Waste Water Treatment

Water Supply and
Environmental Engineering
Department
Wastewater Treatment
systems Module
Module No: 3192
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Contents
Contents ........................................................................................................................................... i
List of Table ................................................................................................................................... iii
List of Figure.................................................................................................................................. iii
1- INTRODUCTION TO WASTEWATER TREATMENT .................................................. 1
1.1 General about Wastewater Treatment .............................................................................. 1

1.2 Objectives of Wastewater Treatment ............................................................................... 3
1.3 Wastewater Treatment Standards ..................................................................................... 3
1.4 Flow Sheets for Wastewater Treatment Systems ............................................................. 5
2- CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTEWATER ....................................................................... 7
2.1 Physical, Chemical and Bacteriological Characteristic of Wastewater ........................... 7

2.2 Measurement of Concentration of Contaminants in Wastewater................................... 15
2.3 Mathematical Model for the BOD Curve....................................................................... 21
3- PRELIMINARY AND PRIMARY WASTEWATER TREATMENT METHODS ............ 33
3.1 Preliminary Treatment.................................................................................................... 33
3.1.1 Screening................................................................................................................. 33
3.1.2 Grit Removal Basins ............................................................................................... 38
3.1.3 Tanks for Removing Oils and Grease ..................................................................... 57
3.2 Primary Wastewater Treatment ...................................................................................... 59
3.2.1 Sedimentation ......................................................................................................... 59
3.2.2 Sedimentation Aided with Coagulation (Type II Sedimentation) .......................... 68
4- SECONDARY/BIOLOGICAL AND TERTIARY WASTEWATER TREATMENT ........ 72
4.1 The Role of Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment ................................................ 72
4.1 Microbial Growth Kinetics............................................................................................. 75
4.2 Types of Biological Process for Wastewater Treatment ................................................ 83
4.2.1 Biological filtration of sewage ................................................................................ 83
4.1.2. Secondary Sedimentation...................................................................................... 117
4.1.3. Activated Sludge Process (Aerobic Suspended Culture) ...................................... 119
4.1.4. Rotating biological contractors (Aerobic Attached Culture) ......................... 143
4.1.5. Aerobic stabilization units (Aerobic Suspended Culture) .............................. 145
4.3 Tertiary Treatment Processes ....................................................................................... 151
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4.3.1. Filtration ................................................................................................................ 152
4.3.2. Lagooning ............................................................................................................. 152
4.3.3. Nutrient removal ................................................................................................... 152
4.3.4. Nitrogen removal .................................................................................................. 152
4.3.5. Phosphorus removal .............................................................................................. 153
4.3.6. Disinfection ........................................................................................................... 153
4.3.7. Odour Control ....................................................................................................... 155
5- SEWAGE EFFLUENT DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES ..................................................... 156
5.1 Disposal by Dilution and Oxygen Sag Curve .............................................................. 156

5.1.1 Dilution in Rivers and Self Purification of Natural Streams ................................ 157
5.1.2 Disposal of Wastewaters in Lakes and Management of Lake Waters .................. 170
5.1.3 Disposal of Wastewater in Sea Water ................................................................... 173
5.2 Land Disposal and Treatment ...................................................................................... 174
6- SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL ...................................................................... 180
6.1 Sludge and Its Moisture Content .................................................................................. 180
6.2 Sludge Digestion Process ............................................................................................. 183
6.3 Stages in the Sludge Digestion Process........................................................................ 184
6.4 Factors Affecting Sludge Digestion and Their Control ............................................... 185
6.5 Sludge Digestion Tank or Digesters............................................................................. 187
6.6 Disposal of Digested Sludge ........................................................................................ 194
References ................................................................................................................................... 203
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List of Table
Table 1-1 Important contaminants of concern in wastewater treatment ......................................... 2
Table 1-2 Unit operations, processes, and treatment systems ........................................................ 3
Table 2-1 Summary of typical domestic wastewater characteristics ............................................ 14
Table 2-2 Typical values of KD at 20°c for various types of waters and wastewaters ................. 24
Table 3-1 Hydraulic Settling Values in mm/sec in still liquids at 10ºc ........................................ 43
Table 3-2 Standard dimensions for parshall flumes (with respect to Figure 3-6) in cm .............. 51
Table 3-3 Properties of the important coagulants used in sewage treatment.......................... 69
Table 3-4 Preliminary and primary treatment unit functions and efficiencies ............................. 71
Table 4-1 Conventional vs high rate trickling filters ............................................................. 103
Table 4-2 Variation with the extent of BOD removal ................................................................ 123
Table 5-1 Values of Re-oxygenation Coefficient (KR) at 20°c .................................................. 164
Table 5-2 Values of self-purification constant (f = /) .................................................... 164
Table 5-3 Recommended Doses for Sewage Farming ................................................................ 175
Table 5-4 Effluent standards for Irrigation under Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 ......... 177
Table 6-1 Design Capacities of the Digestion Tanks on Per Capita Basis .......................... 190
Table 6-2 Approximate area of Drying beds for different types of sludge .......................... 197
List of Figure
Figure 1-1 Flow chart for wastewater treatment processes ............................................................ 6
Figure 2-1 Imhoff cone ................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 2-2 Typical BOD curve for oxidation of carbonaceous materials ..................................... 19
Figure 2-3 Lag period in BOD test ............................................................................................... 20
Figure 2-4 1st stage BOD curve .................................................................................................... 21
Figure 2-5 BOD exertion as a function of KD ........................................................................... 23
Figure 2-6 Combined BOD curve ................................................................................................. 25
Figure 3-1 Fixed bar type coarse or medium screen ..................................................................... 34
Figure 3-2 Reinsch-Wurl screen (disc type fine screen) ............................................................... 35
Figure 3-3 Comminutor or shredder ............................................................................................. 37
Figure 3-4 Velocity control sections for horizontal grit channels ................................................ 46
Figure 3-5 Modem rectangular grit chamber (not showing scraper arrangements)...................... 47
Figure 3-6 Parshall flume.............................................................................................................. 50
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Figure 3-7 Grit channel section .................................................................................................. 56
Figure 3-8 Rectangular sedimentation tank................................................................................ 60
Figure 3-9 Circular sedimentation tank ........................................................................................ 61
Figure 3-10 Elevation of a rectangular sedimentation tank ................................................... 62
Figure 3-11 Section of a submerged type or a weir type inlet ................................................. 65
Figure 3-12 Section of a submerged type or weir type outlet ....................................................... 65
Figure 4-1 Generalized representation of growth of micro-organisms ......................................... 73
Figure 4-2 Microbial growth curve ............................................................................................... 76
Figure 4-3 Chemostat for continuous culture of microorganisms ................................................ 78
Figure 4-4 Relationship between the specific growth rate µ and substrate concentration S ........ 81
Figure 4-5 Contact beds ................................................................................................................ 85
Figure 4-6 Intermittent sand filter ................................................................................................. 87
Figure 4-7 Typical section of a conventional circular trickling filter ........................................... 90
Figure 4-8 Photographic view of a conventional circular trickling filter with rotary distributors 90
Figure 4-9 Photographic view of Rotary Distributors (Reaction type)........................................ 91
Figure 4-10 Under drains .............................................................................................................. 92
Figure 4-11 Single Stage commonly adopted Recirculation Process ................................... 104
Figure 4-12 Two stage commonly adopted Recirculation Process ....................................... 105
Figure 4-13 Flow diagrams of Bio-filter plants ...................................................................... 108
Figure 4-14 Flow diagrams for Accelo-filters ............................................................................ 108
Figure 4-15 Flow diagrams for Aero-filters ............................................................................ 109
Figure 4-16 Hopper-bottomed conical vertical flow type sedimentation tank .................... 118
Figure 4-17 Flow diagram for a conventional AS plant giving high degree of treatment ......... 121
Figure 4-18 L-section of a ridge and furrow type of an aeration tank ....................................... 122
Figure 4-19 Cross-section of a spiral flow type of an aeration tank ........................................... 123
Figure 4-20 Section of a simplex aerator .................................................................................... 125
Figure 4-21 Section a Dorroco aerator or Imhoff aerator ........................................................... 126
Figure 4-22 A typical gravity thickener ...................................................................................... 128
Figure 4-23 flow chart of conventional activated sludge plant................................................... 132
Figure 4-24 Relationship between SRT (θc) and specific substrate utilization rate (U) ... 133
Figure 4-25 θc values as a function of temperature................................................................ 134
Figure 4-26 Rotating Biological Contractors placed in series ............................................... 144
Figure 4-27 Oxidation Pond ...................................................................................................... 147
Figure 4-28 Extended Aeration Process .................................................................................. 149
Figure 4-29 Plan view of a typical Oxidation ditch................................................................ 151
Figure 5-1 Showing zones of pollution along a river stream ...................................................... 161
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Figure 5-2 Deoxygenation curve ................................................................................................ 162
Figure 5-3 Stratification of lakes ................................................................................................ 171
Figure 5-4 Biological zones in a lake ......................................................................................... 173
Figure 6-1 Showing effect of temperature on sludge digestion period ............................. 186
Figure 6-2 Cross section of a typical sludge digestion tanks ...................................................... 188
Figure 6-3 Sludge drying beds .................................................................................................... 196
Figure 6-4 Flow chart of an infra-red incineration system ......................................................... 200
Figure 6-5 Typical section of a Lagoon for disposal of raw sludge ........................................... 201
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WEE – 3192 Module 2011
1- INTRODUCTION TO WASTEWATER TREATMENT
1.1 General about Wastewater Treatment
Wastewater collected from urban areas and from different industries must ultimately be returned
to receiving water bodies or to the land. The complex question of which contaminants in
wastewater must be removed is to protect the environment and to what extent must be answered
specifically for each case. This requires analyses of local conditions and needs together with the
application of scientific knowledge, engineering judgment based on past experience, and
consideration of federal, state and local requirements and regulations.
The presence of different pollutants in the wastewater makes it almost impossible to treat all the
wastewater in the same manner. Some important contaminants/pollutants of concern in
wastewater treatment are given in the Table 1-1.
The contaminants (pollutants) in wastewater are removed by physical, chemical and/or biological
means, and the individual methods usually are classified as physical, chemical and biological
unit processes or operations.
Treatment methods in which the application of physical forces predominates are known as
physical unit operations. Typical physical unit operations are: screening, mixing, flocculation,
sedimentation, flotation, and filtration and membrane filter operations.
Treatment methods in which the removal or conversion of contaminants is brought about by the
addition of chemicals or by other chemical reactions are known as chemical unit processes.
Neutralization, oxidation, reduction, precipitation, gas transfer, adsorption, ion-exchange,
electro-dialysis etc. are the most common examples of these processes used in wastewater
treatment.
Treatment methods in which the removal of contaminants is brought about by biological activity
are known as biological unit processes.
Biological treatment is used primarily to remove the biodegradable organic substances (colloidal
or dissolved) in wastewater. Basically, these substances are converted into gases that can escape
to the atmosphere and into biological cell tissue that can be removed by settling. The most
common approaches in the biological wastewater treatments are: aerobic processes such as
trickling filters, activated sludge, oxidation ponds (or lagoons), and anaerobic processes such as
anaerobic lagoons, sludge digestion, etc.
Usually in the municipal wastewater treatment, but also in other wastewater processing all the
above mentioned unit operations and processes are grouped together to provide what is known as
primary, secondary and tertiary (or advanced) treatment.
The term primary refers to physical unit operations and in some cases to chemical unit processes;
secondary refers to biological unit processes; and tertiary refers to combinations of all three.
AMU/AMIT Page 1
The contaminants of major interest in wastewater and the unit operations and processes or
methods applicable to the removal of these contaminants are shown in Table 1-2.
In addition to the above mentioned classical basic processes, some new directions are also
evident in various specific areas of wastewater treatment, including:
(i) modification in treatment operations, processes and concepts

