The Language of Mathematics

Imagine the following scenario: You’re in a math class, and the instructor passes a piece of paper to each
student. It is announced that the paper contains the Study Strategies for the Students of Mathematics; you are to
read it and make comments. Upon glancing at the paper, however, you observe that it is written in a foreign
language that you do not understand!
The Importance of Language
Is the instructor being fair? Of course not. Indeed, the instructor is probably trying to make a point.
Although the ideas in the paragraph may be simple, there is no access to the ideas without knowledge of the
language in which the ideas are expressed. This situation has a very strong analogy in mathematics. People
frequently have trouble understanding mathematical ideas: not necessarily because the ideas are difficult, but
because they are being presented in a foreign language-the language of mathematics.
Characteristics of the Language of Mathematics
The language of mathematics makes it easy to express the kinds of thoughts that mathematicians like to
express. It is:
 Precise (able to make fine decisions)
 Concise (able to say things briefly)
 Powerful (able to express complex thoughts with relative ease)
The language of mathematics cam be learned, but requires the effort needed to learn any foreign
language. In this book, you will get extensive practice with mathematical language ideas, to enhance your
ability to correctly read, write, speak and understand mathematics.
Vocabulary versus Sentences
Every language has its vocabulary (the words), and its rules for combining these words into complete
thoughts (the sentences). Mathematics is no exception. As a first step in discussing the mathematical language,
we will make a very broad classification between the ‘nouns’ of mathematics (used to name mathematical
objects of interest) and the ‘sentences’ of mathematics (which state complete mathematical thoughts).
Why bother making this classification?
The classification of mathematical “nouns” versus “sentences” does not typically appear in math books.
However, the author has learned that there is tremendous benefit to be derived from this classification of the
basic building blocks of mathematics. Without such an understanding, people are more likely to fall prey to
common syntax errors- for example, inappropriately setting things equal to zero, or stringing things together with
equal signs, as if ‘=’ means ‘I’m going on the next step’.
In the next few paragraphs, analogies between mathematics and English are explored; examples are
presented to study these analogies; and finally the ideas are made more precise. The diagram on the opposite
page summarizes the language ideas discussed in this section.
ENGLISH:
Nouns versus Sentences
In English, nouns are used to name things we want to talk about (like people, places and things);
whereas sentences are used to state complete thoughts. A typical English Sentence has at least one noun, and
at least one verb. For example, consider the sentence.
Jhanse loves dancing.
In here, “Jhanse” and “dancing” are nouns; ‘loves’ is a verb.
MATHEMATICS:
Expressions versus Sentences
The mathematical analogue of a ‘noun’ will be called an expression. Thus, an expression is a name
given to a mathematical object of interest. Whereas in English we need o talk about people, places and things,
we’ll see that mathematics has much different ‘objects of interest’.
The mathematical analogue of a ‘sentence’ will also be called a sentence. A mathematical sentence, just
an English sentence, must state a complete thought. The table below summarizes the analogy. (Don’t worry for
the moment about the truth of sentences; this will be addressed later.
English Mathematics
name given to an object of NOUN (person, place, thing) EXPRESSION
interest: Examples: Jhanse, Plaza, Bag Examples: 4, 11+1, 2/3
a complete thought: SENTENCE SENTENCE
Examples: The capital of Examples: 4+4= 8
Saudi Arabia is Riyadh. 5+2= 7

Ideas regarding Expressions:

Let’s discuss the ideas presented in this table, beginning with some ideas regarding expressions.
Numbers have lots of different names
Since people frequently need to work with numbers, these are the most common type of mathematical
expression. And, numbers have lots of different names. For example, the expressions
4 4+3 8÷2 (4-2) +2 4+4+4+4
All look different, but are all different names for the same number.

Synonyms;
Different names for the same object
This simple idea ̶ that numbers have lots of different names ̶ is extremely important in mathematics!
English has the same concepts: synonyms are words that have the same (or nearly the same) meaning.
However, this ‘same object , different name’ idea plays a much more fundamental role in mathematics than in
English, as you will see throughout the book.

EXERCISES Solutions to all exercises are included at the end of each section.
1. Give several synonyms for the English word ‘similarity’. (A Roget’s
Thesaurus may be helpful.
2. The number ’three’ has lots of different names. Give names satisfying
the
following properties. There may be more than one correct answer.
a.) the standard name. 2
b.) a name using a plus sign. + 1+2, 1 + 1+ 1, 3+0
c.) a name using a minus sign - 5-2, 4-1
d.) a name using a division sign ÷ 9÷

Ideas regarding sentences:

Sentences have Verbs
Next, some ideas regarding sentences are explored. Just as English sentences have verbs, so do
mathematical sentences. In the mathematical sentence ‘4+4= 8’, the verb is ‘=’. If you read the sentence as ‘four
plus four equals eight’, then it’s easy to ‘hear’ the verb. Indeed, the equal sign ‘=’ is one of the most popular
mathematical verbs.

Truth of Sentences
Sentences can be true or false. The notion of truth ( i.e., the property of being true of false) is of
fundamental importance in the mathematical language; this will become apparent as you read the book.

Conventions in Languages
Languages have conventions. In English, for example, it is conventional to capitalize proper names (like
‘Carol and ‘Idaho’). This convention makes it easy for a reader to distinguish between a common noun (like
‘carol’, a Christmas song) and a proper noun (like ‘Carol’). Mathematics also has its conventions, which helps
readers distinguish between different types of mathematical expressions. These conventions will be studied
throughout the book.
EXERCISES 3. Circle the verbs in the following sentences:
a.) The capital of Philippines is Manila.
b.) The capital of Saudi Arabia is Riyadh.
c.) 1+2 = 3
d.) 3+2 = 7
4. TRUE or FALSE:
True a.) The capital of Philippines is Manila.
True b.) The capital of Saudi Arabia is Riyadh.
True c.) 1+2 = 3
False d.) 3+2 = 7
5. List several English conventions that are being illustrated in the
sentence:
‘The capital of Philippines is Manila’.

More examples
Here are some examples, to help explore the difference sentences and expressions:
EXAMPLE
Sentences versus Expressions
If possible, classify the entries in the list below as:
 An English noun, or a mathematical expression
 An English sentence, or a mathematical sentence
Try to fill in the blanks yourself before looking at the solutions. In each sentence (English or mathematical),
circle the verb.
(For the moment, don’t worry about the truth of sentences. This issue is addressed in the next example.)
1. Stitch English Noun
2. 4 Mathematical Expression
3. 1+3 = 3 Mathematical Sentence
4. 3-2 Mathematical Expression
5. y Mathematical Expression
6. y – 5 Mathematical Expression
7. The line is false English Sentence
8. x+4 = 7 Mathematical Sentence
9. 2 ∙ y = x Mathematical Sentence
10. Mouse English Noun

