What is biodiversity?

Biodiversity is basically the variety within and among life forms on a site, ecosystem, or
landscape.  Biodiversity is defined and measured as an attribute that has two
components — richness and evenness.

Richness = The number of groups of genetically or functionally related individuals. In most

vegetation surveys, richness is expressed as the number of species and is usually called species
richness.

Evenness = Proportions of species or functional groups present on a site.  The more equal
species are in proportion to each other the greater the evenness of the site.  A site with low
evenness indicates that a few species dominate the site.

Diversity can be use to describe variation in several forms:

 Genetic (species, varieties, etc.)
 Life form (grasses, forb, trees, mosses, etc.)
 Functional group (deep rooted, nitrogen-fixing, soil crust, evergreen, etc.)

Why is biodiversity measured?

Biodiversity is a measure that combines richness and evenness across species. It is often
measured because high biodiversity is perceived a synonymous with ecosystem health.  In
general diverse communities are believed to have increased stability, increased productivity, and
resistance to invasion and other disturbances.

Diverse habitats with a variety of plants can have benefits such as:
 Providing forage for a variety of insect and vertebrate species.
 Stability resulting from plants in the community that are able to survive drought, insect
plagues, and/or disease outbreaks so that the site will have some soil protection/forage/etc.
in those years.
 Plants containing a variety of genetic material that may be useful in long-term survival
and stability of the community.
 The community benefits from a mixture of plants:
• soils improve with nitrogen fixers, deep rooted plants bring nutrients up from soil layers
below other plants roots.
• some species work together so that both can survive (called commensalism) and
therefore, diverse communities can be more stable.
 Healthy diverse plant communities generally have all niches filled and are theoretically
less likely to be invaded by noxious or opportunistic introduced species.

Though seldom acknowledged, there are also disadvantages to high biodiversity:

 Diverse communities are often a sign of fragmented or somewhat degraded sites where
much of species richness is contributed by disturbance species.
 Plant communities with high diversity can be more difficult to manage for grazing
because different species of plants have different grazing tolerances and different rates of
phenological development.
 Many plant communities are very stable with few species that are well adapted to the
environment.
Biodiversity Can be Expressed at Several Scales

Biodiversity can be measured and monitored at several spatial scales.

Alpha Diversity = richness and evenness of individuals within a habitat unit. For example in the
figure below, Alpha Diversity of Site A = 7 species, Site B = 5 species, Site C = 7 species.

Beta Diversity = expression of diversity between habitats. In the example below, the

greatest Beta Diversity is observed between Site A and C with 10 species that differ between
them and only 2 species in common.

Gamma Diversity = landscape diversity or diversity of habitats within a landscape or region. In this

example, the gamma diversity is 3 habitats with 12 species total diversity.

Site A = 7 Species A vs B = 8 species

Site B = 5 Species B vs C = 4 species
A vs C = 10 species
Site C = 7 Species

Approaches t o Est im ating Diversit y and Dom inance

Several indexes and quantitative measures of biodiversity have been developed. The simplest approach is to express diversity as
the number of species on a site or community — called species richness.

Diversity or dominance can be calculated with density, cover, or biomass. However, density is the most commonly used variable to
assess plant diversity, therefore the examples in this module will be based on density.

Shannon- W iener Index ( H’)

 Most commonly used index of  diversity in ecological studies

 Values range from 0 to 5, usually ranging from 1.5 to 3.5
  Calculated:

Where:
ni = number of individuals or amount (e.g., biomass or density) of each species (the ith species)
N = total number of individuals (or amount) for the site, and  ln = the natural log of the number.
 Advantages:
» Relatively easy to calculate
» Fairly sensitive to actual site differences
 Disadvantage:
» There are several instances where H’ is similar between sites even though sites are different.

For Example: Average Plant Density (plants/m2) for an upland and lowland site

  UPLAND LOWLAND          
Greasy Grass 3 7   H' for Upland Site = 1.099
Fuzzy Forb 3 2   H' for Lowland Site = 0.530
Spiney Shrub 3 0          
    CLICK HERE for detailed calculations

Sim pson’s Index (λ)

 λ is a measure of  dominance. Therefore, (1-λ) estimates species diversity.

 Gives the probability that any two individuals drawn at random from an infinitely large
community belong to different species.
 

