn heated a working fluid contained in a pipe system. The group was able to
examine how the working fluid was heated and how sensors positioned along the flow were able
to track and record data that the group was able to use for calculations. This system was
connected to a data acquisition system (DAQ) that monitors the fluid temperatures at 12 different
locations. By analyzing the data on the total energy emission from the UV lamps and the heat
output from the collector, the group was able to calculate the overall efficiency of the solar
thermal system. The group determined the overall efficiency for the solar system was 19.87% by
comparing the incident radiative energy of the lamps to the thermal energy gained by the
working fluid.
Introduction

The engineering obstacle immersed within this experiment was understanding the
functionality of the given solar thermal system. Solar thermal technology utilize the sun’s energy,
rather than coal or fossil fuels, to produce thermal energy in an environmentally friendly method.
Due to the use of clean energy, these systems are being analyzed and enforced within different
types of operation, such as power plants, water heaters and solar cooling systems. Since solar
thermal energy is deemed to be both cost effective and efficient, researchers are exploring other
successful methods to convert this energy for use.
For this laboratory experiment, the group had an opportunity to examine the functionality
of a solar water heater that is used to generate water in a residential setting. A panel of sixteen
300 Watt UV lamps emulate sunlight, and this energy is absorbed by a solar collector plate.
Beneath the absorber plate is a system of aluminum and copper pipes containing a mixture of
water and 30% ethylene glycol mixture. The incident solar energy is collected as heat that is
transferred to the fluid, which is then stored in an insulated storage tank until it is to be used. At
the beginning, as the system heats up, the fluid moves within the collector due to the
thermosiphon effect which is a natural form of convection. This effect is induced by the
temperature difference between the cold fluid in the storage tank and the hot fluid in the solar
collector.
As the temperature of the fluid increases, it density decreases, causing it to rise within the
system. Concurrently, the colder fluid increases its density and therefore moves downwards and
a buoyancy driven flow that moves the fluid. The larger the temperature difference between the
tank and collector, the greater the flow rate. The mixture flows in the “primary” loop into a 150
L capacity large tank at the back of the system. At this spot, the mixture passes through a heat
exchanger using water in the “secondary” loop. The heat exchanger is a shell and tube system,
which prevents the fluids from mixing. The heated water is reserved in the tank until it is used.
The tank is then refilled using cold water via an inlet line. This system also contains pumps and
electric heaters to aid in the process when flow rates and convection slows down. A data
acquisition (DAQ) system is connected to the experimental setup to monitor the fluid
temperature at twelve different locations using thermocouples along with primary and secondary
loop fluid flow rates.
The group was assigned to explore and understand how the system works in order to heat
the fluid, as well as calculate the efficiency of the overall system. The group examined locations
of various sensors and determined where data was needed to be taken from for the appropriate
calculations. AN innovative idea on how to determine the efficiency of the system involved
measuring the temperature difference before and after fluid passed through the heat exchanger.
This would allow the group to detect the heat absorbed and examine it in contrast to the heat
released from the UV lamps.
 The objective of this lab is to gain experience in solving open-ended problems by using
knowledge gained from previous thermal/fluids courses and measurements from a physical
system to calculate and analyze the overall efficiency of a solar thermal water heater. The
efficiency of a solar collector is expected to decrease with increasing temperature difference
between the solar collector and the ambient. Efficiency is a valuable theory that can be utilized
not only for engineering purposes, but also for corporations aiming for solar energy usage into
mainstream residential and commercial implementations in order to promote an environmentally
healthy practice.

Theory & Experimental Procedure

A solar water heater collects energy provided by the sun and in turn converts it to heat
energy via a flowing water supply. The heated water can then be transferred elsewhere to
distribute the sun’s heat where seen fit. By leveraging the laws of thermodynamics and the
greenhouse effect, the setup used in this experiment (shown below in Figure 1) draws
electromagnetic energy from OSRAM ULTRA-VITALUX® UV-lamps (Appendix A1), arranged
in an array which mimics the sun, and distributes it across a 2.32 m2 collector. A solution of 30%
ethylene glycol/water mixture flows through the bottom of the collector where heat energy from
the lamps is absorbed into the fluid. The ethylene glycol/water fluid is then pumped through a
secondary loop in which the heat is transferred to fluid in a tank and eventually outputted from
the system.