EXAMPLE
Truth of Sentences
Consider the entries in the previous example that are sentences. Which are true? False? Are there
possibilities other than true and false?
3. The word ‘stitch’ begins with the letter ‘g’. FALSE
4. 4 – 2 = 2 TRUE
5. The mouse is brown. The truth of this sentence cannot be
determined out of context. If the mouse
being referred to is indeed brown, then the
sentence is true. Otherwise, it is false.
6. x – 2 = 0 SOMETIMES TRUE/FALSE
If the x is ‘2’, then the sentence is true.
Otherwise, it is false.
7. x + 0 = x This sentence is always TRUE, no matter
what number is substituted for x. Adding
zero to a number does not change the
identity of the number.
EXERCISES 6. If possible, classify the entries in the list below as:
 An English noun, or a mathematical expression
 An English sentence, or a mathematical sentence
In each sentence (English or mathematical), circle the verb.
a.) Jhanse English Noun
b.) Jhanse loves volleyball English Sentence
c.) 1 Mathematical
Expression
d.) 1 + 1 = 2 Mathematical Sentence
e.) f – 3 = 4 Mathematical Sentence
f.) q + 2 Mathematical
Expression

Definitions in Mathematics
With several examples behind us, it is now time to make things more precise. In order to
communicate effectively, people must agree on the meanings of certain words and phrases. When there is
ambiguity, confusion can result. Consider the following conservation in a car at a noisy intersection:
Carol: “turn left!”
Bob: “I didn’t hear you. Left?”
Carol: “right!”
Question: Which way will Bob turn? It depends on how Bob interprets the word ‘right’. If he interprets ‘right’ as
the opposite of ‘left’, then he will turn right. If he interprets ‘right’ as ‘correct’, then he will turn ‘left’.
Although there are certainly instances in mathematics where context is used to determine correct
meaning, there is much less ambiguity allowed in mathematics than in English. The primary way that ambiguity is
avoided is by the use of definitions. By defining words and phrases, it is assured that everyone agrees on their
meaning. Here’s our first definition:

DEFINITION An expression is the mathematical analogue of an English noun; it is a

expression correct arrangement of mathematical symbols used to represent a
mathe-
matical object of interest. An expression does NOT state a complete
thought; in particular, it does not make sene to ask if an expression is
true or false.

CAUTION:
Typical use of the word ‘expression’ in math books
In most mathematical books, the word ‘expression’ is never defined, but is used as a convenient catch-all
to talk about anything (including sentences) to which the author wants to draw attention. In this book, however,
expressions and sentences are totally different entities. They don’t overlap. If something is a sentence, then it’s
not an expression. Be careful about this.

What types of expression are there?

There are many type of expressions in mathematics, because there are many types of mathematical
objects to be discussed. Some types of expressions are listed below. Don’t worry about words you don’t
recognize: in this book, we’ll primarily concern ourselves only with numbers and sets.
NUMBERS SETS FUNCTIONS
ORDERED PAIRS MATRICES VECTORS

Common expression types: numbers, sets and functions

Three of the most common types of expressions are numbers, sets and functions. (These are like
people, places, and things in English.) The section Mathematicians are Fond of Collections gives an
introduction to set. Functions are not discussed in this book.
Expressions have lots of different names; the name we use depends on what we are
doing with the expression
As mentioned earlier, a key idea in mathematics is that expressions have lots of different names. Even
more importantly, the name we use depends on what we are doing with the expression. For example, 1 goes by
all the following names:
½+½ 2-1 ½+1/4 +1/4 5/5 1/3+ 1/3 +1/3
The name ½ + ½ is appropriate, for example, if we have to divide a candy bar evenly between two
people. The name 1/3 +1/3 + 1/3 is appropriate if we need to measure one cup of flour, but only have a one-third
measure. The two most common ways o get a new name for a number are discussed in the section Numbers
Have Lots of Different Names!

EXERCISE 8. Give a name for number ‘6’ that would be appropriate in each situation:
a.) six candy bars must be equally divided among six people
b.) six candy bars must be equally divided among twelve people
c.)

Common type of problem involving expressions

The most common problem type involving an expression is:
SIMPLIFY: (some expression)
To simplify an expression means to get a different name for the expression, that in some way is
simpler.

What does simpler mean?

The notion of ‘simpler’, however, can have different meanings:
 FEWER SYMBOLS: Often, ‘simpler’ means using fewer symbols. For example. ‘3 + 1 + 5’ + ‘9’ are both
names for the same number, but ‘9’ uses fewer symbols.
 FEWER OPERATIONS: Sometimes, ‘simpler’ means using fewer operations (an ‘operation’ is something
like addition or multiplication). For example, ‘3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3’ and ‘5∙3’ are both names for the same
number, but the latter uses fewer operations. (Recall that the centered dot denotes multiplication.) There
are four additions used in ‘3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3’, but only one in multiplication used in ‘5∙3’.
 BETTER SUITED FRO CURRENT USE: In some cases, ‘simpler’ means better suited for the current use.
1 foot
For example, we’ll see in a future section that the name is a great for the number ‘1’ if we need
12inc h es
to convert units of inches to units of feet.
 PREFERRED STYLE/FORMAT: Finally, ‘simpler’ often means in a preferred style or format. For
2
example, (two-fourths) and ½ (one-half) are both names for the same number, but people usually
4
1
prefer the name ; it is said to be in ‘reduced form’ or ‘simplest form’.
2
Next, we talk more precisely about mathematical sentences. First, a definition:

DEFINITION A mathematical sentence Is the analogue of an English sentence; it is

mathematical sentence correct arrangement of mathematical symbols that states a complete
thought. It makes sense to ask about the TRUTH of a sentence: is it
true? Is it false? Is it sometimes true/false?

Sentences have Verbs

The sentence ‘1 + 2 = 3’ is read as ‘one plus two equals three’ or ‘one plus two is equal to three’. A
complete thought is being stated, which in this case is true. The sentence is ‘diagrammed’ below:

1 + 2 = 3
Connectives
A question commonly encountered, when presenting the sentence example ‘1 + 2 = 3’, is the following:
If ‘=’ is the verb, then what is the ‘+’?
Here’s the answer. The symbol ‘+’ is a connective’; a connective is used to ‘connect’ objects of a given
type to get a ‘compound’ object of the same type. Here, the numbers 1 and 2 are ‘connected’ to give the new
number 1 + 2. A familiar English connective for nouns is the word ‘and’: ‘cat’ is a noun, ‘dog’ is a noun, ‘cat and
dog’ is a ‘compound’ noun Connectives are discussed throughout the book.

How to decide whether something is a sentence

There are two primary ways to decide whether something is a sentence, or not:
 Read it aloud, and ask yourself the question: Does it state a complete thought? If the answer is `yes',
then it's a sentence. Notice that expressions do not state a complete thought. Consider, for example, the
number ` 1 + 2 ' . Say it aloud: `one plus two'. Have you stated a complete thought? NO! But, if you say: `
1 + 2 = 4 ' , then you have stated a complete (false) thought.
 Alternately, you can ask yourself the question: Does it make sense to ask about the TRUTH of this
object? Consider again the number ` 1 + 2 ' . Is ` 1 + 2 ' true? Is ` 1 + 2 ' false? These questions don't
make sense, because it doesn't make sense to ask about the truth of an expression!

