Problem Solving, Mathematics Investigation and Modeling

PROBLEM SOLVING,
MATHEMATICAL INVESTIGATION
AND MODELING
Learning Module 01
Learning Module on Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

STUDENT
Name:
Student Number:
Program:
Section:
Home Address:
Email Address:
Contact Number:
PROFESSOR
Name: Prof. Maryann H. Lanuza
Academic Department: Department of Teacher Education
Consultation Schedule: Monday, 8 AM-5 PM
Email address: mhlanuza@ccc.edu.ph / maryannlanuza14@gmail.com
Contact number: (+639) 19 002 1187

LEARNING MODULE INFORMATION
I. Course Code MEM302D
II. Course Title Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling
III. Module Number 1
IV. Module Title Mathematical Investigation: Examples, Patterns, and
Conjectures
V. Overview of the Module The ability to investigate a situation is, in itself, an
important skill for students to acquire. In mathematics—as in
science, or diagnosing the ills of an automobile, a computer, or
a person. Proper investigation is often the first step insuccessful
problem solving. Furthermore, investigation helps to bring to
the fore an essential feature of the subject itself.
Mathematics is a specialization of many of the most powerful
thinking techniques people normally use. Part of its great
power derives from the facts, formulas, and techniques it
provides to the sciences. What makes it of value even to those
who will someday forget the facts and formulas is that it
highlights, extends, and refines the kinds of thinking that
people do in all fields. These include investigation, pattern-
seeking, and proof.
In this module, you will take a mathematical investigation
from start to finish—from exploratory stages through reporting
logically connected results—and you will find strategies that
you can use with your students to develop their investigative
skills. You might also encountersome new mathematical facts
and relationships, but the real
purpose is for you to investigate investigation.
VI. Module Outcomes After finishing this module the students should be able to:
1. Determine what is meant by mathematical
investigation
2. Apply the investigative approach in analyzing a
problem
3. Analyze examples, figure out patterns, and formulate
conjectures based on the given mathematical
investigation problem.
Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

`2
Lesson 1: IMPORTANCE OF DOING MATHEMATICAL INVESTIGATIONS

Current mathematics curricula ask students, from time to time, to ―investigate.‖ But
how does one do that? Another question: why all the fuss about investigation? Investigation
is not the only way to learn mathematics, nor even the best way in every situation. The ability
to investigate a situation is, in itself, an important skill for students to acquire. In mathematics
as in science, or diagnosing the ills of an automobile, a computer, or a person— proper
investigation is often the first step in successful problem solving. Furthermore, investigation
helps to bring to the fore an essential feature of the subject itself.
Lesson Objectives:
In this lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Explain the importance of doing mathematical investigations
2. Explore ways of using the investigative approach in problem posing and problem
solving
3. Apply strategies in posing problems and solving problems using the investigative
approach
Getting Started:
Take 10 to 15 minutes for a preliminary exploration of the problem below—just long
enough to develop some initial conjectures. Such a tiny amount of time is not nearly adequate
for a thorough look at this investigatory problem, but even 15 minutes should give you a sense
of what students begin to see as they explore it. For the moment, this glimpse isenough. In
the brief time you devote to the problem now, keep track of partial answers and any new
questions that may come up.
Problem:
The number 13 can be expressed as a sum of two consecutive counting numbers, 6+7.
Fourteen can be expressed as 2 + 3 + 4 + 5, also a sum of consecutive counting numbers.
The Consecutive Sums Problem:
Can all counting numbers be expressed as the sum of two or more consecutive counting
numbers? If not, which ones can? Experiment, look for patterns, and come up with some
conjectures. Write up what you find.
Remember: For now, take only 10 to 15 minutes.

3
What patterns did you find out?
What can you conclude?
Discussion:
To investigate a problem well, you should get right to its heart. The first two sentences of
problem given in getting started just say what is meant by ―sum of consecutive counting
numbers,‖ and the last two sentences are merely guidance for the student. The problem‘s essence
is in the middle two sentences: Can all counting numbers be expressed as the sum of two or
more consecutive counting numbers? If not, which ones can? Even this can be boiled down.
The real information is: ... counting numbers ... expressed as sum of two or more consecutive
counting numbers ...
Concealed within that deceptively simple boiled-down version are at least five
essential features of the problem.
(a) It is about a sum.
(b) It is about consecutive numbers as addends
(c) It is about specific type of counting numbers
(d) It is about factorization
(e) It is about finding restrictions to the given condition.
Feature (e) may seem almost too silly to list, but it is important! For example, the
problem refers to a ―sum of two or more consecutive counting numbers.‖ A more restrictive
problem might ask ―Which numbers can (or cannot) be expressed as a sum of exactly three
consecutive counting numbers?‖
Similarly, the problem asks which numbers can be expressed at all, in any number of
ways. A more specific problem might ask ―Which numbers can (or cannot) be expressed in
exactly one way (or two or ...) as a sum of consecutive counting numbers?‖

4
The activity that we did falls under the first step in doing a mathematical investigation.
What is meant by mathematical investigation and how important it is to promote
mathematical investigation in teaching problem solving?
Grouws & Cebulla (2000) state that when students discover mathematical ideas and
invent mathematical procedures, they have a stronger conceptual understanding of
connections between mathematical ideas. Flewelling and Higginson (2005) state that inquiry,
investigations and problem solving give students the opportunity to use their imagination and
to get into the habit of doing so. Rich learning opportunities stem from students‘ engagement
in challenging task. Classroom tasks can be broadly categorized into those that have the
potential for learning and those that provide opportunities for students to practice applying
their previously learnt knowledge or skills. (Diezmann, 2005, p. 2). Investigations are a good
way of supplying the first need. Much research points to the need for mathematical inquiry,
investigation and problem solving in mathematics lessons. Thus, investigations are central to
the reforms advocated internationally to improve mathematical learning and develop children‘s
mathematical power.
The Investigative Approach
The investigative approach is broken down into steps which can be illustrated in
different methods of investigating and problem solving in a visual way which will add meaning
for many students. The ability to pose questions, collect data, investigate and discover
answers, solve problems, describe, share and elaborate on findings, evaluate, reflect on and
judge the accuracy of answers, draw conclusions, revise and test models of investigating and
reject or defend ideas are skills that should be stressed in the modern mathematics classroom.
These processes need to take place in small groups and in the classroom as a whole.
Diagram of the Investigative Approach

5
Benefits of using investigations in mathematics classrooms

Investigations utilize a wide range of mathematical concepts and skills, as well as
reinforcing the ‗language of mathematics‘. They often include collecting, organizing and
analyzing information and planning and organizing steps to follow. All these skills help to
integrate different areas of mathematics.
1. Investigations often have a more holistic approach where many mathematical
concepts and skills are treated concurrently and links are made to other topics and
social contexts.
2. Investigative process can be used to foster a relatively informal atmosphere in a
mathematics classroom in which communication and debate are encouraged.
Investigations can introduce valuable teamwork and debate to a mathematics
classroom which is useful as the children will feed off each other‘s‘ ideas.
3. Different values are attached to mathematics investigations being conducted
individually, in small groups and in a class as a whole and teachers should make use of
all of these options. With the help of the teacher or their peers, students can overcome
misunderstandings when doing investigations and both students and teachers may
get to understand how differently others think and reason.
4. Investigations allow students to apply mathematical knowledge to solve problems

while maintaining some ownership of the steps they take in the process. This ‗child
centered approach‘ in which students take an active role in their own learning is a very
common element of modern mathematics curricula and is very different from the style
in which mathematics was previously taught.
5. Investigations can be used to foster curiosity and exploration in children. During

investigations students are required to do original thinking and not just follow a set of
steps, thus hopefully leading to a deeper understanding of concepts.
6. Mathematical investigations can focus on real life problems or community issues such
as safety, conservation, economics or medical problems. They have become popular
with the introduction of computers and many interesting mathematical investigations
can be done with the use of data accessed on the internet.
7. Investigations encourage mathematical inquiry as they are often rich and open-
ended tasks which allow students to set their own ceiling in terms of how far they go to
solve a problem. They can be used to provide mathematically gifted children with a

6
challenging environment in which to work in order to prevent them from becoming

demotivated and frustrated.
Application:
Modifying the problem
By yourself or with others, brainstorm to see what related problem evolve from this one
as you change the features one (or at most two) at a time. Write down and share this new
problem.
From this problem explore it just long enough to build some preliminary conjectures. For
now, take only 10 to 15 minutes. As before, you won‘t have enough time for a real
investigation, but you should get a rough idea of what the problem has in store.
Preliminary Conjecture:
Summary of the Lesson:
Investigations require teachers to establish a new culture in the mathematics

classroom and require a high level thinking and commitment from the teacher. Children need
to be helped to see challenges not problems and teachers need to adapt to a different style
of teaching. Engaging young students with investigations requires thatteachers reconsider
their understanding of the nature of mathematics and how

7
mathematics is learnt. Mathematical investigations can be a useful tool when teaching

mathematics, including teaching mathematics to very young students. They can be used to
encourage curiosity, debate and communication and often address a range of outcomes
and link different subject areas. With the use of the investigation approach of teaching
mathematics, students are provided ―with the satisfaction of successfully completing a
challenging task and being able to identify and investigate their own problems‖.
Enrichment Activity:
Problem-posing strategies
The application activity asked you to ―change the features,‖ but how should that be
done? Are there any reliable ways to do that and get ―good‖ problems as a result? As you
gain experience, you‘ll develop your own set of tricks for modifying the features of a
problem, but here are four that are almost always among the most useful.
i. Make a feature more restrictive: If the problem is about triangles, restrict it to
right (or scalene or as. ...) triangles. If the problem uses a calculation that involves
two or more numbers, restrict it to exactly two (or three or ...). This process is
sometimes referred to as finding special cases
ii. Relax a feature: If the problem is about right triangles, see how it changes if you
allow all kinds of triangles, or maybe all polygons. If the problem uses a restricted
subset of numbers (e.g., only {1, 2, 3, ... }), see what happens when you expand
that set in various ways. This is sometimes referred to as generalizing, or extending
the domain.
iii. Alter the details of a feature: If the problem concerns right triangles, see how it
changes if you choose acute triangles. If the problem calls for one set of numbers
(e.g., {1, 2, 3, ... }), try a different set (e.g., {1, 3, 5, 7, ... } or {0, 3, 6, 9, ...
} or {0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, ... }). If the problem uses arithmetic operations, see what
happens if you systematically alter them (e.g., substituting + and − for × and ’
or vice versa), and if it specifies equality, see what happens if you require a specific
inequality (e.g., >).
iv. Check for uniqueness: If the problem only asks if something can be done, ask if
(or when) it can be done in only one way.

8
Now, go back to the Consecutive Sums Problem. Look over the list of features and see
if applying the problem posing strategies to each of the features gives you any new
problems.
Give two new problems generated from the consecutive sums problem.
Problem 1.
Problem 2.
Assessment:
Answer the following questions.
1. From the given activities in the getting started, application, and enrichment part of this
lesson, how were you able to apply the investigative approach in accomplishing the
tasks assigned for each part mentioned?

9
2. Given our secondary education curriculum in mathematics and our present educational
set-up, what do you think are the challenges that you may encounter in promoting
investigative approach in teaching?

