Filtering NumericalProtectionRelays

Numerical Relays
Introduction and Filtering Techniques
Ilhan Kocar
21/03/2022
Evolution of Technology
Electronic Relay Digital Relay

Electromechanical
Relay (Analog) (Numerical)
RTU Based on Ethernet / Private Protocols Based on Ethernet / Standard

RS485 / T103-DNP3 UCA/IEC-61850
2
Basic Components of a Numerical Relay - I
3
Basic Components of a Numerical Relay - II
4
Analog Input Acquisition
The analog input is the waveforms of voltages and currents
Input from power system is through Current Transformers (CT) and Voltage Transformers
(VT)
Protective relays require reasonably accurate reproduction of the normal, tolerable, and
intolerable conditions in the power system for correct sensing and operation1.
Typical Sampling
▪ Three voltage signals: phase voltages
▪ Three current signals: line currents
5
Fundamental Notions on Signal Processing - I
Periodic signal
▪ Same magnitude after a time interval of T called period. The voltage and current signals in North America have a
period of 16.66 ms. The period is often simply called cycle.
Frequency of a periodic signal
▪ 1/T, 60 Hz or cycles per second in North America
Sampling frequency
▪ Number of samples over a time interval of 1 second. In modern numerical relays: 240, 480, 720, 960 or 1920 Hz.
Period of Sampling
▪ Inverse of sampling frequency
Number of samples per cycle
▪ Sampling frequency over network frequency
Analysis window
▪ The time interval during which the signal is analyzed to extract a frequency component. In numerical relays, it is often the
fundamental frequency (60 Hz) but in certain cases harmonics (120, 180, 240 Hz etc.)
▪ Analysis window is independent form sampling frequency (if sampling is 960 Hz and window one cycle then 16 samples per window,
window half cycle than 8 samples per window)
Sampling theory: A signal with a frequency band limited to Fc can be numerically reconstructed with 2xFc sampling
6
Fundamental Notions on Signal Processing - II
For example, sampling at 960 Hz or 16 samples per second
▪ we assume the signal is limited to a frequency band of 480 Hz.
▪ All frequency components below 480 Hz can be reconstructed.
▪ All the components above 480 Hz need to be eliminated using an ideal low pass filter (anti-aliasing filter).
Sampling at 240 Hz
▪ The signal islimited to 120 Hz
▪ Above 120 Hz need to be eliminated. Not possible e.g., to reconstruct third harmonic at 180 Hz.
Sampling 240 Hz Sampling 960 Hz

4 samples per cycle 16 samples per cycle
7
Filtering System with a Window of Two Samples - I
Consider a sinusoidal current or voltage waveform
x (t ) A sin( t )
It can also be expressed with
x (t ) A cos( )sin( t ) A sin( )cos( t ) or in matrix form
x (t1 ) sin( t1 ) cos( t1 ) A cos( )
x (t1 t) sin( t1 t ) cos( t1 t ) A sin( )
We can arbitrarily choose t1 0

1
x (0) 0 1 A cos( ) A cos( ) 0 1 x (0)
The solution is
x( t) sin( t ) cos( t ) A sin( ) A sin( ) sin( t ) cos( t ) x( t)
If let us say samples are taken at each 2pi/12 radians (12 samples per cycle, sampling frequency of 720 Hz at 60 Hz
A cos( ) 3 2 x (0) Change of variables for y1 A cos

A sin( ) the unknowns
1 0 x( t) y2 A sin
8
Filtering System with a Window of Two Samples - II
y1 A cos
y2 A sin
Provided by non-recursive filters expressed as
y1 1.7321 x (0) 2.0 x ( t )
y2 1.0 x (0)
At each period of sampling, the amplitude of A can be simply obtained by the square root of the sum of squares
A y12 y22 A2 (cos2 ( ) sin2 ( ))

where
y1 sin( ) Phasor associated
arctan arctan with the sinusoid
y2 cos( )
In phasor form
X y1 j y2
9
Filtering System using a Window with Many Samples
Assume we have more samples, say 12 per cycle with a step of dt
x (0) 0 1
x( t) sin( t ) cos( t) A cos( ) Expressed in
X = BY 0 1
A sin( ) matrix form
x (11 t ) sin(11 t ) cos(11 t)
0.5 0.866
0.866 0.5
More equations than unknows, rearranging to solve Y
1 0
X = BY 0.866 0.5
Results in
BT X = BT BY T
1
T
0.5 0.866
Y B B B X B
T
1
T T
1
T 0 1
B B B X= B B B BY
0.5 0.866
For a given network frequency and fixed rate of sampling, B is known a priori. 0.866 0.5
Consider 60 Hz with 720 Hz rate of sampling (12 samplings per cycle), B is given on the right.
Define also matrix C to simplify the final system of equation 1 0
T
1
T
0.866 0.5
C B B B Given B on the right, what is the dimension of C?
0.5 0.866
10
Sinusoidal Temporal and Frequency Response Analysis
Time domain response of filters depend on the sampling rate and number of samples per window (or window size),
When we deal with sinusoidal functions, the filters are Fourier filters with variable window size
Consider below 12 samples per cycle and varying window size
6 samples
window size
2 samples
3 samples
12
samples
11
Sinusoidal Temporal and Frequency Response Analysis
Time domain response of filters depend on the sampling rate and number of samples per window (or window size),
When we deal with sinusoidal functions, the filters are Fourier filters with variable window size
Consider below 12 samples per cycle and varying window size
window size
24 samples
120 samples
12
Fourier Filter 1/2
In case of a window size corresponding to one network cycle, we end up with full-cycle Fourier filter.
See the matrix C
k2
cos
T
1 2 N
C B B BT k 0,1, 2, N This is to extract the fundamental component (60 Hz)
N k2
sin
N
The phasor components are as follows

