A Level Physics: Unit 3

Q: How can we measure small length by using vernier calipers?

Vernier callipars is used to measure the length of 5 cm to 15 cm. It has 2 scales: main scale and vernier
scale. We can measure the diameter of an object keeping it in between the 2 jaws.

Q: What is vernier coincidence?

When the object is in between the 2 jaws, a line of vernier scale coincides with one line of the main
scale. This line of the vernier scale gives the vernier coincidence.

Q: What is vernier constant?

The minimum length we can measure by vernier calipers is called vernier constant.

Q: How can we get main scale reading?

Keeping the object in between the jaws, the zero line of the vernier scale causes one line of the main
scale. This line gives the main scale reading.

Q: How can we measure a small length by using a micrometer screw gauge?

It can measure the length of several centimeters. It has also 2 scales: main scale and thimble scale. We
should keep the object in between the sleeve and spindle. We can measure the length by using the
formula

Q: 0 error of micrometer screw gauge.

When the sleeve and spindle are touching each other and if the detum line of line scale doesn’t coincide
with 0 line of the circular scale, then the error is called 0 error.
Uncertainty

Q: What is uncertainty?
The uncertainty is an actual range of values around a measurement, within which we expect the true
value to lie. The uncertainty is an actual number with an unit.

An error is just a problem which causes the reading to be different from the true value. Although a zero
error can have an actual value. For example, if we happen to know that the true value of a length is 21.0
cm and an error or problem causes the actual reading to be 21.5 cm, then, since the true value is 0.5 cm
away from the measurement, the uncertainty is 0.5 cm.

The uncertainty can be estimated in two ways:

1. Using the scale division on the scale.

2. Repeating the readings.

There are two types of uncertainty

1. Instrumental uncertainty: uncertainty of measured value.

2. Absolute uncertainty: uncertainty of any calculated value.

Q: How can we calculate the uncertainty?

Let the true length of a bar, cm
the measured length, cm

Instrumental ∆ of this measured value

– cm
cm
∆ of 4 operations
1. Product

Let,

Example:

cm
cm

2. Division

3. Subtraction of two numbers

4. Addition of two numbers

5. Indices of a number
 Now we know,

For,

P-1 A student wants to find the density of the material. She found the following results.

cm
mm
g

(a) Calculate the %∆ for each of the measurements.

(b) Calculate the %∆ of volume.
(c) Calculate the density of material and hence determine its %∆.

Ans:

(a) %∆

%∆
%∆

(b) ( ) cm3

Again,

%∆

(c) g/cm3

%∆ of density
%∆ for repeating readings

where,

P-2 Diameter of a sphere is 3.64 mm, 3.74 mm, 3.84 mm, 3.00 mm, calculate the average diameter,
uncertainty and % uncertainty.

Ans:

avg. diameter mm

P-3 A student wants to find the Young modulus of a material. She found the following results: 14.2 GPa,
13.7 GPa, 13.1 GPa. Find %∆.

Ans:

avg Young modulus

%∆

P-4 A length is measured five times with a ruler whose smallest division is 0.1 cm and the readings
obtained, in cm are 22.9, 22.7, 22.9, 23.0, 23.1. What is the reading obtained and the uncertainty.

Ans:

avg length

Reading = (22.9 ± 0.2) cm

Percentage difference

Example

Theoretically, the value of ms-2

Experimentally we get, ms-2

P-1 Experimentally, we get two values of

Average = 9.77

%difference =

P-2 The value of ms-2

Experimentally, we have got, ms-2
Given
Is the experiment valid?

Ans:

Now % difference

%difference < %∆

Therefore, the experiment is valid.

Q: What is precision?
How close the measured data are is called the precision i.e. if the difference between maximum and
minimum measured value is less, the precision is more.

Example

Student A found,
Difference of maximum and minimum value = 0.06

Student B found,
Difference of maximum and minimum = 0.02

Therefore, Student B is more precise while student A is more accurate.

Q: What is accuracy?
If the difference between theoretical value and mean measured value is less, accuracy is more.

Student A:
Theoretical value = 9.81
Measured value = 9.85
Difference = 0.04

Student B:
Theoretical value = 9.81
Measured value = 8.62
Difference = 1.19

Therefore, Student A is more accurate.

