Chapter 2: Crystal Structure of

Materials

FACULTY OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

2017/2018
CHAPTER 2: Crystal Structure of Materials

2.1: Atomic Structure

2.2: Interatomic Bonding
2.3: Crystalline and Non-crystalline Structure
2.4: Imperfections in Solids
 2.1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
2.1.1 ATOMIC MODELS

Simplified Atomic Model (Bohr Atomic Model)

Some Terminologies (basic structure for elements)

orbital electrons:
ATOM

Very small nucleus

2 1 composed of protons
n=3
& neutrons which is
encircled by moving
electrons

Nucleus (Proton + Neutron)

The mass and charge of Proton, Neutron, and Electron

Mass (g) Charge (C)

1.673 x 10-24 +1.602 x 10-19

Proton

1.675 x 10-24 0
Neutron

9.109 x 10-28 -1.602 x 10-19

Electron
Why are all ATOMS are ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL?
ATOMIC NUMBER and ATOMIC MASS

The element helium has the atomic number 2, is represented by

the symbol He, its atomic mass is 4 and its name is helium
2.1.2 ISOTOPES
 2.1.3 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

The electron configuration for an element is the arrangement of

electrons in the orbits (or shells) of a neutral atom.

 VALENCE ELECTRON

• an electron of an atom, located in the outermost shell

(valence shell) of the atom, that can be transferred to or shared
with another atom.
• in forming chemical bonds with other atoms.
How to write electron configuration ?
What do you need ?

1
 2
Electrons orbit the nucleus like planets orbit the sun
 3
Maximum number of electrons in each shells and
subshells
4
Bohr’s model of atom

s p d f
2 6 10 14
Electronic Configurations
Exercise 2.1:

Write the electron configuration for Tin. How many valance electrons
does Tin have ?
 2.2 INTERATOMIC BONDING

Why do we need to understand the concept of interatomic bonding in

solids?

It is because some important properties of solid depend on the

geometrical atomic arrangements & the interactions that exist
among constituent atoms or molecules

Example: Carbon - graphite vs. diamond

- The carbon atoms are arranged - The carbon atoms are arranged in
tetrahedrally sheets / planar layers
- It is a strong, rigid three- - The layers are held together by
dimensional structure that weaker forces known as stacking
results in an infinite network of interactions
atoms - low density 2.2g/cm3
- high density 3.5g/cm3 - It is soft and slippery, 1 Mohr
- Very hard, 10 Mohr Hardness Hardness
 Interatomic Bonding

Primary Bonding Secondary Bonding

• Ionic bonds • Van der Waals bonds

• Covalent bonds • Hydrogen bond
• Metallic bonds
3 different types of primary or chemical bond are found in solids.

Ionic, covalent, and metallic.

Involve valence electrons

Nature of bond depends on electron structures of the constituent

atoms. Tendency of atoms to assume stable electron structure.

Secondary forces and energies also found in many solid materials.

Wan Der Waals, Hydrogen bond

Weaker than primary ones

Influence physical properties of some material

2.2.1: Primary Interatomic Bonds

Primary Bonding
• Ionic Bonding
• Covalent Bonding
• Metallic Bonding
 2.2.1.1 Ionic Bonding

Formed between highly electropositive (metallic) elements and

highly electronegative (nonmetallic) elements.

Ionization: electrons are transferred from atoms of electropositive

elements to atoms of electronegative elements, producing
positively charged cations and negatively charge anions.

Ionic bonding: due to electrostatic / coulombic force attraction

of oppositely charged ions.

Binding energy  large  high melting temp.

Ionic material  hard, brittle, electrically and thermally insulative.

 EXAMPLES: IONIC BONDING

• Predominant bonding in Ceramics

NaCl
MgO
H He
2.1 CaF2 -
Li Be O F Ne
1.0 1.5 CsCl 3.5 4.0 -
Na Mg Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr I Xe
0.8 1.0 2.5 -
Cs Ba At Rn
0.7 0.9 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9

Give up electrons (electropositive) Acquire electrons (electronegative)

Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 6e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd
edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell
University.
Unstable Stable
 2.2.1.2 Covalent Bonding
In covalent bonding stable electron configurations are assumed by sharing of
electrons between adjacent atoms.

Two atoms that are covalently bonded will each contribute at least one electron
to the bond, and the shared electrons may be considered to belong to both
atoms.