N 1
2 n2
x (n T ) cos
A cos( ) N n 0 N Fourier filter consists of two
Y N 1
A sin( ) 2 n2 finite impulse response (FIR) filters
x (n T ) sin
N n 0 N
Cosine filter with coefficients Sine filter with coefficients

2 n2 2 n2
cos n 0,1,...,(N 1) sin n 0,1,...,(N 1)
N N N N
13
Fourier Filter 2/2 This is to extract the phasor of the
third harmonic component (180 Hz)
N 1
2 3n 2
x (n T ) cos
A cos( ) N n 0 N
Y N 1
A sin( ) 2 3n 2
x (n T ) sin
N n 0 N
This is to extract the phasor of the
fifth harmonic component (180 Hz)
N 1
2 5n 2
x (n T ) cos
A cos( ) N n 0 N
Y N 1
A sin( ) 2 5n 2
x (n T ) sin
N n 0 N
14
Fourier Filter Exercise 1/2
Full cycle filter with 12 samples per cycle, extraction of fundamental component (60 Hz Phasor)
% Full cycle Fourier Filter
Nsamples=12; %number of samples
t=0:1/60/Nsamples:(Nsamples-1)/60/Nsamples; %for signal sampling
x=1.0*sin(2*pi*60*t)+0.3*sin(3*2*pi*60*t); % sampled sinusoidal signal
%filter
y11=0; y21=0; %cosine and sine filter,
HC=1; %fundamental component
for k=1:Nsamples
kk=k-1;
y11=y11+x(k)*cos(HC*2*pi*kk/Nsamples);
y21=y21+x(k)*sin(HC*2*pi*kk/Nsamples);
end
y11=y11*2/Nsamples;
y21=y21*2/Nsamples;
y=sqrt(y11^2+y21^2); %amplitude is 1.0
15
Fourier Filter Exercise 2/2
Full cycle filter with 12 samples per cycle, extraction of the third harmonic
% Full cycle Fourier Filter
Nsamples=12; %number of samples
t=0:1/60/Nsamples:(Nsamples-1)/60/Nsamples; %for signal sampling
x=sin(2*pi*60*t)+0.3*sin(3*2*pi*60*t); % sampled sinusoidal signal
%filter
y11=0; y21=0; %cosine and sine filter,
HC=3; %third frequency component
for k=1:Nsamples
kk=k-1;
y11=y11+x(k)*cos(HC*2*pi*kk/Nsamples);
y21=y21+x(k)*sin(HC*2*pi*kk/Nsamples);
end
y11=y11*2/Nsamples;
y21=y21*2/Nsamples;
y=sqrt(y11^2+y21^2); %amplitude is 0.3
16
Fourier Filter – Typical Relay Application
Normalized frequency response of cosine filter Normalized frequency response of sine filter
Combined response
17
Fourier Filter – Typical Relay Implementation
18
DC Component Problem
Fault current has an exponentially decaying dc component
Circuit representing fault inception
Response to asymmetrical component Response to asymmetrical component

Full cycle Fourier Filter (16 samples) Half cycle Fourier Filter (16 samples)
19
DC Component Problem
Fault current has an exponentially decaying dc component
Circuit representing
fault inception
Solutions: Mimic impedance, least squares filter, cosine filter

Full cycle Fourier Filter (16 samples) Half cycle Fourier Filter (16 samples)
20
DC Component Problem, Cosine Filter
Fourier filter consists of two filters: cosine and sine
Cosine filter has a better performance in rejecting dc component

Cosine Filter Sine Filter
21
Numerical Protection Relays
Claudio Rimada
Senior Subject Matter Expert
April 2021
Program
1. Relay Types 6. Relay digital input/output
- Relay Trip Signals.
2. Protective relays - Input / Output.
-Time Synchronization.
3. Protection zones - Communications.
- Serial / Ethernet comms.
4. Relay analog inputs
- Current Measurements. 7. MiCOM Px40 Platform
- Voltage measurements. (Hardware)
5. Characteristics of numerical
relays
- Introduction.
- Relay Architecture.
Schneider Electric, Claudio Rimada, April 2021 2

1- Relay Types

Classification of relays (1)
● Relays can be divided into six functional categories:
● Protective relays. Detect defective lines, defective apparatus, or

other dangerous or intolerable conditions. These relays generally trip
one or more circuit breakers, but may also be used to sound an
alarm.
● Monitoring relays. Verify conditions on the power system or in the

protection system. These relays include fault detectors, alarm units,
channel-monitoring relays, synchronism verification, and network
phasing. Power system conditions that do not involve opening circuit
breakers during faults can be monitored by verification relays.
● Reclosing relays. Establish a closing sequence for a circuit breaker

following tripping by protective relays.