(ii) the changing nature of the wastewater to be treated
(iii) the problem of industrial wastes
(iv) wastewater treatability studies
(v) environmental and energy concerns
(vi) land treatment
(vii) small and individual onsite systems
Table 1-1 Important contaminants of concern in wastewater treatment

Contaminants Reason for importance
Suspended Suspended solids can lead to the development of sludge deposits and
solids anaerobic conditions when untreated wastewater is discharged in the aquatic
environment
Biodegradable Composed principally of proteins, carbohydrates and fats, biodegradable
organics organics are measured most commonly in terms of BOD and COD. If
discharged untreated to the environment, their biological stabilization can lead
to the depletion of natural oxygen resources and to the development of septic
conditions
Pathogens Communicable diseases can be transmitted by the pathogenic organisms in
wastewater
Nutrients Both nitrogen and phosphorus, along with carbon, are essential nutrients for
growth. When discharged to the water these nutrients can lead to the growth
of undesirable aquatic life. When discharged in excessive amounts on land
they can also lead to the pollution of groundwater
Refractory These organics tend to resist conventional methods of wastewater treatment.
organics Typical examples include surfactants, phenols, and agricultural pesticides
Heavy metals Heavy metals are usually added to wastewater from commercial and industrial
activities and may have to be removed if the wastewater is to be reused
Dissolved Inorganic constituents such as calcium, sodium, and sulfate are added to the
inorganic solids original domestic water supply as a result of water use and may have to be
removed if the wastewater is to be reused
Source: Metcalf & Eddy, Wastewater engineering
AMU/AMIT Page 2
Table 1-2 Unit operations, processes, and treatment systems
Unit Operation, Unit Process, or

Contaminant Classification
Treatment System
Suspended solids Screening and comminution P
Sedimentation P
Flotation P
Filtration P
Coagulation / sedimentation C/P
Land treatment P
Biodegradable Activated sludge B
organics Trickling filters B
Rotating biological contactors B
Aerated lagoons B
Oxidation ponds B
Intermittent sand filtration P/B
Land treatment B/C/P
Physical / chemical P/C
Pathogens Chlorination C
Ozonation C
Land treatment P
Nutrients: Suspended-growth nitrification and denitrification B
Nitrogen Fixed-film nitrification and denitrification B
Ammonia stripping C/P
Ion exchange C
Breakpoint chlorination C
Land treatment B/C/P
Phosphorus Metal salt coagulation/sedimentation C/P
Lime coagulation / sedimentation C/P
Biological/chemical C/P
phosphorus removal B/C
Land treatment C/P
Refractory organics Carbon adsorption P
Tertiary ozonation C
Land treatment systems P
Heavy metals Chemical precipitation C
AMU/AMIT Page 3
Ion exchange C
Land treatment C/P
Dissolved inorganic Ion exchange C
solids Reverse osmosis P
Electrodialysis C
*B = biological, C = chemical, P = physical.
The wastewater originating from various sources can be broadly divided into two categories:
1. Biodegradable wastewater
The wastes in general have a predominance of biodegradable organic matter, and are generally
treated in a similar manner.
The stabilization of organic matter is accomplished biologically using a variety of
microorganisms. The microorganisms are used to convert the colloidal and dissolved
carbonaceous organic matter into various gases and into cell tissue. Because cell tissue has a
specific gravity slightly greater than that of water, the resulting tissue can be removed from the
treated liquid as sludge by gravity settling.
Based on bacterial relationship to oxygen (ability or inability to utilize oxygen as a terminal
electron acceptor in oxidation/reduction reactions), the microorganisms can be:
(i) obligate aerobes
(ii) obligate anaerobes
(iii) facultative anaerobes
(iv) denitrifiers
The general term that describes all of the chemical activities performed by a bacterial cell is
metabolism which is divided into catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism includes all the
biochemical processes by which a substrate (food) is degraded to end products with the release
of energy.
Anabolism includes all the biochemical processes by which the bacterium synthesizes new cells.
The type of electron acceptor available for catabolism determines the type of decomposition used
by a mixed culture of microorganisms.
Decomposition of wastes and particularly of wastewater can be:
(i) aerobic decomposition
(ii) anaerobic decomposition
(iii) anoxic decomposition
AMU/AMIT Page 4
For aerobic decomposition the molecular oxygen (O2) must be present as the terminal electron
acceptor to proceed by aerobic oxidation. The chemical end-products of aerobic decomposition
are primarily carbon dioxide (CO2), water, and new cell material.
Anoxic decomposition occurs when some microorganisms will use nitrate (NO3-) as the terminal
electron acceptor in the absence of molecular oxygen. Oxidation by this route is called
denitrification.
In order to achieve anaerobic decomposition, molecular oxygen and nitrate must not be present
as terminal electron acceptors. Sulfate (SO42-), carbon dioxide, and organic compounds that can
be reduced serve as terminal electron acceptors. The end-products of anaerobic decomposition
are hydrogen sulfide (H2S), mercaptans, methane (CH4), carbon dioxide, ammonia and water.
2. Non-biodegradable wastewater
The non-biological wastes in general and the wastewater in particular are rich in non-
biodegradable matter consisting of solids and liquids in suspended or dissolved form, including
various inorganic and organic, many of which may be highly toxic.
Examples are domestic or industrial wastewater containing excessive dissolved solids (minerals),
inorganic or organic compounds or naturally occurring organics such as humic and fulvic acids.
Treatment processes are available for removing these contaminants. The physical processes
frequently used in engineered systems include sedimentation, filtration and gas-transfer.
Chemical processes include the usage of different chemicals for wastewater treatment.
Chemicals may be added to alter equilibrium conditions and cause precipitation of undesirable
species. It should be kept in mind that chemical processes are conversion processes and that
actual removal is accomplished by physically separating the solid, liquid, or gaseous products of
the chemical reactions. The chemical processes frequently used in engineered systems include
neutralization, coagulation, flocculation, chemical precipitation and oxidation & reduction.
Some wastewater must be treated by means of highly sophisticated processes and equipment,
requiring highly skilled operators, and therefore quite expensive. Such processes are physico-
chemical processes and include: demineralization, desalinization, ion-exchange, reverse osmosis,
electro-dialysis, adsorption, evaporation, incineration, etc.
Questions
1. What are the three main categories of processes in the wastewater treatment?
2. Distinguish between the biological and non-biological wastes.
3. Describe the stabilization process of organic matter.
5. Distinguish between anabolism and catabolism.
6. Describe short decomposition of wastes in wastewater.
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7. Mention the treatment processes available for removing the non-biodegradable matter.
8. Distinguish between unit operations and unit processes.
1.2 Objectives of Wastewater Treatment
1. To introduce fundamentals of the wastewater treatment plants and their unit operations
and processes
2. To provide basic design skills and knowledge on the wastewater treatment plants and
their unit operations and processes
3. To experience a design project on a hypothetical wastewater treatment plant
a. Identify kinds and sources of wastewater

b. Describe hazards in wastewater
c. Describe ways of treating wastewater
d. Describe the products of wastewater treatment, including the production and use
of biosolids
The overall objectives of wastewater treatment are associated with the removal of pollutants and
the protection and preservation of our natural resources.
Specific concern is protection of human health by the destruction of pathogenic organisms
present in wastewater prior to treated effluent being discharged to receiving water bodies and
land.
1.3 Wastewater Treatment Standards
Effluents from different establishments should be treated before being discharged to receiving
bodies so that it should be:
1. Free from materials and heat in quantities, concentrations or combinations which are
toxic or harmful to human, animal, aquatic life.
2. Free from anything that will settle in receiving waters forming putrescence or otherwise
objectionable sludge deposits, or that will adversely affect aquatic life.
3. Free from floating debris, oil, scum and other materials in amounts sufficient to be
noticeable in receiving waters;
4. Free from materials and heat that alone, or in combination with other materials will
produce color, turbidity, taste or odour in sufficient concentration to create a nuisance or
adversely affect aquatic life in receiving waters;
5. Free from nutrients in concentrations that create nuisance growths of aquatic weeds or
algae in the receiving waters.
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A significant element in wastewater disposal is the potential environmental impact associated