H• + H•  H:H (1s1 electron from hydrogen atom)

Many nonmetallic elemental molecules (H2, Cl2, F2, etc)

Molecules containing dissimilar atoms (CH4, H2O, HNO3, HF, etc)

Other elemental solids: diamond (carbon), silicon, germanium

Binding energy & melting temp for covalently bonded materials  very high
(diamond) to very weak (bismuth, polymeric material)

Possible of having interatomic bonds (partially ionic and partially covalent).

Example: CH4 (methane)

C: has 4 valence e, H: has 1 valence e,

needs 4 more
needs 1 more
 EXAMPLES: COVALENT BONDING
H2O

column IVA
H2 F2
C(diamond)
H He
2.1
SiC - Cl2
Li Be C O F Ne
1.0 1.5 2.5 2.0 4.0 -
Na Mg Si Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 1.8 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn Ga Ge As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr Sn I Xe
0.8 1.0 1.8 2.5 -
Cs Ba Pb At Rn
0.7 0.9 1.8 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9 GaAs
Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 6e. (Fig. 2.7 is

• Molecules with nonmetals

adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940,
3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell University.

• Molecules with dissimilar atoms

• Elemental solids (RHS of Periodic Table)
• Compound solids (about column IVA) (SiC, GaAs)
 2.2.1.3 Metallic Bonding

Very similar to covalent bonding

Valence electrons
Metallic materials have 1, 2, or 3 valence electrons.
not bound to any particular atom in the solid.
are essentially free electrons and move (drift) through out the metal.
form a sea of electron or electron cloud.
Remaining non-valence electrons and atomic nuclei  ion cores
Group IA and IIA elements
All elemental metals
Highly conductive
Ductile
Binding energy & melting temp (wide range)
Schematic illustration of metallic bonding

Ion cores
- nonvalence electrons and
atomic nuclei

-posses a net positive

charge equal in magnitude
to the total valence electron
charge per atom.

Sea of valence electrons

- The free electrons shield the
positively charged ion chores from
electrostatic forces.
- This free electrons act as a “glue” to
hold the ion cores together.
2.2.2 Secondary Bonds
a. Van der Waals bond
Van der Waals bond

Binding energy (typical)  in the order of 10 kJ/mol (0.1 eV/atom)

Exist between virtually all atoms or molecules.

The presence of any of the 3 primary bonding types may obscure it.

The driving force for secondary bonding is the attraction of the electric dipoles
contained in atoms or molecules

Electric dipoles:

- separation of positive and negative portions of an atom or molecule. -

coulombic attraction between +ve end of one dipole and –ve end dipole.

Schematic illustration of van der Waals bonding between two dipoles

+ +
 b. Hydrogen Bonds

• A hydrogen bond occurs when two electronegative atoms, such as

nitrogen and oxygen, interact with the same hydrogen. The hydrogen
is normally covalently attached to one atom, and interacts
electrostatically with the other.

• The bond is stronger than a Van der Waals interaction, but weaker
than covalent or ionic bonds
 Bonding Energies and Melting Temperatures for
Various Substances

Bonding Energy
Melting
Bonding Type Substance
eV/atom, ion, Temperature (oC)
kJ/mol
molecule

NaCl 640 3.3 801

Ionic
MgO 1000 5.2 2800

Si 450 4.7 1410

Covelent
C (diamond) 713 7.4 >3550

Hg 68 0.7 -39
Al 324 3.4 660
Metallic
Fe 406 4.2 1538
W 849 8.8 3410

Ar 7.7 0.08 -189

Van der Waals
Cl2 31 0.32 -101

NH3 35 0.36 -78

Hydrogen
H2O 51 0.52 0
THINK….

WHY ICE CUBES (solid)

FLOAT IN WATER (liquid) ?
2.3 Crystalline and Non-crystalline Structure

• Arrangement of atom in metallic crystal structures

• Single crystal, polycrystalline materials

• X-ray diffraction: determination of crystal structure

At the end of the lecture, students will be able:

1. To describe the difference in atomic/molecular structure between

crystalline and non-crystalline materials.
2. To draw unit cells for face-centered cubic (FCC), body-centered cubic
(BCC), and hexagonal close-packed crystal (HCP) structures.
3. To derive the relationships between unit cell edge length and atomic
radius for FCC and BCC crystal structures.
4. To compute the densities for metals having FCC and BCC crystal
structures given their unit cell dimensions.
5. To distinguish between single crystals and polycrystalline materials.
6. To describe briefly the use of XRD to identify an element.
2.3.1.1 ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS

Solid materials:
Classified according to the regularity with which atoms or ions
are arranged with respect to one another.
2 types:
Crystalline materials
Noncrystalline (or amorphous) materials

40
 Non-crystalline vs. crystalline SiO2

Non-crystalline SiO2
crystalline SiO2

Non-crystalline materials... Crystalline materials...