● Regulating relays: Are activated when an operating parameter

deviates from predetermined limits. Regulating relays function through
supplementary equipment to restore the quantity to the prescribed
limits.
● Auxiliary relays: Operate in response to the opening or closing of the

operating circuit to supplement another relay or device. These include
timers, contact-multiplier relays, sealing units, isolating relays, lock-out
relays, closing relays, and trip relays.
● Synchronizing (or synchronism check) relays: Assure that proper

conditions exist for interconnecting two sections of a power system.

● In addition to these functional categories, relays may be classified by input,
operating principle or structure, and performance characteristic. The following
are some of the classifications and definitions described in ANSI/ IEEE
Standard C37.90 (see also ANSI/IEEE C37.100 “Definitions for Power
Switchgear”):
● Inputs ● Operating Principle or Structures

● Current, Voltage, Power ● Current balance Percentage
● Pressure, Frequency ● Multirestraint
● Temperature ● Product
● Flow ● Electromechanical
● Vibration ● Thermal
● Solid state
● Static
● Microprocessor

2- Protective Relays

IEEE Relay definition
● An electric device that is designed to respond to input conditions in a

prescribed manner and, after specified conditions are met, to cause
contact operation or similar abrupt change in associated electric control
circuits.
● Inputs are usually electric, but may be mechanical, thermal, or other

quantities or a combination of quantities. Limit switches and similar
simple devices are not relays (IEEE C37.90).

Protective relays and CB
● Protective relays provide the ‘‘brains’’ to sense trouble, but as low-
energy devices, they are not able to open and isolate the problem area
of the power system.
● Circuit breakers and various types of circuit interrupters, including motor

contactors and motor controllers, are used for this and provide the
‘‘muscle’’ for fault isolation.
● Protective relays and circuit breaker-interrupting devices work together;

both are necessary for the prompt isolation of a trouble area or
damaged equipment.
● A protective relay without a circuit breaker has no basic value except

possibly for alarm.

Basic objectives of system protections
● Reliability: assurance that the protection will perform correctly.
● Selectivity: maximum continuity of service with minimum system

disconnection.
● Speed of operation: minimum fault duration and consequent

equipment damage and system instability.
● Simplicity: minimum protective equipment and associated circuitry to

achieve the protection objectives.
● Economics: maximum protection at minimal total cost.

Nomenclature (1)
A Alarm
ac or AC Alternating current
B Bus, battery, blower
BP Bypass
BT Bus tie
C Current, close, control, capacitor, compensator, case
CC Closing coil, coupling capacitor, carrier current
CS Control switch, contactor switch
CT Current transformer
CCVT Coupling capacitor voltage device
D D Down, direct, discharge
dc or DC Direct current
E Exciter, excitation
F Field, feeder, fan
G* Ground, generator
GND Ground

Nomenclature (2)
H Heater, housing
L Line, lower, level, liquid
M Motor, metering
MOC Mechanism-operated contact
MoD Metal oxide protective device
MOS Motor-operated switch
N* Neutral, network
NC Normally closed
NO Normally open
O Open
P Power, pressure
PB Pushbutton
PF Power factor
R Raise, reactor
S Speed, secondary, synchronizing
T Transformer, trip
TC Trip coil
U Up, unit
V Voltage, vacuum
VAR Reactive power
VT Voltage transformer
W Watts, water
X, Y, Z Auxiliary relays