Q: What is systematic error?

It is an error caused by experimental set up or by using wrong instrument. This error can be reduced by
using proper instrument or by changing the experimental set up. If systematic error occurs, the graph
should not pass through origin.
Q: What is random error?
Random error is caused by unpredictable changes in the experiment. The error produces a random
effect on the data. Sometimes data will be higher than usual. This error can be reduced by repeating the
experiment and plotting a graph.

Advantages of graphical method of an experiment:

1. It reduces random error.

2. It identifies the systematic error.
3. It identifies the anomalous result.
4. Gradient can be found.
5. y-intercept or x-intercept can be found.

Advantages and disadvantage of data logging device and stopwatch

Data logging device

Advantage:

1. Large number of reading can be found within short time.

2. Graph can be plotted automatically.
3. Simultaneous reading can be found.

Disadvantage:

1. External power supply is required.

2. Expensive.
3. Expert operator is required.
Stopwatch

Advantage:

1. Cheap
2. Anyone can handle
3. External power supply is not required.

Disadvantage:

1. Simultaneous reading cannot be found due to reaction time.

2. Easily broken.
3. Reaction time matters.

Criticizing the measured value

Q: A student wants to find the free fall of acceleration ‘g’ using a graphical method. She records the
following results:

h/cm t
5.0 1.23
10.0 2.46
20 4.5
25.0 6.36

Criticize:

1. Unit of time is missing.

2. Inconsistent significant figures in time and height.
3. Interval in height is inconsistent.
4. No repetition for particular height.
5. Very few readings taken, not enough for drawing a graph, at least 6 sets of reading are required
to plot a graph.

Q: Describe an experiment to find the free fall acceleration, g

Requirements:

1. Electromagnet
2. Two way switch
3. Trap door
4. Iron ball
5. Electronic timer
Diagram:

gradient

gradient

Choice of instrument

 Set square is used to make sure the meter rule is vertical.

 Meter rule with millimeter scale is used to measure the height as precision of the meter rule is
1mm.

Description

 The switch is connected to A to magnetize the electromagnet.

 Now the height is measured from the bottom of the attracted iron sphere to the trap door using
a meter rule.
  Now the switch is connected to B which demagnetized the electromagnet, the sphere is
released and the timer starts. The timer stops when the sphere hits the trapdoor. The time is
recorded.
 The process is repeated for different heights and corresponding time is recorded.

Calculation

In this experiment the independent variable is height and the dependent variable is time. A graph of h
against t2 is plotted. The graph should be straight line through the origin. The free fall acceleration is
found using the gradient of this graph as shown below:

Q: Write down one advantage and one disadvantage if the sphere is released from greater height.
Advantage:

 Percentage uncertainty less

Disadvantage:

 More air resistance

Q: An experiment to demonstrate Hooke’s law. You are given a retort stand, a helical
spring and some slotted mass.
(a) i. Draw a simple diagram for it to investigate Hooke’s law.

ii. What other apparatus is needed to investigate this law. Explain your choice of instrument.

(b) i. Measure the length of spring before adding any mass. Measure the final length after adding
100g mass and hence determine extension for this given load.

ii. Calculate the percentage uncertainty of extension.

(c) i. Repeat process by changing the load until you have four sets of reading. Record all data by using a
table.
 ii. Criticize your measured value.

iii. Theory suggest that . Use this equation to discuss extent to which the graph should be a
straight line or not.

(d) i. Plot a graph of force against extension.

ii. Explain why your graph should or should not pass through the origin.

iii. Calculate the spring constant and elastic potential energy stored in the spring when the load is
suspended at the bottom of the spring in 280g.

iv. State and explain two safety precautions.

Ans:

(a) i.

ii. meter rule, because precision of this meter rule is 1mm.

(b) i. cm
cm
cm
 ii.

(c) i.

mass/kg initial length/cm final length/cm extension/cm

0.15 7.5 15.1 7.6 1.47
0.2 7.5 19.6 12.1 1.96
0.25 7.5 24.1 16.6 2.45
0.3 7.5 27.5 20 2.94

ii. 1. Very few readings are taken.