• atoms pack in periodic (or repeating), over
• atoms have no periodic or
large atomic distances (long range order)
repeating packing (not systematic). • typical of: -metals, -many ceramics, -some
• has no long range atomic order. polymers
occurs for: -complex structures, -
rapid cooling Note: There is an extremely large number of
different crystal structures all having long
"Amorphous" = Noncrystalline range atomic order, depending how you
ARRANGE and PACK it.

41
How many types of crystal structures are available?

How many types of unit cell? (Unit cell – small repeat entities)
***Smallest group of atoms showing the lattice structure is
known as a unit cell

Depends on types of lattices ( 3D array of point coinciding with

atom positions)

There is an unlimited number of possible lattices because

there is no natural restriction on the lengths of lattice
translation vectors or on the angle  between them.

3 primary directional length + 3 angles between the 3

directions  type of unit cell

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 Restriction on
Crystal system conventional cell axes
and angles
a1  a2  a3
Triclinic

a1  a2  a3
Monoclinic
 =  = 90o  
a1  a2  a3
Orthorhombic
 =  =  = 90o
a1 = a2  a3
Tetragonal
 =  =  = 90o
a1 = a2 = a3
Cubic
 =  =  = 90o
a1 = a2 = a3
Trigonal
 =  =  < 120o,  90o
a1 = a2  a3
Hexagonal =  = 90o
 = 120o
43
2.3.2 The Crystal Structure of Metals

▪ Have the simplest crystal structures.

▪ 3 basic atomic arrangements:

a. Face-centered cubic (fcc)

b. Body-centered cubic (bcc)
c. Hexagonal close-packed (hcp)

▪ FYI only: SIMPLE CUBIC STRUCTURE (SC)

• Rare due to poor packing

(only Polonium has this
structure)
• Close-packed directions at
cube edges (1 unit cell).

45
Assumptions used to describe crystal structure:

When describing crystalline structures, atoms (or ions) are thought of

as being solid spheres having well defines diameters (2 R).

This is termed the atomic hard sphere model in which spheres

representing nearest-neighbor atoms touch one another.

46
A. FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (FCC)

6 atom locate at surface (shared), 8 at corners (shared).

47
 Hard-ball model Unit cell Single crystal with many unit cells

Equivalent number of atom

= 6 x 1/2 + 1/8 x 8
= 4 atom/unit

a = the cube edge length

48
CALCULATIONS:

▪ VOLUME OF CELL

▪ ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR

 Example 1:

Calculate the volume of a FCC cell with atomic radius of R.

a2 + a2 = b2
=(4R)2
a = 4R/√2

Volume = a3
= (4R/√2)3
Volume = Width x Length x Height

50
 ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR
(Fraction of spaced occupied by atoms)
ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR: FCC
• APF for a face-centered cubic structure = 0.74

Unit cell contains:

6 x 1/2 + 8 x 1/8
= 4 atoms/unit cell

52
Example 2:

Prove that the APF of FCC = 0.74, in term of the atomic radius, R:

APF = V atom/ V unit cell

V atom = (4)(4/3πR3) = 16.757R3
V unit cell = a3
= (4R/√2 )3
= 22.63R 3

APF = 16.757R3 / 22.63R 3

= 0.74

53
B. BODY CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (BCC)

Unit cell Single crystal with

Hard-ball model many unit cells

1 atom locate at center, 8 at corners (shared)

54
BRAIN ACTIVITY !

Calculate the volume of a

BCC cell with atomic radius
of R.
 Example 2:

Calculate the volume of a BCC cell with atomic radius of R.

a2 + (a√2)2 = (4R)2
a = 4R/√3

Volume = a3
= (4R/√3 )3

56
ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR: BCC
APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 0.68

Unit cell contains:

1 + 8 x 1/8
= 2 atoms/unit cell

57
Example 3:

Prove the APF of BCC = 0.68

APF = V atom/ V unit cell

V atom = (2)(4/3πR3) = 8.373R3
V unit cell = a3
= (4R/√3 )3
= 12.32 R 3

APF = 8.373R3 / 12.32 R 3

= 0.68

58
 C. HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED STRUCTURE (HCP)

For HCP crystal structure, (a) a reduced-sphere unit cell: a and c represent the short and long
edge lengths, respectively), and (b) an aggregate of many atom.