with it.
Environmental standards are developed to ensure that the impacts of treated wastewater
discharges into ambient waters are acceptable. Standards play a fundamental role in the
determination of the level of wastewater treatment required and in the selection of the discharge
location and outfall structures.
Regulations and procedures vary from one country to another and are continuously reviewed and
updated to reflect growing concern for the protection of ambient waters. The United States
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) developed the National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) permit programme in 1972 to control water pollution by regulating
point sources that discharge pollutants into waters. Accordingly, industrial, municipal, and other
facilities are required to obtain permits if their discharges go directly into surface waters. Under
this programme, secondary treatment standards were established by USEPA for publicly owned
treatment works, governing the performance of secondary wastewater treatment plants. These
technology-based regulations, which apply to all municipal waste-water treatment plants,
represent the minimum level of effluent quality attainable by secondary treatment in terms of
BOD5 and TSS removal.
Specific Limits
Effluents discharged to receiving water bodies should achieved the following minimum
wastewater quality limits:
Parameter Effluent Limit
BOD5 20mg/l
TSS 30mg/l
Nitrates (as Nitrogen) 30mg/l
Phosphate 10mg/l
COD 100mg/l
pH 6–9
Faecal coliform 1000MPN/100ml
Residual chlorine 1.5mg/l
MPN- Most Probable Number
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1.4 Flow Sheets for Wastewater Treatment Systems
Depending on the contaminants to be removed, an almost limitless number of process

combinations can be developed using the unit operations and processes. The term "flow sheet" is
used to describe a particular combination of unit operations and processes used to achieve a
specific treatment objective. Apart from the analysis of the technical feasibility of the individual
treatment methods, the exact flow-sheets configuration will depend on factors such as:
(1) the needs of the client's needs,
(2) the designer's past experience,
(3) regulatory agency policies on the application of specific treatment methods,
(4) the availability of equipment suppliers,
(5) what use can be made of existing facilities,
(6) the availability of qualified operating personnel,
(7) initial construction costs, and
(8) future operation and maintenance costs
Conventional flow sheets for the treatment of wastewater are presented and discussed below.
The choice of a set of treatment methods depends on several factors, including discharge permits
and available disposal facilities. For example, where an ocean discharge is used, removal of large
debris by screens and of settleable solids by sedimentation may be the only treatment steps that
are required. Where treated effluent is to be discharged to an inland stream, complete treatment
may be required. Discharges to environmentally sensitive lakes, streams, and estuaries may
require additional treatment to remove specific constituents.
Treatment schemes are often identified as primary, secondary, or advanced (also known as
tertiary). In primary treatment, a portion of the suspended solids and organic matter is removed
from the wastewater. This removal is usually accomplished with physical operations such as
screening and sedimentation. The effluent from primary treatment will ordinarily contain
considerable organic matter and will have a relatively high BOD. The further treatment of the
effluent from primary treatment to remove the residual organic matter and suspended material is
known as secondary treatment. In general, biological processes employing microorganisms are
used to accomplish secondary treatment. The effluent from secondary treatment usually has little
BOD5 and suspended solids and may contain several milligrams per liter of dissolved oxygen.
When required for water reuse or for the control of eutrophication in receiving waters, advanced
(tertiary) treatment is used for the removal of suspended and dissolved materials remaining after
secondary treatment.
Actually, the distinction between primary, secondary, and advanced treatment is rather arbitrary,
as many modern treatment methods incorporate physical, chemical, and biological processes in
5
the same operation. A more rational approach would be to drop these arbitrary distinctions and to
focus instead on the optimum combinations of operations and processes that must be used to
achieve the required treatment objectives.
Typical flow sheets for the treatment of wastewater are presented in Figure 1-1
Figure 1-1 Flow chart for wastewater treatment processes

The diagram demonstrates how the treatment plant works and how the different processes are
inter-connected to work as one. Each treatment process in the flow sheet will be discussed in
chapter 3 and 4.
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2- CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTEWATER
Wastewater contains many different substances that can be used to characterize it. The specific
substances and amounts or concentrations of each will vary depending on the source. It is
difficult to precisely characterize wastewater. Instead, wastewater characterization is usually
based on and applied to an average domestic wastewater.
Note: Keep in mind that other sources and types of wastewater can dramatically change the
characteristics.
2.1 Physical, Chemical and Bacteriological Characteristic of Wastewater
Wastewater is characterized in terms of its physical, chemical, and biological characteristics.
A. Physical Characteristics
The physical characteristics of wastewater are based on color, odor, temperature, and flow.
1. Turbidity
Sewage is normally turbid, resembling dirty dish water or wastewater from baths having other
floating matter like fecal matter, pieces of paper, cigarette-ends, match-sticks, greases, vegetable
debris, fruit skins, soaps, etc. The turbidity increases as sewage becomes stronger.
The degree of turbidity can be measured and tested by turbidity rods or by turbid-meters, as is
done for testing raw water supplied.
2. Color
Fresh wastewater is usually a light brownish-gray color. However, typical wastewater is gray and
has a cloudy appearance. The color of the wastewater will change significantly if allowed to go
septic (if travel time in the collection system increases). Typical septic wastewater will have a
black color.
3. Odor
Odors in domestic wastewater usually are caused by gases produced by the decomposition of
organic matter or by other substances added to the wastewater. Fresh domestic wastewater has a
musty odor. If the wastewater is allowed to go septic, this odor will significantly change to a
rotten egg odor associated with the production of hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
4. Temperature
The temperature of wastewater is commonly higher than that of the water supply because of the
addition of warm water from households and industrial plants. However, significant amounts of
infiltration or storm water flow can cause major temperature fluctuations.
7
The temperature has an effect on the biological activity of bacteria present in sewage, and it also
affects the solubility of gases in sewage. In addition, temperature also affects the viscosity of
sewage, which, in turn, affects the sedimentation process in its treatment.
The normal temperature of sewage is generally slightly higher than the temperature of water,
because of additional heat added during the utilization of water. The ideal temperature of sewage
for the biological activities is 20°c. However, when the temperature is more, the dissolved
oxygen content (DO) of sewage gets reduced.
B. Chemical Characteristics
In describing the chemical characteristics of wastewater, the discussion generally includes topics
such as organic matter, the measurement of organic matter, inorganic matter, and gases. For the
sake of simplicity, chemical characteristics can be described in terms of alkalinity, BOD,
chemical oxygen demand (COD), dissolved gases, nitrogen compounds, pH, phosphorus,
chloride and solids (organic, inorganic, suspended, and dissolved solids).
1. Total Solids, Suspended Solids and Settleable Solids

Most pollutants found in wastewater can be classified as solids. Wastewater treatment is
generally designed to remove solids or to convert solids to a form that is more stable or can be
removed. Sewage normally contains very small amount of solids in relation to the huge quantity
of water (99.9%). It only contains about 0.05 to 0.1 percent (i.e. 500 to 1000 mg/l) of total solids.
Solids present in sewage may be in any of the four forms: suspended solids, dissolved solids,
colloidal solids, and settleable solids.
Suspended solids are those solids which remain floating in sewage. Dissolved solids are those
which remain dissolved in sewage just as salt in water. Colloidal solids are finely divided solids
remaining either in solution or in suspension. Settleable solids are that portion of solid matter
which settles out, if sewage is allowed to remain undisturbed for a period of 2 hours. The
proportion of these different types of solids is generally found to be as given below:
Inorganic matter consists of minerals and salts, like: sand, gravel, debris, dissolved salts,
chlorides, sulphates, etc.
Organic matter consists of:
(i) Carbohydrates such as cellulose, cotton, fiber, starch, sugar, etc.