2. The readings are not taken in same sig. figures.
3. Unit of force is missing.
4. Repeated readings are not taken for a particular mass.

iii. . If is constant, the equation is similar to , so the graph should be a straight line.

(d)

ii. The graph should not pass through origin because of systematic error.

iii. Nm-1
spring constant = 11.5 Nm-1

When ,
N

So, cm

EPE =
= 0.159 J

iv. 1. Wear safety goggles.

2. Keep safe distance from the slot of mass hung.
Q: Describe an experiment to find the coefficient of viscosity of glycerine.
For terminal velocity,

Ws = Wl + Drag force
msg = mlg + Drag force
6 rηv = msg – mlg
6 rηv = vsρsg – vlρlg
6 rηv =

Requirements

1. Tall transparent glass tube

2. Enough glycerin
3. Two rubber bands
4. Different size of sphere made up of same material.

Diagram

Additional apparatus

1. micrometer screw gauge

2. stop watch
3. measuring tape with millimeter scale

Choice of instrument

1. micrometer screw gauge  precision is 0.01 mm.

2. stopwatch  precision 0.01s which is less than the reaction time 0.1s.
 3. measuring tape  precision of instrument is 1mm.

Description

At first the diameter of the sphere is measured, using micrometer screw gauge. The ball is released from
the surface of the glycerin and when it reaches the first rubber band, the stopwatch is started and when
reaches the 2nd rubber band, the stopwatch is stopped, the time is recorded. The distance between the
two rubber band is measured using the measuring tape. Using the formula , we can find the
terminal velocity. We assume that the ball gains terminal velocity before reaching the 1st rubber band.
Repeat this process for different diameter of sphere and corresponding velocities are obtained.

Calculation

In this experiment, diameter of a sphere is independent variable and velocity of the sphere is dependent
variable. A graph of V against r2 is plotted. The graph should be a straight line and the coefficient of
viscosity can be found by taking the gradient.

Therefore,

Sources of uncertainty

1. Zero error of micrometer screw gauge

2. Temperature of glycerine
 3. Human reaction time while measuring the time taken.

Precaution

1. The sphere should not touch the wall of the tube.

2. Measurements are taken at eye level to avoid parallax error.

Safety precautions

1. Wearing safety googles

Q: Describe an experiment to find the resistivity of constantan wire

Requirements

1. A fixed length of wire

2. A voltmeter
3. An ammeter
4. A variable resistor

Additional apparatus

1. Micrometer screw gauge

Choice of instrument

1. Voltmeter and ammeter is used to measure voltage and current.

2. We can change the length of the wire by using the meter rule.
3. Voltmeter gives a precision of 0.1v and the precision of ammeter is 0.1 mA.
4. Precision of micrometer screw gauge is 0.01 mm.
Description

1. Measure the diameter of the wire using micrometer screw gauge.

2. Measure the length of wire using meter rule.
3. Switch is closed and record the voltmeter and ammeter reading.
4. Change the sliding contact point of variable resistor.
5. Record the ammeter and the corresponding voltmeter reading.
6. Repeat this process several times by changing the sliding contact point of variable resistor.
7. Now, a graph of voltage against current is plotted.
8. The gradient of this graph gives resistance.

9. Area of cross-section is found by using and using the formula , we can find the
resistivity of the wire.

Sources of uncertainty

1. Temperature
2. Zero error of micrometer screw gauge
3. Zero error and parallax error of voltmeter and ammeter

Precaution

1. The wire should be straight while measuring the length.

2. You should wear safety gloves.

Q: Describe an experiment to find the Young modulus of the copper wire

Requirements

1. A long wire
2. A reference wire
3. Vernier calipers
4. Variable loads

Additional requirements

1. Micrometer screw gauge: Precision 0.01 mm

2. Measuring tape: Precision is 1 mm
3. Vernier scale: Precision 0.01 cm

Description

1. The length of the test wire is found by measuring tape and the diameter is found by micrometer
screw gauge.
2. Apparatus is setup as in diagram
 3. A small fixed load is suspended at the bottom of the reference wire and Vernier scale reading is
taken when the wire is in its original length.
4. Variable loads are then suspended under the test wire until the test wire is straight and Vernier
scale reading is taken.
5. Initial length is subtracted from the final length.
6. The experiment is repeated with different other loads and a series of extension is taken.