10
Lesson 2: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INVESTIGATION AND PROBLEM SOLVING

This lesson seeks to clarify the relationship between investigation and problem solving
by providing an alternative characterization of mathematical investigation as a process
involving specialization, conjecturing, justification and generalization. It also distinguishes
between mathematical investigation as a process and as an activity: investigation, as a
process, can occur when solving problems with a closed goal and answer, while investigation,
as an activity involving open investigative tasks, includes both problem posing and problem
solving.
Lesson Objectives:
1. Explain the relationship between investigation and modeling

2. Determine the relationship between investigation as an activity and as a process
3. Clarify issues related to problem solving and mathematical investigation as a process
Getting Started:
Using a Venn diagram illustrate your understanding of the difference and similarities
between problem solving and mathematical investigation.
Mathematical Problem
Investigation Solving

11
Discussion:
What constitutes a mathematical investigation?
There is a big difference between a task and the process of doing the task. Thus,
equating mathematical investigation with open investigative tasks has added to the current
confusion about mathematical investigation. Therefore, in this lesson, the task will be called
an ―open investigative task” to emphasize the openness of such a task and the term
―mathematical investigation” will be used to refer to the process of investigating. In fact, a
further distinction between investigation as a process and investigation as an activity will be
dealt with later in this lesson.
An example of an open investigative task is:
Task 1: Powers of 3 are 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , … Investigate.
In this task, the goal is ill-defined: investigate, but investigate what? There are two
approaches: students may set a specific goal by posing a specific problem to investigate or
they can set a general goal by searching for any pattern. The latter can be called the posing
of the general problem ―Is there any pattern?‖ so that both approaches can be called problem
posing. Because students have the freedom to choose any goal, the goal is considered open.
As there are also many correct answers, the task is said to have an open answer. Therefore,
this type of open investigative tasks is open in its goal and answer, and itinvolves the process
of mathematical investigation.
In Task 1, students may start by evaluating some powers of 3 and then comparing
them to find out if there is any pattern. This involves examining specific examples
(specialization) in order to generalize. But the pattern observed may not be true. So there is a
need to test the conjecture. When a conjecture is proven or justified, the mathematical truth
discovered can be viewed as the underlying general structure and is called a generalization
or mathematization.
Thus mathematical investigation, as a process, involves four core thinking processes:
1. specialization
2. conjecturing
3. justification and
4. generalization

12
There is a need to clarify three issues.
Issue 1. The use of the term “process”
From one angle, an investigation is one whole process just like problem solving is
one whole process, but from another perspective, there are many processes involved
in an investigation. Thus there are two different viewpoints of ―process” in
mathematical investigation.
Issue 2. The use of the term “specialization” to describe the examination of specific
examples in order to generalize.
The specific examples chosen for examination in a mathematical investigation

may not be special cases and there is no need to treat the specific pieces of evidence
left behind in a crime scene as special. However, Mason et al. (1985) defined
specializing as ―choosing examples randomly, to get a feel for the question;
systematically, to prepare the ground for generalizing; artfully, to test a generalization‖
but these specific examples may not be special cases. Schoenfeld (1985) also included
specific examples which are not special cases when discussing the heuristic of
examining special cases.
For example:
If there is an integer parameter n in the problem statement, the special cases
are when n = 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. but what is so special about these cases? Nevertheless, in
defining the process of specialization more broadly is to include the examination of both
special cases and specific examples. Therefore, mathematical investigation involves the
process of specialization in order to generalize.
Issue 3. The use of the term “justification” as a core process in mathematical

investigation.
Justification only occurs when a conjecture is proven. But students will not know
beforehand whether a conjecture is true or false, and so they will engage in the testing
of conjectures during an investigation. If the conjecture is found to be false,then it is
refuted; if it is found to be true, then it is proven or justified. Thus, in mathematical
investigation, a conjecture is to be tested. But from the viewpoint of mathematical thinking,
mathematization or generalization occurs only when a conjecture is justified.

13
Some writers who believed that mathematical investigation must be open sometimes also
ended up using closed investigative tasks.
Illustration:
Consider the following task which is supposed to have an open goal.
Task 2: Number Trick Jill has a trick she does with numbers. Here it is. How do you think it
works?
Jill says that every time she does her trick, the answer is always 1089. Investigate Jill‘s
trick. The first goal is clearly defined: how do you think the trick works? The second goal is
implied: whether the trick will always work, since Jill claims it does and the students are
supposed to investigate her trick. Although there is more than one goal, the goals are specified
or implied, and so the students cannot select any other goal to investigate. But a task has an
open goal if and only if the task does not specify any goal and students can choose any goal
to pursue. Thus this task has a closed goal but it is still considered an investigation. Therefore,
the characterization of mathematical investigation does not lie in the open goal of the
investigative task itself, but in what it entails, i.e. the processes. Hence, an alternative
characterization of mathematical investigation is a process that involves the four core thinking
processes of specialization, conjecturing, justification and generalization.
So how is investigation similar to problem solving?
Relationship between Investigation and Problem Solving
There are many types of mathematical tasks. In this part of the module we will discuss
the difference between procedural task and problem solving task.
Procedural Tasks - refer to the usual textbook questions whose main purpose is for students to
practice procedural skills after they have learnt the procedures in class.
Problem Solving Tasks - require the use of some problem-solving strategies to solve.
Learning Module on Problem Solving Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

14
Although the phrase ―problem-solving tasks” can be misleading because the term
―problem-solving” may suggest that the task is a problem to the student when it may not be
so, the advantage of this terminology is that it immediately brings to attention that this type
of tasks involve the use of some problem-solving heuristics to solve, unlike procedural tasks.
An example of a problem-solving task is:

Task 3: Handshakes (Problem-Solving Task)
At a workshop, each of the 100 participants shakes hand once with each of the other
participants. Find the total number of handshakes.
This task requires certain problem-solving strategies to solve, for example, drawing a
diagram for a smaller number of participants to see if there is any pattern, although this may
not be a problem to some students, especially for those who have solved it before. Although
a problem-solving task is closed in its goal, many educators believe that you can always open
up the task by rephrasing it.
For example, Task 3 can be rephrased as the following open investigative task which has an
open goal:
Task 4: Handshakes (Open Investigative Task)
At a workshop, each of the 100 participants shakes hand once with each of the other
participants. Investigate.
Such a rephrasing is not trivial because students can now pose different problems in
Task 4 to solve (e.g., how many handshakes are there if there are n participants? or if they
shake hand with each other m times?), as compared to only one question in Task 3. Although
students can be taught to extend Task 3 by posing more problems to solve, they cannot be
penalized if they do not do so because the task statement in Task 3 does not explicitly specify
that the students must extend the problem. But students who solve only oneproblem for Task
4 will not do as well as students who solve more than that one problem.
Now, let us look at the type of processes that students engage in when they attempt both
tasks. Since Task 3 is a problem-solving task, then the students are engaged in problemsolving
when they try to find the total number of handshakes. Since Task 4 is an open investigative task,
then the students are engaged in mathematical investigation.
Suppose the first problem that the students want to solve for Task 4 is to find the total
number of handshakes, which is the same as the question in Task 3. If the students use the

15
same method to find the total number of handshakes for both the problem-solving task and
the open investigative task, then the same process is called problem solving for the former
task with a closed goal but it is called investigation for the latter task with an open goal. So
this suggests that mathematical investigation can be equivalent to problem solving in some
instances, that investigation can occur in closed problem-solving tasks and not just in open
investigative tasks, and that investigation does not depend on whether the task has a closed
or open goal.
Rather, the characterization of mathematical investigation lies in the processes that it
entails. For example, if the students try to solve the problem in Task 3 by starting with a smaller
number of participants in order to find a pattern for the total number of handshakes, then
they have engaged in specialization, conjecturing, justification and generalization, which is
mathematical investigation, but some educators call this “induction” which is defined as
―drawing a general conclusion from clues gathered (from specific to general)‖. However, if
the students argue that the total number of handshakes must be 99 + 98 + 97 + … + 1 because
the first participant must shake hand with the other 99 participants, the second participant must
shake hand with the remaining 98 participants and so forth, then the students have used
deductive reasoning and this is not mathematical investigation. Some high-ability students may
also use a formal proof directly and this is also not investigation. Therefore, there are essentially
two approaches to solve a problem: investigation (or induction) and ―other means” (e.g.,
deduction or formal proof).
The figure below illustrates the relationship between the process of problem solving
and mathematical investigation as a process.
Problem Solving (Process)
Solve by Solve by
Mathematical “Other
Investigation Means”
(Process)

16
Issues regarding mathematical investigation

First Issue. Viewing induction as investigation because investigation includes justification
The problem lies in the different meanings of the terms: ―induction‖, ―inductive
observation‖ and ―inductive reasoning‖. If students observe a pattern during an
investigation, this is only a conjecture and some educators called it “inductive observation”
which is not a proof. Some educators believed in the use of formal proofs but Stylianides
(2008) considered the use of any non-proof argument as sufficient. Mason et al. (1985) also
advocated the use of the underlying mathematical structure to argue that the observed
pattern will always continue. The latter involves rather rigorous reasoning and so it can be
called ―inductive reasoning” which is good enough to justify a conjecture although it is not a
formal proof. Thus there is a difference between inductive observation and inductive
reasoning, but unfortunately some writers used the two terms interchangeably. Similarly, the
word ―induction‖ can mean inductive observation, inductive reasoning or both. In this lesson,
the term ―induction” is used to include both inductive observation and inductive reasoning,
and so induction involves justification.
Second Issue. Investigation is related to heuristics

Generally speaking, problem solving heuristics can be divided into two broad categories.
Category 1. Involves any form of specialization
For example, if students draw a diagram or use systematic listing to

examine specific examples, then this is mathematical investigation.
Category 2. Does not involve any form of specialization
For example, if students use deductive reasoning directly, then this is not
an investigation.
But what about establishing a sub-goal as a heuristic to solve a problem? By itself, this
is not an investigation. The question is what happens after establishing a sub-goal. If the
students use deductive reasoning to achieve the sub-goal, then this is not an investigation.
However, if the students use some form of specialization in order to attain the sub-goal, then
this is mathematical investigation. Therefore, using heuristics to solve problems are similar to
solving problems by investigation or by ―other means”.

17
Although this alternative view of the relationship between investigation and problem
solving seldom appears in literature, there is evidence that some writers have almost the same
idea but phrased in a different way. For example, Pólya (1957) advocated using what he
called heuristic reasoning when solving problem, as opposed to using rigorous proof.
Heuristic reasoning is often based on induction, or on analogy. Induction is the process of
discovering general laws by the observation and combination of particular instances and so
induction involves specializing in order to generalize. Analogy is a sort of similarity. Similar
objects agree with each other in some respect, analogous objects agree in certain relations
of their respective parts. Thus analogy involves examining the relations of some parts of a
specific object in order to discover the underlying mathematical structure of another
analogous object. Therefore, heuristic reasoning involves examining specific examples in
order to generalize or to infer about some mathematical fact by analogy. But isn‘t this what
mathematical investigation is all about? On the other hand, ―other means” of solving
problem-solving tasks include the use of rigorous proof or deductive reasoning.
Lakatos (1976) also contrasted two approaches to problem solving: the deductivist approach
and the heuristic approach.
Deductivist approach - uses formal proofs and Lakatos believed that very few people would
ever devise this type of rigorous proofs out of nowhere. He wrote that the ―deductivist style
hides the struggle, hides the adventure‖ of discovering a solution to a problem or a proof for
a theorem and ―the zig-zag of discovery cannot be discerned in the end-product‖ of the
deductivist approach.
Heuristic approach - involves exploring the problem by examining specific examples in order
to formulate some conjectures which will have to be proven or refuted. Isn‘t this
mathematical investigation? So Lakatos‟ approaches are very similar to the two approaches
to problem solving discussed in this section: solving by investigation or by ―other means”.
Mason (1978) described seven energy states in problem solving
1. Getting started
2. Getting involved
3. Mulling
4. Keep going
5. Insight
6. Checking
7. Looking back

18
This can be applied to mathematical investigation, thus suggesting that certain aspects
of problem solving are similar to investigation. In the same manner, when Mason et al.
(1985) explained the four key processes that underlie mathematical thinking (i.e. specializing,
conjecturing, justifying and generalizing), the writers were referring to mathematical thinking
in solving problem-solving tasks, but these are also the key processes in mathematical
investigation. The Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics stated that
―our ideas about problem situations and learning are reflected in the verbs we use to describe
student actions (e.g. to investigate, to formulate, to find, to verify) throughout the
Standards‖ (NCTM, 1989, p. 10). Therefore, the Standards also recognize investigation as a
means of dealing with problem situations.
Application
Based on the discussion a clear distinction between problem solving and mathematical
investigation was given. Create an infographic or a diagram summarizing the distinctions
between the two.

19
Summary of the Lesson

A lot of confusion can arise because we often use the term mathematical investigation
to mean different things. This lesson enables the students to:
1. Distinguish open investigative tasks, investigation as a process involving specialization,
conjecturing, justification and generalization, and investigation as an activity involving
open investigative tasks. With such a characterization, the relationship betweenproblem
solving and mathematical investigation becomes apparent: the process of problem
solving involves investigation as a process and solving by ―other means” while an open
investigative activity includes both problem posing and problem solving as a process.
2. Mathematical investigation, as a process, can occur in both open investigative tasks
and problem-solving tasks.
a. The first implication is that the clarification of the relationship between problem
solving and investigation may help to inform teachers on how and what they
teach their students. This agrees with to the belief that if teachers are unclear
about the distinction between problem solving and investigation, then they will
not be able to teach their students effectively.
b. The second implication is that teachers no longer need to restrict their students to
open investigative tasks but they can also use closed problem-solving tasks to expose
their students to mathematical investigation. What is not so clear is the difference in
the type of learning that students may gain from doing investigation involving
problem-solving tasks as compared to investigation using open investigative tasks.
This calls for further research.
c. The third implication is that the characterization of investigation as comprising of
the four core thinking processes may help researchers to study how students
think when they investigate. Many studies on mathematical investigation only
reported its general benefits, such as the students becoming more interested (or
more open to working mathematically.
Assessment:
Explain the following in 3-5 sentences.