(ii) Fats and oils received from kitchens, laundries, garages, shops, etc.
(iii) Nitrogenous compounds like proteins and their decomposed products, including
wastes from animals, urea, fatty acids, hydrocarbons, etc.
As a general rule, the presence of inorganic solids in sewage is not harmful. They require only
mechanical appliances for their removal in the treatment plant. On the other hand, suspended and
8
dissolved organic solids are responsible for creating nuisance, if disposed of, untreated. The
amounts of various kinds of solids present in sewage can be determined as follows:
(a) The total amount of solids (S1 in mg/l) present in a given sewage can be determined by
evaporating a known volume of sewage sample, and weighing the dry residue left. The mass
of the residue divided by the volume of the sample evaporated will represent the total solids
in mg/l, S1.
(b) The suspended solids (S2) are those solids which are retained by a filter of 1µm pores; and
they are, therefore, also called as filterable solids. Their quantity can be determined by
passing a known volume of sewage sample through a glass-fiber filter apparatus, and
weighing the dry residue left: The mass of the residue divided by the volume of sample
filtered will represent the suspended solids, (S2), in mg/l.
(c) The difference between the total solids (S1) and the suspended solids (S2) will represent
nothing but dissolved solids plus colloidal, or non-filterable solids; S3 where S3 = S1 - S2,
(d) Now, the total suspended solids (S2) may either be volatile or fixed. In order to determine
their proportion, the filtered dry residue of step (b) above, is burnt and ignited at about
550°c in an electric muffle furnace for about 15 to 20 minutes. Loss of weight due to
ignition will represent the volatile solids in the sample volume filtered through the filter. Let
the volatile suspended solids concentration be S4 (in mg/l).
(e) The difference S2 - S4 = S5 will evidently represent the fixed solids.
(f) The quantity of settleable solids (S6) can be determined easily with the help of a specially
designed conical glass vessel called Imhoff cone (Refer Figure 2-1). The capacity of the
cone is 1 liter, and it is graduated up to about 50 ml.
Figure 2-1 Imhoff cone
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Sewage is allowed to stand in this Imhoff cone for a period of two hours, and the quantity of
solids settled in the bottom of the cone can then be directly read out. However, in order to obtain
precise amount of settleable solids, the liquid from the cone should be decanted off, and the
settleable solids collected at the bottom of the cone should be dried and weighed. The quantities
of different types of solids when determined experimentally as above will help in detecting the
strength of sewage, as given in Table 2-1.
2. Alkalinity
This is a measure of the wastewater’s capability to neutralize acids. It is measured in terms of
bicarbonate, carbonate, and hydroxide alkalinity. Alkalinity is essential to buffer (hold the
neutral pH) of the wastewater during the biological treatment processes.
3. pH
This is a method of expressing the acid condition of the wastewater. pH is expressed on a scale
of 1 to 14. For proper treatment, wastewater pH should normally be in the range of 6.5 to 9.0.
The determination of pH value of sewage is important, because of the fact that efficiency of
certain treatment methods depends upon the availability of a suitable pH value.
It may also be mentioned here that the fresh sewage is generally alkaline in nature (with pH more
than 7); but as time passes, its pH tends to fall due to production of acids by bacterial action in
anaerobic or nitrification processes. The pH, however, rises upon treatment of sewage.
4. Chloride Contents
Chlorides are generally found present in municipal sewage and are derived from the kitchen
wastes, human feces, and urinary discharges, etc. The normal chloride content of domestic
sewage is 120mg/l, whereas, the permissible chloride content for water supplies is 250mg/l.
However, large amounts of chlorides may enter from industries like ice cream plants, meat
salting, etc., thus, increasing the chloride contents of sewage. Hence, when the chloride content
of a given sewage is found to be high, it indicates the presence of industrial wastes or infiltration
of sea water, thereby indicating the strength of sewage.
The chloride content can be measured by titrating the wastewater (i.e. sewage) with standard
silver nitrate solution, using potassium chromate as indicator as is done for testing water supplies.
5. Dissolved gases
These are gases that are dissolved in wastewater. The specific gases and normal concentrations
are based upon the composition of the wastewater. Typical domestic wastewater contains oxygen
in relatively low concentrations, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide (if septic conditions exist).
10
6. Nitrogen compounds
The type and amount of nitrogen present will vary from the raw wastewater to the treated
effluent. Nitrogen follows a cycle of oxidation and reduction.
The presence of nitrogen in sewage indicates the presence of organic matter, and may occur in
one or more of the following forms:
(a) Free ammonia, called ammonia nitrogen;
(b) Albuminoid nitrogen, called Organic nitrogen;
(c) Nitrites; and
(d) Nitrates
Most of the nitrogen in untreated wastewater will be in the forms of organic nitrogen and
ammonia nitrogen.
The free ammonia indicates the very first stage of decomposition of organic matter (thus
indicating recently, staled sewage); albuminoid nitrogen indicates quantity of nitrogen present in
sewage before the decomposition of organic matter is started; the nitrites indicate the presence of
partly decomposed (not fully oxidized) organic matter; and nitrates indicate the presence of fully
oxidized organic matter.
The nitrites thus indicate the intermediate stage of conversion of organic matter of sewage into
stable forms, thus indicating the progress of treatment. Their presence will show that treatment
given to sewage is still incomplete, and the sewage is stale. Whereas, the presence of nitrates
indicate the most stable form of nitrogenous matter contained in sewage, thus indicating the well
oxidized and treated sewage.
All these different forms of nitrogen, present in sewage, can be tested and measured easily as
given below:
The amount of free ammonia present in sewage can be easily measured by simply boiling the
sewage, and measuring the ammonia gas which is consequently liberated. The amount of
albuminoid nitrogen can be measured by adding strong alkaline solution of potassium
permanganate (KMnO4) to the already boiled(removing free ammonia) sewage sample and again
boiling the same, when ammonia gas is liberated, which is measured, so as to indicate the
amount of albuminoid nitrogen present in sewage. If however an un-boiled sample is used to add
KMnO4 before boiling, the evolved ammonia gas will measure the sum total of ammonia
nitrogen as well as organic nitrogen; and is known as kjedahl nitrogen.
The amount of nitrites or nitrates present in sewage sample can be measured by colour matching
methods. For nitrites, the colour is developed by adding sulphonilic acid and naphthamine;
whereas for nitrates, the colour is developed by adding phenol-di-sulphonic acid and potassium
11
hydroxide. The colour developed in waste water is finally compared with the standard colours of
known concentrations.
7. Phosphorus
This element is essential to biological activity and must be present in at least minimum quantities
or secondary treatment processes will not perform. Excessive amounts can cause stream damage
and excessive algal growth. Phosphorus will normally be in the range of 6 to 20mg/L. The
removal of phosphate compounds from detergents has had a significant impact on the amounts of
phosphorus in wastewater.
8. Presence of Fats, Oils and Greases

Greases, fats and oils are derived in sewage from the discharges of animals and vegetable matter,
or from the industries like garages, kitchens of hotels and restaurants, etc.
Such matter form scum on the top of the sedimentation tanks and clog the voids of the filtering
media. They thus interfere with the normal treatment methods, and hence need proper detection
and removal.
The amount of fats and greases in a sewage sample is determined by making use of the fact that
oils and greases are soluble in ether, and when the ether is evaporated, it leaves behind ether-
soluble-matter, which represents the quantity of fats and oils. Hence, in order to estimate their
amount a sample of sewage is first of all evaporated. The residual solids left are then mixed with
ether (hexane). The solution is then poured off and evaporated, leaving behind the fats and
greases as a residue which can be easily weighed.
9. Sulphides, Sulphates and Hydrogen Sulphide Gas

The determination of suphides and sulphates in sewage is rarely called far, although their
presence reflects aerobic, and/or anaerobic decomposition.
Sulphides and sulphates are formed due to the decomposition of various sulphur containing
substances present in sewage, this, decomposition also leads to evolution of hydrogen sulphide
gas, causing bad smells and odours, besides causing corrosion of concrete sewer pipes.
In aerobic digestion of sewage, the aerobic and facultative bacteria oxidize the sulphur and its
compounds present in sewage to initially form sulphides, which ultimately break down to form
sulphate ions (SO42-), which is a stable and an unobjectionable end product. The initial
decomposition is associated with formation of H2S gas, which also ultimately gets oxidized to
form sulphate ions.
In anaerobic digestion of sewage, however, the anaerobic and facultative bacteria reduce the
sulphur and its compounds into sulphides, with evolution of H2S gas along with methane and
12
carbon dioxide, thus causing very obnoxious smells and odours. If, however, the quantity of H2S
in raw sewage is below 1ppm, obnoxious odours are not felt.
10. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

The determination of dissolved oxygen present in sewage is very important, because: while
discharging the treated sewage into some river stream, it is necessary to ensure at least 4ppm of
DO in it; as otherwise, fish are likely to be killed, creating nuisance near the vicinity of disposal.
To ensure this, DO tests are performed during sewage disposal treatment processes.
The DO test performed on sewage before treatment helps in indicating the condition of sewage.
It is well known by now that only very fresh sewage contains some dissolved oxygen, which is
soon depleted by aerobic decomposition. Also the dissolved oxygen in fresh sewage depends
upon temperature. If the temperature of sewage is more, the DO content will be less. The
solubility of oxygen in sewage is 95% of that in distilled water.
The DO content of sewage is generally determined by the Winkler's method which is an
oxidation- reduction process carried out chemically to liberate iodine in amount equivalent to the
quantity of dissolved oxygen originally present.
11. Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Biochemical oxygen demand is used as a measure of the quantity of oxygen required for
oxidation of biodegradable organic matter present in the wastewater by aerobic biochemical
action. The rate of oxygen consumption in a wastewater is affected by a number of variables:
temperature, pH, the presence of certain kinds of microorganisms, and the type of organic and
inorganic material in the wastewater. BOD directly affects the amount of DO within the
wastewater.
The greater the BOD, the more rapidly oxygen is depleted in the water body, leaving less oxygen
available to higher forms of aquatic life. The consequences of high BOD are the same as those
for low DO: aquatic organisms become stressed, suffocate, and die.
BOD is one of the most important and useful parameters (measured characteristics) indicating
the organic strength of a wastewater. BOD measurement permits an estimate of the waste
strength in terms of the amount of dissolved oxygen required to break down the wastewater.
12. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

COD measures the total quantity of oxygen required for oxidation of organics into carbon
dioxide and water. The oxygen required to oxidize the organic matter present in a given
wastewater can be theoretically computed, if the organics present in wastewater are known. Thus,
if the chemical formulas and the concentrations of the chemical compounds present in water are
known to us, we can easily calculate the theoretical oxygen demand of each of these compounds
13
by writing the balanced reaction for the compound with oxygen to produce CO2, H2O and
oxidized inorganic components.
Hence, if the organic compounds and their concentrations are known, the theoretical oxygen
demand of the water can be accurately calculated, but it is virtually impossible to know the
details of the organic compounds present in any natural raw water or a waste water.
13. Total Organic Carbon

Another important method of expressing organic matter is in terms of its carbon content. Carbon
is the primary constituent of organic matter, and hence the chemical formula of every organic
compound will reflect the extent of carbon present in that compound. Known concentrations of
such chemical compounds in a given wastewater will thus enable us to theoretically calculate the
carbon present in that wastewater per liter of solution.
C. Biological Characteristics
The bacterial characteristics of sewage are due to the presence of bacteria and other living micro-
organisms, such as algae, fungi, protozoa, etc. The former are more active.
Most of the vast number of bacteria present in sewage (of the order of 5 - 50 billion per liter of
sewage) is harmless non-pathogenic bacteria. They are useful and helpful in bringing oxidation
and decomposition of sewage. A little number of bacteria, however, is disease producing
pathogens, and it is they who constitute the real danger to the health of the public.
In case of sewage, the routine bacteriological tests as performed on water supply samples are
generally not performed, because of the high concentration of bacteria present in it. But at the
times of epidemiological investigations, certain tests may be useful for separating the pathogenic
bacteria. The bacteriological counts may also be useful where the treatment processes are likely
to be affected adversely by bactericidal industrial wastewaters.
Table 2-1 Summary of typical domestic wastewater characteristics
Concentration
Contaminants
Unit Weak Medium Strong
Total solids (TS) mg/l 350 720 1200
Total dissolved solids (TDS) mg/l 250 500 850
Fixed mg/l 145 300 525
Volatile mg/l 105 200 325
Suspended solids mg/l 100 220 350
Fixed mg/l 20 55 75
Volatile mg/l 80 165 275
Settleable solids mg/l 5 10 20
BOD5, 20⁰c mg/l 110 220 400
14
TOC mg/l 80 160 290