INDUCTIVE REASONING
Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining specific examples.

The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the examination of specific examples called inductive
reasoning. The conclusion formed by using deductive reasoning is often called a conjecture, since it may or may not be
correct.

Example 1: Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.

a. 3, 6, 9, 7, 9, 12, 15. ? b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15. ?

Solution:

a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the proceeding number. Thus we predict the next number in the list is larger
than 15, which are 18.

b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the third numbers differ by 3. It appears that the difference between
any two numbers is always 1 more than the preceding difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the next
number in the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.

>Check your progress: Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.

a. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ? b. 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, ?

Example 2: Use Inductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum
by 2, and subtract 3.

Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about
the relationship between the size of the resulting number and the size of the original number
INDUCTIVE REASONING
Solution:

Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would produce the following results:

Original number: 5

Multiply by: 8 x 5 = 40

Add 6: 40 + 6 = 46

Divide by 2: 46 / 2 = 23

Subtract by 3: 23 - 3 = 20

We started with 5 and folliwed the procedure to procedure 20. Starting with 6 as our original number
produces a final result of 24. Starting with 10 procedures a final result of 40. Starting with 100 proceduces a final
result of 400. In each of these cases the resulting number of four times the original number. We conjecture that
following the given procedure produces a number that is four times the original number.

INDUCTIVE REASONING
>check your progress

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 9, add 15 to the product, divide
the sum by 3, and subtract 5.

INDUCTIVE REASONING
Scientist often use inductive reasoning. For instance, Galileo Galelei (1564-1642) used inductive
reasoning to discover that the time required for a pendulum to complete one swing, called the period of the
pendulum, depends on the length of the pendulum. Galileo did not have a clock, so he measured the periods of
pendulums in heart beats. The following table shows some reasults obtained for pendulums of various lengths.
For the sake of convinience, a length of 10 inches has been designated as 1 unit.

Length of pendulum, in units Period of pendulum, in heartbeats.

1 1

4 2

9 3

16 4

25 5
 36 6

INDUCTIVE REASONING
Example 3: Use Inductive Reasoning to Solve an Application

Use the data in the table and inductive reasoning to answer each of the following questions.

a. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period?

b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its period?

INDUCTIVE REASONING
Keep in mind that!

To keep in mind. Just because a pattern holds true for a few cases, it does not mean the pattern will
continue. When you use inductive reasoning, you have no guarantee that your conclusion is correct.

Counterexamples

A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If you can find one case fir which a
statement is not true, called a counterexample, then the statement is a false.

COUNTEREXAMPLES

Example 4: Find a counterexample.

Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a counterexample.

For all number x:

a. |x| > 0 b. x² > x c. √x² = x

Solution:

A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need only find onw counterexample to verify that the
statement is false.

a. Let x = 0. Then |0| = 0. Because 0 is not greater than 0, we need to found a counterexample. Thus "for all
numbers x, |x| > 0" is a false statement.

b. For x = 1 we have 1² = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, we have found a counterexample. Thus "for all
numbers x, x² > x" is a false statement.

c. Consider x = -3. Then √(-3)² = √9 = 3. Since 3 is not equal to -3, we have found a counterexample. Thus "for
all numbers x, √x² = x" is a false statement.

COUNTEREXAMPLES

>check your progress

Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a counterexample for each.

For all numbers x:

a. x/x = 1

b. x+3/3 = x + 1
c. √x²+16 = x + 4

DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is distinguished from
inductive reasoning in that it is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general principles and
procedures.

Deductive reasoning is a process of reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions, procedures,

or principles.

INDUCTIVE VS. DEDUCTIVE REASONING

example 6: determine types of reasoning

Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive reasoning or deductive
reasoning.

a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year. Last year the tree did not produce
plums, so this year the tree will produce plums.

b. All home improvements cost more that the estimate. The contractor estimated that my home improvement will
cost $35,000. Thus, my home improvement will cost more than $35,000.

Problem solving with patterns

Terms of a sequence

An ordered list of numbers such as

5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ...

is called a sequence. The numbers in a sequencw that are seperated by commas are the terms of the sequence.
In the above sequence, 5 is the first term, 14 is the second term and so on. The three dots "..." indicate that the
sequnce continues beyond 65, which is the last writtern term. It is customary to use the subscipt notation a to
designate the nth term sequence. That is,

a1 represents the first term of the sequence

a2 represents the second term of the sequence

a3 represents the third term of the sequence

a9 represents the nth term of the sequence

In the sequence 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, ... , n² + n, ...

a1 = 2, a = 6, a = 12, a = 20, a = 30, and a = n² + n.

Example of difference table of the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15 then 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20 and 23.

THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

The Fibonacci sequence is a series of numbers where a
number is found by adding up the two numbers before it. Starting with o
and 1, the sequence goes 0, 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34, and so forth. Written
as a rule, the expression is xn= Xn-1 + Xn-2

Named after Fibonacci, also known as Leonardo of Pisa or

Leonardo Pisano, Fibonacci numbers were first introduced in his Liber
abaci 1202. The son of a Pisan merchant, Fibonacci traveled widely
and traded extensively. Math was incredibly important to those in the trading industry, and his passion for
numbers was cultivated in his youth.

Leonardo of Pisa, also known as Fibonacci , is one of the best-known mathematician of medieval
Europe.In 1202, after a trip that took to him to several Arab and Eastern countries. Fibonacci wrote the book
Liber Abaci. In this book Fibonacci explained why the Hindu-Arabic numeration system that he had learned about
his travels was a more sophisticated and efficient system than the Roman numeration system. This book also
contains a problem created by Fibonacci that concerns the birth rates of rabbits. Here is a statement of
Fibonacci’s rabbit problem.

The Fibonacci Numbers

F1 =1,F2=1, and Fn= Fn-1 + Fn-2 for n >3.

Example:

Use the definition of Fibonacci numbers to find the seventh and eighth Fibonacci Numbers.

Solution:

The first six Fibonacci numbers are 1,1,2,3,5, and 8. The seventh Fibonacci number is the sum of the two
previous Fibonacci number. Thus,

F7 = F6+ F5

=8+5

= 13

The eighth Fibonacci numbers is

F8 =F7 + F6

= 13 + 8

= 21

POLYGONAL NUMBERS
The ancient Greek mathematicians were interested in the geometric shapes associated with numbers.
For instance, they noticed that triangles can be constructed using 1, 3, 6,10, or 15 dots, as shown as Figure 1.1
on page 23. They called the numbers 1, 3,6,10,15,….the triangular numbers. The Greeks called numbers
1,4,9,16,25,…… the square numbers and the numbers 1 ,5, 12, 22,35,…the pentagonal numbers.

An nth- term formula for the triangular number is:

 Triangular n =n (n + 1)

The square numbers have an nth- term formula of

Squaren = n2

The nth-term formula for the pentagonal numbers is

Pentagonal n = n(3n - 1)

PROBLEM SOLVING STRTEGY

Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
Ancient mathematicians such as Euchild and Pappus were interested in solving mathematical
problems, but they were also interested in heuristics, the study of the methods and rules of discovery and
invention. In the seventeenth century, the mathematician and philosophers Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
contributedto the field of heuristics. He tried to develop a universal problem solving method although he did not
achieve this goal, he did publish some of his ideas in rules for the Direction of the Mind and his better known
work Discourse de la Methode.