1. The core thinking processes of mathematical investigation.

20
2. Difference between procedural tasks and problem solving tasks
3. Difference between deductivist approach and heuristic approach
Enrichment Activity
Create three examples of problem solving tasks and transform these to open-
investigative tasks.

21
Lesson 3: EXAMPLES, PATTERNS, AND CONJECTURES
Lesson Objectives:
1. Create different examples leading to mathematical investigation processes
2. Observe patterns from different examples
3. Formulate conjecture based on the result of mathematical investigation
Getting Started:
Mathematical investigations involve a search for pattern and structure. At the start of
an exploration, we may collect related examples of functions, numbers, shapes, or other
mathematical objects. As our examples grow, we try to fit these individual pieces of
information into a larger, coherent whole. We note common properties of our examples and
wonder if they apply to all possible examples. If further testing and consideration lead us to
strengthen our belief that our examples reflect a more general truth, then we state a
conjecture. The Latin roots of ―conjecture‖ translate to ―throw together‖—we are throwing
together many observations into one idea. Conjectures are unproven claims. Once someone
proves a conjecture, it is called a theorem.
Observe this example and justify which conjecture is reasonable.
The first two terms of a number pattern is 2 and 4. Alicia conjectures that the next term
will be 6. Mario conjectures that the next term will be 8. Whose conjecture is reasonable?
Explain.

22
Discussion:
Preliminary Steps in Formulating Conjectures
Generating Examples
In order to get a better view of the ―big‖ picture of a problem, we try to produce
examples in a systematic fashion. We often have to choose examples from an infinite domain.
These examples should be representative, in ways that we deem significant, of all of the
elements of the domain. For example, a problem involving real numbers might involve
positive, negative, whole, rational, and irrational examples. Numbers that are less than one
or of great magnitude might also be important. In addition to this broad sampling, we also
want to generate examples in a patterned way so that relationships between variables stand
out. For some problems, examples are easy to produce. At other times, it is not clear ifthe
objects described even exist or, if they do exist, how to construct them.
It is important to determine when examples are actually different from one another. If
we are unable to state what characteristics really matter for a particular problem (e.g., order
or shape), then we will not be able to figure out when we have enough examples, whether
any others remain to be found, or what the sample space that we are searching is.
Illustrative Example:
Students may find it challenging to generate a diagram that matches the following
conditions or to determine whether their examples are even distinct from each other:
Draw a map showing towns and roads such that:
• Each pair of roads has exactly one town in common.

• Each pair of towns has exactly one road in common.
• Every town is on exactly three roads.

• Every road contains exactly three towns.
As neighbors compare their maps, ask them to consider in what ways the maps differ
and in what ways they match. What characteristics count when they consider two maps to be
the same?

23
Being Systematic
We may find many solutions to a problem but still miss interesting ones if we are not
systematic in our search. In order to be systematic, we have to create a path or paths that
will take us through all of the possibilities that might arise. Staying on the path may require an
algorithm that guides us through the choices that we face along the way. The algorithm itself
may not be apparent until we have tried to generate an ordered list and omitted or over-
counted some examples. Only, after first experimenting, may we start to understand the
internal logic of a problem.
Students can consider the following question: A class is investigating subdivisions of a
rectangle into n smaller rectangles. They are working on the specific case of dissecting a
rectangle into 4 rectangles. What layouts are possible for these subdivisions?
A complete search for even this small case of four rectangles requires careful reasoning.
We can consider all possibilities more efficiently by picking a single corner as our starting
point. Recognizing the symmetry of the situation (a rotation or reflection makes the chosen
corner equivalent to the other three) simplifies our work. There are two ways to put arectangle
in this corner: along an entire side or not (figure 1). Again symmetry comes to our aid—it does
not matter whether the entire side that we cover is oriented horizontally or vertically. Of
course, if we are going to appeal to symmetry, we have to define what we mean by a distinct
answer. It is clear that there will be an infinite number of solutions if the size of the
subdivisions is taken into consideration. So, it makes sense to ask how many categories of
these subdivisions there are when we ignore the size of segments and the overall orientation
of the figure and just look at the topological relationship between the sub-rectangles (how they
border on one another).

24
Once we have the two starting arrangements, we have to add three more rectangles.
For the rectangle on the left, we are just left with a smaller version of our original problem—
dissecting a rectangle (the remaining space) into three rectangles. There are only two
different ways to perform such a dissection (test this claim yourself!). We can rotate these
three-rectangle arrangements to generate new candidates for subdivisions using four
rectangles (figure 2). One duplicate solution arises (the crossed-out picture is a equivalent to
the one in the upper right corner), so there are five variations thus far.
We complete the type B rectangle in two additional ways
Another valuable technique for generating examples is to build them up inductively

from those of a smaller case. We can produce the seven subdivisions found above by
bisecting one sub-rectangle in the three-rectangle subdivisions (figure 4).

25
Organizing Data
The examples that we produce in our investigations provide us with data. We try to
organize that data in a way that will highlight relationships among our problem‘s variables.
Although there are no guaranteed methods for discovering all patterns, there are some useful
basic methods. Numerical data can be organized in tables that facilitate our search for familiar
patterns. In a problem with two variables, one dependent on the other, the information should
be listed according to constantly increasing values of the dependent variable.
A student wondered about the number of regions formed by the diagonals of a regular
n-gon. She systematically listed the number of sides of the polygons and the numberof regions
created (figure 6). This essentially one-dimensional arrangement facilitates the discovery of
any recursive or explicit functions that relate the two variables.

26
Sometimes a problem will have several independent variables (the values that they can
take are not constrained by the other variables). In such cases, we can organize our data by
using each dimension of a table to represent the values of one variable.
LOOKING FOR PATTERNS
We organize the observations that we make in order to develop conjectures about

the behaviors of the mathematical objects that we are studying. Once we believe that a
pattern is established, we will state it as a conjecture about an entire class of objects.
Variables That Change Predictably
As we organize our data, we look for patterns and for ways of describing those patterns
formally. Students learn about a variety of familiar patterns (linear, exponential, periodic, etc.)
in their algebra classes. Techniques for identifying these patterns and activitiesthat help them
develop the habit of using these techniques should be central to this study.
Simplifying a Problem
Problems can be so intellectually challenging or computationally demanding that we
cannot solve them directly. Problems can be made simpler using a smaller number, simpler
shape, or more symmetric setting or shape (e.g., a square rather than an arbitrary
quadrilateral). They can sometimes be made simpler by removing restrictions that seem to
make them harder
A Different Kind of Observation
Although the most common kind of discovery for secondary students engaged in
mathematics research to make is one about numerical patterns, there are other kinds of
possible conjectures. One type of observation could be that a pattern or arrangement that
they are studying has been encountered in another context. Such an observation can lead
to a conjecture that there is a common explanation for the two apparently dissimilar questions
and to a way of showing that the two are related in some manner.
UNDERSTANDING CONJECTURES
We seek to understand a conjecture at three levels: we want to determine its meaning,
we want to identify reasons for why we might believe the claim to be true, and we want to
understand how it fits within some larger set of ideas. The initial steps we take whenexploring
a conjecture are similar to those used to understand a definition:

27
1) Read the statement more than once. Important subtleties are often missed on the
first read.
2) Identify each of the conditions of the conjecture. A conjecture‘s conditions are

those criteria that must be satisfied before we accept the conclusions of the conjecture.
They are the if part of the statement. Each noun and adjective may constitute a specific
condition.
3) Generate examples and non-examples. Find objects that meet the conditions and
check to see that they also satisfy the conclusion of the conjecture. Remove each
condition in turn and construct non-examples that satisfy the other conditions but
not the conclusion. Nonexamples help us understand the importance of each
condition to the conjecture. Conditions constrain the objects under consideration
to a set that all share particular properties.
4) Look for counterexamples. A counterexample satisfies all conditions of a statement
but not the conclusion. Do the conditions leave ―wriggle room‖ for an object that
fails to satisfy the conclusion of the conjecture? If a counterexample does exist, then
the conjecture is false.
5) Compare. How is this conjecture related to other statements about the same or
similar mathematical objects? The same steps help when we are familiarizing
ourselves with a new theorem. In the case of a theorem, we want to read and
understand the proof as well. In the case of a conjecture, we are looking for evidence
that would support a proof or provide a path to a disproof.
EVALUATING CONJECTURES
What are the possible characteristics of a conjecture and what makes one conjecture
more interesting than others? Students should explicitly answer each of the following
questions when they seek to evaluate a conjecture:
• Does the conjecture appear to be true or false?
• Is it obvious or subtle?
• Is it easy or difficult to understand?

• Is the conjecture general?

28
• Is it specific enough?
• Do you like the conjecture? Do you find it appealing?
The first question that we face in evaluating a conjecture is gauging whether it is true
or not. While confirming examples may help to provide insight into why a conjecture is true,
we must also actively search for counterexamples. When students believe a conjecture, they
are not always rigorous in their search for examples that break the pattern that they have
identified. We must help them develop the habit of being more skeptical. One way we can
develop this skepticism is by giving students problems that have ―false‖ patterns—ones that
seem familiar but do not continue as expected.
How can students search for counterexamples? They should test cases between those
that they have found to work. They should look at extreme cases at the far ends of the
domains of their problems (e.g., obtuse triangles that are nearly flat or numbers near zero).
They should consider degenerate cases that do not have all of the complexity of a typical
example. Degenerate cases often result from making some parameter zero.
In addition to extreme and degenerate examples, we should also generate and test
special cases. Special cases possess an additional property, such as symmetry, that most
other cases lack. A square is a special rectangle and right or isosceles triangles are distinct
cases to investigate. In other contexts, special cases might be numbers with no duplicate
prime factors, matrices with a determinant of 0 or 1, or functions that are monotonic.
Students should not see the discovery of a counterexample as a failure. It is both a sign
of their thoughtfulness and the possible start of a new and better theory. A counterexample
may disprove a conjecture, but it does not mean that the claim is always false. A conjecture
may be nearly always true. Conjectures are reborn when we identify what extra condition
removes the possibility of counterexamples or what part of our conclusion we need to make
less specific. For example, a geometry student‘s conjecture that ―the intersections of the
angle bisectors of a parallelogram form a rectangle in the interior of the parallelogram‖ was
salvaged by classmates who pointed out that the word ―interior‖ made counterexamples
possible. Another students‘ conjecture, ―The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a kite do
not intersect in a point,‖ works for most kites but needed the additional condition that the
non-end angles not be right angles. Students should group their counterexamples and
confirming examples and look for a property that distinguishes the two sets.

29
WRITING CONJECTURES
For students, there is often a wide gulf between the ideas with which they can grapple
and their ability to write a clear statement of their thinking. They need to learn the
mathematical vocabulary and formal structures that make writing a logical claim easier. They
make that progress when we provide them with ample opportunity to recognize, write,and
refine conjectures.
Application:
Apply the preliminary steps mentioned in the discussion to arrive to a conjecture.
1. How many dots are there on the perimeter on the perimeter of the triangle above?
2. How many dots are there inside this triangle?
3. How many dots on the perimeter and inside altogether?
4. What is the area of the triangle?

Answer the same set questions given different sizes of triangles.
What can conjecture can you formulate in determining the perimeter of the triangle,
the number of dots inside the triangle, the number of dots on the perimeter and inside all
together and the area of the triangle?

30
Generating Examples:
Generate examples for bigger triangles. Use the space below to illustrate bigger
triangles.

31
Being Systematic:
Start with counting the number of dots within the sides of the triangle to determine its
perimeter. Then, count the number of dots inside the triangle and finally, use the formula 1 𝑏ℎ
2
to determine the area of the triangle.
Organizing the Data:

Complete the table below.
Sum of the
Number of
Size of each side of Perimeter of perimeter and the Area of the
dots inside
the triangle the triangle number of dots triangle
the triangle
inside the triangle
1cm
2cm
3cm
4cm
5cm
6cm
Examine the pattern generated by the results. What conjecture can you formulate based on
the results?
Problem Conjecture
Determining the perimeter of the triangle
Determining the number of dots inside the

triangle
Determining the sum of the perimeter and

the number of dots inside the triangle
Determining the Area of the triangle

32
Summary of the lesson:

Conjecturing can be made a regular strand within any class. Any mathematics topic can
be the source of patterns and the chance to generate conjectures. Once students become
comfortable with the process of developing conjectures, they will start to initiate explorations
based on their observations and research will become a daily possibility. In addition to
teaching students about how mathematical knowledge is developed, an emphasis on
conjecturing often proves interesting for students. This heightened interest contributes to
longer-term recall and mastery of the technical skills that are practiced during the
investigations. The relative openness of conjecturing activities also puts students in situations
where their confusions or conflicting understandings about an idea are more likely to be
exposed and then resolved.
Assessment:
Apply the steps mentioned in the discussion to answer the following:

1) Echuserang frog is at the bottom of a well 20m deep. Each hour she climbs up 2m
then falls back 1m.
a. How long is it before Echusera is out of the well?
b. What is the general formula to determine the time given

different measures of depth?