Standard Device Numbers (ANSI /IEEE
Standard C37.2) (1)
1 - Master Element 26 - Apparatus Thermal Device
2 - Time Delay Starting or Closing Relay 27 - Undervoltage Relay
3 - Checking or Interlocking Relay 28 - Flame detector
4 - Master Contactor 29 - Isolating Contactor or Switch
5 - Stopping Device 30 - Annunciator Relay
6 - Starting Circuit Breaker 31 - Separate Excitation Device
7 - Rate of Change Relay 32 - Directional Power Relay
8 - Control Power Disconnecting Device 33 - Position Switch
9 - Reversing Device 34 - Master Sequence Device
10 - Unit Sequence Switch 35 - Brush-Operating or Slip-Ring Short-Circuiting Device
11 - Multi-function Device 36 - Polarity or Polarizing Voltage Devices
12 - Overspeed Device 37 - Undercurrent or Underpower Relay
13 - Synchronous-speed Device 38 - Bearing Protective Device
14 - Underspeed Device 39 - Mechanical Condition Monitor
15 - Speed - or Frequency, Matching Device 40 - Field (over/under excitation) Relay
16 - Data Communications Device 41 - Field Circuit Breaker
17 - Shunting or Discharge Switch 42 - Running Circuit Breaker
18 - Accelerating or Decelerating Device 43 - Manual Transfer or Selector Device
19 - Starting to Running Transition Contactor 44 - Unit Sequence Starting Relay
20 - Electrically Operated Valve 45 - Abnormal Atmospheric Condition Monitor
21 - Distance Relay 46 - Reverse-phase or Phase-Balance Current Relay
22 - Equalizer Circuit Breaker 47 - Phase-Sequence or Phase-Balance Voltage Relay
23 - Temperature Control Device 48 - Incomplete Sequence Relay
24 - Volts Per Hertz Relay 49 - Machine or Transformer, Thermal Relay
25 - Synchronizing or Synchronism-Check Device 50 - Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay

Standard Device Numbers (ANSI /IEEE
Standard C37.2) (2)
51 - AC Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay 76 - DC Overcurrent Relay
52 - AC Circuit Breaker 77 - Telemetering Device
53 - Exciter or DC Generator Relay 78 - Phase-Angle Measuring Relay
54 - Turning Gear Engaging Device 79 - AC Reclosing Relay
55 - Power Factor Relay 80 - Flow Switch
56 - Field Application Relay 81 - Frequency Relay
57 - Short-Circuiting or Grounding Device 82 - DC Reclosing Relay
58 - Rectification Failure Relay 83 - Automatic Selective Control or Transfer Relay
59 - Overvoltage Relay 84 - Operating Mechanism
60 - Voltage or Current Balance Relay 85 - Communications,Carrier or Pilot-Wire Relay
61 - Density Switch or Sensor 86 - Lockout Relay
62 - Time-Delay Stopping or Opening Relay 87 - Differential Protective Relay
63 - Pressure Switch 88 - Auxiliary Motor or Motor Generator
64 - Ground Detector Relay 89 - Line Switch
65 - Governor 90 - Regulating Device
66 - Notching or Jogging Device 91 - Voltage Directional Relay
67 - AC Directional Overcurrent Relay 92 - Voltage and Power Directional Relay
68 - Blocking or "Out-of-Step" Relay 93 - Field Changing Contactor
69 - Permissive Control Device 94 - Tripping or Trip-Free Relay
70 - Rheostat
71 - Liquid Level Switch
72 - DC Circuit Breaker
73 - Load-Resistor Contactor
74 - Alarm Relay
75 - Position Changing Mechanism

3- Protection zones

Principles of relay applications
● The power system is divided into protection zones defined by the

equipment and the available circuit breakers.
● Six categories of protection zones are possible in each power system:

● 1) generators and generator–transformer units
● 2) transformers
● 3) buses
● 4) lines (transmission, sub-transmission and distribution)
● 5) utilization equipment (motors, static loads, or other)
● 6) capacitor or reactor banks (when separately protected).

Protection zones (1)

Protection zones (2)
● Although the fundamentals of protection are quite similar, each of

these six categories has protective relays, specifically designed for
primary protection, that are based on the characteristics of the
equipment being protected.
● The protection of each zone normally includes relays that can
provide backup for the relays protecting the adjacent equipment.
● The protection in each zone should overlap that in the adjacent
zone; otherwise, a primary protection void would occur between
the protection zones .
● This overlap is accomplished by the location of the CTs the key
sources of power system information for the relays.

Information for Applications
1. Single-line diagram of the system or area involved.

2. Impedance and connections of the power equipment, system
frequency, Voltage, and phase sequence.
3. Unless new, existing protection and problems.
4. Operating procedures and practices affecting the protection.
5. Importance of the System equipment being protected.
6. System fault study.
7. Maximum load and system swing limits.
8. CT and VT locations, connections, and ratios.
9. Future expansions expected or anticipated.

Protection zones example
●21
●87T
●50/51
●50/51 ●50/51 ●87 ●50/51

B

4- Relay analog inputs

Voltage and current relay inputs
● Protective relays require reasonably accurate reproduction of the

normal, tolerable, and intolerable conditions in the power system for
correct sensing and operation.
● Input from the power system is usually through current transformer (CT)
and voltage transformer (VT).
● An exception is for temperature-type relays that receive their

information from thermocouples or temperature indicators.
● CTs and VTs (formerly potential transformers PTs), and coupling

capacitor voltage transformers (CCVTs) provide insulation from the
higher-system voltages and a reduction of the primary current and
voltage quantities.