Figure 1 - Solar Water Heater

 The experiment conducted aims to be a proof of concept for real-world solar heating
apparatuses. Outside of the lab environment, such a setup would utilize the sun’s energy instead
of UV lamps, however aside from this one deviation the experimental setup closely mirrors how
a commercial product might operate. The theory being tested in this experiment is primarily
focused on the transfer of heat from the lamp array to the collector surface, through the working
fluid (30% ethylene glycol/water mixture), and finally into some external target which is to be
heated. Figure 2 details the system schematic for this experiment and emphasizes some of the
important components mentioned above.

Figure 2 - Solar Water System Schematic

The system was allowed to reach equilibrium, meaning that the lamp array and pumps
were operated until the sensors achieved steady-state values. Once equilibrium was achieved
values could be recorded to be analyzed in calculations. Data points of specific interest are as
follows: solar incident upon the collector, working fluid flow rate, and the temperature of the
working fluid at the inlet and outlet of the collector. These data points are used to draw
conclusions about the efficiency of the system and the potential impact of a solar water heater
both within and outside of the lab environment.
With the system operating in equilibrium the necessary data were collected by following
a simple procedure. First, the working fluid temperature values of the inlet and outlet, along with
its volumetric flow rate, were recorded from the system’s computer display. Next, to estimate the
energy incident on the collector surface a total of 25 data points were collected using an
Amprobe SOLAR-100 Solar Power Meter (Appendix A2). These points were distributed evenly
across the collector surface and are used to determine the average power per square meter
incident on the collector.

Results
The raw data collected from the experiment, obtained through the procedure shown in the
above section, is shown below:

Working fluid temperature at collector inlet (T1): 29.4°C

Working fluid temperature at collector outlet (T2): 47.9°C
Working fluid volumetric flow rate (V̇): 0.79 L/min
Power per area, or intensity (Iij): See Figure 3

Figure 3 - Intensity measurements in Btu/ft2*hr

 The following calculations use the above raw data to draw conclusions on the efficiency
of the solar water heater. The recorded volumetric flow rate is converted to a mass flow rate
using the density of ethylene glycol/water mixture. For the sake of consistency throughout the
analysis stage, the raw data was converted to SI units. The values used in the following analyses
are shown below and the means taken to reach these values are also provided:

Given or formally established values:

Density of water (⍴w): 997 kg/m3

Density of ethylene glycol (⍴eg): 1,100 kg/m3
Working fluid specific heat (cp): 3.806 kJ/kg°C

Conversions and Calculations:

T1 = 29.4°C + 273 = 302.4 K

T2 = 47.9°C + 273 = 320.9 K

Density of 30% ethylene glycol/water (⍴) =

⍴ = 0.3(⍴eg)+ 0.7(⍴w) = 0.3(1,100 kg/m3) + 0.7(997 kg/m3) = 1,027.9 kg/m3

Mass flow rate (ṁ) =

3 3
1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.001 𝑚 𝐿 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.001 𝑚 𝑘𝑔
ṁ = 𝑉̇ * ( 60 𝑠
)( 1𝐿
)(⍴) = 0. 79 𝑚𝑖𝑛
*( 60 𝑠
)( 1𝐿
)(1, 027. 9 3 )
𝑚
ṁ =0.01353 kg/s

Average intensity, in Btu/ft2*hr (IE):

IE = (38.1 + 85.7 + 74.1 + 77.0 + 33.0 + 38.7 + 95.0 + 66.3 + 83.0 + 42.8 + 35.4 +
96.0 +77.4 + 106.0 + 37.9 + 28.2 + 115.8 + 73.6 + 124.2 + 34.4 + 37.5 +
90.9 + 60.8 + 108.3 + 24.2) / 25
IE = 67.372 Btu/ft2*hr

Average intensity, in W/m2 (I):

I = Ie* 3.154590745 W*ft2*hr/Btu*m2
= (67.372 Btu/ft2*hr)(3.154590745 W*ft2*hr/Btu*m2)
I = 212.53 W/m2

Total energy emitted by the lamps (Q̇total energy):

Q̇lamps= 300W
 Q̇total energy= Q̇lamps * nlamps = 300W * 16
Q̇total energy= 4,800W
Power incident on collector (P):
P = I * A = 212.53 W/m 2 * 2.32 m2
P = 493.07 W

Heat transfer to working fluid (Q̇output):

Q̇ = ṁ*cp*ΔT = (0.01353 kg/s)(3.806 kJ/kg°C)(47.9°C - 29.4°C)
Q̇output = 952.7 W

Efficiency of the System (ƞ):

η = Q̇output/Q̇total energy = 952.7W/4,800W
η = 19.87%

Utilizing the energy emitted from the UV lamps and the heat transfer from the working
fluid, the calculated efficiency was 19.87%. The efficiency of this system fails to take into
account the angle between the UV lamps and the collector, that differ by location and time of
day, which can only decrease the efficiency of the system from the calculated value. A more
precise solution could be calculated by the experiment so that the energy density of the power
incident on the collector more closely imitates that of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface.