33
2)
3) Loopy numbers

34
4)

35
Enrichment Activity
Einstein's Riddle
"Einstein's Riddle," also known as the zebra puzzle, is a well-known logic puzzle. It is
purported to have been written by Einstein, but there is no evidence that Einstein wrote it (it
doesn't seem like the sort of thing Einstein would write, and the earliest sources I've found for
the puzzle, from the 1960s and 1970s, mention nothing about Einstein). It is also often stated that
98% of the population cannot solve it, but there is no truth to that either; the average person who
can think about the problem logically and has enough patience and time should be able to
solve it.
Here is the original puzzle; I've reworded it slightly in a few places to resolve ambiguities.
1. There are five houses in a row, each of a different colour (ivory, red, blue, green, and
yellow), inhabited by men of different nationalities (English, Spanish, Norwegian,
Ukrainian, and Japanese), with different pets (dog, fox, horse, snails, and zebra),
favourite drinks (coffee, tea, milk, orange juice, and water) and cigarettes (Old Gold,
Kools, Chesterfields, Lucky Strike, and Parliaments).
2. The Englishman lives in the red house.
3. The Spaniard owns the dog.
4. The man living in the green house drinks coffee.
5. The Ukrainian drinks tea.
6. The green house is immediately to the right (your right) of the ivory house.
7. The Old Gold smoker owns snails.
8. Kools are smoked in the yellow house.
9. The man living in the middle house drinks milk.
10. The Norwegian lives in the first house on the left (your left).
11. The man who smokes Chesterfields lives next door to the man with the fox.
12. Kools are smoked next door to the house where the horse is kept.
13. The Lucky Strike smoker drinks orange juice.
14. The Japanese smokes Parliaments.
15. The Norwegian lives next to the blue house.
Who drinks water? And who owns the Zebra?

36
References/Attributions:
Diezmann, C. M. (2005). Challenging mathematically gifted primary students. Australasian
Journal of Gifted Education, 14(1), 50–57. Retrieved 2 April 2009 from
http://search.informit.com.au.ezproxy.cdu.edu.au/fullText;dn=154474;res=AEIPT
Flewelling, G. & Higginson, W. (2005). Teaching with rich learning tasks: A handbook (2nd
ed.). Adelaide: Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers.
Grouws, D. & Cebulla, K. (2000). Improving student achievement in mathematics. Retrieved 2
May 2009 from
http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/publications/EducationalP
racticesSeriesPdf/prac04e.pdf

PROBLEM SOLVING,
AND MODELING
Learning Module 02

STUDENT
Name:
Student Number:
Program:
Section:
Home Address:
Email Address:
Contact Number:
PROFESSOR
Contact number: (+639) 19 002 1187

IV. Module Title Mathematical Modeling: Concepts and Principles
V. Overview of the Module Models describe our beliefs about how the world
functions. In mathematical modeling, we translate those
beliefs into the language of mathematics. This has many
advantages. There is a large element of compromise in
mathematical modeling. The majority of interacting systems
in the real world are far too complicated to model in their
entirety. Hence the first level of compromise is to identify the
most important parts of the system. These will be included in
the model, the rest will be excluded. The second level of
compromise concerns the amount of mathematical
manipulation which is worthwhile. Although mathematics has
the potential to prove general results, these results depend
critically on the form of equations used. Small changes in the
structure of equations may require enormous changes in the
mathematical methods.
Mathematical modeling can be used for a number of
different reasons. How well any particular objective is
achieved depends on both the state of knowledge about a
system and how well the modeling is done. These concepts
will be discussed in this module.
1. Get some understanding what mathematical models

are & what they can / cannot do
2. Get acquainted with different types of mathematical
models
3. Learn the basic principles for building, analyzing,
testing and using mathematical models

2
Lesson 1: DEFINING MATHEMATICAL MODELS AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS

Lesson Objectives:

1. Define a mathematical model
2. Explain the importance of creating accurate models
3. Discuss the limitations of mathematical models
Getting Started:
One of the masters of writing mathematician Ian Stewart wrote about 17 equations that
he believes have changed the world. In his book, In Pursuit of the Unknown: 17 EquationsThat
Changed the World, he discusses each equation in an engaging and practical manner, and he
gives a number of illustrations of how those equations have and are impacting our lives.
Below is word search matrix containing the ―17 equations that changed the world‖. Try
to find these terms and match them with the definition on the next page.

3
1. Theorem helped us create better maps. We use this theorem to find the
shortest distance. Pythagorean Theorem a useful technique for architecture,
woodworking, or other physical construction projects.
2. helped us perform tedious calculations before there were calculators.

They are especially evident in science and measurement. When we talk about tiny and
gigantic things, we always use logarithms such as; our sensitivity to light, earthquake
magnitudes, noise levels in decibels, acidity (pH) money growing with a fixed interest
rate, bacteria growing in a petri dish, radioactive decay.
3. appears everywhere in modern science and technology whether we are

modeling the rise in the fall of the stock market or determining exactly when a space
rocket will arrive into Earth‘s orbit. And basically created the modern world. Calculus
holds incredible power over the physical worlds by modeling and controlling systems.
It‘s the language of medical experts, scientists, engineers, statisticians, physicists, and
economists. If a quantity or a system is changing we can use mathematical modeling
of calculus to analyze a system fund an optimal solution and predict the future.

4
4. of Gravity helped us understand the movement of the stars and

planets. It‘s actually a key to understand the divine force, momentum and many other
laws.
5. Numbers. The square root of minus 1 was invented by people in

order to solve equations. Most of our modern tech depends on them. i² was a great
discovery and had a lot to do with the development of quantum mechanics. Many people
hated this. It brought up ideas that turned out to be very important.
6. Formula for Polyhedra. Helps us send rockets throughout space and

understand DNA replication. Euler‘s formula is an essential ingredient in finding solutions
for network information. Euler‘s invention is a new way of thinking about shapes and
space. It also provides a clear connection between geometry and the knot structure of
a DNA.

5
7. Distribution. Transformed how we understand medical trials and how we gamble.

It also changed almost all psychological and educational applications of our modern world.
Statisticians and scientists use the normal distribution to measure reading ability, job
satisfaction, surveys, IQ scores, blood pressure, measurement errors, etc.
8. equation tells us what the earth is made of and helps us find oil easier. It
plays an essential role in electromagnetism, optics, fluid dynamics and heat transfer. It
helps us predict the future dynamic properties such as energy and impulse.
9. Transform made the processes of the internet, WiFi, smartphones, computers,

routers, almost everything possible. They are important in signal processing. We can now
compress thousands of information into a tiny dongle.

6
10. equations are significant in terms of pure science and mathematics. The
equation represents the governing equations of one model of fluid flow. The equation
also tells us all the fast things in life can go even faster.
11. All modern wireless communications as we know it today because

equations are the mathematical summary of electromagnetism. The equations show the
relationship between electromagnetism.
12. Second Law of . It literally drove the industrial revolution and gives us efficient
power generators. It also represents the relationships between heat and energy. For
instance, it explains what happens to a cup of tea if we don‘t drink it for 5 minutes.
13. The theorem is very important because it answered previously almost all the
questions that remained unanswered. It changed the way we look time, space and

7
gravity. It is everything for black holes, the big bang, nuclear power but also GPS on our
phones.
14. equation changed the field of quantum physics. It made possible to

work on quantum and calculate what would happen next. It is also essential for modern
computer chips and lasers and cats.
15. theory means the entire internet. It literally models the human- machine
communication process. This theory is now more important than communication itself.

8
16. theory made it possible to Predict the weather better. The equation
also predicts the growth rate of the butterfly population.
17. Through the equation, the massive growth and profits of the financial sector
in the 2000s and the financial crisis of 2008–2009 was predicted.
Discussion:
These equations are considered as mathematical models. But how would we define
mathematical models and what are its classifications?
We begin this with a dictionary definition of the word model:
model (n): a miniature representation of something; a pattern of something to be

made; an example for imitation or emulation; a description or analogy used to help
visualize something (e.g., an atom) that cannot be directly observed; a system of
postulates, data and inferences presented as a mathematical description of an entity
or state of affairs
This definition suggests that modeling is an activity, a cognitive activity in which we

think about and make models to describe how devices or objects of interest behave.
There are many ways in which devices and behaviors can be described.

9
We can use words, drawings or sketches, physical models, computer programs, or

mathematical formulas. In other words, the modeling activity can be done in several
languages, often simultaneously. Since we are particularly interested in using the language of
mathematics to make models, we will refine the definition just given:
mathematical model (n): a representation in mathematical terms of the behavior of

real devices and objects.
We want to know how to make or generate mathematical representations or models, how

to validate them, how to use them, and how and when their use is limited. But before delving
into these important issues, it is worth talking about why we do mathematical modeling.
Why do we do mathematical Modeling?
Since the modeling of devices and phenomena is essential to both engineering and
science, engineers and scientists have very practical reasons for doing mathematical
modeling. In addition, engineers, scientists, and mathematicians want to experience the sheer
joy of formulating and solving mathematical problems.
To enumerate why we need to mathematical models, here are the bulleted reasons:
• Models provide a framework for conceptualizing our ideas about the behaviour of a
particular system
• Models allow us to find structure in complex systems and to investigate how different factors
interact
• Models can play an important role in informing policies:

• By providing understanding of underlying causes for a complex phenomenon
• By predicting the future
• By predicting the impact of interventions
What do we use mathematical models for?

• Combine fragmented information into a comprehensive framework (e.g. combine results
from in-vitro and in-vivo experiments)
• Determine the relationship between underlying biological traits and observable traits

10
• Test hypotheses that are difficult to test in empirical studies

• Make predictions & generate new hypotheses for future testing
• Assist with decision making by exploring ‗what if‘ scenarios

Classifications of Mathematical Models
There are many different types of mathematical models. Classifying them into broad categories
can tell you much about their purpose & scope and often require different mathematical
techniques
Typical distinctions are the following:
• Empirical vs mechanistic
• Deterministic vs. stochastic
• Systems vs molecular model
• Static vs dynamic
• Linear vs non-linear
• Discrete vs. continuous
We will focus on the first two distinctions.
Empirical vs Mechanistic Models
Empirical Models (also called Mechanistic Models (also called

Statistical Models) Process based Models)
Data driven modeling approach Hypothesis driven modeling
approach
Starting point: data obtained from Starting point: specific
empirical studies phenomena of interest –
observed from data
Aim: to determine patterns & Aim: to provide understanding for
relationships between data (model underlying mechanisms of this
variables) phenomenon
Require no prior knowledge of the Require prior understanding of
underlying biology system
Data are used to parameterise /
validate the model

11
Deterministic vs Stochastic Models
Deterministic Models Stochastic Models

Assume that the outcome is precisely Incorporate inherent randomness
determined by the model inputs and
relationships
Ignore all random variation Use a range of values for the
model variables in form of
probability distributions
A given input always produces the The same input produces an
same output ensemble of outputs
A model that is a combination of deterministic and Stocastic is what we call a Hybrid Model.
Hybrid models
• include stochasticity on one scale (e.g. population)
• assume underlying deterministic processes (e.g. for individual)
Classifications according to scale Modeling
• National
• Herd
• Individual
• Organ
• Cell
• Molecules
• Genes
The appropriate scale for modeling depends on the model objectives
What is a simulation model?
• Simulation models are not specific types of mathematical models

• The term ‗simulation model‘ refers to the process of implementing mathematical
model, i.e. via computer simulations

12
• Simulation models usually simulate the process of data generation assuming the model
was true
E.g. simulate an epidemic or the within host infection process

Simulate an experiment
Principles of Mathematical Modeling
Mathematical modeling is a principled activity that has both principles behind it and
methods that can be successfully applied. The principles are over-arching or meta-principles
phrased as questions about the intentions and purposes of mathematical modeling. These
meta-principles are almost philosophical in nature.
We will now outline the principles, and in the next section we will briefly review some of
the methods. These methodological modeling principles are also captured in the following
list of questions and answers:
• Why? What are we looking for? Identify the need for the model.
• Find? What do we want to know? List the data we are seeking.
• Given? What do we know? Identify the available relevant data.
• Assume? What can we assume? Identify the circumstances that apply.
• How? How should we look at this model? Identify the governing physical principles.
• Predict? What will our model predict? Identify the equations that will be used, the
calculations that will be made, and the answers that will result.
• Valid? Are the predictions valid? Identify tests that can be made to validate the
model, i.e., is it consistent with its principles and assumptions?
• Verified? Are the predictions good? Identify tests that can be made to verify the
model, i.e., is it useful in terms of the initial reason it was done?
• Improve? Can we improve the model? Identify parameter values that are not
adequately known, variables that should have been included, and/or
assumptions/restrictions that could be lifted. Implement the iterative loop that we can
call ―model-validate-verify-improve-predict.‖
• Use? How will we exercise the model? What will we do with the model?