Current Measurements

Current transformer types
● Wound Type Current Transformer. One that has a primary winding consisting of
one or more turns mechanically encircling the core or cores. The primary and
secondary windings are insulated from each other and from the core(s) and are
assembled as an integral structure.
● Bar Type Current Transformer. One that has a fixed, insulated, straight
conductor in the form of a bar, rod, or tube that is a single primary turn passing
through the magnetic circuit and is assembled to the secondary, core and
winding.
● Window Type Current Transformer. One that has a secondary winding insulated
from and permanently assembled on the core, but has no primary winding as an
integral part of the structure. Complete or partial insulation is provided for a
primary winding in the window through which one or more turns of the line
conductor can be threaded to provide the primary winding.
● Bushing Type Current Transformer. One that has an annular core and a
secondary winding insulated from and permanently assembled on the core, but
has no primary winding or insulation for a primary winding. This type of current
transformer is for use with a fully insulated conductor as the primary winding.

Basic principle and connections
3000 A
3000 A
3000 spires
1A
245 kV
1A

Different types
400 kV
63 kV
36 kV
20 kV
10 kV

CT terminals
P1 P2
P1 P2
S1 S2

CT Polarity rule
Is
P1 P2
Ip
S1 S2
Inst. Current directions :-
P1 ➔ P2
S1 ➔ S2 Externally

Polarity check in a de-energized CT
P1 P2
Ip
Test A
If Ammeter deflects + X ➔ S1
If Ammeter deflects - X ➔ S2

CT construction

Voltage measurement

Basic principle and connections
245 kV
100 V

VT terminals
P1
S1
P2 S2
Np.Us = Ns.Up

VT construction

Measuring Phase to Neutral voltages
Protection
R S T
P1 S1
P2 S2

Measuring Phase to Phase voltages
Protection
R S T
P1 S1
P2 S2

Measuring Zero sequence voltage
Protection
R S T
P1 S1
P2 S2

5- Characteristics of numerical
relays

Characteristic of numerical relays
● Reliability.
● Incorrect operations are less likely with numerical relays.
● Self-diagnosis.
● Relay software is able to conduct test routines to determine the correct operation of
hardware components. In case anomalies are found WD will be activated.
● Integration of digital systems.

● A bunch of new features were added to the protection functions. These functionalities
were part of other systems. This brought more reliable and economic solutions.
● Adaptive protection.
● Due to communication facilities relay can be adaptive. This feature enables the relay
setting to be changed depending on the operating condition of the network.

Standard functions of numerical relays(1).
● Protection.
● The classical functions defined in IEEE C37.2
● Measurements.
● All the possible measurements taken formerly by panel meters (Voltages, currents, frequency,
power, energy, cos phi, etc)
● Control.
● The ability to operate primary equipment such as breakers and disconnectors by means of Input
and outputs.
● Sequence of Events (SOE).

● All change of states/conditions are logged in order to trace the different status of a substation.
These events may be: changes in inputs, changes in outputs, loss of communications, change of
settings, relay operation due to an ANSI function, etc.
● Fault record.
● Once a protection issue a trip, its very useful to have a simple indication of: What protection
element tripped, what was the fault value. This will give the operator a clear view about the fault
nature and a clue how to amend the problem and re-establish the substation operation.

Standard functions of numerical relays(2).
● Disturbance recording.
● The ability to record the samples belonging to: current, voltages and I/O. This serves
two purposes: Fault analysis and Fault reproduction using digital injection devices.
● Logic.
● The capacity to program Boolean logic between input/output to solve a particular
problem such as: interlocking, blocking, intertripping, etc.
● Time synchronization (client/server).

● In order to compare information from different relays such as SOE, DR and fault
events a time synchronization is required. It may be done in different ways such as: 1
PPS, IRIG-B, SNTP (client and server). In digital protection systems a precision of
1ms is accepted.
● Communications.
● One or more communication channels are available for: remote setting, remote
measurements, control, etc.

Relay Architecture

Typical numerical relay architecture
Com 1
Com 2
IRIG-B
Signal Conditioner
Digital Inputs
Serial Comms.
CT Signal Conditioner
Signal Conditioner
RTC
Keyboard,
MMI Display,
Analog Inputs
LEDs
VT Signal Conditioner Multiplexor
Processor
Digital Outputs
Signal Conditioner
Sample and Hold A/D converter
Signal Conditioner
RAM Memory
WD system WD
RTD Signal Conditioner
Ethernet /
Flash memory Comms. processor
Fx
Parallel port

A/D Conversion (frequency and time
domain analysis).
Amplitude Amplitude Amplitude
Amplitude
Frecuency
Frecuency Frecuency
-Fmax Fmax -fs -FL FL fs
Frecuency
Fs > 2 FL (Nyquist rate criteria)
Adaptavive Gain
CT Anti-aliasing filter
Amplifier
Signal conditioning -fs Fmax fs

Frecuency
Analog Inputs
Amplitude
Multiplexor
data
Sample and Hold A/D converter
Time
EOC
SOC
S/H
Mux-Control
4
Amplitude
Time
Sample
Conversion time
Hold time

Usage of the DFT
𝑵−𝟏
𝟐𝝅 𝒌 𝒏
−𝒋
𝑿𝒌 = ෍ 𝒙𝒏 𝒆 𝑵
𝒏=𝟎
● N is the total number of samples
● n is the sample number, its range is {0,…N-1}
● 𝑿𝒌 denote the kth frequency bin.
● 𝒙𝒏 denote the nth signal sampled value.