Where:
ni = number of individuals or amount of each species (i.e., the number of individuals of the ith species)
N = total number of individuals for the site

 Advantages and Disadvantages:

»  Less sensitive to species richness and heavily weighted towards the most abundant species
»  Generally, less sensitive than Shannon-Weiner H' to real changes in diversity
 

  UPLAND LOWLAND    
Greasy Grass 3 7   λ for Upland Site = 0.167
Fuzzy Forb 3 2   λ for Lowland Site = 0.611
Spiny Shrub 3 0    
    CLICK HERE for detailed calculations

Detailed Calculations for Shannon Wiener Index

Avg. plants/m2                
ln of n/
UPLAND SITE  n n/N   (n/N)   N*ln(n/N)     
Greasy Grass 3 0.333 x -1.099= -0.366      
Fuzzy Forb 3 0.333 x -1.099= -0.366      
 Spiney Shrub 3 0.333 x -1.099= -0.366      
SUM = 9 = N       -1.099 = ∑ or sum  
 = H'
 or Shannon Weiner
            1.099Index
            Value becomes positive because of
  negative sign in formula
Avg. plants/m2
LOWLAND ln of n/
SITE  n n/N   (n/N)   N*ln(n/N)     
Greasy Grass 7 0.778 x -0.251= -0.195      
Fuzzy Forb 2 0.222 x -1.504= -0.334      
Spiney Shrub 0               
SUM = 9        -0.530 = ∑ or sum  
 = H'
or Shannon Weiner
            0.530Index
>> Return to Diversity Estimate Page

Detailed Calculations for Simpson's Index

  Avg. plants/m2          
UPLAND SITE  n n-1 n(n-1) n(n-1)/ N(N-1)    
Greasy Grass 3 2 6 0.083    
Fuzzy Forb 3 2 6 0.083    
Spiney Shrub 3 2 6 0.083    
SUM = N = 9     0.167  = ∑ or sum = λ 
N(N-1) = 9 x 8 = 72     = Simpsons Index

Avg. plants/m2    
LOWLAND SITE  n n-1 n(n-1) n(n-1)/ N(N-1)    
Greasy Grass 7 6 42 0.583    
Fuzzy Forb 2 1 2 0.028    
Spiney Shrub 0          
SUM = N = 9    0.611  = ∑ or sum = λ 
N(N-1) = 9 x 8 = 72     = Simpsons Index

SUMMARY QUESTIONS
 1. What plant attributes can be used to estimate and calculate biodiversity?
2. How is dominance related to diversity?
3. What information would you need about an ecosystem to calculate diversity?

Advanced Questions:

1. In the example below, which site (Clay Loam or Sandy Loam) has the greatest species richness?
2. Which site (Clay Loam or Sandy Loam) has the greatest evenness of species?
3. Which site has the greatest diversity as estimated by the Shannon Weiner Index (H')?
4. Which site expresses the greatest level of dominance  by a few species (or lowest evenness) as estimated
with a Simpson Index (λ)?

Example Diversity based on shrub dominance of a Clay Loam and a Sandy Loam Site in South Texas.
(Shrubs expressed as plant density as plant per hectare)

Shrub (common name) Clay Loam Sandy Loam    Scientific plant name

blackbrush 156 65    (Acacia rigidula)
guajillo 176 55    (Acacia berlandieri)
catclaw acacia 43 45    (Acacia greggii)
granjeno 56 32    (Celtis pallida)
whitebrush 25 67    (Aloysia lyciodes)
kidneywood 15 25    (Eysenhardtia texana)
elbowbush 1 70    (Forestieria cuntjolia)
wolfberry 0 28    (Lycium berlandieri)
shrubby bluesage 0 40    (Salvia bullotaeflora)
Example Diversity based on shrub dominance of a Clay Loam and a Sandy Loam Site in South Texas.  (Shrubs expressed
as plant density as plant per hectare)

Shrub Clay Loam Sandy Loam    Scientific plant name

blackbrush 156 65   (Acacia rigidula)
guajillo 176 55   (Acacia berlandieri)
catclaw acacia 43 45   (Acacia greggii)
granjeno 56 32   (Celtis pallida)
whitebrush 25 67   (Aloysia lyciodes)
kidneywood 15 25   (Eysenhardtia texana)
elbowbush 1 70   (Forestieria cuntjolia)
wolfberry 0 28   (Lycium berlandieri)
shrubby bluesage 0 40   (Salvia bullotaeflora)

Answers to Advanced Questions:

1. In the example below, which site (Clay Loam or Sandy Loam) have the greatest species richness?
• Species Richness Clay Loam < Sandy Loam or 7 species < 9 species
 
2. Which site (Clay Loam or Sandy Loam) has the greatest evenness of species?
• Species evenness much better fro the Sandy Loam than for Clay Loam
 