Another mathematician and philosopher. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716), planned to write a
book on heuristics titled Art of Invention. Of the problem solving process. Leibnitz wrote. “Nothing is more
important than to see the sources of invention which are, in my opinion, more interesting than the inventions
themselves.”

One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a study of problem solving was George Polya
(1887- 1985).He was born in Hungary and moved to the United States in 1940. The basic problem solving
strategy that Polya advocated consisted of the following four steps.

 Polya’s Four-Step Problem- Solving Strategy

1. Understand the problem.
2. Devise a plan.
3. Carry out the plan.
4. Review the solution.

Understand the ProblemThis part of the Polya’s four-step strategy is often overlooked. You must have a clear
understanding of the problem. To help you focus on understanding the problem, consider the following
questions.

 Can you restate the problem in your own words?

 Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
 Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve the problem?
 Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem?
 What is the goal?

Devise a PlanSuccessful solvers use a variety of techniques when they attempt to solve a problem. Here are
some frequently used procedures.

 Make a list of the known information.

 Make a list of information that is needed.
 Draw a diagram.
 Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
  Make a table or a chart.
 Work backwards.
 Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
 Look for a pattern.
 Write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable represents.
 Perform an experiment.
 Guess at a solution and then check your result.

Carry Out the PlanOnce you have devised a plan, you must carry it out.

 Work carefully.
 Keep an accurate and neat record of all yours attempts.
 Realize that some of your initial plans will plans will not work and that you may have to devise
another plan or modify your existing plan.

Review the SolutionOnce you have found a solution, check the solution.

 Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
 Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
 Ask yourself whether there are generalization of the solution that could apply to other problems.

LOGIC STATEMENTS AND QUANTIFIERS

One of the first mathematicians to make a serious study of symbolic logic was Gotfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646- 1716).
Leibniz tried to advance he study of logic from a merely philosophical subject to a formal mathematical subject. Leibniz never
completely achieved this goal; however, several mathematicians, such as Augustus De Morgan (1806 – 1871) George Boole
(1851-1864), contributed to the advancement of symbolic logic as a mathematical discipline.

Boole published The Mathematical Analysis of Logic in 1848. In 1854 he published the more extensive work. An
investigation of the laws of thought. Concerning this document, the mathematician Bertrand Russell stated, “ Pure
mathematics was discovered by Boole in a work which is a called The Laws of Thought.”

LOGIC STATEMENTS
Every language contains different types of sentences, such as statements, questions, and commands. For instance,

“Is the test today”? is a question.

“Go get the newspaper” is a command.

“This is a nice car” is an opinion.

“Denver is the capital of Colorado” is a statement of fact.

The symbolic logic that Bookie was instrumental in creating applies only to sentences that are statements as defined
below.

STATEMENT

A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false.

SIMPLE STATEMENT AND COMPOUND STATEMENTS

 A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound statement is a statement that conveys two or
more ideas.

Connecting simple statements with words and phrases such as and, or, If….then, and if and only if creates a compound
statement. For instance, “ I will attend the meeting or I will go to school. “is a compound statement. It is composed of two
simple statements, “I will attend the meeting.” And I will go to school.” The word or is a connective for the simple statements.

George Boole use symbols such as p, q, r, and s to represent simple statements and the symbols ^ ,V , ~,

And to represent connectives. See Tables 3.1.

Truth Value and Truth Tables

The truth value of simple statement is either true (T) or false (F). The truth value of a compound statement depends on the
truth values of its simple statements and its connectives.

A truth table that shows the truth value of a compound statement for all possible truth values of its simple statement.

The negation of the statement “Today is Friday”. is the statement “Today is not Friday”. In symbolic logic, the title symbol ~ is
used to denote the negation of a statement. If a statement p is true, its negation ~p is false , and if a statement p is false, its
negation ~ p is true. See the table at the left. The negation of the negation of a
statement is the original statement. Thus ~(~p) can be replaced by p in any
statement.

EXAMPLES:
Write the negation of each statement

a. Bill Gates has yacht.

b. Avatar was not selected a best picture at the 82nd Academy Awards ceremony.

SOLUTION

a. Bill Gates does not have a yacht.

 b. Avatar was selected as best pictures at the 82nd Academy Awards Ceremony.

WRITING COMPOUND STATEMENTS IN SYMBOLIC FORM

Consider the following statements.

p: Today is Friday.

q: It is raining.

r: I am going to a movie.

S: I am going to the basketball game.

Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.

a. Today is Friday and it is raining.

b. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
c. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
d. If it is rainin, then I a not going to the basketball game.

Solution:

a. p^q b. ~q^r c. ~s v r d. q s

TRANSLATE SYMBOLIC STATEMENT

Consider the following statements.

p: The game will be played in Atlanta.

q: The will be shown on CBS.

r: The game will not be shown on ESPN.

s: The Dodgers are favoured to win.

Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.

a. q^pb. ~r^sc. s ~p

Solution:

a. The game will be shown on CBS and the game will be played in Atlanta.
b. The game will be shown ESPN and the Dodgers are favored to win.
c. The Dodgers are favored to win if and only if the game will not be played in Atlanta.

CONDITIONAL STATEMENT
If you don’t get in plane, you’ll regret it. Maybe not today, may be not tomorrow, but soon, and for the rest of your life.

The above quotation is from the movie Casablanca. Rick, played by Humphrey Bogart, is trying to convince IIsa,
played by Ingrid Bergman, to get on the plane with Laszlo. The sentence, “If you don’t get in that plane, you’ll regret it,” is a
conditional statement. Conditional statement can be written in f p, then q form or in if p, q form. For instance, all the following
are conditional statement.

If we order pizza, then we can have it delivered.

If you go to the movie, you will not be able to meet us for dinner.

If n is a prime number greater than 2, then n is an odd number.

In any conditional statement represented by “f p, then q” or by “if p, q,” the p statement is called the antecedent and the q
statement is called the consequent.

 Arrow Notation
The conditional statement, “ If p, then q,” can be written using the arrow notation p q. The arrow notation p q
is read as “if and only if” or as “p implies q.”
 Truth value of the Conditional p q
The conditional p q is false if p is true and q is false. It is true in all other cases.

AN EQUIVALENT FORM OF THE CONDITIONAL

An equivalent form of the Conditional p q

P q=~p v q

BICONDITIONAL STATEMENT
The Biconditional

The statement (p q) ^ ( q p) is called a biconditional and is denoted by p q, which is read as “p if and only if q.”

PROBLEM SOLVING
 INDUCTIVE REASONING
Inductive Reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining specific examples.

The type of reasoning that forms a conclusions based on the examination of specific examples is called inductive
reasoning. The conclusions formed by using inductive reasoning is often called a conjecture, since it may or may not
be correct.