13
This list of questions and instructions is not an algorithm for building a good mathematical
model. However, the underlying ideas are keys to mathematical modeling, as they are key
to problem formulation generally.
Thus, we should expect the individual questions to recur often during the modeling
process, and we should regard this list as a fairly general approach to ways of thinking about
mathematical modeling.
Having a clear picture of why the model is wanted or needed is of prime importance tothe
model-building enterprise. Suppose we want to estimate how much power could be generated by
a dam on a large river, say a dam located at The Three Gorges on the Yangtze River in Hubei
Province in the People‘s Republic of China. For a first estimate of the available power, we wouldn‘t
need to model the dam‘s thickness or the strength of its foundation. Its height, on the other hand,
would be an essential parameter of a powermodel, as would some model and estimates of
river flow quantities. If, on the other hand, we want to design the actual dam, we would need a
model that incorporates all of the dam‘s physical characteristics (e.g., dimensions, materials,
foundations) and relates them to the dam site and the river flow conditions. Thus, defining the
task is the first essential step n model formulation. We then should list what we know—for
example, river flow quantities and desired power levels—as a basis for listing the variables or
parameters that are as yet unknown. We should also list any relevant assumptions. For example,
levels of desired power may be linked to demographic or economic data, so any assumptions
made about population and economic growth should be spelled out. Assumptions about the
consistency of river flows and the statistics of flooding should also be spelled out.
Which physical principles apply to this model? The mass of the river‘s water must be
conserved, as must its momentum, as the river flows, and energy is both dissipated and
redirected as water is allowed to flow through turbines in the dam (and hopefully not spill
over the top!). And mass must be conserved, within some undefined system boundary,
because dams do accumulate water mass from flowing rivers. There are well-known equations
that correspond to these physical principles. They could be used to develop an estimate of
dam height as a function of power desired. We can validate the model by ensuring that our
equations and calculated results have the proper dimensions, and we can exercise the model
against data from existing hydroelectric dams to get empirical data and validation.
If we find that our model is inadequate or that it fails in some way, we then enter an
iterative loop in which we cycle back to an earlier stage of the model building and re-

14
examine our assumptions, our known parameter values, the principles chosen, the equations
used, the means of calculation, and so on. This iterative process is essential because it is the
only way that models can be improved, corrected, and validated.
Limitations of Mathematical Models

1. Lack of quantifiable knowledge
Models that encompass mechanisms (e.g. infection process) require quantitative
understanding of these mechanisms in order to make reliable predictions
2. Lack of available data / methods for estimating model parameters
E.g. how to estimate e.g. individual susceptibility & infectivity?
Much improvement to be expected over the next years due to recent advances in
statistical inference and data explosion
3. Inherent stochasticity of the biological system

Infection is a stochastic process. It is impossible to make accurate predictions for
infection spread on the individual level
Application:
Create a framework/diagram showing how we do the mathematical modeling process.
Consider in the process the questions and answers enumerated in the principles of
mathematical modeling mentioned in the discussion.

15

In this lesson we discussed the meaning of mathematical models and the process it entails
in doing a mathematical investigation. We also had an idea on the different classifications of
mathematical models. Models are important as it provide representation of a system that
allows for investigation of the properties of the system and, in some cases, prediction of future
outcomes. It always requires simplification. In mathematics, models are of the form of equations
that are used to describe a system. These models may have limitations most especially if certain
variables need to be changes or need to be considered. This is necessary to make the model
more accurate as it adapts to the changes in the current status of the situation it explains or
predicts.
Make a Research on the difference between the other given classifications of
mathematical Models. Create a table showing the description of the models.
• Systems vs molecular model
• Static vs dynamic
• Linear vs non-linear
• Discrete vs. continuous

16
Assessment:
The Pythagorean Theorem is known to be the number one mathematical model that
changed the world. Analyze how the model was created by answering the existential
questions under methodological modeling principles.
• Why?
• Find?
• Given?
• Assume?
• How?
• Predict?
• Valid?
• Verified?
• Improve?
• Use?

17
Lesson 2: Methods of Mathematical Modeling and Stages of Modeling

Now we will review some of the mathematical techniques we can use to help answer
the philosophical questions posed in Lesson 1. We will also have a discussion of the process
flow of doing a mathematical model.
Lesson Objectives:
1. Discuss the techniques and methods in doing a mathematical model
2. Explain the stage in doing a mathematical model
3. Distinguish a model if it is a good one
Getting Started:
Looking at your Meralco Bill, is it possible to
create a model to predict the amount you
are going to pay for the next month? What
variables are present in the given meralco
bill that you can use to predict your next
month‘s bill?

18
Discussion:
Some Methods of Mathematical Modeling
The mathematical principles which help us answer the existential questions mentioned
in lesson 1 include: dimensional homogeneity, abstraction and scaling, conservation and
balance principles, and consequences of linearity.
1. Dimensional Homogeneity and Consistency

There is a basic, yet very powerful idea that is central to mathematical modeling, namely,
that every equation we use must be dimensionally homogeneous or dimensionally
consistent. It is quite logical that every term in an energy equation has totaldimensions of
energy, and that every term in a balance of mass should have the dimensions of mass. This
statement provides the basis for a technique called dimensional analysis. This involves
important distinction between physical dimensions that relate a (derived) quantity to
fundamental physical quantities and units that are numerical expressions of a quantity‘s
dimensions expressed in terms of a given physical standard.
2. Abstraction and Scaling
An important decision in modeling is choosing an appropriate level of detail for the
problem at hand, and thus knowing what level of detail is prescribed for the attendant
model. This process is called abstraction and it typically requires a thoughtful approach to
identifying those phenomena on which we want to focus, that is, to answering the
fundamental question about why a model is being sought or developed. For example, a
linear elastic spring can be used to model more than just the relation between force and
relative extension of a simple coiled spring, as in an old-fashioned butcher‘s scale or an
automobile spring. It can also be used to model the static and dynamic behavior of a tall
building, perhaps to model wind loading, perhaps as part of analyzing how the building
would respond to an earthquake. In these examples, we can use a very abstract model
by subsuming various details within the parameters of that model.
In addition, as we talk about finding the right level of abstraction or the right level of
detail, we are simultaneously talking about finding the right scale for the model we are
developing. For example, the spring can be used at a much smaller, micro scale to
model atomic bonds, in contrast with the macro level for buildings. The notion of scaling
includes several ideas, including the effects of geometry on scale, the relationship of
function to scale, and the role of size in determining limits—all of which are needed to
choose the right scale for a model in relation to the ―reality‖ we want to capture.

19
3. Conservation and Balance Principles
When we develop mathematical models, we often start with statements that indicate
that some property of an object or system is being conserved. For example, we could
analyze the motion of a body moving on an ideal, frictionless path by noting that its energy
is conserved. Sometimes, as when we model the population of an animal colony or the
volume of a river flow, we must balance quantities, of individual animals or water volumes,
that cross a defined boundary. We will apply balance or conservation principles to assess
the effect of maintaining or conserving levels of important physical properties.
Conservation and balance equations are related—in fact, conservation laws are special
cases of balance laws.
The mathematics of balance and conservation laws are straightforward at this level of
abstraction. Denoting the physical property being monitored as Q(t ) and the independent
variable time as t , we can write a balance law for the temporal or time rate of change of
that property within the system boundary depicted in as:
𝑑O(𝑡) (𝑡) + 𝑔(𝑡) − q (𝑡) − 𝑐(𝑡)
=q
i𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡
where qin(t ) and qout (t ) represent the flow rates of Q(t ) into (the influx) and out of
(the efflux) the system boundary, g (t ) is the rate at which Q is generated within the
boundary, and c(t ) is the rate at which Q is consumed within that boundary. Note that
this equation is also called a rate equation because each term has both the meaning and
dimensions of the rate of change with time of the quantity Q(t ).
A system boundary surrounding the object or system being modeled. The influx qin (t ), efflux qout (t ), generation g(t ),
and consumption c(t ), affect the rate at which the property of interest, Q(t ), accumulates within the boundary

20
In those cases where there is no generation and no consumption within the system
boundary (i.e., when g = c = 0), the balance law in the equation given becomes a
conservation law:
𝑑O(𝑡) (𝑡) − q (𝑡)

=q
i𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Here, then, the rate at which Q(t ) accumulates within the boundary is equal to the
difference between the influx, qin(t ), and the efflux, qout (t ).
4. Constructing Linear Models
Linearity is one of the most important concepts in mathematical modeling. Models of

devices or systems are said to be linear when their basic equations—whether algebraic,
differential, or integral—are such that the magnitude of their behavior or response
produced is directly proportional to the excitation or input that drives them. Even when
devices like the pendulum are more fully described by nonlinear models, their behavior can
often be approximated by linearized or perturbed models, in which cases the mathematics
of linear systems can be successfully applied.
We apply linearity when we model the behavior of a device or system that is forced or
pushed by a complex set of inputs or excitations. We obtain the response of that device
or system to the sum of the individual inputs by adding or superposing the separate
responses of the system to each individual input. This important result is called the principle
of superposition. Engineers use this principle to predict the response of a system to a
complicated input by decomposing or breaking down that input into a set of simpler inputs
that produce known system responses or behaviors.

21
The 4 stages of modeling
Stage 1: Building models

1. Define the model objectives
• Be clear about what you want your model to do
2. Determine the appropriate level & key model components

• What level of simplification is required?
• Apply the principle of Ockham‘s razor (also known as the law of parsimony)

22
Occam’s razor, also spelled Ockham’s razor, also called law of economy or law of
parsimony, principle stated by the Scholastic philosopher William of Ockham (1285
1347/49) that pluralitas non est ponenda sine necessitate, ―plurality should not be posited
without necessity.‖ The principle gives precedence to simplicity: of two competing
theories, the simpler explanation of an entity is to be preferred. The principle is also
expressed as ―Entities are not to be multiplied beyond necessity.‖
The principle was, in fact, invoked before Ockham by Durandus of Saint-Pourçain, a French
Dominican theologian and philosopher of dubious orthodoxy, who used it to explain that
abstraction is the apprehension of some real entity, such asan Aristotelian
cognitive species, an active intellect, or a disposition, all of which he spurned as
unnecessary. Likewise, in science, Nicole d‘Oresme, a 14th-century French physicist,
invoked the law of economy, as did Galileo later, in defending the simplest hypothesis
of the heavens. Other later scientists stated similar simplifying laws and principles.
Ockham, however, mentioned the principle so frequently and employed it so sharply

that it was called ―Occam‘s razor‖ (also spelled Ockham‘s razor). He used it, for instance,
to dispense with relations, which he held to be nothing distinct from their foundation in
things; with efficient causality, which he tended to view merely as regular succession; with
motion, which is merely the reappearance of a thing in a different place; with psychological
powers distinct for each mode of sense; and with the presence of ideas in the mind of the
Creator, which are merely the creatures themselves.
3. Define your assumptions
• Assumptions reflect our beliefs how the system operates
• Remember: the model results are only as valid as the assumptions!
• Different assumptions can lead to fundamental differences:

23
Example: A common assumption in population studies

― A population grows at a rate that is proportional to its size‖
• Embedded in the deterministic model 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑎𝑝:,

𝑑𝑡
where p(t) is the population size at time t and a is a constant.
• The solution of this model is 𝑝𝑡=(0)𝑒𝑎𝑡, i.e. population grows exponentially
• The model incorporates a number of other important assumptions:
1. There is no limiting factor that prevents the population to grow forever

2. Growth is a continuous process (embedded by the differential equation)
3. Growth follows a deterministic law
• Alternative stochastic approach: model birth and death events
• If any of these assumptions don‘t hold, the model is wrong!
4. Produce a flow diagram

•Visual tool for formulating our beliefs and assumptions
• Describe the model components (variables) and their relationship
• Extremely important for complex models with many components and relationships
5. Write model equations
How to find the appropriate mathematical equations?