❖ HCP crystals have the most densely packed configurations, followed by fcc and bcc

❖ Arrangements can be modified by adding atoms of other metals known as alloying.

 ABAB…stacking sequence

Number of atoms in a unit of HCP cell:

No. atom/unit = 6
12 atoms at each corner/6 unit cell = 2
2 atoms at top and bottom of the hexagonal/2 = 1
3 atoms inside the hexagonal = 3

APF = 0.74
THEORETICAL DENSITY, ρ

61
 Characteristics of Selected Elements at 20oC
At. Weight Density Atomic radius
Element Symbol (amu) (g/cm3) (nm)
Aluminum Al 26.98 2.71 0.143
Argon Ar 39.95 ------ ------
Barium Ba 137.33 3.5 0.217
Beryllium Be 9.012 1.85 0.114
Boron B 10.81 2.34 ------
Bromine Br 79.90 ------ ------
Cadmium Cd 112.41 8.65 0.149
Calcium Ca 40.08 1.55 0.197
Carbon C 12.011 2.25 0.071
Cesium Cs 132.91 1.87 0.265
Chlorine Cl 35.45 ------ ------
Chromium Cr 52.00 7.19 0.125
Cobalt Co 58.93 8.9 0.125
Copper Cu 63.55 8.94 0.128
Flourine F 19.00 ------ ------
Gallium Ga 69.72 5.90 0.122
GermaniumGe 72.59 5.32 0.122
Gold Au 196.97 19.32 0.144
Helium He 4.003 ------ ------
Hydrogen H 1.008 ------ ------
62
Example 4: Copper

Data from Table inside front cover of Callister (see next slide):

• crystal structure = FCC: 4 atoms/unit cell

• atomic weight = 63.55 g/mol (1 amu = 1 g/mol)
• atomic radius R = 0.128 nm (1 nm = 10-7 cm)
• Avogadro’s number = 6.022 x 1023 atoms/mol)

ρ= nA
VcNA
Result: theoretical Cu = 8.89 g/cm3
63
 DENSITIES OF MATERIAL CLASSES
Why?
Metals have...
• close-packing
(metallic bonding)
• large atomic mass
Ceramics have...
• less dense packing
(covalent bonding)
• often lighter elements
Polymers have...
• poor packing
(often amorphous)
• lighter elements (C,H,O)
Composites have...
• intermediate values Data from Table B1, Callister 6e.
65
 Single crystal and polycrystalline materials

Single crystal  Periodic and repeated arrangement of atoms is perfect

or extends throughout the entirety of specimen without interruption.

Only 1 Crystal – environment must be carefully controlled

All unit cells interlock in the same way & have same orientation,
geometry shape having flat surface.

66
 A. SINGLE CRYSTAL
Some engineering applications require single crystals:

Single crystal perovskite solar cell

Semiconductor- single crystal are necessary to allow electron flow more

‘easily’ w/out disturbance of grain boundaries

67
 B. POLYCRYSTALS

Most engineering materials are polycrystals. Composed of collection of many

small crystals or grain

Crystal sizes typ. range from 1 nm to 2 cm (i.e., from a few to millions of atomic layers).

68
C. POLYMORPHISM, ALLOTROPHY AND ISOMORPHISM

POLYMORPHISM: Polymorphism is the ability of a solid material to exist in more

than one form or crystal structure.
Example: Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) exist in two types of crystalline forms,
orthorhombic and trigonal.

ALLOTROPHY: Allotropy is defined as the property of any element to exist in two

or more different forms, in the same physical state.
Example: The allotropes of carbon element, i) diamond and graphite.

ISOMORPHISM:
Isomorphism is the existence of different substance in one form or crystal structure.
Example: CaCO3 and NaCl both exist in Trigonal.
X-Ray Diffraction

How could we identified the compound present in this ‘white powder’?

Why X-ray Diffraction (XRD)?

• We can understand atomic and molecular arrangements in solids.

• Crystal structures & type of materials.