Example 1: Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.
a. 3,6,9,12,15,? b. 1,3,6,10,15,?
 Solution

a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus we predict that the next number in the list
is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.
b. The first two number differ by 2. The second and the third numbers differ by 3. It appears that the difference
between any two numbers is always 1 more than the preceding difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we
predict that the next number in the list will be larger than 15, which is 21.

Example 2: Use Inductive Reasoning to make a Conjecture

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum
by 2, and substract 3.

Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about
the relationship between the size of the resulting number and the size of the original number.

Solution

Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would produce the following results:

Original number: 5

Multiply by 8: 8 X 5 = 40

Add 6: 40 + 6 = 46

Divide by 2: 42 / 2 = 23

Substract 3: 23- 3 = 20

We start with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20. Starting with 6 as our original number produces a final
result or 40. Starting with 100 produces a final result of 24. Starting with 10 procedures a final result of 40. Starting with 100
procedures a final result of 400. In each of these cases the resulting number is four times the original number .We conjecture
that followingThe given procedure a number that is four times the original number.

Inductive Reasoning
Scientist often use inductive reasoning. For instance, Galileo Galilei (1564- 1642) use inductive reasoning to discover
that the time required for a pendulum to complete one swing, called the period of the pendulum, depends on the length of the
pendulum. Galileo did not have a clock the periods of pendulums of various lengths. For the sake of convenience, a length of
10 inches has been designated as 1 unit.

The period of a pendulum is the time it takes for the pendulum to swing from left to right and back to its original pendulum.
 Conclusion based on inductive reasoning may be incorrect. For each circle, count the number of regions formed by the line
segments that connect the dots on the circle. Your results should agree with the results in the following table.

KEEP IN MIND THAT!

To keep in mind. Just because a pattern holds true for a few cases, it does not mean the pattern will continue.
When you use inductive reasoning, you have no guarantee that your conclusion is correct.

 COUNTEREXAMPLES

Counterexamples a statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If you can find one case for
which a statement is not true, called a counterexample, then the statement is a false.
Example: Find a Counterexample

Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a counterexample.

For all numbers x:

a. (x) ˃ 0 b. x2˃x

Solution:

A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need only find one counterexample to verify that the statement is
false.

a. Let x = 0, Then(0) = 0 Because 0 is not greater than 0, we have found a counterexample. Thus “for all numbers x, (x)
˃ 0” is a false statement.
b. For x= 1 we have 12 = 1 , since 1 is not greater than 1, we have found example.Thus “for all numbers x, x2, ˃ x” is a
false statement.

 Deductive Reasoning
Another type of reasoning called dedective reasoning. Deductive reasoning is distinguished from inductive
reasoning in that it is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general principles and procedures.
Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions, procedures, or
principles.\

INDUCTIVE VS DEDUCTIVE REASONING

Example:
Determine whether each of th following arguments is an example of inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.
 a. During the past 10 years, atreehas produced plums every other year. Last year the tree did not produce plums,
so this year the tree will produce plums.
b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The constractor estimated that my home improvement will
cost $35,00. Thus, my home improvement will cost more than $35,000.

PROBLEM SOLVING WITH PATTERNS

Terms of Sequence

An ordered list of number such as 5,a4,27,44,65,…… is called a sequence. The numbers in a sequence that
are separated by commas are the terms of the sequence. In the above sequence, 5 is the first term, 14 is the second
term, 27 is the third term, 44 is the fourth term, and 65 is the fifth term. The three dots”…” indicate that the sequence
continues beyond 65, which is the last written term. It is a customary to use the subscript notation a, to designate the
nth term of a sequence. That is.

a1 represents the first term of a sequence.

a2represents the second term of a sequence.

a3represents the third term of a sequence

a8 represents the nth term of a sequence.

In the sequence 2,6, 12,20, 30,…….n2+ n1 ….

Examples:

PROBLEM SOLVING WITH PATTERNS

Example: Predict the Next Term of Sequence

2,7,24,59,118,207,…….
 Solution:

Construct a difference table as shown below.

The third differences, shown in blue in ro (3), are all the same constant, 6.Extending row (3) so that it include an
additional 6 enables us to predict that the next second difference will be 36. Adding 36 to the first difference 89 gives
us the next first difference, 125. Adding 125 to the sixthterm 207 yields 332. Using the method of existing the
difference table, we prdedict that 332 is the next term in the sequence.

SETS
Sets are well- defined collection of distinct objects

The following sets of numbers are used extensively in many areas of mathematics:

Basic Numbers Sets

 Natural Numbers or Counting Numbers N = {1,2,3,4,5, …}
 Whole Numbers W = {0,1,2,3,4,5, …}
 Integers I = {…, -4, -3, -2, -1,0,1,2,3,4, …}
 Rational Numbers Q = the sets of all terminating or repeating decimals
 Irrational Numbers I = the sets of all nonterminating, nonrepeating decimals
 Real Numbers R = the sets of all rational or irrational numbers

2 ways of Describing a Set

1. Tabular/ roster form- is a method of describing a set where the elements are separated by
commas and enclosed by braces
2. Set- builder notation/ description method- method which use of the description { x|… } and is
read as “x such that”

Example: Use the Roster Method of Represent a Set of Numbers

Use the roster method to write each of the given sets.

a. The set of natural numbers less than 5
b. The solution set of x + 5 = -1
c. The sets of negative integers greater than -4
Solution
a. The set of natural numbers is given by {1,2,3,4,5,6,7, …}. The natural numbers
less than 5 are 1, 2, 3, and 4. Using the roster method, we write this set as
{1,2,3,4,}.
b. Adding -5 to each side of the equation produces x = -6. The solution set of x + 5 =
-1 is {-6}.
c. The set of negative integers greater than -4 is {-3, -2, -1}.
Example: Apply Definitions Regarding Sets

Determine whether each statement is true or false.

a. 4 ϵ {2,3,4,7}
b. -5 ϵ N
c. ½ I
d. The set of nice cars is a well-defined set.
Solution
a. Since 4 is an element of the given set, the statement is true.
b. There are no negative natural numbers, so the statement is false.
c. Since ½ is not an integer, the statement is true.
d. The word nice is not precise, so the statement is true.Check your progress
Determine whether each statement is true or false.
a. 1,3 ϵ {1,2,3,4,5,6,}
b. b. -101 ϵ2
c. c. 2.5 Ɇ W
d. d. The set of all integers larger than π is a
well- defined set.

Another method of representing a set- builder notation. Set – builder notation is especially useful when
describing infinite sets. For instance, in set-builder notation, the set of natural numbers greater than 7 is written

as follows:

Example
Use Set- Builder Notation to Represent a Set

Use set-builder notation to write the following sets.

a. The set of integers greater than -3
b. The set of whole numbers less than 1000

Solution
a. { x │ x ϵ I and x > -3} b. . { x │ x ϵ I and x < 1000}

Check your progress

Use set- builder notation to write the following sets.
a. The sets of integers less than 9
b. The sets of natural numbers greater than 4
Example The Cardinality of a Set

Find the cardinality of each of the following sets.

a. J = {2,5} b. S = {3,4,5, 6,7, … ,31} c. T={3,3,7,51}

Solution
a. Set J contains exactly two elements, so J has a cardinality of 2. Using mathematical
notation, we state this as n(J) = 2.
b. Only a few elements are actually listed. The number of natural numbers from 1 to 31 is
31. If we omit the numbers 1 and 2, then the number of natural numbers from 3 to 31 must
be 31 – 2 =29. Thus n(S) =29.
c. Elements that are listed more than once are counted only once. Thus n(T) =3.