COD mg/l 250 500 1000
Nitrogen (total as N) mg/l 204 40 85
Organic mg/l 81 153 35
Free ammonia mg/l 12 25 50
Nitrites mg/l 0 0 0
Nitrates mg/l 0 0 0
Phosphorus (total as P) mg/l 4 8 15
Organic mg/l 13 3 5
Inorganic mg/l 3 5 10
Chlorides mg/l 30 50 100
Sulfate mg/l 20 30 50
Alkalinity (as CaCO3) mg/l 50 100 200
Grease mg/l 50 100 150
Total coliforms No/100 ml 106 - 107 107- 108 107- 109
Volatile organic compounds µg/l < 100 100 - 400 > 400
Source: Adapted from Metcalf and Eddy Inc., Wastewater Engineering, 3rd edition.
2.2 Measurement of Concentration of Contaminants in Wastewater
Contaminants in wastewaters are usually a complex mixture of organic and inorganic compounds.
It is usually impractical, if not nearly impossible to obtain complete chemical analysis of most
wastewaters.
However, since it is comparatively easy to measure the amount of oxygen used by the bacteria as
they oxidize the wastewater, the concentration of organic matter in the wastewater can easily be
expressed in terms of the amount of oxygen required for its oxidation. The most important
standard methods for analysis of organic contaminants are:
1. Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD)
This is the theoretical amount of oxygen required to oxidize the organic fraction of the
wastewater completely to carbon dioxide and water. The equation for the total oxidation of, say,
glucose is:
With C = 12, H = 1 and O = 16, C6H12O6 is 180 and 6O2 is 192; we can thus calculate that the

∗ 300 = 321 mg/l . Because

ThOD of, for example, a 300 mg/l solution of glucose is
wastewater is so complex in nature its ThOD cannot be calculated, but in practice it is
approximated by the chemical oxygen demand.
2. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
15
The chemical oxygen demand (COD) of a raw water or a wastewater water is determined by
performing a laboratory test on the given wastewater with a strong oxidant like dichromate
solution; and the theoretical computations of COD are only performed on water solutions
prepared with the known amounts of specific organic compounds in lab laboratory
oratory situations to
compare the theoretical and test results, and to establish the limitations of the test procedures.
The laboratory determination of COD, as said above, lies in using a strong oxidant like
potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) or potassium pe permanganate (KMnO4) solution to stabilize the
organic matter to determine the molecular oxygen used from the oxidant solution in oxidizing the
organic matter present in the given waste
wastewater.
In order to perform this test, a known quantity of waste
wastewater is mixed with a known quantity of
standard solution of potassium dichromate, and the mixture is heated. The organic matter is
oxidized by K2Cr2O7 (in the presence of H2SO4 (helps to digest/break down the complex
molecules)). The resulting solution of K2Cr2O7 is titrated with standard ferrous ammonium
sulphate [Fe(NH4)2.(SO4)2.6H2O)] O)], and the oxygen gen used in oxidizing the wastewater
waste is
determined. This is called the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and is a measure of organic
matter present in sewage.
The advantage of COD measurements is that they are obtained very quickly (within 3 hours), but
they have the disadvantages that they do not give any information on the proportion of the
wastewater that can be oxidized by bacteria, nor on the rate at which bio
bio-oxidation
oxidation occurs.
Example 2.1 Compute

(a) the theoretical oxygen demand; and
(b) the organic carbon concentration of a wastewater
water that contains the following chemical
compounds:
(i) glucose (C6H12O6) = 200 mg/l
(ii) benzene (C6H6) = 25 mg/l
(c) What is the formula weight of the orga
organic matter in this solution?
Solution
a) The equations for the total oxidation of the two con

constituents
stituents are first written as:
16

=

From the above equations: The theoretical oxygen demand of glucose is found to be
1.07 mg of O /mg of glucose; and the theoretical oxygen demand of benzene is found to be

= 3.08 mg of O /mg of benzene.

Hence, the total theoretical oxygen demand of the solution containing 200mg/l of glucose and
25mg/l of benzene
= (1.07 ∗ 200 + 3.08 ∗ 25)mg/l = 291mg/l
Hence, COD = 291mg/l
b) From the molecular formulas of glucose and benzene, it is found that:

The carbon content of glucose is 72mg C/180mg of glucose; and the carbon content of
benzene is 72mg C/78mg of benzene. Hence, the total organic carbon content of the solution
containing 200mg/l of glucose and 25mg/l of benzene
= (72/180 ∗ 200 + 72/78 ∗ 25)mg C/l = 103.1mg C/l

c) The concentrations of each- atom (i.e. C, H and O) in the wastewater containing two organic
compounds of given concentrations are now worked out as below:
72 72
C=) ∗ 200 + ∗ 25* mg/l = 103.1mg/l
180 78

= 103.1 ∗ 10+, ∗ mole of C = 8.59 ∗ 10+, mole of C

12 6
H=) ∗ 200 + ∗ 25* mg/l = 15.26mg/l
180 78

= 15.26 ∗ 10+, ∗ mole of H = 15.26 ∗ 10+, mole of H
96
O=) ∗ 200 + 0* mg/l = 106.67mg/l
180

= 106.67 ∗ 10+, ∗ / mole of O = 6.67 ∗ 10+, mole of O
The chemical formula for the organic matter present in water thus becomes:
CS.59H15.26O6.67 at a concentration of 1milli-mole
Obviously, this formula does not represent the structure of the organic matter but only the
relative amounts of the elements contained in it.
3. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Oxygen demand of wastewaters is exerted by three classes of materials:

(1) Carbonaceous organic materials usable as a source of food by aerobic organisms
(2) oxidizable nitrogen derived from nitrite, ammonia, and organic nitrogen compounds
which serve as food for specific bacteria (e.g., Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter).
17
(3) Chemical reducing compounds, e.g., ferrous ion (Fe2+), sulfites (SO32-), and sulfide (S2-)
which are oxidized by dissolved oxygen.
For domestic sewage, nearly all oxygen demand is due to carbonaceous organic materials and is
determined by BOD dilution test. For effluents subjected to biological treatment, a considerable
part of the oxygen demand may be due to nitrification.
BOD Dilution Test
Procedure is given below.
1. Prepare several dilutions of the sample to be analyzed with distilled water of high purity.
Recommended dilutions depend on estimated concentration of contaminants responsible for
oxygen demand. For highly contaminated waters, dilution ratios (ml of diluted sample/ml of
original sample) may be of 100:1. For river waters, the sample may be taken without dilution
for low pollution streams, and in other cases dilution ratios of 4:1 may be utilized.
2. Incubation bottles (250ml to 300ml capacity), with ground-glass stoppers are utilized.
In the BOD bottle one places:
(a) the diluted sample (i.e., the “substrate")
(b) a seed of microorganisms (usually the supernatant liquor from domestic sewage), and
(c) Nutrient solution for the microorganisms.
This solution contains sodium and potassium phosphates ammonium chloride (nitrogen and
phosphorus are elements needed as nutrients for microorganisms). The pH of the solution in
the BOD bottle should be about 7.0 (neutral). Phosphate solution utilized is a buffer. For
samples containing caustic alkalinity or acidity, neutralization to about pH 7 is made with
dilute H2SO4 or NaOH prior to the BOD test.
For each BOD bottle a control bottle which does not contain the substrate is also prepared.
Bottles are incubated at 20°c for 5 days. Light must be excluded from the incubator to
prevent algal growth that may produce oxygen in the bottle. The DO content before the
incubation and after the incubation is thus determined. The difference between
concentrations of dissolved oxygen (mg/liter) in control bottle and in sample bottle
corresponds to the oxygen utilized in biochemical oxidation of contaminants.
When the dilution water is not seeded:
DO − DO
BOD2 , mg/lit = 2.1
P
When the dilution water is seeded:
(DO − DO ) − (DO8 − DO8 ) ∗ f
BOD2 , mg/lit = 2.2
P
Where, DO1 – dissolved oxygen of the diluted sample immediately after preparation, mg/l
DO2 – dissolved oxygen of the diluted sample after 5 day incubation at 20ºc, mg/l
18
DOS1 – dissolved oxygen of seed control before incubation, mg/l

DOS1 – dissolved oxygen of seed control after incubation, mg/l
f – fraction of seeded dilution water volume in sample to volume of seeded dilution
water in seed control
P – fraction of wastewater sample volume to total combined volume
As pointed out earlier, this test is conducted to determine the oxygen demand for the first five
days on a number of samples, and their average value is taken as the BOD5 at the test
temperature.
If the oxygen supply is made available for periods more than 5 days, it is found that the oxygen
is consumed rapidly for 6 or 7 days, and then slows down until the end of about 20 days or more.
This value is called ultimate BOD denoted as BODu.
Thereafter, it may again accelerate for some time, and again slow down to a very low rate for an
indefinite period. The first demand during the first 20 days occurs due to the oxidation of organic
matter, and is called carbonaceous demand or first stage demand or initial demand. The latter
demand occurs due to biological oxidation of ammonia, and is called nitrogenous demand or
second-stage demand.
A typical BOD curve (BOD vs. incubation time) for oxidation of carbonaceous materials is
shown in Figure 2-2 In fact, a sanitary engineer is more concerned with the first stage demand,
since the oxygen consumed in its satisfaction is not recoverable. Hence, the term BOD is usually
used to mean the first stage BOD, i.e. the demand due to the presence of carbonaceous matter
alone.
Figure 2-2 Typical BOD curve for oxidation of carbonaceous materials
a. Ratio of COD and BOD