Calculation

Area of cross-section is found by the formula.

Stress is found by the formula .

Strain is found by the formula

In this experiment, dependent variable is stress and independent variable is strain.

Graph of stress against strain is plotted.

Safety precaution

1. Wear safety googles

2. Keep the feet away from the load.

Sources of uncertainty

1. Zero error of micrometer screw gauge.

2. Diameter of wire.
3. Measurement of extension.
Q: Describe an experiment to determine the internal resistance of battery. You are
given a variable resistor, a battery, a voltmeter, an ammeter and some connecting
wires. You are given a load resistor.

Starting with the variable resistor at its highest value (to minimize any heating effect), record the current
I in the cell and the potential difference, V across its terminals for different settings of the rheostat.

We know,

If a graph of V against I is plotted, we would expect to get a straight line of gradient and intercept
on the y-axis.
Significant figures
1. All non-zero numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) are always significant.
2. All zero between non-zero numbers are always significant.
3. All zeroes which are simultaneously to the right of the decimal point and at the end of the
number are always significant.
4. All zero which are to the left of the written decimal point and are a number >= 10 are always
significant.

Number S.F
48923 5
3.967 4
900.06 5
0.0004 1
8.1000 5
501.040 6
3000000 1

Prefixes
Prefix Symbol Multiple
pico P 10-12
nano n 10-9
micro μ 10-6
milli m 10-3
centi c 10-2
deci d 10-1
kilo k 103
mega M 106
giga G 109
tera T 1012

SI units
Base quantity Base unit Symbol
Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
interval
Amount of Mole mol
substance
Derived units
Quantity Derived units Base units
Speed ms-1
Acceleration ms-2
Force newton (N) kgms-2
Pressure pascal (Pa) kgm-1s-2
Work joule (J) kgm-2s-3
Power watt (W) kgm-2s-3
Charge coulomb (C) As
Potential difference volt (V) kg m-2A-1s-3
Resistance ohm (Ω) kg m-2A-2s-3
 Edexcel Physics IAL
Core Practical 1: Determine the
Acceleration of a Freely-Falling Object

Practical Notes

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Core Practical 1: Determine the Acceleration of a Freely-Falling Object

Method 1 - Using Light Gates

Equipment
● Clamp stand
● Electromagnet connected to low voltage DC supply
● Steel ball bearing
● Light gates x 2
● Data logger
● Metre ruler
● 2 kg counterweight
● Soft pad for the ball bearing to land on

Method
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the
diagram, connecting the light gates to a
data logger and as close to the
electromagnet as possible.
2. The position of the lower light gate
should be adjusted such that the height
(h) is 0.75 m, measured using the
metre ruler.
3. Turn on the electromagnet and attach the ball bearing.
4. Switch off the electromagnet, and note the time taken for the bearing to fall between the
light gates (t) as recorded by the data logger.
5. Reduce h by 0.05 m by moving the lower light gate upwards and repeat the above two
steps, reducing h by 0.05 m each time down to 0.25 m.
6. Repeat the experiment twice more to find mean values of t for each value of h.

Calculations
● Plot a graph of 2h against t​2​ and draw a line of best fit. The gradient of the line of best fit will
be g. This is derived using one of the constant acceleration formula below:
s = ut + 12 at2
1 2
h= ​ s h is distance travelled, g is acceleration, u is 0
2 gt A
2h = g t2
​y = mx

Safety
● Use a counterweight or clamp the stand to the table to avoid it toppling over and causing
injury.
● The ball bearing is cushioned by a pad at the bottom of the clamp so it does not bounce
upwards and cause injury.

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Notes
● The distance between the upper light gate and the starting position of the ball bearing must
be kept constant so that it reaches the upper light gate with the same speed each time.
● The ball bearing should be dense to help mitigate the effects of air resistance.
● To reduce parallax error when measuring the height, a ruler can be clamped directly next to
the light gates.
● You could use the light gates to record the initial velocity (u), final velocity (v), and the time
taken for the ball bearing to fall between the gates. This would allow you to use the
constant acceleration formula v = u + at ​to calculate g. Note the values of velocity would
be averaged as the bearing is accelerating while moving through the gates.