Quadrature components
𝑵−𝟏
𝟐𝝅 𝒌 𝒏
−𝒋
𝑿𝒌 = ෍ 𝒙𝒏 𝒆 𝑵 (1)
𝒏=𝟎
Using Euler’s formula this could be written as: Im
𝑵−𝟏
𝟐𝝅 𝒌 𝒏 𝟐𝝅 𝒌 𝒏 Bk
𝑿𝒌 = ෍ 𝒙𝒏 [𝒄𝒐𝒔 − + 𝒋 𝒔𝒊𝒏 − ] (2)
𝑵 𝑵
𝒏=𝟎
Solving X𝑘 , it may be expressed in Cartesian and polar:
𝑩
𝒋 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝑨𝒌
𝑿𝒌 = 𝑨𝒌 + 𝒋 𝑩𝒌 = 𝑨𝒌 𝟐 + 𝑩𝒌 𝟐 𝒆 𝒌 (3)
Ak
Real

Example: 8 samples (1/2)
● If we use in our example a sine wave of amplitude=1 and f=1Hz
● If we take 8 samples beginning at t=0, the sampled values (xn) will be:
x0=0; x1=0.707; x2=1; x3=0.707; x4=0; x5=-0.707; x6=-1; x7=-0.707
● Using equation (2) we calculate the frequency bin (Xk): (4)

X0=0; X1=-4j; X2=0; X3=0; X4=0; X5=0; X6=0; X7= 4j
● (X4; X5; X6; X7 ) should be discarded because they are over the Nyquist limit. (5)
Because of this the (Xk) will result in:
X0=0; X1=-8j; X2=0; X3=0; X4=0
● As we took 8 samples to make the calculation we average the value 8/8=1 of (6)
the coefficients.
● X0=0; X1=-1j; X2=0; X3=0; X4=0
● As the angle that we obtained in X1 is 3/2π we substract this value to obtain

zero degrees.

Example: 8 samples (2/2)
(4) (5)
Magnitude Magnitude
Nyquist limit= Sampling frec/2
4 8
Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]

X0 X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X0 X1 X2 X3 X4
(0Hz) (1Hz) (2Hz) (3Hz) (4Hz) (5Hz) (6Hz) (7Hz) (0Hz) (1Hz) (2Hz) (3Hz) (4Hz)
Magnitude
(6)
1
Frequency [Hz]
X0 X1 X2 X3 X4
(0Hz) (1Hz) (2Hz) (3Hz) (4Hz)

Implementation
● The quadrature components of the fundamental may be calculated by a

CISC machine. This works well when the amount of samples is low
such as 8. In modern sub cycle relays 48 samples are used. This
architecture is inadequate.
● DSP/FPGA architecture are more suitable due to special features in

their architecture and instruction sets.

Samples compensations.
● Transformer readings need to be corrected (offset and slope).
● Transformer readings needs to be corrected in frequency in order to

compensate the transformer frequency response.
● Normally in most advanced protection the above compensation

coefficients are stored in E2PROM that is located in the CT/VT boards.
These coefficients are read by the processor during the relay boot in
order to have the samples compensated.

Sample processing
● With the exception of the RMS measurements all other measurements
and protection functions are based on the Fourier derived fundamental
component.
● The fundamental component is extracted by using a 24 sample Discrete

Fourier Transform (DFT).
● This gives good harmonic rejection for frequencies up to the 23rd

harmonic.
● The 23rd is the first predominant harmonic that is not attenuated by the
Fourier filter and this is known as an ‘Alias’. However, the Alias is
attenuated by approximately 85% by an additional, analogue, ‘anti-
aliasing’ filter (low pass filter).

Frequency response

Samples processing, summary
● Using DFT (Discrete Fourier Transform) over a complete cycle the power
frequency fundamental component is calculated.
● The DFT algorithm produce magnitude an phase angle of the fundamental

components in rectangular format.
● Fourier components are stored in memory so they can be accessed by all the
protection elements algorithm.
● Unprocessed samples are used for: wave form recorder, RMS calculation,
metering etc.
● In IEC61850 protocol merging boxes perform the acquisition function. This

implies that protection relays do not need an A/D acquisition system. Samples
are acquired by means of communication using a special bus called Process
Bus.