The value of BODu is generally lower than that for COD obtained by the standard dichromate
oxidation method. The reasons are that:
19
(1) many organic compounds which are oxidized by K2Cr2O7 are not biochemically oxidizable
(2) certain inorganic ions such as sulfide (S2-), thiosulfates (S2O32-), sulfites (SO32-), nitrites
(NO2-), and ferrous ion (Fe2+) are oxidized by K2Cr2O7, thus accounting for inorganic COD
which is not detected by the BOD test.
9:;
<:;
The ratio will always be less than 1.0; but this value shall approach towards 1.0 with the
decreasing amount of non-biological organics.
If this ratio is found to be between 0.92 and 1.0 the wastewater can be considered to be virtually
fully biodegradable.
9:;=
<:;
Since, BODu is generally not measured and only BOD5 is measured, the ratio usually
9:;
referred to as <:; ratio becomes more important. Since BOD5 is about 68% of BODu, we can
9:;=
<:;
easily state that ratio should for fully-biodegradable wastes, vary between 0.92*0.68 =
9:;
<:;
0.63 and 1.0*0.68 = 0.68. Any wastewater, having its ratio more than 0.63, can hence, be
considered to be quite amenable to biological treatment, since it does not contain non-
biodegradable organics.
b. Effect of Seeding and Acclimation of Seed on the BOD Test

One of the most frequent reasons for unreliable BOD values is utilization of an insufficient
amount of microorganism seed. Another serious problem for industrial wastes is acclimation of
seed. For many industrial wastes, the presence of toxic materials interferes with growth of the
microorganism population. BOD curves obtained exhibit a time lag period.
Figure 2-3 Lag period in BOD test

Low BOD values are obtained if adequate corrective action is not taken. It becomes necessary to
acclimate the microorganism seed to waste. This is achieved by starting with a sample of settled
domestic sewage which contains a large variety of microorganisms, and adding a small amount
of industrial effluent. Air is bubbled through this mixture. The operation is performed in bench
scale reactors of either continuous or batch type.
20
The process is repeated with gradual increase in the proportion of industrial waste to domestic
sewage, until a microbial culture acclimat
acclimated
ed to the specific industrial waste is developed. This
may be a long and difficult procedure for very toxic industrial wastewaters. When an acclimated
culture has been developed, the BOD curve does not present a lag period.
c. Effect of Presence of Algae on the BOD Test

Presence of algae in the wastewater being tested affects the BOD test. If the sample is incubated
in the presence of light, low BOD values are obtained owing to production of oxygen by
photosynthesis, which satisfies part of the oxygen demand
demand.. On the other hand, if incubation is
performed in darkness, algae survive for a while. Thus, short
short-term
term BOD determinations show the
effect of oxygen on them. After a period in the dark, algae die and algal cells contribute to the
increase of total organic content of the sample, thus leading to high BOD values. Therefore, the
effect of algae on the BOD test is difficult to evaluate.
2.3 Mathematical Model for the BOD Curve
It is desirable to represent the BOD curve by a mathemat

mathematical
ical model. From kinetic considerations,
the mathematical model utilized to portray the rate of oxygen utilization is that of a first-order
first
reaction. Figure 2-4 reveals that tthe rate of oxygen utilization, given by the tangent to the curve
at a given incubation time, decreases as concentration of organic matter remaining unoxidized
becomes gradually smaller.
The rate at which BOD is satisfied at any time, (i.e. the rate of deoxygenation) depends on
temperature and also on the amount and nature of organic matter present in sewage at that time.
Figure 2-4 1st stage BOD curve
21
Thus, at a certain temperature, the rate of deoxygenation is assumed to be directly proportional to

the amount of organic matter present in sewage at that time (there is proportionality between the
rate of oxygen utilization and that of destruction of organic matter by biological oxidation); i.e.
dL@
= −KL@ 2.3
dt
Where, Lt = oxygen equivalent of carbonaceous oxidizable organic matter present in sewage
after t days from the start of oxidation, in mg/l.
BCD
B@
= rate of disappearance of organic matter by aerobic biological oxidation
t = time in days.
K = rate constant signifying the rate of oxidation of organic matter, and it depends
upon the nature of organic matter and temperature. Its unit is per day.
Minus sign indicates that with the passage of time (i.e., increase in t) the value of Lt decreases.
Integrating the above equation, we get
dL@
E = E −Kdt
L@
log F L@ = −Kt + C 2.4
Where, C is a constant of integration, and can be evaluated from the boundary conditions at the
start i.e.
When t = zero (0), i.e. at start Lt = L (say). Substituting in the above equation, we have
log F L@ = −K ∗ 0 + C
C = log F L
Substituting this value of C in equation 2.4,
log F L@ = −Kt + log F L
log F L@ − log F L = −Kt
CD CD
log F C
= 2.3 ∗ log C
= −Kt
L@ −Kt
log = = −0.434Kt
L 2.3
Using 0.434K = KD
Where, KD is the De-oxygenation constant or the BOD rate constant (on base 10) at the given
temperature = 0.434K.
We have
L@
log = −K ; t
L
L@
= 10+HI @ 2.5
L
22
Now, L is the organic matter present at the start of BOD reaction, (expressed as oxygen
equivalent) and Lt is the organic matter lleft
eft after t days; which means that during t days,
the quantity of organic matter oxidized = L - Lt.
If Yt represents the total amount of organic matter oxidized in t days (i.e. the BOD of t days),
then we have
L@
Y@ = L − L@ = L )1 ) − *
L
Y@ L@
=1−
L L
L@ Y@
=1−
L L
Substituting this
his value to the above equation
equation, we get
L@ Y@
= 1 − = 10+HI @
L L
Y@
= 1 − 10+HI @
L
Y@ = L ∗ (1 − 10+HI @ ) 2.6
This is an important equation. Yt is the oxygen absorbed in t days, i.e. BOD of t days.
The ultimate first stage BOD (Yu) would be obtained from the above equation, when we
substitute t = ∞ days in it.
YK = L ∗ (1 − 10+HI ∞ )
1
YK = L ∗ )1 − ∞ * = L 2.7
10
Hence, the ultimate first state BOD (Yu) of a given sewage is equa1 to the initial oxygen
equivalent of the organic matter present in this sewage (L). This is a fixed quantity, and does not
depend upon the temperature of oxidation.
The value of KD however, determines the speed of the BOD reaction, without influencing the
ultimate BOD, as shown in Figure 2-5:
Figure 22-5 BOD exertion as a function of KD
23
The figure shows that the coefficient of deoxygenation is different at different temperatures, but
finally, Yu is constant.
It is found to vary with temperature of sewage, and this relationship is approximately given by
the equation
K ;(L) = K ;( ) ∗ 1.047L+ 2.8
Where, KD(20°) = Deoxygenation constant at 20°c. Its numerical value varies between (0.05 to
0.2) per day depending upon the nature of the organic matter present in
sewage. Simple compounds such as sugars and starches are easily utilized by
the micro-organisms, and have a high KD rate, while complex molecules such
as phenols are difficult to assimilate and hence have low KD values. Some
typical KD values are given in Table 2-2.
KD(T) = Deoxygenation constant at temperature Tºc.
Table 2-2 Typical values of KD at 20°c for various types of waters and wastewaters
Water type KD value per day

Tap waters < 0.05
Surface waters 0.05 - 0.1
Municipal wastewaters 0.1 - 0.15
Treated sewage effluents 0.05 - 0.1
Equation 2.8 shows that KD will be higher at higher temperatures, which means that the speed at
which BOD is consumed in the oxidation of the organic matter, is higher at higher temperatures.
This means that the entire carbonaceous organic matter will get oxidized quickly and in lesser
time at higher temperatures.
Equation 2.6 is called the first stage equation of BOD reaction, and is represented graphically by
the curve OAB of
Figure 2-6.
24
Figure 2-6 Combined BOD curve

By comparing Figure 2-4 and Figure 2-6, it can be seen that the curve of Figure 2-6 is nothing
but the reciprocal of curve in Figure 2-4. This is because the oxygen used in satisfying BOD is in
direct ratio of the amount of organic matter oxidized, which means reciprocal of the curve of
Figure 2-4.
The portion AC of the curve of Figure 2-6 represents the nitrification stage, which follows the
carbonaceous stage, so that the BOD curve for the complete oxidation is represented by OAC.
Note: The equations given above are only for the important first stage BOD, and have nothing to
do with the second stage BOD, with which we are not concerned here.
Laboratory estimation of KD value

The BOD rate constant KD used in eqn. (2.6) can be computed from BOD values measured at
various times. The sewage samples are tested for BOD at different times (t), such as after 0.5, 1.0,
1.5, 2.0, 3.0, 5.0 days. A graph is now plotted between the values of time t in days on X-axis,
@(NO BPQR)
and the values of function M9:;(NO ST/U) on Y-axis. The best fit line drawn through these points is
V
used to calculate the KD rate by the following relationship:

A
K ; = 2.61 2.9
B
Where, KD = rate constant per day
A = slope of the line.
B = intercept of the line on Y-axis.
25
Solved Examples
Example 2.1
Compute
(d) the theoretical oxygen demand; and
(e) the organic carbon concentration of a water that contains the following chemical
compounds:
(iii) glucose (C6H12O6) = 200 mg/l ; and
(iv) benzene (C6H6) = 25 mg/l
(f) What is the formula weight of the organic matter in this solution?
Solution.
The equations for the total oxidation of the two constituents are first written as:
From the above equations: The theoretical oxygen demand of glucose is found to be 192/180 =
1.07 mg of O2/mg of glucose; and the theoretical oxygen demand of benzene is found to be
240/78 = 3.08 mg of O2/mg of benzene.
Hence, the total theoretical oxygen demand of the solution containing 200mg/l of glucose and
25mg/l of benzene
= [1.07*200 + 3.08*25] mg/l = 291mg/l.
Hence, COD = 291 mg/l
(b) From the molecular formulas of glucose and benzene, it is found that:
The carbon content of glucose is 72mg C/180mg of glucose; and the carbon content of benzene
is 72mg C/78mg of benzene. Hence, the total organic carbon content of the solution containing
200mg/l of glucose and 25mg/l of benzene
= [72/180*200 + 72/78*25] mg C/l = 103.1mg C/l
(c) The concentrations of each- atom (i.e. C, Hand 0) in the water containing two organic
compounds of given concentrations are now worked out as below:
72 72
X=) ∗ 200 + ∗ 25* YZ/[ = 103.1YZ/[
180 78
26