Method 2 - Using a Stopwatch:

Equipment
● Tennis ball
● Stopwatch
● Metre ruler
● Soft pad for the ball to land on

Method
1. Using the metre ruler, measure a height (h) of 1.0 m. Place the soft pad at the bottom of the
ruler.
2. Hold the tennis ball so its bottom half is at the 1.0 m mark (it may be useful to work in pairs
here, one holding the ruler, one holding the ball).
3. Release the ball and simultaneously switch on the stopwatch and switch it off as soon as
the ball hits the soft pad. Note the time taken for the ball to hit the ground (t) as recorded by
the stopwatch.
4. Reduce h by 0.05 m and repeat the above two steps, reducing h by 0.05 m each time down
to 0.50 m.
5. Repeat the experiment twice more to find mean values of t for each value of h.

Calculations
● Plot a graph of 2h against t​2​ and draw a line of best fit. The gradient of the line of best fit will
be g. This is derived using one of the constant acceleration formula below:
s = ut + 12 at2
1 2
h= ​ s h is distance travelled, g is acceleration, u is 0
2 gt A
2h = g t2
​y = mx

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 ● The ball bearing is cushioned by a pad at the bottom of the clamp so it does not bounce
upwards and cause injury.

Notes
● The metre ruler must be kept perpendicular to the ground - you could use a set square to
make sure this is the case.
● The tennis ball will experience a large amount of air resistance which may affect your
calculation of g, therefore the tennis ball can be swapped out for a ball bearing to improve
results.
● Reaction times will hugely affect the recorded times (t), making the results less accurate.

Comparing Methods:
The second method is easier to carry out and requires less complex equipment, however it will be
far less accurate. Therefore, the initial method is better for calculating a more accurate value of g.

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 Edexcel Physics IAL
Core Practical 2: Use a Falling-Ball
Method to Determine the Viscosity of a
Liquid

Practical Notes

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Core Practical 2: Use a Falling-Ball Method to Determine the Viscosity of
a Liquid

Equipment
● Transparent tube filled with washing up liquid
● Spherical objects of a variety of sizes
● Rubber bands
● Metre ruler
● Micrometer screw gauge
● Timer
● Mass balance

Method
1. Use the mass balance to weigh each sphere and then measure its radius.
2. Calculate the volume of each sphere, and use this and its mass to calculate its
density.
3. Attach three rubber bands along the length of the tube - the first should be far
enough from the top so that the sphere has reached terminal velocity by the time it
reaches it, and the lower two bands should be sufficiently spaced as to allow time
intervals to be measured.
4. Place the first sphere into the top of the tube, and start the timer when it reaches
the first band.
5. Press the lap function to mark the time that it reaches the second band, and then
stop the timer when it reaches the third and final band.
6. If the times are suitable, measure and record the distances between the first and
second bands and between the second and third bands.
7. Repeat this with the same sphere 3 times, and then carry out the same process
with the other spheres.

Calculations
● The volume of a sphere is calculated using:
■ V = 4/3πr³
● The density of a sphere is calculated using:
■ Density = Mass/Volume
● Calculate the terminal speed of each sphere between the first and second bands,
and then the second and third bands and calculate an average value for each
sphere
■ Speed = Distance between bands/Time taken to travel between bands

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 ● Use all the recorded data to calculate the viscosity of the liquid using the following
formula:
■ η = 2r²g(ρ-σ)/9v
○ η = viscosity
○ ρ = density of the sphere
○ σ = density of the liquid
○ r = radius of the sphere
○ v = terminal velocity of the sphere

Notes
● To make retrieving the spheres from the bottom of the tube easier, use steel
bearings as your spheres and use a magnet to lift them out.
● If the tubes available are quite short, only use two rubber bands and only measure
one time interval.
● Position yourself at eye level to the bands so that the timing is as accurate as
possible.
● Light gates wouldn’t be an appropriate method of timing for this experiment since
the liquid is coloured and the low light levels will make timing unreliable.