• We can development new materials

71
 2.4: Imperfection in solids
Point Defect
Vacancies and Self-Interstitials
Impurities in Solid
Specification of Composition
Miscellaneous Imperfections
Dislocations – Linear Defects
Interfacial Defects
Bulk or Volume Defects
Solid Solution
Solidification
Microscopic Examination
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

• What types of defects arise in solids?

• Can the number and type of defects be varied

and controlled?

• How do defects affect material properties?

• Are ALL defects undesirable?

• What are the solidification mechanisms?

 Imperfections in Solids
▪ Before this we assume the arrangement of atoms were
perfect.
▪ But, in reality crystals are never perfect.
▪ Imperfection/defect – affect many of their physical &
mechanical properties.

▪ So, good or not to us?

▪ Example:
- Sterling silver (92.5% Silver, 7.5% copper (impurities)
- strong & hard compared to pure silver.
 Types of Imperfections

• Vacancy atoms
• Interstitial atoms Point defects
• Substitutional atoms

• Edge dislocations
• Screw dislocations Line defects
• Mixed dislocations

• Grain Boundaries Interfacial / Area defects

 1.0: Point Defects

i. Vacancy
ii. Self-interstitial
iii. Substitutional
 i. Vacancies

• Vacancies:
-vacant atomic sites in a structure.

Vacancy
distortion
of planes

 The simplest of the point defect – vacancy or vacant lattice

site.
 One normally occupied from which an atom is missing
 All crystalline solids contain vacancies.
 Vacancies can moves and exchange site with neighbors
 ii. Interstitials
• Interstitials:
-"extra" atoms positioned between atomic sites.

self-
interstitial
distortion
of planes

 An atom from crystal that is crowded into interstitial site.

 A small void space that under ordinary circumstances is not occupied.
Impurities atoms fill the voids or interstices among the host atoms.
 In metal – self-interstitial introduces relatively large distortions in the
surrounding lattice.
▪ For metallic materials with high atomic packing factors – interstitial relatively
small.
▪ Example: carbon in FCC Iron – atomic radius difference 42% but carbon can
dissolved interstitially in iron
 iii. Substitutional
▪ Solute/impurity atom replace or substitute for the host atoms

Factors: (Hume-Rothery Rules)

i. Atomic size factor – impurity atom may be accommodated of
solid solution only when the difference in atomic radii between
the two types less ± 15%.
ii. Crystal structure – for both atom types must be the same.
iii. Electronegativity - must be the same
iv. Valences - must be the same
Example:
A substitutional solid solution for Cu and Ni

Cu Ni
Atomic Radius (nm) 0.128 0.125
Crystal Structure FCC FCC
Electronegativity 1.9 1.8
Valence +1/+2 +2
Examples:
Two outcomes if impurity (B) added to host (A):
• Solid solution of B in A (i.e., random dist. of point
defects)

OR

Substitutional solid Interstitial solid

soln. soln.
(e.g., Cu in Ni) (e.g., C in Fe)
2.0: Linear defects – Dislocations
Linear Defects (Dislocations)
• are one-dimensional defects around which atoms are misaligned
• slip between crystal planes result when dislocations move cause Lattice
distortation
Schematic of Zinc (HCP):
• after tensile elongation
• before deformation
slip steps

• Edge dislocation: Adapted from Fig. 7.8, Callister 7e.

• extra half-plane of atoms inserted in a crystal structure

• Burger’s vector, b  to dislocation line.  (tee :+ve edge dislocation line)
• Screw dislocation:
• spiral planar ramp resulting from shear deformation
• b  to dislocation line
• Mixed dislocation:
• Combination of edge and screw dislocation
Edge dislocation

Burger’s vector, b:
measure of lattice
distortion

Perpendicular to the
edge dislocation line
 Screw dislocation
Screw Dislocation

Shear force

b
Dislocation
line
Burgers vector b Shear force (b)
(a)

Shifted one atomic distance (A-B)

Edge, Screw, and Mixed Dislocations
Shear force
Mixed

Edge
Screw dislocation at front
Shear force surface gradually change
Screw to edge dislocation at side
of crystal
 3.0: Interfacial / Area Defects:

• Grain boundary defect is a boundary that separate two small

grains or crystals.

• Examples:
• External surfaces, grain boundaries, twin
boundaries, stacking faults and phase
boundaries.
 Microstructure in atomic perspective

• regions between crystals

• slightly disordered
• Orientation mismatch (angle
of misalignment)
• Small angle GB – less surface
energy, formed by edge &
screw dislocation.