Check your progress 6: Find the cardinality of the following sets.

a. C = {-1, 5, 4, 11, 13} b. D = {0} c. E = Ø

Equal Sets
Set A is equal to set,denoted by A = B, if and only if A and B have exactly the same elements.

For instance {d, e, f } = {e, f, d }.

Example 7: Equal Sets and Equivalent Sets

State whether each of the following pairs of sets are equal, equivalent, both, or neither.
a. {a, e, i, o, u }, {3, 7, 11, 15, 19} b. {4, -2,7}, {3, 4,7 ,9}

Solution

a. The sets are not equal. However, each set has exactly five elements, so the sets are
equivalent.
b. The first set has three elements and the second set has four elements, so the sets are not
equal and are not equivalent.

Check your progress 7: State whether each of the following pairs of sets are equal and are not
equivalent, both, or neither.

a. { x │x ϵ W and x <5}, {α, β, Γ, Δ, δ, ε}

b.{5, 10,15,20,25,30, … ,80}, { x│ x ϵ N and x < 17}

Universal Set
 Set of all elements that are being considered
 Denoted by U
The Complement of a Set
  The complement of a set A, denoted by Aʼ ,is the set of all elements of the universal set
U that are not elements of A.

Complement Set

Check your progress 1: Let U = {0, 2, 4, 6, 7, 17}, M = {0, 4, 6,17}, and P = { x│ x < 7 and x ϵ
the even natural numbers}. Find

a. M ʼ b. P ʼ

The Complement of the Universal Set and the Complement of the Empty Set

U ʼ = Ø and Ø ʼ = U

Proper Subset
To illustrate the difference between subsets and proper subsets, consider the following two
examples.

1. Let R = {Mars , Venus} and S = {Mars, Venus, Mercury}. The first set, R, is a subset of the
second set, S, because every element of R is an element of S. In addition, R is also a proper
subset of S, because R ≠ S.

2. Let T = {Europe, Africa} and V = {Africa, Europe}. The first set, T, is a subset of the second
set, V; however, T isnot a proper subset of V because T = V.

Venn diagrams can be used to represent proper subset relationships. For instance, if a set B
is a proper subset of a set A, then we illustrate this relationship in a Venn diagram by drawing
a circle labelled B inside of a circle labelled A. See the Venn diagram at the left.

Example 3: Proper Subsets

For each of the following , determine whether the first set is a proper subset of the second
set.
a. {a, e, i, o, u}, {e, I, o, u, a} b. N, I

Solution

a. Because the sets are equal, the first set is not a proper subset of the second set.
b. Every natural number is an integer, so the set of natural numbers is a subset of the set of
integers. The set of integers contains elements that are not natural numbers, such as -3. Thus
the set of natural numbers is a proper subsets of the set of integers.
Check your progress 3: For each of the following, determine whether the first set is a proper
subset of the second set.
a. N, W b. {1, 4, 5}, {5, 1, 4}

The Number of Subsets of a Set

 A set with n elements has 2n subsets.
Set Operations

Venn Diagrams

Application: Blood Groups and Blood Types

Karl Landsteiner won a Noble Prize in 1930 for his discovery of the four different human blood
groups. He discovered that the blood of each individual contains exactly one of the following
combinations of antigens.

 Only A antigens (blood group A)

 Only B antigens (blood group B)
 Both A and B antigens (blood group AB)
 No A antigens and no B antigens (blood group O)

These four blood groups are represented by the Venn diagram in the left margin of page 78.

In 1941, Landsteiner and Alexander Wiener discovered that human blood may not contain
an Rh, or rhesus, factor. Blood with this factor is called

Rh-positive and is denoted by Rh+. Blood without this factor is called Rh-negative and is
denoted by Rh-.
 The Venn diagram in Figure 2.3 illustrates the eight blood types (A+,
B+,AB+,O+,A-,B-,AB-,O-) that are possible if we consider antigens and the Rh factor.

Example
Venn Diagrams and Blood Type

Use Venn Diagrams in Figure 2.3 and 2.4 to determine the blood type of each of the following
people.
a. Sue b. Lisa

Solution

a. Because Sue is in blood group A. not in blood group B, and not Rh+, her blood type is A-.
b. Lisa is in blood group O and she is Rh+, so her blood type is O+.

Check your progress 7: Use the Venn Diagrams in Figures 2.3 and 2.4 to determine the blood
type of each following people.
a. Alex b. Roberto
The following table shows the blood types that can safely be given during a blood transfusion to
persons of each of the eight blood types.

Blood Transfusion Table

Recipient blood type Donor blood type

A+ A+,A-,O+,O-
B+ B+,B-,O+,O-
AB+ A+,A-,B+,B-,AB+,AB-,O+,O-
O+ O+,O-
A- A-,O-
B- B-,O-
AB- A-,B-,AB-,O-
O- O-

Application of Sets

Example 1: A Survey of Preferences

A movie company is making plans for future movies it wishes to produce. The company has
done a random survey of 1000 people. The results of the survey are shown below.

695 people like action adventures.

340 people like comedies.
180 people like both action adventures and comedies.

Of the people surveyed, how many people

a. like action adventures but not comedies?
b. like comedies but not action adventures?
c. do not like either of these types of movies?

Solution

A Venn diagram can be used to illustrate the results of the survey. We use two overlapping
circles. One circle represents the set of people who like action adventures and the other
represents the set of people who like comedies. The region I where the circles intersect
represents the set of people who like both types of movies.
We start with the information that 180 people like both types of movies and write 180
in region I.
Check your progress
The athletic director of a school has surveyed 200 students. The survey results are shown
below.

140 students like volleyball.

120 students like basketball.
85 students like both volleyball and basketball.

Of the students surveyed, how many students

a. like volleyball but not basketball?

b. like basketball but not volleyball?
c. do not like either these sports

Example
A Music Survey

A music teacher has surveyed 495 students. The results of the survey are listed below.
320 students like rap music.
395 students like rock music.
295 students like heavy metal music.
280 students like both rap music and rock music.
190 students like both rap music and heavy metal music.
245 students like both rock music and heavy metal music.
160 students like all three.

How many students

a. like exactly two of the three types of music?
b. like only rock music?
c. like only one of the three types of music?
Basic Concepts on Statistics
DISCUSSION
Population refers to the enormous collection of people, object, places or things
 Parameters is any numerical value which describes a population

Symbols and usage

 “N” is used to denote population size
 Greek letters µ(read as miu), σ(sigma), σ 2(sigma squared), and ρ(rho)
 Used for parameters

Symbols for Parameters

 µ- Population Mean
 σ- Population standard deviation
2
 σ - Population variance
 ρ- population coefficient of correlation

Example

1. There are 2,721 MedTech students enrolled in CalapanCity this school year, N= 2,721
2. The average age of MedTech students is 20
N= 2,721 and µ= 20 are parameters because they both describe the population.