Safety Precautions
● Washing up liquid can be slippery so clean up any spillages immediately and take
care to avoid slipping.

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 Edexcel Physics IAL
Core Practical 3: Determine the Young
Modulus of a Material

Practical Notes

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Core Practical 3: Determine the Young Modulus of a Material

Equipment
● G-clamp
● Wooden blocks
● Long copper wire
● Tape
● Metre ruler
● Work bench
● 100 g masses
● Pulley

Method
1. Measure the diameter of the wire in 3 different places using a micrometer and record these
values (how to use a micrometer is illustrated below)​.
2. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
3. Attach the metre ruler to the workbench so that the lower end is facing the G-clamp and
place a marker on the wire at 0 cm on the ruler.
4. Measure the length of wire from the blocks of wood to the marker on the wire when it is
taut.
5. Attach a mass to the wire and record the total mass attached to the end of the wire in kg.
The wire will stretch when this mass increases therefore, record the new position of the
marker.
6. Add another 100 g mass and once again record the position of the marker - keep doing this
until you have readings for at least 7 different mass values.

Calculations
● Find the mean diameter of the wire and calculate the average cross sectional area using
2
A = πd4 .
● Using F = mg calculate the force exerted on the wire for each mass and record these
values in a table.
● Calculate the wire’s extension by finding the difference between the marker’s final position
and its initial position for each mass.
● Find the ​stress​ for each mass by dividing the force applied by
the cross sectional area of the wire.
● Find the ​strain​ on the wire for each mass by dividing the
extension ΔL by the original length of the wire.
● Plot a graph of stress against strain and draw a line of best fit.
● As the Young modulus = stress/strain, the gradient of the line of
best fit is equal to the Young modulus of copper.

Safety
● You MUST wear protective eyewear, as if the wire snaps and flies out it could seriously
injure or blind people near it.

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 ● Place some cushioning under the masses in case the wire snaps, so that they will not
bounce and hit people’s feet if they fall.

Notes
● Make the original length of the wire as long as possible since this will reduce the uncertainty
in the measurement of original length.
● Make sure the wire is relatively thin because the thinner the wire, the larger the extension it
experiences. A larger extension will reduce the uncertainty in the measurement of
extension.
● Try and find the extension for as many masses as possible as more data points allows a
better line of best fit to be drawn.

How to Read a Micrometer

1. Place the object to be measured between the ​jaw of the micrometer​.
2. The barrel of the micrometer has two scales, one which is horizontal (barrel scale) and one
which is vertical (thimble scale). The barrel scale will give a reading of millimeters and half
millimeters.
3. Read the barrel scale by looking at the edge of the ​micrometer thimble​ (this is the part that
turns), if the thimble is over the 4​th​ millimeter marking after 10 mm, you’re reading 14 mm
and if it is on/just over the half millimeter making after 14mm, then the reading is 14.5 mm.
4. For more precise measurements, find where the ​thimble scale​ lines up exactly with the axis
of the ​barrel scale​. Each mark on the thimble scale represents 0.01 of a mm. If this is 33
then ​add​ 0.33 to the barrel scale reading (14.5 mm) to find the measurement is 14.83 mm.

Image source: ​Lucasbosch​,​CC BY-SA 3.0​, labels are added to the image

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 Edexcel Physics IAL
Core Practical 4: Determine the Speed of
Sound in Air

Practical Notes

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Core Practical 4: Determine the Speed of Sound in Air Using a 2-Beam
Oscilloscope, Signal Generator, Speaker and Microphone

Equipment
● Oscilloscope
● Leads
● Microphone
● Loudspeaker
● Musical Instrument

Method
1. Connect the microphone to the oscilloscope input and play a note on the musical
instrument into the microphone.
2. Use the oscilloscope to determine both the frequency and amplitude of the signal (see how
to do this below).
3. To calculate the speed of the sound wave, multiply the frequency and the wavelength of the
wave (v=fλ).

Notes
● The speed of sound in air is roughly 343 ms⁻¹.
● Experiment with different notes (different frequencies) and see how the values for the
speed of sound compare.