= 103.1 ∗ 10+, ∗ Y\[] \^ X = 8.59 ∗ 10+, Y\[] \^ X

12 6
_=) ∗ 200 + ∗ 25* YZ/[ = 15.26YZ/[
180 78

= 15.26 ∗ 10+, ∗ Y\[] \^ _ = 15.26 ∗ 10+, Y\[] \^ _

96
`=) ∗ 200 + 0* YZ/[ = 106.67YZ/[
180

= 106.67 ∗ 10+, ∗ Y\[] \^ ` = 6.67 ∗ 10+, Y\[] \^ `
/
The chemical formula for the organic matter present in water thus becomes:
CS.59H15.26O6.67 at a concentration of 1milli-mole
Obviously, this formula does not represent the structure of the organic matter but only the
relative amounts of the elements contained in it.
Example 2.2
The BODs of a wastewater is 150mg/l at 20°c. The k value is known to be 0.23 per day. What
would BOD8 be, if the test was run at 15°?
Solution
Here, we will first clarify, that the given value of constant K, as equal to 0.23 per day, cannot be
the value of deoxygenation constant KD (on base 10), but it must be the rate constant (on base e)
which was symbolized by us as 'K', where, KD = 0.434 K. This is because of the reason that the
highest KD value at 20°c for strong municipal sewage is of the order of 0.1 to 0.15, or slightly
less. Hence, the given K value must be the value of K and not of KD.
Hence, at 20°c, we use
K = 0.23 (given)
KD = 0.434K
= 0.434*0.23 = 0.0998 ≅ 0.1
Also BOD of 5 days = BOD5 = 150mg/l (at 20°c)
Using the equation
Y@ = L ∗ (1 − 10+HI @ )
Y2 = L ∗ (1 − 10+HI∗ 2 )
Where, Y5 = BOD of 5 days.
150 = a ∗ (1 − 10+.∗2 )
27
150 150
L= = = 219.4mg/l
(1 − 10+.∗2 ) 0.684
or
Now, let us find KD value at 15°c
Using the equation
K ;(L) = K ;( ) ∗ 1.047L+
K ;(2) = 0.1 ∗ 1.0472+ = 0.079
Now, again using
bc = a ∗ (1 − 10+dec )
Where, Yt is BOD of t days
We have
Y
= 219.4 ∗ (1 − 10+.∗
) = 219.4 ∗ (1 − 0.233)
= 168.2mg/l
Hence, BOD8 = Y8 = 168.2mg/l.
Example 2.3
The 5 day 30°c BOD of sewage sample is 1l0mg/l. Calculate its 5 days 20°c BOD. Assume the
deoxygenation constant at 20°c K20 as 0.1.
Solution
KD(20º) = 0.1
Now, using the equation
K ;(L) = K ;( ) ∗ 1.047L+
K ;(,⁰) = 0.1 ∗ 1.047,+ = 0.158
or
Now, using
Y@ = L ∗ (1 − 10+HI @ )
Y2 = L ∗ (1 − 10+HI ∗2 )
Y2 P@ ,⁰ = L ∗ g1 − 10 i
+HI(Vhh) ∗2
110 = L ∗ (1 − 10+.2

∗2 )
110
L= = 131.3YZ/[
(1 − 10+.2
∗2 )
28
or L = 131.3 mg/l.
Now
Y2 P@ ⁰ = L ∗ g1 − 10+HI(jh⁰)∗2 i
= 131.3 ∗ (1 − 10+.∗2 ) = 89.8mg/l
Example 2.4
Calculate 1 day 37ºc BOD of sewage sample whose 5 day 20°c BOD is 100 mg/l. Assume KD at
20°c as 0.1.
Solution
5 day 20°c BOD = 110 mg/l. (given)
Now using Eq. (7.16), we have
The BOD at 20°c, say after t = 5 days, is given by
Y2 = L ∗ g1 − 10 i
+HI(jhh) ∗@
100 = L ∗ (1 − 10+.∗2 )

100 100
L= = = 146.2mg/l
(1 − 10+.∗2 ) 0.684
Now let us work out KD at 37°c, by using the equation:
K ;(L) = K ;( ) ∗ 1.047L+
K ;(,⁰) = 0.1 ∗ 1.047,+ = 0.24
Now, we have to work out Yt for one day at 37°c, using
bc = a ∗ (1 − 10+dec )
b = a ∗ (1 − 10+de∗ )
b kc ,⁰l = 146.2 ∗ (1 − 10+. ∗ ) = 62.07
Hence, Y1 at 37°C = 62.07mg/l
Example 2.5
The BOD5 of a waste has been measured as 600 mg/l. If K = 0.23/day (base e), what is the
ultimate BODu of the waste. What proportion of the BODu would remain unoxidised after 20
days.
Solution
29
Use eqn. (7.16) as:

bc = a ∗ (1 − 10+dec )
m = 0.434 ∗ = 0.434 ∗ 0.23 = 0.1
t = 5 days, we have
Y5 = BOD of 5 days = 600 mg/l
600 = a ∗ (1 − 10+.∗2 )
600
L= = 877.5mg/l
(1 − 10+.∗2 )
Hence, the ultimate BOD = 877.5 mg/l
Now,
b = a ∗ (1 − 10+.∗ )
b = bn ∗ (1 − 10+.∗ )
b = 0.99bn
It means that 99% of BODu is utilized in 20 days, and hence only 1% of ultimate BOD would be
left unoxidized after 20 days.
Example 2.6
The following observations were made on a 3% dilution of waste water.
Dissolved oxygen (D. O.) of aerated water used for dilution = 3.0 mg/l
Dissolved oxygen (D. O.) of diluted sample after 5 days incubation = 0.8 mg/l
Dissolved oxygen (D. O.) of original sample = 0.6 mg/l.
Calculate the B.O.D. of 5 days and ultimate BOD of the sample assuming that the deoxygenation
coefficient at test temp. is 0.1.
Solution
The 100% content of the diluted sample consists of 3% wastewater and 97% of aerated water
used for dilution.
Hence, its DO = DO of waste water * its content + DO of dilution water * its content
= 0.6 ∗ 0.03 + 3.0 ∗ 0.97
= 0.018 + 2.91
= o. poq rs/t
DO of the incubated sample after 5 days = 0.8mg/l
Thus, DO consumed in oxidizing organic matter = 2.928 - 0.8 = 2.128 mg/l
30
Therefore, BOD of 5 days = DO consumed * Dilution factor

= 2.128 ∗ = 70.93 YZ/[
,
Ultimate B.O.D. is given by L. Using Eq. (7.16), we have

bc = a ∗ (1 − 10+de∗c )
b2 = a ∗ (1 − 10+de∗2 )
The value of KD at test temperature is given as 0.1. Substituting the known values in the above
equation, we have
70.93 = a ∗ (1 − 10+.∗2 )
70.93
a= = 103.7YZ/[
(1 − 10+.∗2 )
Example 2.7
Change in concentration of organic matter, L, with time, t, is given by
ua
= − ∗ a
uv
Calculate the organic matter remaining after 3 days if the initial concentration was
200mg/l, and K = 0.4 per day.
Solution
ua
= − ∗ a
uv
ua
= − ∗ uv
a
Integrating, we have
log w a = −v + X
2.3 log a = −v + X
When t = 0 (at start), L = 200mg/l.
Therefore, 2.3 log 200 = 0 + X
X = 2.3 x 2.301 = 5.28
Now, the value of L after 3 days is given by
2.3 log a = −0.4 ∗ 3 + X
2.3 log a = −0.4 ∗ 3 + 5.28
log a = 1.773
31
a = 59.3 YZ/[
Hence the organic matter left after 3 days
= 59.3 mg/l
Activity
1. Explain the importance of the following operations in a laboratory determination of BOD of
waste water sample:
(i) pH adjustment;
(ii) dilution with aerated water;
(iii) seeding and nutrient addition to dilution water; and
(iv) Incubation at controlled temperature.
2. What is BOD? Deduce an expression for BOD with time. What are the factors on which the
de-oxygenation constant (k) depends?
3. State the common laboratory tests conducted on sewage and their importance in the
treatment and disposal of sewage.
4. The BOD of a sewage incubated for one day at 30°c has been found to be 110mg/1. What
will be the 5-day 20°c BOD? Assume K1 = 0.1 at 20°c. .
5. Data from an unseeded domestic waste water BOD test are: 5ml of waste in 300ml bottle,
initial DO of 7.8mg/l, and 5 days DO equal to 4.3mg/l. Compute
a. the BOD; and
b. The ultimate BOD, assuming a k-rate of 0.1per day
6. A dairy processing about 133,000 kg of milk daily produced an average of 246 cubic meter
per day of waste water with a BOD of 1400mg/l. The principal operations are bottling of
milk, and making ice cream, with limited production of cheese. Compute the waste water
flow and BOD per 1000kg of milk received, and the equivalent population of the daily waste
discharge.
32
3- PRELIMINARY AND PRIMARY WASTEWATER TREATMENT

METHODS
3.1 Preliminary Treatment
Preliminary treatment consists solely in separating the floating materials (like dead animals, tree
branches, papers, pieces of rags, wood, etc.), and also the heavy settleable inorganic solids. It
also helps in removing the oils and greases, etc. from the sewage. This treatment reduces the
BOD of the wastewater, by about 15 to 30%. The processes used are:
- Screening for removing floating papers, rags, clothes, etc
- Grit chambers or Detritus tanks for removing grit and sand; and
- Skimming tanks for removing oils and greases
3.1.1 Screening
Screening is the very first operation carried out at a sewage treatment plant, and consists of
passing the sewage through different types of screens, so as to trap and remove the floating
matter, such as pieces of cloth, paper, wood, cork, hair, fiber, kitchen refuse, fecal solids, etc.
present in sewage. These floating materials, if not removed, will choke the pipes, or adversely
affect the working of the sewage pumps. Thus, the main idea of providing screens is to protect
the pumps and other equipments from the possible damages due to the floating matter of the
sewage.
Screens should preferably be placed before the grit chambers (described in the next article).
However, if the quality of 'grit' is not of much importance, as in the case of land fillings, etc.,
screens may even be placed after the grit chambers. They may sometimes be accommodated in
the body of the grit chambers themselves.
1. Types of Screens, their Designs and Cleaning