• Depends on the modeling approach:
• Statistical models are often represented by a single linear or non-linear function
• Deterministic mechanistic models of dynamical systems are usually represented

by systems of differential equations
• Stochastic models require expressions for the probability of events

24
• Start with equations from the literature
• You are likely not the first one to model a specific system. Start by exploring
and modifying existing models
• Explore your own data
Stage 2: Generate model predictions & analyze

There are 2 ways of solving the model equations for given parameter values
1. Analytically (using mathematical principles)

• Ideal, provides exact solutions and hence a full insight of the model behaviour
•But usually only possible for very simple systems (e.g. one equation or system of linear
equations)
2. Numerically (using computers)
• Applies to most mathematical models
• Requires the use of numerical algorithms implemented in computational routines

(e.g. Euler method, Runge-Kutta, Monte-Carlo)
• Provides approximate solutions
• Use established code, avoid writing your own numerical solver!!!
Specifying appropriate model inputs & outputs

• Modeller‘s dilemma: lack of physical constraints in the modeling world implies that one can
generate A LOT of data.
How to go about it in a systematic way?
1. Specify realistic value ranges for the model input parameters
2. Focus on relevant scenarios if the model involves simulations

3. Generate relevant outputs & summary statistics
Estimating model input parameter values
• Good estimates of the model input parameters are essential for models with predictive
power

25
• Apply principle of Ockham‘s razor: favour the model with fewer parameters
• 2 sources for determining appropriate parameter values:
1. Use values reported in the literature

2. Fit your model to existing data (statistical inference)
• Note that it is often not possible to infer a unique value (with confidence
interval) for each model parameter from given data
• There are many different approaches of statistical inference; the right
approach depends on both the type of model & the data
Choosing relevant model scenarios & outputs
Criteria for choosing model scenarios:
• Realistic scenarios, to achieve your research objective
• Extreme scenarios, to determine the limitations of the model
Produce meaningful model outputs

• Models produce predictions for every variable over time
• Model variables are not always measurable; comparison to data is difficult
• Produce also model outputs that can be directly compared to data
• essential for model validation
• Apply similar statistical analysis as for experimental data (frequency

distributions, means, variance etc.)
• Assess relationships between observable and underlying biological traits
• useful for gaining new insights
Analyzing the model
• The aim is to obtain a thorough understanding what your model can / cannot do
• Comprises both qualitative & quantitative analysis:
• What types of response patterns does the model generate?

26
• How realistic are these?
• What mechanisms / parameter values produce the diverse patterns?
• Which inputs correspond to which outputs?
• How sensitive are the model output to changes in the input parameter values?
• How stable are the model predictions to small changes in starting values /
assumptions?
• Very elaborate step and often results in rebuilding the model
Analysis techniques: Distinguish between short-and long-term behaviour

1. Asymptotic behaviour
• Does the system eventually settle to a steady state?
• E.g. will the infection eventually clear or persist?
• How many steady states (long-term outcomes) are there?
• Under what conditions will a particular steady state be reached
• Use mathematical stability analysis, bifurcation theory
2. Initial phase behaviour
• E.g. will the infection kick off after introduction of 1 infectious agent?
• How does the initial behaviour depend on the starting point?
Analysis techniques: Sensitivity analysis & Uncertainty analysis

•Uncertainty analysis: assess variability in model outputs that arise from uncertainty in model
inputs
• How confident are we about the model predictions?
•Sensitivity analysis: quantifies the influence of each parameter or modelled process on the
model outputs
• How sensitive are the model predictions to changes in the input parameter values or
modeled processes?

27
•Essential components of model analysis, especially when parameter values are unknown
•Complex tasks, given that there are usually complex interactions between parameter
values
• Typical approaches:
• Change one / few parameters at a time, keeping the others fixed
• Adopt partial factorial designs, e.g. Latin Hypercube Sampling
Stage 3: Validating the model

• Ideally, but not necessarily involves comparison of model predictions to experimental data
• Important to use independent data to those used for parameter estimation
• If independent data don‘t exist, split your data into training and validation set
• Useful summary statistics for comparing model predictions (Pi) to observations (Oi):
What if model predictions are different to the observations?

Identify potential reasons for imperfect predictions:
1. Natural variability in the real system and environment

• Equates to experimental measurement errors
• Obtain confidence intervals directly from the data; if model predictions fall within
these limits, don‘t worry
2. Mis-specifications in the model
• Wrong parameter values like extend parameter range, use fitting algorithms

28
• Errors in the choice of model equations
• Restrict the scope of the model or look for better equations and start again
3. Effects of factors ignored in the model

• Increase model complexity and start again
Comparing alternative models

Independent models:
• Subjective choice: no objective model selection criterion available
• Balance between generality, flexibility, predictive ability, computing requirements
Related (e.g. nested) models:

• For models with likelihood (L), k parameters and n available independent data
points, use information criteria (IC) such as
• AIC (AkaikeIC): -2log(L) + 2k; defined for nested models
• BIC (Bayesian IC): -2log(L) + k log(n); penalizes models with more parameters
Stage 4: Applying the model

• Mathematical models can be a valuable decision support tool
• For risk assessment –particularly important in infectious disease context
• To predict consequences of various (disease) control strategies
• It requires trust that the model predictions are valid
• It is crucial to keep the purpose of the model and the end user of the model in
mind at all modeling stages
• The user should have a thorough understanding of the model assumptions,
model predictions (with uncertainty estimates) and limitations

29
What is a good model?

Key attributes of a good model:
1. Fit for purpose

• As simple as possible, but sufficiently complex to adequately represent the real
system without obstructing understanding
• Appropriate balance between accuracy, transparency and flexibility
2. For predictive models: Parameterizable from available data

Keep in mind that no model is perfect!
Application
Mathematical Model: The Distance Formula

The cost of a long-distance telephone call is based on airline distance between the
two exchanges. A grid system helps to determine this distance. Cost charts from phone
companies help determine the cost of the call. You can find the distance between exchanges
and then use cost charts to determine the cost of this long-distance phone call.
Mathematics concepts required: The distance formula

30
Model
On 7 February 1960 the Bell telephone system began using a new method todetermine
the rate mileage on long-distance telephone calls between two states. It has been in use on
interstate, private-line service since May 1959. Now it will also apply to calls between points
in the United States and
Canada.
Since 1960, the calculation of the cost of a long-distance phone call requires the use
of a new theory of map making developed by the company's Long Lines Department: an
improved method for determining airline distance between two telephone exchanges. One
advantage of this new method is that distances measured between areas are more precise.
The second group of three digits of any phone number is known as the exchange.
717 846 8871
area code exchange phone number
It was impractical to make up a table of distances between all possible exchanges in Canada
and the United States. The telephone company's new method of finding the distance between
two exchanges is called the Vertical Horizontal Coordinate System, or the V-H System. The
company superimposed a series of vertical and horizontal lines over the map of the two
countries.

31
The newly developed square-grid system uses straight lines on a flat map surface
(differing from the curved lines of latitude and longitude on the earth's spherical surface). The
square grid is divided into 100 large squares. The upper-right corner is called the origin ofthe
system. Each of the 100 squares has a length and width of 1000 units. The V-H System
assigns an ordered pair to each exchange area on the map. The first coordinate of the ordered
pair is called the vertical coordinate (the number associated with the vertical line through the
exchange area) and the second is called the horizontal coordinate (the number associated
with the horizontal line through the exchange area). These are referred to as the V and H
coordinates.
Each large square (scaled to 1000 units each side) is divided into ten smaller squares.
This division makes it possible to assign more accurate V and H coordinates.
The Long Lines Department isolated one small square and found that its side actually
1
represented of a mile, or 0.3162 mile. Each locality is assigned a pair of V and H
√10

32
coordinates. Several locations, along with their V and H coordinates, are listed in table 3.1. A
complete list of these coordinates can be found in the Local and Joint Tariffs Manual, Pa. PUC
Toll No. lA, 1D, 2C at the Bell Telephone Company.
Using these coordinates, you can calculate airline distance between two exchanges as
follows:
1. Compute the difference between the V coordinates of the two exchanges. Then compute
the difference between the H coordinates. The difference is the absolute value of one V
coordinate minus the other, or one H coordinate minus the other.
2. Square the differences.
3. Add the squares of the two differences.
4. Take the square root of this result. Round to the next higher whole number if a fractional
amount results. This number is the distance between the two exchanges as expressed in
coordinate numbers.
5. Multiply this result by 0.3162, the mileage scale factor for coordinate readings. The number
obtained is the mileage between exchanges. Since fractional miles are considered full miles,
increase the mileage by 1 if a fractional mile is obtained.
Task
Step 1: Build
From the given steps to determine the airline distance of two exchanges, how would
you write the model for it? Suppose the V coordinates are (X 1 and X2) and the H coordinates
are (Y1 and Y2).
Model/Formula:

33
Step 2: Generate predictions and Analyze

What do you think is the airline distance between the exchanges for Harrisburg and
Pittsburgh as follows:
Harrisburg (5363, 1733)
Pittsburgh (5621, 2185)
Have a research on the actual distance between Harrisburg and Pittsburgh.
Step 3: Validate
How close is your computed value and the actual value?
Step 4. Apply
Once the mileage between two exchanges is known, you can refer to the cost charts
established by telephone companies to determine the cost of your long-distance phone
call. Most companies have day, evening, and night/ weekend rates. The evening and
night/weekend rates reflect discounts furnished by the phone companies.
The calling cost between two exchanges, once the distance is known, isdetermined as follows:
1. Locate the distance in the rate mileage column of the chart.

34
2. Determine the rate period for the phone call:

Day 8 A.M.-5 P.M., Monday through Friday
Evening 5 P.M.-11 P.M., Sunday through Friday

Night/Weekend 11 P.M.-8 P.M. daily all day Saturday
Sunday until 5 P.M.

3. Read the cost for the first minute and then multiply the additional minute cost by the
number of additional minutes of the phone call (fractional amounts of time are considered full
minutes).
4. Add these two costs to determine the total cost of the phone call.

35

36
Use the ITT chart to determine the cost of a three minute long-distance phone call from
Harrisburg to Pittsburgh during the day-rate period.
In this lesson, we have outlined the different principles and techniques in mathematical
modeling: dimensional analysis, abstraction and scaling, balance laws, and linearity. It is most
important to remember that mathematical models are representations or descriptions of reality—
by their very nature they depict reality. Thus, we close with a quote from a noted linguist (and
former senator from California) to remind ourselves that we are dealing with models that, we
hope, represent something that seems real and relevant to us. However, they are abstractions
and models, they are themselves real only as models, andthey should never be confused with
the reality we are trying to model.
Thus, if the behavior predicted by our models does not reflect what we see or measure in the
real world, it is the models that need to be fixed—and not the world:
―The symbol is NOT the thing symbolized; the word is NOT the thing; the map is NOT the
territory it stands for.‖
—S. I. Hayakawa, Language in Thought
and Action

37
Assessment:
1. Use table 3.1 to compute airline distance between the following exchanges:
a. York, Pa., and Lancaster, Pa.

b. Gettysburg, Pa., and Philadelphia, Pa.
c. Dover, Pa., and Ocean City, Md.

2. Use the MCI cost chart to find the cost of the following phone calls:
a. A 6-minute call from York to Lancaster at 3:00P.M. on Saturday
b. A 15-minute call from Gettysburg to Philadelphia at 10:00 A.M. on Friday

c. A 23-minute call from Dover to Ocean City at 7:00P.M. on Sunday
3. How would evaluate the model used to determine the cost of phone calls? Would you say
it is a good model? Why or Why Not?

38
Enrichment Activity
1. Compute the airline distance between York and State College. What is the distance?
2. Use MCI and ITT cost charts to compute the cost of a 15-minute long distance phone
call on Wednesday at 4:00 P.M. compare the costs.
MCI:$
ITT:$

39
Lesson 3: EVALUATION OF MATHEMATICAL MODELS

Models have become indispensable tools via decision support systems for policy makers
and researchers to provide ways to express the scientific knowledge. Model usefulness has to
be assessed through its sustainability for a particular purpose. Nonetheless,model testing is
often designed to demonstrate the rightness of a model and the tests are typically presented
as evidences to promote its acceptance and usability. Adequate statistical analysis is an
indispensable step during all phases of model development and evaluation because a model
without statistics is like a body without a soul.
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Determine the criteria for evaluating mathematical models
2. Evaluate models based on each criteria
3. Provide insights on the advantages of inaccuracy
Getting Started:
Use the clues to complete the crossword puzzles. These words correspond to the criteria for evaluating
mathematical models

40
Discussion:
In what ways do we evaluate models?
The following are the criteria and the corresponding questions that need to be
answered to determine if these are met.
1. Accuracy
• Is the output of the model very near to correct?

41
2. Descriptively Realistic
• Is the model based on assumptions which are correct?
3. Precision
• Are the predictors of the model definite numbers?
4. Robustness
• Is the model relatively immune to errors in the input data?
5. Generality
• Does the model apply to a wide variety of situations?