Adapted from Fig. 4.7, Callister 7e.

• Twin boundary (plane)
• Essentially a reflection of atom positions across the twin plane.
• Twins result from:
• atomic displacements that are produced from applied mechanical shear
forces (mechanical twins)
• Also during annealing heat treatments following deformation (annealing
twins) when atom reposition themselves

• Stacking faults
– For FCC metals an error
in ABCABC packing
sequence
– Ex: ABCABABC
– Because of: vacancy
cluster, dislocation one
or more stacking plane
4.0: Bulk or Volume Defects

• These include pores, cracks foreign inclusion and other phases

• They are normally introduced during processing and fabrication
steps.
 Summary

• Point, Line, Area and Volume defects exist in solids.

• The number and type of defects can be varied

and controlled (e.g., T controls vacancy conc.)
(will learn in details under subtopics: heat treatment, strengthening
mechanisms)

• Defects affect material properties (e.g., grain

boundaries control crystal slip).

• Defects may be desirable or undesirable

(e.g., dislocations may be good or bad, depending
on whether plastic deformation is desirable or not.)
SOLID SOLUTION:
• The addition of impurity atoms to a metal will result in the
formation of a solid solution.

• Depending on the kinds of impurity, their concentrations,

and the temperature of the alloy, a new second phase can
be formed.
Terms in SOLID SOLUTION:
1. Solvent – the element or compound that is present in the
greater amount. Also called host atom.

2. Solute / Impurity – used to denote an element or

compound present in a minor concentration.

3. Alloy – a metallic substance that is composed of two or

more elements

4. Solid solution – as solute atoms are added to the host

material, the crystal structure is maintained and no new
structures are formed.
Solidification
• The solidification of metal & alloy - important industrial process
• Most metal are melted & then cast into semifinished or finished
shape.
• Solidification- result of casting of molten material
• Nuclei form
• Nuclei grow to form crystals – grain structure
• Start with a molten material – all liquid
• Crystals grow until they meet each other

nuclei crystals growing grain structure

liquid
 Stages of solidification of polycrystalline material
Cooling Process

Unit cell
a) Small crystallite nuclei (molten)
b) Growth of the crystallites; the obstruction (block)
of some grains that are adjacent to one another
have formed
c) Upon completion of solidification, grains (atomic
mismatch) having irregular shapes have formed
d) The grain structure as it would appear under the microscope (dark
lines are the grain boundary)
95
• Solidified metal containing many crystal is said to be polycrystalline.
• Number and size of the grains depends on the rate at which nucleation takes
place
• The crystal in the solidified metal are called grains and the surface between
them, grain boundaries.
Microscopic Examination

• Crystallites (grains) and grain boundaries. Vary

considerably in size. Can be quite large
• ex: Large single crystal of quartz or diamond or Si
• ex: Aluminum light post or garbage can - see the
individual grains
• Crystallites (grains) can be quite small (mm or less)
– necessary to observe with a microscope.
 Optical Microscopy
• Useful up to 2000X magnification.
• Polishing removes surface features (e.g., scratches);
surface like mirror.
• Etching changes reflectance, depending on crystal orientation.

Micrograph of
brass (a Cu-Zn alloy)

Adapted from Fig. 4.13(b) and (c),

Callister 7e. (Fig. 4.13(c) is courtesy
of J.E. Burke, General Electric Co.

0.75mm
 Optical Microscopy

Grain boundaries...
polished surface
• may be revealed as
dark lines, surface groove
• change in crystal (a) grain boundary
orientation across
boundary.

Fe-Cr alloy
(b)
 Electron Microscope

• Electron Microscope:
i. The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
ii. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
 i. The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
• An image of the structure under investigation is formed using
beams of electrons instead of light radiation.
• The surface of a specimen to be examined is scanned with an
electron beam, and the reflected (or back-scattered) beam of
electron is collected, then displayed at the same scanning rate on
a cathode ray tube (similar to a CRT TV screen)
ii. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
• The image seen with a TEM is formed by an electron
beam that passes through specimen.
• Details of internal microstructural features are
accessible to observation
• Since solid materials are highly absorptive to
electron beams, a specimen must be very thin.
• Magnification 1 000 000x are possible.
Scales
END OF CHAPTER 2