How to Read an Oscilloscope

Oscilloscopes​ show the variation of voltage with time, however it is possible to turn off the
time-base​, which will cause the trace to ​show all the possible voltages at any time in one area​,
this is useful for taking measurements. For a ​direct current​, the trace will show a ​straight line
parallel to the axis​, at the height of the output voltage. If the time-base is turned off, then only a dot
will be seen on the screen, at the height of the output voltage.

For an ​alternating current​, the trace will show a repeating ​sinusoidal waveform​ which shows the
variation of output voltage with time. If the time-base is switched off, then a straight vertical line will
appear on the screen, showing all the possible voltages.

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An oscilloscope will have a fixed grid on its display, ​you can adjust the scale of both axes to make
measurements easier​. To change the scale of the Y-axis, select the number of volts per division
using a ​Y-gain control dial​ which will be marked on the oscilloscope. To change the scale of the
X-axis, adjust the time ​base​.

In order to take measurements from an oscilloscope count the number of divisions (adjusting the
axes to make this easier), and multiply them by either the volts per division or the time base,
depending on what you are measuring:
1. Time period (T)​ - distance from one point on a curve e.g its peak, to the point where the
curve repeats, in this example when it reaches the next peak. You can find the frequency of
1
the waveform by using the formula: f = .
T
2. Amplitude ​- distance from the equilibrium to the highest (or lowest) point.

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 Edexcel Physics IAL
Core Practical 5: Investigate Factors
Affecting the Frequency of a Vibrating
String

Practical Notes

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Core Practical 5: Investigate the Effects of Length, Tension and Mass
per Unit Length on the Frequency of a Vibrating String or Wire

Equipment
● String or wire
● Bench pulley
● Slotted masses and hanger
● Metre ruler
● Vibration generator linked to a signal generator
● Bridge

Method
1. Attach one end of the string to the vibration generator, and pass the other end over
the bench pulley.
2. Add the mass hanger to the pulley end of the string, and add 100g to ensure the
string is taught.
3. Move the bridge so that the length of the oscillating section of string is 1m, turn on
the vibration generator and then adjust the frequency until a stationary wave in its
fundamental frequency forms - record the frequency.
4. Repeat, moving the bridge by 10cm each time to produce frequency values for
lengths of 100cm, 90cm, 80cm, 70cm, 60cm and 50cm.
5. Repeat the entire experiment, and find a mean frequency for each length.

Calculations
● Plot a graph of 1/f against length and draw a line of best fit.
● v=2fl and the gradient=1/fl and so multiply the gradient of the line by 2 to produce
the speed of the travelling waves.
● As well as this, v = √(T/μ) and so the value of tension (mass on mass hanger in kg x
9.81) and the mass per unit length (measure the mass of the string and divide by its
length) can be substituted in and this value for the speed of the waves can be
compared to the value produced by the graph.

Notes
● You can carry out the same experiment to investigate the effect of tension and
mass per unit length by keeping the length the same each time, but varying the
chosen factor:
■ Tension is altered by adding masses to the mass hanger.
■ Mass per unit length is altered by using different thicknesses of string.

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Safety Precautions
● If a metal wire is used in place of string, safety glasses must be worn in case the
wire snaps.
● Don’t stand under the hanging masses since if they fall they can cause injury.

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 Edexcel Physics IAL
Core Practical 6: Determine the
Wavelength of Light using a Diffraction
Grating

Practical Notes

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Core Practical 6: Determine the Wavelength of Light from a Laser or
other Light Source using a Diffraction Grating

Equipment
● Diffraction grating
● Laser
● Screen
● Ruler

Method
1. Shine the laser through the diffraction grating onto the screen.
2. Measure the distance between the central fringe and the one beside it (1st order - see
below).
3. Measure the distance between the grating and the screen.

Calculations
● The formula associated with diffraction gratings is: d sinθ = nλ
Where d is the distance between the slits, θ is the angle to the normal made by the
maximum, n is the order and λ is the wavelength.
● To find tan θ divide the distance​ between the central fringe and the one beside it by the
distance between the grating and the screen (tan​θ=opp/adj) then use inverse tan ( tan−1 θ)
to find θ.
● To find d, read the information on the packaging of the grating - it will say how many lines
per mm. Note that if it has 350 lines/mm that is 350,000 lines/m and so 1/350,000 is the slit
spacing.
● We measured the distance to the first order hence n = 1.
● Substitute all these values into λ = dsinθ (n is not included as n = 1) to find the
wavelength of the laser.