6. Fruitfulness
• Are the conclusions useful?
• Does the model inspire other good models?
Example: Determining projected student populations. This year, there are 10 million
people between 18–22 years old (P). This year, there are 5 million students (S). We
might conjecture that in general, S = 0.5P.
Accuracy
If next year there are projected to be 11, 000, 000 18–22 year olds, we would estimate
the college population to be of size S= 5, 500, 000.
If this value is close to correct, we say our model is accurate. Otherwise, the model is
inaccurate.
Descriptive Realistic
A more descriptively realistic model would incorporate other age groups.

Model Assumption 1: College students are either:
• 18–22 (Pa of these)

42
• 23 or older (Pb of these)

• 17 or younger (Pc of these)
Model Assumption 2: The enrolled percentages for each age range is:
• 30% for people aged 18–22
• 3% for people aged 23 or older
• 1% for people aged 17 or younger
We would estimate the college population to be of size
S = 0.3Pa + 0.03Pb + 0.01Pb.
Precision
Keep Assumption 1: Each college student is in 18–22 year old range.
Revise Assumption 2∗: The percentage of 18–22 year olds in college is between 46% and 50%.
(Historically)
Model Conclusion: (0.46)(11, 000, 000) ≤ E ≤ (0.5)(11, 000, 000)
5, 060, 000 ≤ E ≤ 5, 500, 000.

This model is imprecise, but perhaps more helpful than the precise answer from before.
Robustness and Percentage Error

If our population estimate (input) has an error of 10%, how much does our college
enrollment estimate (output) change?
Ask: Is the output error less than 10% or more than 10%?
Some models magnify the errors that exist in the input data; we say these models are
sensitive to error or not robust.

43
Percentage Error
Suppose you are finding the value of something. Let v be its true value and v’ be
the value predicted by a model or measured.
The error is calculated by v‘ − v.
v’ − v
The fractional error is calculated by
v
v’ − v
The percentage error is calculated by ( . 100) %
v
Suppose that the census measures the 18-22 year old population to be 9, 300, 000 while the
true population is 9, 500, 000. Most of the time, we discuss the absolute value of percentage
error
The error is 200, 000
The fractional error is 0.021
The percentage error is 2%

How robust is the S = 0.5P model?
Suppose that we prepare for a +5% error in population.

Recall: Population Estimate P‘ = 11, 000, 000.
Calculating the true population P based on a +5% error in P‘:
11,000,000 − 𝑃
= 0.05
𝑃
11,000,000 − 𝑃 = 0.05𝑃
11,000,000 = 1.05𝑃
𝑃 = 10,475,190
Note: The true population P is less than the estimate P‘ because our estimate was 5% too
high

44
How does this impact the true student enrollment E?

E = 0.5P = 0.5(10, 475, 190) = 5, 238, 095,
which is an error of:
5,500,000 − 5, 238, 095
= 0.05
5, 238, 095
This highlights the principle of “Error In equals Error Out”
Generality
Model Assumption: Each college student is in 18–22 year old range.

Model Assumption: Each college will have its enrollment change by the same ratio, next
year‘s 18–22 year old population over this year‘s.
Suppose that Queens College has 20,000 students and suppose that Private UNnamed
Kansas College has 2,000 students this year. If the year-to-year change in 18–22 year old
population is 10%, then QC would gain 2,000 students while PUNK College would gain 200.
The projected enrollment in all colleges would be:
E = (1.1)S1 + (1.1)S2 + ··· + (1.1)Sn

= (1.1)(S1 + S2 + ··· + Sn)
= (1.1)S
It is complicated to estimate total enrollment using this model. This model is more general
because it applies to individual colleges.

45
Fruitfulness
Our college enrollment model is fruitful in multiple ways:
• Planning for demand for educational grants, dormitory space, teacher hiring,
etc.
• The ideas we implemented are transferrable to other situations.
Example. How many automobiles would be junked in a given year?
• Cars play the role of people.
• Partitioning by age of cars gives better results
The Advantage of Inaccuracy
Often accuracy is very expensive (either computationally or financially).

Example. The Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP)
TSP: Given a home location and a set of places to visit, find the shortest path that starts
and ends at home and visits each of the places along the way.
With many locations, there are (inexpensive and inaccurate) or (expensive and accurate)
algorithms to solve these problems.
Your approach will depend on the particular application and your scale:
• If you visit the same places every day, run the expensive model once initially in order to
save money in the long run.
• If you visit different places every day, run the inexpensive algorithm daily.
Application:
Full moons.
A full moon appears to occur every 29 days.
Let ML, MN be the dates of the last and next

full moons.
MN = ML + 29

46
Explain if the model meets the following criteria

a. Accuracy
b. Descriptive Realistic
c. Precision
d. Robustness
e. Generality
f. Fruitfulness

47
Summary of the lesson:

There are six criteria into which we evaluate mathematical models as to its
appropriateness and usefulness. A model should be accurate or it should give correct answers
or if not, the value should be close to the real value. A model should also be realistically
descriptive or it should be deduced from a believable description of the system being modeled.
It should be precise as it shows a definite answer not a range of numbers or a set of functions.
It should also be immune to errors or robust. It can be applied to variety of situations or
generality. Lastly, it should be fruitful as the model is useful and can inspire othergood models.
Assessment:
Model Assumption:
The enrolled rate for each age range is:
30% for people aged 18–22
3% for people aged 23 or older
1% for people aged 17 or younger
1. What can be a model that may estimate the college students‘ population size?
2. Is the model precise? Why?

48
3. Is the model accurate? Why?
4. Suppose that the census measures the 18-22 year old population to be 9, 800, 000 while
the true population is 9, 500, 000.
a) The error is
b) The fractional error is
c) The percentage error is
5. Referring to question number 4, how robust is the model at 5% error? Is it overestimate

or underestimate?

49
6. Is the model general? Why?
7. Can the result of the model be fruitful? How?
Enrichment Activity
Research a mathematical model used by a certain country to predict the COVID-19

cases. Explain how this model meets the six criteria mentioned in the discussion.

50
Carson and C. Cobelli (Eds.), Modelling Methodology for Physiology and Medicine,
Academic Press, San Diego, CA, 2001.
Otto, Sarah P., and Troy Day. A biologist's guide to mathematical modeling in ecology and
evolution. Vol. 13. Princeton University Press, 2007.
P. D. Cha, J. J. Rosenberg, and C. L. Dym, Fundamentals of Modeling and Analyzing

Engineering Systems, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2000

PROBLEM SOLVING,
AND MODELING
Learning Module 03

STUDENT
Name:
Student Number:
Program:
Section:
Home Address:
Email Address:
Contact Number:
PROFESSOR
Contact number: (+639) 19 002 1187

IV. Module Title Using and applying Mathematical Models
V. Overview of the Module In this chapter, we will introduce you to the process of
constructing mathematical models, which is called
mathematical modeling. In mathematical modeling, we take
a real-world problem and write it as an equivalent mathematical
problem. We then solve the mathematical problem, and interpret
its solution in terms of the real-world problem. After this we see
to what extent the solution is validin the context of the real-
world problem. So, the stages involved in mathematical
modeling are formulation, solution, interpretation and validation.
We will start by looking at the process you undertake
when solving word problems which we had discussed in our
earlier classes. We will see later that the steps that are used
for solving word problems are some of those used in
mathematical modeling also.
1. Be familiar with different models used in different fields.

2. Use the models to solve different problems
3. Write a reflection about the importance of
mathematics as a field to predict and explain changes
in our environment through mathematical models.

2
Lesson 1: MATHEMATICAL MODELS ACROSS DIFFERENT FIELDS

Mathematical modeling is central to all the CORE MATHS syllabi so we will start by looking at
a number of contrasting case studies illustrating how mathematics is used to solve problems.
We will show, in particular, how mathematics is used
• to explain
• to predict
• to make decisions
and this will be illustrated in this lesson.
A mathematical model is a description of a system using mathematical concepts and notation;

the process of developing a mathematical model. A variety of mathematical models is
illustrated in the examples provided in this lesson.
Lesson Objectives:

1. Get acquainted with different mathematical models in various fields
2. Apply tested models to solve different problems
3. Provide insights about the importance of the models presented
Getting Started:
The algorithm below gives a method for determining the day of the week for any date
this century. The date used as an example is 3 March, 2015.

3
Use the algorithm to find the day of the week on which you were born. Note
that if the year is divisible by 4, it is a leap year and February has 29 days!
Discussion:
Bode’s Law
In 1772, the German astronomer, Johann Bode, investigated the pattern formed by the
distances of planets from the sun. At the time, only six planets were known, and the pattern
he devised is shown in the table below. The distances are measured on a scale that equates
10 units to the Sun – Earth distance.
The fit between actual distances and Bode's pattern is remarkably good.

4
The pattern can be written as a mathematical model:
Distance = 4 + 3 × 2n
where
n = 0 represents Venus
n = 1 represents Earth
n = 2 represents Mars
n = 4 represents Jupiter
n = 5 represents Saturn
Wind Chill
When the temperature drops to near zero, it is usual for weather forecasters to give
both the expected air temperature, and the wind chill temperature - this is the temperature
actually felt by someone, which depends on the wind speed and air temperature. So, for
example, the wind chill temperature for an actual temperature of 00 C and wind speed of
10 mph is given by −5 50 C. For v > 5 mph, the wind chill temperature is given by
where t0 C is the air temperature and v mph the wind speed. This formula was devised by
American scientists during the Second World War, and is based on experimental evidence.
Worked Example:

5
Solution:
Heptathlon
The Heptathlon is a competition for female athletes who take part in seven separate
events (usually spread over a two-day period). For each event, there is a point scoring system,
based on the idea that a good competitor will score 1000 points in each event.
For example, the points scoring system for the 800 m running event is
where t is the time taken in seconds for the athlete to run 800 m.

6
Worked Example:
What points are scored for a time of 124.2 seconds, and what time would give a point score of 1000?
Solution:

7
Simple Pendulum
The great Italian scientist, Galileo, was the first to make important discoveries about
the behavior of swinging weights. These discoveries led to the development of pendulum
clocks. You can easily deduce Galileo's result from a simple experiment, as follows.
Attach a weight at one end of a light string, the other end being fixed. Let the pendulum
swing freely in a vertical plane and for various lengths of pendulum, l, in meters, find the
corresponding times in seconds of one complete oscillation ( known as the period) - it is more
accurate to time, say, five oscillations and then divide the total time by 5. On a graph,
1
plot the period, T, against the square root of the pendulum length, 𝑙
2
What do you notice?
In fact, the two quantities are related by the formula:
Worked Example:
What pendulum length gives a periodic time of 1 second?
Solution:

8
Perfect Numbers
These are numbers whose divisors (excluding the number itself) add up to the number.
Excluding the number 1, the first perfect number is 6, since
6= 3x2=1x6
and 3 + 2 + 1 = 6
Test the numbers 7, 8, ... , 30 to see if you can find the next perfect number.
Worked Example:
Are the following numbers perfect :
(a) 220 (b) 284 (c) 496 ?
Solution:

9
Hence 496 is a perfect number.

In fact 496 is the third perfect number, and 8128 is the fourth. Although there are still many
unknown results concerning perfect numbers, it has been shown that
(a) all even perfect numbers will be of the form

2n-1(2n −1)
when n is a prime number. This number is in fact perfect when 2n − 1 is prime;

(b) all even perfect numbers end in 6 or 8;
(c) the sum of the inverses of all divisors of a perfect number add up to 2,
e.g. for 6,
1 +1+1+1 = 2
6 3 2
You probably noticed in the example above that 220 and 284 are connected through
their divisors. They are called amicable pairs (they are the smallest numbers that exhibit this
property) and are regarded as tokens of great love. In the Bible, for example, Jacob gave
Esau 220 goats to express his love (Genesis Ch. 32, verse 14). You might consider writing a
short program to generate amicable pairs, and use it to find the next lowest pair
This is not quite a mathematical model but rather a way of generating perfect numbers.
As in some other areas in mathematics, the applications come later, with very large numbers,
such as perfect numbers, being important for internet security.

10
Application:
Given the Day of the week activity in the getting started part of this lesson, justify if the
model will work for dates in the last century (1900-1999).

These examples illustrate a range of mathematical models. The first one, Bode's law, is
a formula, based on known data but not on any theoretical model. This is also true for the
second case study, wind chill, which is used extensively by climbers and explorers in very cold
climates! The third mathematical model is a formula designed to give a positive score of
1000 for a world class athlete completing the 800 m running event in the heptathlon and a
score of zero for a time of just over 4 minutes. In contrast, the time of a pendulum swing is
based on a theoretical underpinning, namely Newton's law of motion, whilst our next problem,
that of the distribution of perfect numbers, is a suggested formula to find such numbers,
when n is a prime number. When 2 n – 1 is also a prime number, this formula generates a
perfect number.
Assessment:
1. Bode's law
What are the next three numbers (n = 6,7,8) in Bode's formula? More planetary data is shown
on the next page.