Sample is a small potion or part of a population and a representative of the population in a research
study.

Statistic is any numerical value which describes a sample.

Symbols and usage

 “n” is used to denote sample size
 Arabic x , s, s2, andr
 Used for statistic

Symbols for Statistic

 x - sample mean
 s- sample standard deviation
2
 s - sample variance
 r- population coefficient of correlation
Example

1. out of 2,721 students enrolled as MedTech, 1,101 are male.

2. The average age of male students is 21.
N= 1,101 and x=21 are statistic because they both describe the sample
Respondents are the samples who are actual participants in the research.

Basic Terms

1. Universe
 a collection or set of all individuals or entities whose characteristics are to be studied
 answers the questions; who or what entities do you want to study?
Types of Universe

 Finite- when the elements of the universe can be counted for a given time or period
 Examples:

 Set of all books in the library

 Set of all registered voters in Pinamalayan

 Infinite- when the number of elements of the universe is unlimited.

Examples:

 Set of all sand particles in shoreline of Magdalena, Beach resort

 Set of all trees and plants on Mt. Halcon

2. Variable
 Attribute or characteristics of interest measurable on each unit of the universe
 Answers the question; what do you want to know about the entities?

Types of Variable
 Qualitative- assumes values that are not numerical but can be categorized and the categories may
be identified by either non- numerical descriptions or by numeric codes.
Examples:

 Gender
 Marital status
 Religious affiliation

 Quantitative- indicates the quantity or amount of a characteristic. The data are always numeric and
can be discrete or continuous.

Examples:

 Number of kernels in a corn ear

 Length of fingernails
 Height

Types of Quantitative Variables

 Discrete- variable with a finite or countable number of possible values
Examples:

 age as of last birthday

 household size
 number of absences in Agric 111

 Continuous- a variable that assumes any value in a given interval

Examples:

 Weight
 Head circumference of a student
 Height
 3. Population- set of all possible values of the variable

U1 Y1

U2 Variable Y2
Y
U3 Y3

: :

: :

UN YN

4. Sample- subset of the population or universe

Example:

Suppose we are interested in the average height of all MinSCAT students enrolled this term.

Universe: set of all MinSCAT student enrolled this term

Variable: X= height of a MinSCAT student enrolled this term

Population:Set consisting of the heights of all MinSCAT students enrolled this term which ranged
from 120 to 210 cm or (N 120 cm < x <210 cm)

Levels of Measurement
Data may be classified into four hierarchical levels of measurement.

 Nominal
 Ordinal
 Interval
 Ratio
Note: The type of statistical analysis that is appropriate for a variable depends on its level of
measurement.
Nominal

 Data collected are labels, names or categories.

  Frequencies or counts of observations belonging to the same category can be obtained.
 It is the lowest level of measurement.
 Qualitative

Examples:
gender, occupation, zip code
Ordinal

 Data collected are labels with implied ordering.

 The difference between two labels is meaningless.
 Qualitative
Examples:
job position performance rating as in excellent, above average, average below average or poor

Interval

 Data can be ordered or ranked.

 The difference between two data values is meaningful.
 Data at this level may lack an absolute zero point.
 Quantitative
Examples:
Temperature, IQ, Grade

Ratio

 Data have all the properties of the interval scale.

 The number zero indicates the absence of the characteristic being measured.
 It is the highest level of measurement.
 Quantitative

Examples:
volume of helium in a balloon, number of minutes it took for a runner to reach the finish
line.

TYPES OF DATA
Primary were acquired directly from the source
Secondary are the data which were not acquired directly from the source

METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA

Objective data- collects data either by measuring
Subjective data- the information is provided by identified respondents
Utilizing data- uses data which have been previously collected by another person

TEXTUAL PRESENTATION OF DATA

1. Textual Presentation of data
 good statistical presentation requires making
 data presented in paragraph or in sentence, are said to be in textual form
 only applicable when presenting few information
2. Tabular Presentation of data
 show the data arranged
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA
 the graph adds life and beauty to one’s work
 help facilitate comparison
Rules to remember in constructing tables
Graph should have the following:
a. For Pie Chart, it should have percentage
b. For bar graph, represented by vertical or horizontal and discrete and qualitative graphs
c. For Histogram, used for continuous variables
Take note: There is no gap between bar
d. Frequency polygon or line graph, it should be close figure and line version of the histogram
e. Multiple graphs-most line and bar

THE LESS AND GREATER THAN OGIVES

 The less than ogive constructed by plotting the <cf
cumulative frequencies against the upper-class
boundaries, while the greater than ogive is
constructed by plotting the >cf against the lower- class
boundaries. The graphs are used to estimate the number
of cases falling below/above any given value.

Example

Class F X Class Pf <cf >cf

Interval boundary
4-9 2 6.5 3.5-9.4 0.014 2 48
10-15 7 12.5 9.5-15.5 0.14 9 41
16-21 8 18.5 15.5-21.5 0.16 17 41
 22-27 4 24.5 21.5-27.5 0.08 21 33
28-33 11 30.5 27.5-33.5 0.22 32 29
34-39 8 36.5 33.5-39.5 0.16 40 18
40-45 6 42.5 39.5-45.5 0.12 46 10
46-51 4 48.5 45.5-51.5 0.08 50 4
I=6 N=60

DESCRIPTIVE MEASURES
MEASURES OF LOCATION

 MEAN
 MEDIAN
 MODE
SUMMATION NOTATION
n

∑ xi
i=1

is read as “the summation of x i from i=1 to i=n” where i is the lower limit and n the upper limit.

Example

Descriptive Measures
Quantities that are used to summarize the characteristics of a universe or population:

 Location
 Dispersion
 Skewness
 Kurtosis
Measures of Location
Summarizes a data set by giving a “typical value” within the range of the data values that describes its
location relative to entire data set.

Some Common Measures

 Minimum, Maximum
 Measures of Central Tendency
 Percentiles, Deciles, Quartiles
Minimum and Maximum
 Minimum is the smallest value in the data set, denoted as MIN
 Maximum is the largest value in the data set, denoted as MAX
Measure of Central Tendency
 A single value about which the set of observations tend to cluster
 Tells us where the middle of the data lies
 Also called as an average
Most common used measure are:
 Mean
 Median
 Mode
Mean is the sum of a collection of numerical data divided by the number of data items; the balance
point of a data set; the most reliable, but the most sensitive measure of average.

Arithmetic Mean
The sum of all observations in the data set divided by the total number of observations

where xi = ithobservation of the variable X and N = total number of observations in the data set.