6- Relay digital inputs and outputs

Relay Trip signals

Single-line AC connections of a
protective relay with its DC trip circuit
AC Bus
AC protected circuit
52
CT
Trip
I
Protective
Relay
V
VT

Typical tripping scheme of a protective relay
+B
Fault
Protection Relay
I Func. Delay DO Delay
ANSI
Function
V
Prot. trip
PS
CB Delay
CB
-P +P 52-A
CB Status
TC
-B

Tripping scheme with Main and Back up
+B1 +B2
Protection Relay “A” Protection Relay “B”

I I
ANSI ANSI
Function Function
V V
PS PS
CB
-P1 +P1 52-A +P2 -P2
52-A
TC1 TC2
-B1 -B2

Trip scheme with 86 function
+B +P
Protection Relay
I
ANSI
Function
V
PS
CB
52-A
86
TC
-B
-P
DC trip, Open/Close circuits with 86
function
+VB (CB voltage) +VP (Prot. voltage)
Relay 86 Local Remote Local Remote Relay
Control-Close
Local-Close
Local-Open
Control-Open
52a 86
52T 52C 86T
-VB (CB voltage) -VP (Prot. voltage)

Input / Output

Digital Inputs/outputs
● Inputs
● Are implemented by means of opto-couplers.
● Pick up and drop off may me programmed between 60% to 80%
● Filtering is used in order to minimize noise / ringing.
● Outputs
● Electromechanical relays (operation time 5-7ms)
● Solid State relays (SSD) consisting of:
1. Combination of IGBT with a varistor.
2. Electromechanical relay.
3. The operation time is 0.2ms. This response is suitable for sub-cycle
relays (Ex: Line protections).

Time Synchronization

Why do we need time sync. ?
● In order to understand tripping sequences in a substation.
● To analyze the sequence of events (SOE).
● To align disturbance records from different protection relays.
● To perform fault analysis relating different locations.

What kind of satellite clock should I use ?
A clock that, at least has these functionalities:
● IRIG-B modulated output.

● IRIG-B non-modulated output.
● SNTP protocol.
IRIG STANDARD 200-04

Px40 Time synchronization architecture
Px40 SNTP C264 SNTP
Server Bup Server Main
IRIG-B IRIG-B
Bullet Antenna
100m coax cable

Surge arrestor Amplifier
Satellite
clock
IRIG-B
Mod
IRIG-B
Unmod
Switch (Fx or Eth)
SNTP SNTP
Client Client
Main Bck-Up
SEL Px40

Do we have a good signal on the satellite clock?
2 4 6 8 10 12
ANT
Amplifier P594
Antenna uses 5V amplifier uses 5V
100 mts.of LM-400 coaxial cable
Item. Description
1 Satellite Antena Power [W] = 26 W
2 Satellite Antena Input Power [dbm] = 44.14973 dbm
3 Satellite Antena Gain [db] 13 db
4 Satellite Antena Output Power [dbm] = 57.14973 dbm
5 Path loss [db] = 32.44 + 20*log(1500 MHz) + 20*log(20000 km) = -182 db
6 Input power at the Receiver antenna [dbm] = -124.85 dbm

7 Trimble's Bullet III (P/N=57860-00) Receiver antenna gain [db] 31 db
8 Output power at the Receiver antenna [dbm] = -93.8503 dbm
9 Amplifier gain [db] = 22 db
10 Output power at the amplier output [dbm]= -71.8503 dbm
11 100 m of LMR-400 Coaxial cable attenuation @ 1500MHZ [db]= -16.8 db
12 Input power at the P594 [dbm]= -88.6503 dbm
13 Receiver sensitivity [dbm] = -135 dbm
14 Margin [db] = 46.34973 db

Communications

Communications
● RS-232 / RS-485 ports are available for legacy protocols such as:
●MODBUS
●DNP3.0
●IEC60870
●Courier
● Ethernet Communications.
●100Mbits/s Fiber optic + 10/100Mbits/s Copper.
●A special processor is used to implement various protocols:
● IEC61850
● DNP3.0 over TCP/IP

Serial / Ethernet Architectures

Setting and maintenance (1)
PC running
MiCOM Studio
Courier
`
RS232 to RS485
converter
Settings, PSL,
DR, Events
Laptop running
MiCOM Studio
Settings, PSL,
MCL, DR, Events

Setting and maintenance (2)
RS232 to RS485
converter
Courier
Intranet
Substation Substation Serial Device
Router Switch Server
PC running
MiCOM Studio
Eng. Router Eng. Switch

Settings, PSL,
DR, Events

Industrial integration
PLC (uploading
measurements and status)
Modbus or DNP protocol
RS232 to RS485
converter

Simple star
PACiS OI
PACiS GATEWAY
TX-RJ45 Copper
Ethernet
RS1600T (14TX) or RS8000T (6TX)
FX-Optical Fiber
Ethernet
RS485 serial link
C264 C264+ C264

SWU20x
RS485 Ethernet - RS485

up to 4
links
Bay level Bay level Bay level

Type 1 Type 2 Type 1

●Topologie « étoile »
●Human Machine Interface
●Gateway
●Ethernet standard:
●BCU – Contrôleur de baie
●Eth Switch
●Eth ●Eth ●Eth ●Eth
●BCU
●IED ●IED
●IED ●IED
●IED
●Panneaux de contrôle et protection