11
Planet Actual
Uranus 192
Neptune 301
Pluto 395
Does this extra data provide further evidence for Bode's law?
How could n = 3 be interpreted? What is the value of n that would correspond to the planet
Mercury?
2. Wind chill
(a) Use the wind chill temperature formula to find its value (T) where
(i) t = 0°C; v= 20mph
(ii) t = 5°C; v= 20mph
(iii) t= −5°C; V = 20mph

Plot a graph of wind chill temperature against air temperature, t, for v = 20 mph. Use your
graph to estimate the wind chill temperature when t = 10°C and v = 20 mph.

12
(b) What happens as v gets larger?

(c) For what speeds does the formula predict that the actual temperature (t°C) is equal to
the wind chill temperature (T°C) ?
3. Heptathlon
(a) For the 800 m points scoring formula, what time scores zero points?
(b) Find the points scored for the current 800 World Record.
(c) How could you adapt the formula for running events to be used for field events (high
jump, long jump, discus and javelin)?

13
4. Simple pendulum
Construct a simple pendulum with l = 0.25m and check its periodic time with the formula.
5. Perfect numbers
Given that the fifth and sixth perfect numbers are 33,550,336 and 8,589,869,056
respectively. Copy and complete the table below.

14
Write a reflection about the importance of having mathematical models in different
fields.

15
Lesson 2: PRACTICAL USE OF MATHEMATICAL MODELS

Mathematical models can be a very powerful tool in solving practical problems. Examples
of this are given in this lesson with an optimization problem of the type met in the commercial
world, as well as two further examples showing how mathematical modeling is used to solve
problems
Lesson Objectives:
1. Determine examples of mathematical models used in solving practical problems

2. Apply tested mathematical models to solve different problems
3. Provide insights about the importance of the models presented
Discussion:
Metal Cans
The most popular size of metal can contains a volume of about 440 ml. As they are
produced in millions each week, any savings that can be made in their manufacture will prove
significant. Part of the cost of making steel cans is based on the amount of metal used, so it
might be sensible to design a can which minimizes the amount of metal needed to enclose
the required volume.
To analyze this problem, you must find an expression for the total surface area of a
can. Suppose the cylindrical can has radius r and height h, then total surface area,
S = curved surface area +top area +base area.
Assuming that no metal is wasted, an expression for the total surface area is given by
𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ + 𝜋𝑟2 + 𝜋𝑟2

𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ + 2𝜋𝑟2 (1)
The formula for S shows that it is a function of two variables, r and h.
But in reality it is a function of only one variable since r and h are
constrained by having to enclose a specified volume.

16
You should be familiar with the formula for the volume of a cylindrical can:
V = area of cross section × height
or, in this case:
400 = 𝜋𝑟2ℎ (2)

This equation can be used to find an expression for h which is substituted into (1) to
eliminate h.
From (2)
400
ℎ= (3)
𝜋𝑟 2
and substituting into (1) gives
𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑟 ( 4002) + 2𝜋𝑟2

𝜋𝑟
giving
𝑆= 800 + 2𝜋𝑟2 (4)

𝑟
The problem is to find the value of r which minimizes the total surface area S
Worked Example:
Draw the graph of S against r for r = 2, ... , 8 and hence determine an approximation
for the optimal value of r and corresponding value of h.
Solution
The table values is
and this is shown on the graph for S against r.

17
You can see from the graph that S is minimalized where r is approximately 4.1 cm and, from
equation (2) above,
400 400 = 8.3𝑐𝑚
ℎ= =
𝜋𝑟2 𝜋(4.1)2
Reading Age Formula
Educationalists need to be able to assess the minimum reading age of certain books
so that they can be appropriately catalogued, particularly for use with young children. There
have been many attempts at designing a formula for finding the reading age of a text. One
example is known as the FOG index. This is given by:

18
where the variables are defined for a sample passage of the text by
A = number of words
n = number of sentences
L = number of words containing three or more syllables (excluding '-ing' and '-ed'
endings).
Worked Example:
Here is a passage from the book Buried Alive by Jacqueline Wilson.
The moment we got to the caravan site and saw the ropes and flags set out across
the beach I realized something terrible.
There was going to be sports.
I am the least sporty boy ever.

'Great!' said Dad, reading the poster. 'There's going to be all sorts of races. Sprinting,
relay, three-legged, sack-race, egg and spoon. You boys must have a go.'
'It'll be just for people staying at the caravan site,' I said quickly.
'We can't enter, it wouldn't be fair.'
'Don't be such a wimp, Tim,' Dad said sharply. 'Of course you can enter.'
'But I don't want to!' I said.
'Nor do I, actually,' said Biscuits loyally.
'There! We'd have all been much better off if we'd gone for a car ride,' said Mum.
'In fact, why don't we still go? This carnival doesn't look very exciting. There aren't any
craft or bric-a-brac stalls, and the tombola prizes don't look much cop. There aren't
even many food stalls.'
Use the FOG index to estimate the reading age of this book, based on this passage.

19
Solution
𝑅 = 2 (𝐴 + 100𝐿)
5 𝑛 𝐴
where A = number of words in the passage
n = number of sentences
L = number of words containing 3 or more syllables.
So A = 167, n =10, L = 8, giving
𝑅 = 2 (167 + 100(8))
5 10 167
𝑅 = 5.6
(This may be lower than you might expect but remember it is only a simple formula and will
not give an 'exact' answer.)
Bar Code Design

Nearly all grocery (and most other) products now include an identifying bar code on
their wrapper (supermarkets use them both for sales checkout and stock control). There are
two types of EAN (the abbreviation for European Article Number although the name has now
been changed to International Article Number) − EAN-13 digit and EAN-8 digit. The
shortened 8 digit code will be considered here.
A possible example is shown below. The number has three parts:
The check digit is chosen so that
3 x (1st + 3rd+ 5th+ 7th numbers)+(2nd + 4th + 6th + 8th numbers)

is exactly divisible by 10. For the numbers above
3 x (0 + 3 + 9+ 0)+(0 + 9 + 1 + 4)

= 3 x (12)+(14)
= 50
Which is divisible by 10
If the check digit is in error, the optical bar code reader will reject the code.
Worked Example
Find the check digit for the EAN codes :

(a) 5021421x (b) 0042655x
Solution
(a) Denoting the check digit by x, the number
3 x (5 + 2 + 4 + 1)+ (0 + 1 + 2 + x) = 3 x 12 + 3 + x = 39 + x
must be divisible by 10, so x must be 1.

(b) Similarly
3 x (0 + 4 + 6 + 5) + (0 + 2 + 5 + x) = 3 x 15 + 7 + x = 52 + x
must be divisible by 10, so x must be 8.
An EAN-8 digit bar code is shown opposite. It has left and right hand guide bars and center
bars. In between there are 8 bars of varying thickness. Each number is represented bya unique
set of 2 bars and 2 spaces. As can be seen in the magnified version of 5, each number code is
made up of 7 modules.
The digit 5 is written as 0110001 to indicate whether a module is white (0) or black (1)

21
All left hand numbers start with 0 and end with 1, and use a total of 3 or 5 black
modules and there must be 3 changes of number, that is, from 0 to 1, 1 to 0 and 0 to 1. This
ensures that there are 2 white and two black strips (of varying thickness). Right hand numbers
are the reflection of the corresponding left hand code, e.g. right hand 5 is 1000110.
Worked Example
Design all possible codes for left hand numbers, using the rules above, that is, using 7
modules and
• starting with 0 and ending with 1
• using a total of 3 or 5 black modules
• changing from 0 to 1, 1 to 0 and 0 to 1.
Solution
Here are possibilities using exactly 3 black modules:
and using exactly 5 black modules:

22
This gives 10 possibilities, exactly the number needed to code the digits 0 to 9

23
Application
Metal cans
Repeat the analysis for finding the minimum surface area of a metal can where the
volume enclosed is 1000 ml. Determine the values of r and h which minimize the surface area.
Because mathematics is a precise science, applications to real problems require both

an understanding of the problem and an appreciation that, whilst mathematics can provide
answers and give precise explanations based on particular assumptions and models, cannot
always solve the real problem. Mathematical modeling can help to design multistagerockets
that work, but it can't necessarily help to solve the problem of world peace.
Often mathematical modeling can help in making the best decisions, and, for
example, success is shown by the fact that man has stepped on the moon. You should,
though, be aware that most problems in real life are more complicated than a single
equation or formula.

24
Assessment:
1. Metal cans
Check the dimensions of a range of 440 ml cans. Can you explain why the observed values
are not in line with the theoretical values? Check the dimensions of catering tins that contain large
volumes. Does this help provide an explanation?
2. FOG index
Use the FOG index to estimate the reading age of the passage below, taken from
The Constant Gardener by John le Carré.

Free also of his interrogation by the police, when a Justin he didn't recognize strode
to the center of the stage and, in a series of immaculately sculpted sentences, laid his
burden at the feet of his bemused interrogators - or as much of it as a puzzled instinct told
him it was prudent to reveal. They began by accusing him of murder.
'There's a scenario hanging over us here, Justin,' Lesley explains apologetically, 'and
we have to put it to you straight away, so that you're aware of it, although we know it's
hurtful. It's called a love triangle, and you're the jealous husband and you've organized a
contract killing while your wife and her lover are as far way from you as possible, which is
always good for the alibi. You had them both killed, which was what you wanted for your
vengeance. You had Arnold Bluhm's body taken out of the jeep and lost so that we'd think
Arnold Bluhm was the killer and not you. Lake Turkana's full of crocodiles, so losing Arnold
wouldn't be a problem. Plus there's a nice inheritance coming your way by all accounts,
which doublesup the motive.'

25
4. A mathematical model for the reading age of a text where N is the average number of one
syllable words in a passage of 150 words.
Use this model to find the reading age of a number of books. Compare the results with the
FOG index. Is there agreement?
5. EAN codes Find the check digits, x, for these EAN-8 digit codes :
(a) 0034548x (b) 5023122x
Determine whether these EAN-8 digit codes have the correct check digit :
(a) 00306678 (b) 06799205

26
Diezmann, C. M. (2005). Challenging mathematically gifted primary students. Australasian
Journal of Gifted Education, 14(1), 50–57. Retrieved 2 April 2009 from
http://search.informit.com.au.ezproxy.cdu.edu.au/fullText;dn=154474;res=AEIP
*********************************DISCLOSURE*********************************
No reproduction of any part of the module may be used, sold or distributed

for commercial purposes or be changed or included in any other Colleges and
Universities, work or publication, whether in print or electronic, including sending,
publishing or incorporating them to another module unless prior permission has
been granted

Problem Solving, Mathematics Investigation and Modeling

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Problem Solving, Mathematics Investigation and Modeling

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Problem Solving, Mathematics Investigation and Modeling

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PROBLEM SOLVING,

Learning Module on Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

Contact number: (+639) 19 002 1187

Learning Module on Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

Lesson 1: IMPORTANCE OF DOING MATHEMATICAL INVESTIGATIONS

Remember: For now, take only 10 to 15 minutes.

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

What patterns did you find out?

What can you conclude?

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

The Investigative Approach

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

Benefits of using investigations in mathematics classrooms

4. Investigations allow students to apply mathematical knowledge to solve problems

5. Investigations can be used to foster curiosity and exploration in children. During

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

challenging environment in which to work in order to prevent them from becoming

Summary of the Lesson:

Investigations require teachers to establish a new culture in the mathematics

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

mathematics is learnt. Mathematical investigations can be a useful tool when teaching

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

Lesson 2: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INVESTIGATION AND PROBLEM SOLVING

1. Explain the relationship between investigation and modeling

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

There is a need to clarify three issues.

Issue 1. The use of the term “process”

The specific examples chosen for examination in a mathematical investigation

Issue 3. The use of the term “justification” as a core process in mathematical

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

Learning Module on Problem Solving Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

An example of a problem-solving task is:

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

Issues regarding mathematical investigation

Second Issue. Investigation is related to heuristics

For example, if students draw a diagram or use systematic listing to

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

Summary of the Lesson

Explain the following in 3-5 sentences.

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

2. Difference between procedural tasks and problem solving tasks

3. Difference between deductivist approach and heuristic approach

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

Lesson 3: EXAMPLES, PATTERNS, AND CONJECTURES

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

• Each pair of roads has exactly one town in common.

• Every town is on exactly three roads.

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling

We complete the type B rectangle in two additional ways

Another valuable technique for generating examples is to build them up inductively

Learning Module on Problem Solving, Mathematical Investigation and Modeling