3. Which site has the greatest diversity as estimated by the Shannon Weiner Index (H')?
• Clay Loam = 1.48
• Sandy Loam = 1.81
Shannon-Wiener Index (H’)    
CLAY LOAM SITE    
Shrub Plants/Ha n/N ln of n/N n/N*ln(n/N) 
blackbrush 156 0.331 -1.107 -0.366 
guajillo 176 0.373 -0.986 -0.368 
catclaw acacia 43 0.091 -2.396 -0.218 
granjeno 56 0.119 -2.132 -0.253 
whitebrush 25 0.053 -2.938 -0.156 
kidneywood 15 0.032 -3.449 -0.110 
elbowbush 1 0.002 -6.157 -0.013 
wolfberry 0       
shrubby bluesage 0       

Sum 472     -1.48 

   =N   1.48  
         = H'
 SANDY LOAM SITE       
Shrub   n/N ln of n/N n/N*ln(n/N) 
blackbrush 65 0.138 -1.983 -0.273 
guajillo 55 0.117 -2.150 -0.250 
catclaw acacia 45 0.095 -2.350 -0.224 
granjeno 32 0.068 -2.691 -0.182 
whitebrush 67 0.142 -1.952 -0.277 
kidneywood 25 0.053 -2.938 -0.156 
elbowbush 70 0.148 -1.908 -0.283 
wolfberry 28 0.059 -2.825 -0.168 
shrubby bluesage 40 0.085 -2.468 -0.209 
Sum 387=N   -1.81 
        1.81 = H'
 

4. Which site expresses the greatest level of dominance by a few species as estimated by Simpson Index (λ)?
• Clay Loam = 0.273
• Sandy Loam = 0.093

CLAY LOAM SITE      

Shrub Plants/Ha n-1 n(n-1) n(n-1)/ N(N-1) 
blackbrush 156 155 24180 0.109 
guajillo 176 175 30800 0.139 
 catclaw acacia 43 42 1806 0.008 
granjeno 56 55 3080 0.014 
whitebrush 25 24 600 0.003 
kidneywood 15 14 210 0.001 
elbowbush 1 0 0 0.000 
wolfberry 0       
shrubby bluesage 0       
Sum= 472=N   0.273=λ
  222312=N(N-1)      
SANDY LOAM SITE      
Shrub Plants/Ha n-1 n(n-1) n(n-1)/N(N-1) 
blackbrush 65 64 4160 0.019 
guajillo 55 54 2970 0.013 
catclaw acacia 45 44 1980 0.009 
granjeno 32 31 992 0.004 
whitebrush 67 66 4422 0.020 
kidneywood 25 24 600 0.003 
elbowbush 70 69 4830 0.022 
wolfberry 28 27 756 0.003 
shrubby bluesage 40 39 1560 0.007 
Sum= 387=N   0.093=λ
  149382=N(N-1)      

Estimating Similarity
SUMMARIZING VALUES TO DESCRIBE PLANT COMMUNITIES

Assessing Sim ilar it y

In vegetations studies it is often desirable to compare two plant communities and determine how similar they are.  This can be
accomplished with a similarity index.  Measures of similarity can be used to examine:

 Differences between two sites on a landscape or management units.

 Differences between similar sites in different units under different management practices.
 Changes that may have occurred because of a natural or human caused disturbance (e.g., similarity between burned and
unburned sites).
 Variation between different study times on the same site. (e.g., determine how similar the communities is to what is was
10 years ago)
 Comparison of a site to desirable state or described "referent."

Calculat ing a Similarity Index

The first step in making a reasonable comparison is to collect data of similar units and scale on two sites
or times.  In the example used in the previous lesson, it may be useful to describe, in numbers, the
similarity between the clay loam and the sandy loam site in terms of shrub density.

Where:
nc = number of common species between sites
      this number is the lowest value among the compared sites
n1 = number of individuals of site 1
n2 = number of individual of site 2

For example, the similarity between the Clay Loam and Sandy Loam Site in South Texas from the
previous lesson? 

Shrub Clay Loam Sandy Loam  Number in common

blackbrush 156 65 65
guajillo 176 55 55
catclaw acacia 43 45 43
granjeno 56 32 32
whitebrush 25 67 25
kidneywood 15 25 15
elbowbush 1 70 1
wolfberry 0 28 0
shrubby bluesage 0 40 0
  472 427 236

Similarity = (2 x 236) / (472 +427) = 52.5% similarity between sites.

W hat is a r eferent ?