Notes
● Also calculate the wavelength using 2nd and 3rd order measurements and find the average
of these values for the mean wavelength.
● Vary different properties such as the number of lines in the diffraction grating and the
wavelength of the light to see how they affect θ.

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Safety
● When using lasers, ensure that you never look directly at the beam as doing so cause
permanent eye damage
● Always display a laser in use sign so that everyone is aware that a laser is being used.
● Never shine it off shiny surfaces since it may reflect into someone’s eyes.

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 Edexcel Physics IAL
Core Practical 7: Determine the Electrical
Resistivity of a Material

Practical Notes

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Core Practical 7: Determine the Electrical Resistivity of a Material

Equipment
● 1m long constantan (copper–nickel alloy) wire
● Voltmeter
● Ammeter
● Low voltage power supply
● Micrometer
● Metre ruler

Method
1. Measure the diameter of the constantan
wire at 3 points along its length using the
micrometer, and calculate the mean
diameter.
2. Set up the apparatus as shown in the
diagram.
3. Adjust length ​l​ to 10 cm using the crocodile
clips and metre ruler.
4. Read and record the current (I) on the
ammeter and the voltage (V) on the voltmeter. Calculate the resistance (R) by using R=V/I
and record this value.
5. Switch the circuit off in between readings to prevent heating of components which could
affect their resistance.
6. Increase ​l​ by 10 cm and repeat the above two steps, increasing ​l ​by 10 cm each time, up to
80 cm.
7. Repeat the experiment twice more, then calculate the mean resistance for each length.

Calculations
2
● Calculate the cross sectional area of the wire by using A = πd4 where d is the wire’s
average diameter.
● Plot a graph of the mean resistance against length and draw a line of best fit - the resistivity
will be the gradient multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the wire.
ρ = RA R
l t​ hen divide through by A to find L = ρ
A.
R/L is the gradient of the graph hence resistivity is found by the gradient multiplied by the
cross sectional area.

Safety
● Disconnect the crocodile clips in between measurements to avoid the wire heating up and
causing burns if touched. If the current rises too high, reduce the voltage using the variable
power supply.
● If the wire is taut, safety goggles should be worn in case it snaps.

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Notes
● The wire heating up might additionally cause the resistance of the wire to change, affecting
measurements. To reduce this, disconnect it in between measurements or reduce the
voltage of the supply so the current is lower.
● The wire should be free from kinks and held taut so the measurement of the length is as
accurate as possible.

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 Edexcel Physics IAL
Core Practical 8: Determine the EMF and
Internal Resistance of an Electrical Cell

Practical Notes

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Core Practical 8: Determine the EMF and Internal Resistance of an
Electrical Cell

Equipment
● Battery or cell
● Voltmeter
● Ammeter
● Variable resistor
● Switch

Method
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
2. Set the variable resistor to its maximum value.
3. Close the switch and record the voltage from the
voltmeter and the current from the ammeter - open the
switch between readings to prevent the variable resistor
heating up.
4. Decrease the resistance of the variable resistor and
repeat this, obtaining pairs of readings of V and I over the
widest possible range.

Calculations
● ε = I(R + r) = V + Ir ⇒ V = − rI + ε , this is in the form ​y=mx+c​ (a straight line graph).
● Plot a graph of V against I and draw a line of best fit. The y-intercept will be the emf and the
gradient will be the negative internal resistance.

Safety
● Another resistor can be included in series with the other to avoid high currents which could
be dangerous and make the wires and variable resistor get too hot.

Improvements and Notes

● Only close the switch for as long as it takes to take each pair of readings. This will prevent
the internal resistance of the battery or cell from changing during the experiment.
● Use fairly new batteries/cells because the emf and internal resistance of run down batteries
can vary during the experiment.
● Check there is no systematic error from the ammeter and voltmeter by calibrating them
beforehand.

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