● Topologie « anneau redondante »
●Redundant Ring
●Gateway
●Eth ●Eth
●Ethernet non-standard:
- Basée en RSTP ou e-RSTP
- Mécanisme d’auto-cicatrisation
●Eth ●Eth ●Eth ●Eth
●Panneaux de Contrôle et Protection

7- MiCOM Px40 Platform ( Hardware)

MiCOM Px40 Features
Configurable
Interface
Dual Rated Programmable
CT Inputs LEDs
Flexible
Communications
Comprehensive
Recording
Programmable
Scheme Logic
MiCOM40-78

Front Panel
Rating Information
Fixed function LCD
LEDs
Direct Access
(Hot Keys)
Menu Navigation
Alarm viewer Keys
(Read Key)
Programmable
Battery LEDs
back-up
25 Pin Download/
9 Pin Local
Monitor port
communications
Security seal

Rear view
Voltage
Dual rated CTs inputs
Digital
inputs
Power
Time supply
Synchronisation
Fibre optic Output

substation Relays
communicatio
ns
Expansion slot K-Bus / RS485

communications
Schneider Electric, Claudio Rimada, April 2021 port 80
Example: MiCOM P143 (wiring diagram)

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Numerical Relays

Introduction and Filtering Techniques

Electronic Relay Digital Relay

RTU Based on Ethernet / Private Protocols Based on Ethernet / Standard

Sampling 240 Hz Sampling 960 Hz

We can arbitrarily choose t1 0

A cos( ) 3 2 x (0) Change of variables for y1 A cos

A y12 y22 A2 (cos2 ( ) sin2 ( ))

The phasor components are as follows

Cosine filter with coefficients Sine filter with coefficients

Circuit representing fault inception

Response to asymmetrical component Response to asymmetrical component

Response to asymmetrical component Response to asymmetrical component

Response to asymmetrical component Response to asymmetrical component

Schneider Electric, Claudio Rimada, April 2021 2

Schneider Electric, Claudio Rimada, April 2021 3

● Protective relays. Detect defective lines, defective apparatus, or

● Monitoring relays. Verify conditions on the power system or in the

● Reclosing relays. Establish a closing sequence for a circuit breaker

Schneider Electric, Claudio Rimada, April 2021 4

● Regulating relays: Are activated when an operating parameter

● Auxiliary relays: Operate in response to the opening or closing of the

● Synchronizing (or synchronism check) relays: Assure that proper

Schneider Electric, Claudio Rimada, April 2021 5

● Inputs ● Operating Principle or Structures

Schneider Electric, Claudio Rimada, April 2021 6

Schneider Electric, Claudio Rimada, April 2021 7

● An electric device that is designed to respond to input conditions in a

● Inputs are usually electric, but may be mechanical, thermal, or other

Schneider Electric, Claudio Rimada, April 2021 8

● Circuit breakers and various types of circuit interrupters, including motor

● Protective relays and circuit breaker-interrupting devices work together;

● A protective relay without a circuit breaker has no basic value except

Schneider Electric, Claudio Rimada, April 2021 9

● Reliability: assurance that the protection will perform correctly.

● Selectivity: maximum continuity of service with minimum system

● Speed of operation: minimum fault duration and consequent

● Simplicity: minimum protective equipment and associated circuitry to

● Economics: maximum protection at minimal total cost.

Schneider Electric, Claudio Rimada, April 2021 10

Schneider Electric, Claudio Rimada, April 2021 11

Schneider Electric, Claudio Rimada, April 2021 12

2 - Time Delay Starting or Closing Relay 27 - Undervoltage Relay

3 - Checking or Interlocking Relay 28 - Flame detector

4 - Master Contactor 29 - Isolating Contactor or Switch

5 - Stopping Device 30 - Annunciator Relay

6 - Starting Circuit Breaker 31 - Separate Excitation Device

7 - Rate of Change Relay 32 - Directional Power Relay

8 - Control Power Disconnecting Device 33 - Position Switch

9 - Reversing Device 34 - Master Sequence Device

10 - Unit Sequence Switch 35 - Brush-Operating or Slip-Ring Short-Circuiting Device

11 - Multi-function Device 36 - Polarity or Polarizing Voltage Devices

12 - Overspeed Device 37 - Undercurrent or Underpower Relay

13 - Synchronous-speed Device 38 - Bearing Protective Device

14 - Underspeed Device 39 - Mechanical Condition Monitor

15 - Speed - or Frequency, Matching Device 40 - Field (over/under excitation) Relay

16 - Data Communications Device 41 - Field Circuit Breaker

17 - Shunting or Discharge Switch 42 - Running Circuit Breaker

18 - Accelerating or Decelerating Device 43 - Manual Transfer or Selector Device