Weighted Mean
Find the Mean Grade Point Average of the data set in a frequency table below:
Table 1a: Grades in 4 courses

Subject Grade Unit/ Frequency

Statistics 4.0 3
English 2.0 3
Accounting 1.0 5
P.E. 1.5 2

Some Properties of the Mean

  There is only one mean in a given data set.
 It is defined only for quantitative data.
 The sum of the deviation from the mean is equal to zero.
 The means of different sets/groups of comparable data maybe combined when properly
weighted.
Median is the middle value when the data values are arranged in ascending or descending order of
magnitude

Some Properties of the Median

 There is only one median for a data set.
 It is not amenable to further computations.
 The sum of the absolute deviations of the observations from a value, say c, is smallest
when c is equal to the median.
 That is,

∑| xi −c|is minimum when c = Md.

Mode is/ are the value (s) in the data set which occurs most frequently, denoted as Mo
Some Properties of the Mode

 It may not exist

 If it exists, there can be more than one mode for a given data set.
 It is determined by the frequency and not by the values of observations.
 It is applicable for both quantitative and qualitative data.

Grouped data

ƩfxƩfx
µ=
N

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 Ungrouped Data

Measures that indicate the approximate center of a distribution are called measures of central
tendency. Measures that describe the spread of the data are measures of dispersion. These measures
include the mean, median, mode, range, upper and lower quartiles, variance, and standard deviation.

A. Finding the Mean

The mean of a set of data is the sum of all values in a data set divided by the number of values in the set.
It is also often referred to as an arithmetic average. The Greek letter (“mu”) is used as the symbol for population
mean and the symbol ̅ is used to represent the mean of a sample. To determine the mean of a data set:
1. Add together all of the data values.
2. Divide the sum from Step 1 by the number of data values in the set.

Example:
Consider the data set: 17, 10, 9, 14, 13, 17, 12, 20, 14 Σ
The mean of this data set is 14.

B. Finding the Median

The median of a set of data is the “middle element” when the data is arranged in ascending order. To
determine the median:
1. Put the data in order from smallest to largest.
2. Determine the number in the exact center.
i. If there are an odd number of data points, the median will be the number in the absolute middle.
ii. If there is an even number of data points, the median is the mean of the two center data points, meaning the
two center values should be added together and divided by 2.

Example:
Consider the data set: 17, 10, 9, 14, 13, 17, 12, 20, 14
Step 1: Put the data in order from smallest to largest. 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 14, 17, 17, 20
Step 2: Determine the absolute middle of the data. 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 14, 17, 17, 20
Note: Since the number of data points is odd choose the one in the very middle.
The median of this data set is 14.

C. Finding the Mode

The mode is the most frequently occurring measurement in a data set. There may be one mode; multiple
modes, if more than one number occurs most frequently; or no mode at all, if every number occurs only once. To
determine the mode:
1. Put the data in order from smallest to largest, as you did to find your median.
2. Look for any value that occurs more than once.
3. Determine which of the values from Step 2 occurs most frequently.

Example:
Consider the data set: 17, 10, 9, 14, 13, 17, 12, 20, 14
Step 1: Put the data in order from smallest to largest. 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 14, 17, 17, 20
Step 2: Look for any number that occurs more than once. 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 14, 17, 17, 20
Step 3: Determine which of those occur most frequently. 14 and 17 both occur twice.
The modes of this data set are 14 and 17.

D. Finding the Upper and Lower Quartiles

The quartiles of a group of data are the medians of the upper and lower halves of that set. The lower
quartile, Q1, is the median of the lower half, while the upper quartile, Q3, is the median of the upper half. If
your data set has an odd number of data points, you do not consider your median when finding these values, but
if your data set contains an even number of data points, you will consider both middle values that you used to
find your median as parts of the upper and lower halves.
1. Put the data in order from smallest to largest.
2. Identify the upper and lower halves of your data.
3. Using the lower half, find Q1 by finding the median of that half.
4. Using the upper half, find Q3 by finding the median of that half.

Example:
Consider the data set: 17, 10, 9, 14, 13, 17, 12, 20, 14
Step 1: Put the data in order from smallest to largest. 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 14, 17, 17, 20
Step 2: Identify the lower half of your data. 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 14, 17, 17, 20
Step 3: Identify the upper half of your data. 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 14, 17, 17, 20
Step 4: For the lower half, find the median. 9, 10, 12, 13 Since there are an even number of data points in this
half, you will find the median by summing the two in the center and dividing by two. This is Q1.
Step 5: For the upper half, find the median. 14, 17, 17, 20 Since there are an even number of data points in this
half, you will find the median by summing the two in the center and dividing by two. This is Q3.
Q1 of this data set is 11 and Q3 of this data set is 17.

Sample Variance, : Population Variance, :

Σ̅Σ
Sample Standard Deviation, s: Population Standard Deviation, :
√Σ ̅ √Σ
E. Finding the Range

The range is the difference between the lowest and highest values in a data set. To determine the range:
1. Identify the largest value in your data set. This is called the maximum.
2. Identify the lowest value in your data set. This is called the minimum.
3. Subtract the minimum from the maximum.

Example:
Consider the data set: 17, 10, 9, 14, 13, 17, 12, 20, 14
Step 1: Put the data in order from smallest to largest. 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 14, 17, 17, 20
Step 2: Identify your maximum. 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 14, 17, 17, 20
Step 2: Identify your minimum. 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 14, 17, 17, 20
Step 3: Subtract the minimum from the maximum. 20 – 9 = 11
The range of this data set is 11.
F. Finding the Variance and Standard Deviation

The variance and standard deviation are a measure based on the distance each data value is from the mean.
1. Find the mean of the data. ( if calculating for a population or ̅ if using a sample)
2. Subtract the mean ( or ̅) from each data value (xi ).
3. Square each calculation from Step 2.
4. Add the values of the squares from Step 3.
5. Find the number of data points in your set, called n.
6. Divide the sum from Step 4 by the number n (if calculating for a population) or n – 1(if using a sample). This
will give you the variance.
7. To find the standard deviation, square root this number.

Example: Calculate the sample variance and sample standard deviation

Consider the sample data set: 17, 10, 9, 14, 13, 17, 12, 20, 14.
Step 1: The mean of the data is 14, as shown previously in Section A.
4. Make sure the List is L1 then select Calculate.
These could be subtracted to find the range.
Smallest data value
Largest data value
Median
Upper Quartile
Lower Quartile
Number of data values
Population Standard Deviation
Sample Standard Deviation
Sum of all data values
Mean
Step 2: Subtract the mean from each data value. 17 – 14 = 3; 10 – 14 = -4; 9 – 14 = -5; 14 – 14
=0
13 – 14 = -1; 17 – 14 = 3; 12 – 14 = -2; 20 – 14 = 6; 14 – 14 = 0
Step 3: Square these values. 32 = 9; (-4)2 = 16; (-5)2 = 25; 02 = 0; (-1)2 = 1; 32 = 9; (-2)2 = 4;
62 = 36
Step 4: Add these values together. 9 + 16 + 25 + 0 + 1 + 9 + 4 + 36 = 100
Step 5: There are 9 values in our set, so we will divide by 9 – 1 = 8. = 12.5
Note: This is your variance.
Step 6: Square root this number to find your standard deviation. √ = 3.536
The variance is 12.5 and the standard deviation is 3.536.
G. Using the TI-84