Discussion

A graph showing solar collector efficiency as a function of temperature difference

between the collector and the ambient is included in the laboratory assignment instructions. This
graph, pictured below in Figure 3, shows an indirect relationship between these two variables. It
is clear that efficiency decreases with increasing temperature difference.
 Figure 3 - Solar Collector Efficiency as a Function of Temperature Difference
This trend can be explained by the second law of thermodynamics. The nature of the
solar collector is to return to thermal equilibrium with the ambient environment. The heat is lost
through conduction, convection, and radiation, and as the difference in temperature between the
collector and the ambient increases, heat is lost from the collector more rapidly. With the process
of heat loss increasing in speed, less of the heat energy gained by the solar collector can be
retained and transformed into useful electricity.
The two following options were presented as worthy combinations that might be most
desirable for efficient operation of the solar thermal system. A detailed discussion on which
option is best follows:
a. HIgh temperature output at the collector primary loop exit and a low flow rate
through the collector
b. High flow rate in the primary loop and a lower temperature at the exit of the
collector
Option “a” would be a more desirable option to create an efficient operation of the solar
thermal heating system. A high temperature output at the collector primary loop would indicate a
large amount of heat transfer from the UV lights to the fluid within the loop (working fluid).
Efficiency is increased when the amount of energy transferred is increased. This high
temperature at the primary loop exit will increase system efficiency because this water then
enters the shell and tube heat exchanger to heat up the usable domestic water. A large difference
in temperature between working fluid and heated water will cause a greater rate of heat transfer
and larger amount of heat transfer. The system is more efficient in this case. If the temperature
was low, as in option “b,” then the heat transfer would be much lower. Causing a lower
temperature difference (delta T) between working fluid and heated water; this lower delta T
decreases heat transfer and efficiency of the system. More fluid would be needed to heat all the
water in the tank.
 With regards to the low flow rate through the collector, the efficiency also increases with
a low flow rate. Heat transfer is a transient process within this system. The more time fluid
spends in the collector, the more heat is transferred. A low flow rate will ensure the working
fluid spends more time in the collector, absorbing as much heat as possible. If the flow rate was
high, the collector would transfer less heat to the working fluid. Low flow rate through the
collector directly increases efficiency.

Conclusion

The group concluded that the solar water heating system had an overall efficiency of
19.87%. The lab instructions were vague which led to some errors with collecting experimental
data. The group had a rough estimation on the energy collected by the solar heater collector. The
device that determined the intensity on the collector never maintained a consistent number, and
varied greatly depending on the location of the collector. Due to that, the group considered that
the calculation for determining the power supplied to the entire collector by the UV lights was
too low to be reasonable. The power should have been much greater because the heat transfer to
the working fluid was very high. The experiment was a positive learning experience for the
group; it showed the group how to set up an experiment with an engineering mindset without
detailed instructions. A main takeaway was to make sure each group member considers the ideas
from other group members because this leads to a better and more accurate solution. The group
plans to be more aware of the hardest aspect of future labs. For instance, if the group had to redo
this lab, more time would be spent on collecting the power input to the solar collector because
this was the most difficult and open-ended aspect of this experiment. Also, the group would test
alternative methods to strengthen the collected data. This group feels more confident with the
ability to solve open-ended, real-world engineering problems.

References

“Water-Density, Specific Weight and Thermal Expansion Coefficient.” The Engineering Toolbox,
https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/water-density-specific-weight-d_595.html

“Ethylene-Glycol Heat-Transfer Fluid.” The Engineering Toolbox,

www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ethylene-glycol-d_146.html
Appendices
A1 - OSRAM ULTRA-VITALUX® UV-lamp

A2 - Amprobe SOLAR-100 Solar Power Meter