Similarity indexes are often applied to see how similar an existing community is to a desired or historically relevant state.  To
accomplish this comparison on must create what is called a referent or a state to which comparisons are going to be made.  The
value of a referent lies in several important features:

 Is the referent state clearly described?

 Is it realistic for the soil, climate, and disturbance regimes on the site?
 Is the referent state relevant in terms of specific uses of values for the site?

The more clearly the referent is

described, the more effectively the current state of the community can be
measured against it. If a land manager can quantify how close or far they are from the desired state,
they can derive management plans to achieve the desired state.

Referent  Current
 In a sagebrush-juniper community (such as pictured above), the following comparison might be made:

% Composition based on biomass  

Plant Current Referent Similarity
Wheatgrass 21 50 21
Native Forbs 12 20 12
Sagebrush 10 20 10
Juniper 38 10 10
Annual grass 19 0 0
Total 100 100 53%

Bottom Line ~~ the current site is 53% similar to the desired referent or desired state. This comparison could be made over years
as management strategies attempt to bring the plant community closer to the referent state.  Changes in similarity between the
two states will suggest whether management is working to change the community closer to the desired state or not.

Estimating Plant Composition

SUMMARIZING VALUES TO DESCRIBE PLANT COMMUNITIES

Assessing Com position

Composition, like diversity and similarity, is a variable that is not measured in the field, it is one that is calculated attribute based
on plant measurements.  Composition is defined as the proportions (%) of various plant species in relation to the total on a
given area.   Composition is also known as "species composition" or "botanical composition."

Why estimate composition?

 Traditional rangeland guides for proper stocking rates and range condition are based on plant composition and the classic
range succession theory.

 Composition has been used extensively to describe ecological sites and to evaluate rangeland condition.

 Measurements of composition over time can be used to characterize trend or changes in rangeland condition.

 Allows comparison of dominance of individual plants across plant communities. For example, two sites my be very
different but they could both have about 50% mesquite by weight.

 Composition can be calculated based on individual species or groups such as % of noxious weeds, or % forbs, grasses,
and shrubs.
  Species composition is expressed as % of total community; this is easy to understand. Composition is an attribute can
therefore be more easily visualized by those unfamiliar with rangelands or the range of that area.

Calculat ing Composit ion

Species composition is generally expressed as a percent, so that all species components add up to 100%. Composition can be
calculated with measures of cover, density, weight or biomass.  It is not appropriate to estimate composition based on frequency.

 Using Frequency Data

Frequency is regarded as an unsuitable basis for the description of species composition, because simply recording the presence of a
species does not indicate its absolute amount.

 Using Density Data

 
 Using Biomass Data

 
 Using Cover Data

For example, the composition based on density of shrubs on a Clay Loam site South Texas from a
previous lesson is: 

Shrub Clay Loam Calculation % Composition

blackbrush 156 156 ÷ 472 = 33%
guajillo 176 176 ÷ 472 = 38%
catclaw acacia 43 43 ÷ 472 = 9%
granjeno 56 56 ÷ 472 = 12%
whitebrush 25 25 ÷ 472 = 5%
kidneywood 15 15 ÷ 472 = 3%
elbowbush 1 1 ÷ 472 = <1%
wolfberry 0 0 ÷ 472 = 0%
shrubby bluesage 0 0 ÷ 472 = 0%
  472   100%

What is the composition of a few shrubs on the Sandy Loam site?

Shrub Sandy Loam 

blackbrush 65  
guajillo 55 ?
catclaw acacia 45  
granjeno 32 ?
 whitebrush 67  
kidneywood 25  
elbowbush 70 ?
wolfberry 28  
shrubby bluesage 40  
  427  

Calculat ing Composit ion

 Using Density Data

What is the composition of a few shrubs on the Sandy Loam site?

Shrub Sandy Loam 

blackbrush 65 15 %
guajillo 55 13 %
catclaw acacia 45 11 %
granjeno 32 7%
whitebrush 67 16 %
kidneywood 25 6%
elbowbush 70 16 %
wolfberry 28 7%
shrubby bluesage 40 9%
  427 100%

Value of Calculating and Compar ing Cover

 Allows for "relative" comparison of individual species across sites or times that vary significantly.
 The composition reflects the relative contribution of a species to a community and reflects dominance of a specific species
on a site.
 Many management objectives are focused on the assessment or manipulation of species composition. For example, a land
manager may want to:
» minimize the composition of noxious weeds in a community.
» increase the relative abundance of desirable forage species in a pasture.
» alter the relative contribution of various species that provide shelter or food for wildlife.