Depending upon the size of the openings, screens may be classified as coarse screens, medium
screens, and fine screens.
(i) Coarse screens are also known as Racks, and the spacing between the bars (i.e. opening
size) is about 50 mm or more. These screens do help in removing large floating objects
from sewage. They will collect about 6 liters of solids per million liter of sewage. The
material separated by coarse screens, usually consists of rags, wood, paper, etc., which will
not putrefy, and may be disposed of by incineration, burial, or dumping.
(ii) In medium screens, the spacing between bars is about 6 to 40 mm. These screens will
ordinarily collect 30 to 90 liters of material per million liter of sewage. The screenings
33
usually contain some quantity of organic material, which may putrefy and become
offensive, and must, therefore, be disposed of by incineration, or burial (not by dumping).
Rectangular shaped coarse and medium screens are now-a-days widely used at sewage treatment
plants. They are made of steel bars, fixed parallel to one another at desired spacing on a rectan-
gular steel frame, and are called bar screens. The screens are set in a masonry or R.C.C. chamber,
called the screen chamber.
Now-a-days, these screens are generally kept inclined at about 30 to 60° to the direction of flow,
so as to increase the opening area, and to reduce the flow velocity; and thus making the screening
more effective. While designing the screens, clear openings should have sufficient total area, so
that the velocity through them is not more than 0.8 to 1m/sec. This limit, placed on velocity,
limits the head loss through the screens, and, thus, reduces the opportunity for screenings to be
pushed through the screens.
The material collected on bar screens can be removed either manually or mechanically. Manual
cleaning is practiced at small plants with hand operated rakes. The inclined screens help in their
cleaning by the upward stroke of the rake. Large plants, however, use mechanically operated
rakes, which move over the screens, either continuously or intermittently.
The cleaning of screens by rakes will be hindered by cross bars, if at all provided. They are,
therefore, generally avoided.
Screens are sometimes classified as fixed or movable, depending upon whether the screens are
stationary or capable of motion.
Fixed screens are permanently set in position. A most commonly used bar type screen is shown
in Figure 3-1.
Figure 3-1 Fixed bar type coarse or medium screen

Movable screens are stationary during their operating periods. But they can be lifted up bodily
and removed from their positions for the purpose of cleaning. A common movable bar medium
34
screen is a 3-sided cage with a bottom of perforated plates. It is mainly used in deep pits ahead of
pumps.
(iii) Fine Screens have perforations of 1.5 mm to 3 mm in size.
The installation of these screens proves very effective, and they remove as much as 20% of the
suspended solids from sewage. These screens, however, get clogged very often, and need
frequent cleaning. They are, therefore, used only for treating the industrial wastewaters, or for
treating those municipal wastewaters, which are associated with heavy amounts of industrial
wastewaters. These screens will considerably reduce the load on further treatment units.
Brass or Bronze plates or wire meshes are generally used for constructing fine screens. The metal
used should be resistant to rust and corrosion
The fine screens may be disc or drum type, and are operated continuously by electric motors.
Figure 3-2 shows a typical disc type of fine screen, which is cleaned by a cone brush.
Figure 3-2 Reinsch-Wurl screen (disc type fine screen)
Example 3-1
Estimate the screen requirement for a plant treating a peak flow of 6.0 million liters per day of
sewage.
Solution
Peak {low = 60 Ml/day
60 ∗ 106
= cu. m/day = 0.694 m, /sec
1000
Assuming that the velocity through the screens (at peak flow) is not allowed to exceed 0.8m/sec,
The net area of screen openings required
0.694
= = 0.87Y
0.8
Using rectangular steel bars in the screen, having 1 cm width, and placed at 5cm clear spacing,
35
The gross area of the screen required

0.87 ∗ 6
= = 1.04Y
5
Assuming that the screen bars are placed at 60° to the horizontal,
The gross area of the screen needed
1.04
= = 1.2 Y
√3
2
Hence, a coarse screen of 1.2 m2 area is required.
While designing the screen, we have also to design its cleaning frequency. The cleaning
frequency is governed by the head loss through the screen. The more the screen openings are
clogged, more will be the head loss through the screen. Generally, not more than half the screen
clogging is allowed. To know whether the screen has been clogged and needs cleaning, we can
check or measure the head loss.
The head loss through the cleaned screen and half-cleaned screen can be computed as follows:
Velocity through the screen = 0.8m/sec.
Velocity above the screen
0.8 ∗ 5
= = 0.67 m/sec
6
Head loss through the screen
= 0.0729 ∗ (V − v )
= 0.0729 ∗ (0.8 − 0.67 ) = 0.0134m
When the screen openings get half clogged, then
The velocity through the screen
v = 0.8 ∗ 2 = 1.6m/sec
Head loss = 0.0729 ∗ (1.6 − 0.67 ) = 0.1538 ≅ 0.15m
This shows that when the screens are totally clean, the head loss is negligible i.e. about 1.3cm
only; whereas, the head loss shoots up to about 15cm at half the clogging. The screens should
therefore be cleaned frequently, as to keep the head loss within the allowable range.
2. Comminutors
Comminutors or Shredders are the patented devices, which break the larger sewage solids to
about 6mm in size, when the sewage is screened through them. Such a device consists of a
revolving slotted drum, through which the sewage is screened (Figure 3-3). Cutters mounted on
the drum, shear the collected screenings against a comb, until they are small enough to pass
through 5 mm to 10 mm wide slots of the drum. These are usually arranged in pairs to facilitate
repairs and maintenance. Comminutors are of recent origin, and eliminate the problem of
36
disposal of screenings, by reducing the soli

solids
ds to a size which can be processed elsewhere in the
plant. They should always be preceded by grit chambers to prevent their exces
excessive
sive wear.
Such devises are used only in developed countries like USA, and generally not adopted in our
country.
Figure 3-3 Comminutor or shredder
3. Disposal of Screenings
The material separated by screens is called the screenings. It contains 85 to 90% of moisture and
other floating matter. It may also contain some organic load which may putrefy, causing bad
smells and nuisance. To avoid such possibilities, the screenings are disposed of either by burning,
or by burial, or by dumping. The dumping is avoided when screenings are from medium and fine
screens, and are likely to contain
ain organic load, as pointed out earlier. The screenings may also
sometimes be broken up by a Comminutor and then passed on to the grit chamber.
Burning of the screenings is done in the incinerators, similar to those used for burning garbage.
The process of burning is called Incineration.. The screenings are first dried with sun's heat by
spreading on ground or by compressing through hydraulic or other presses, so as to reduce the
moisture content to about 60%. The incineration is carried out at temperature
temperaturess of about 760 to
815°c. This will avoid bad smells.
The screenings may also be disposed of by burial. The process is technically called composting.
In this process, the screenings are buried in 1 to 1.5m deep trenches, and then covered with 0.3 to
0.45m of porous earth. In due course of time, oxidation
oxidation-reduction
reduction of screenings will take place,
and the contents can be used as manure.
Another method of disposing of the screenings is by dumping them in low lying areas (away
from the residential areas) or in large bodies of water, such as sea. Dumping in sea will be
suitable only where strong forward currents do exist to take the dumped material away from the
shore line. The dumping on land for raising low lying areas is also adopted only when screenings
37
are from the course screens and not from the medium or fine screens, and as such not containing
much organic load.
Digestion of screenings along with the sewage sludge in a sludge digestion tank has also been
tried, but not found successful.
3.1.2 Grit Removal Basins

Grit removal basins, such as Grit chambers or Grit channels or Detritus tanks are the
sedimentation basins placed in front of the wastewater treatment plant to remove the inorganic
particles (specific gravity about 2.65), such as sand, gravel, grit, egg shells, bones, and other non-
putresible materials that may clog channels or damage pumps due to abrasion, and to prevent
their accumulation in sludge digesters. Grit chambers are, in fact, nothing but like sedimentation
tanks, designed to separate the intended heavier inorganic materials by the process of
sedimentation due to gravitational forces, and to pass forward the lighter organic material. (The
organic material is not allowed to settle in this process, as otherwise, the organic matter gets
entangled with the inorganic matter, causing septicity of sewage and requiring unnecessary labor
and expenses for disposal of removal.) The grit chambers may be placed either before or after the
screens. Many engineers, however, prefer to place them before the screens, as to avoid silting of
the-screen chambers.
Since the grit chambers are sedimentation or settling basins, we will discuss theory of
sedimentation first, before coming to the design of grit chambers.
1. Settling of Discrete Particles (Type 1 Sedimentation or Settling) in Wastewaters

Sedimentation is the physical separation of suspended material from water or wastewater by the
action of gravity. It is a common operation for water treatment and found in almost all waste
water treatment plants. It is less costly than many other treatment processes.
The very fundamental principle underlying the process of sedimentation is that the organic
matter present in sewage is having specific gravity greater than that of water (i.e. 1.0). In still
sewage, these particles will, therefore, tend to settle down by gravity; whereas, in flowing
sewage, they are kept in suspension, because of the turbulence in water. Hence, as soon as the
turbulence is retarded by offering storage to sewage, these impurities tend to settle down at the
bottom of the tank offering such storage. This is the principle behind sedimentation.
The design of sedimentation basins is thus, totally dependent upon the settling velocity of the
sewage solids. The design of an ideal settling basin is based on the removal of all particles that
have a settling velocity greater than a specified settling velocity.
The settling velocity of a discrete solid particle is mathematically computed and analyzed on the
basis of the theory of sedimentation, which is discussed below:
38
i. Theory of Type I Settling

The settlement of a particle in water brought to rest is opposed by the following factors:
(i) The velocity of flow which carries the particle horizontally.

The greater the flow area, the lesser is the velocity, and hence more easily the particle will settle
down.
(ii) The viscosity of water in which the particle is travelling. The viscosity varies inversely with
temperature. Warm water is less viscous and, therefore, offers less resistance to settlement.
However, the temperature of water cannot be controlled to any appreciable extent in "water
or wastewater purification processes" and hence this factor is generally ignored.
(iii) The size shape and specific gravity of the particle.
The greater is the specific gravity, more readily the particle will settle. The size and shape of
the particle also affect the settling rate. For example, the weight and volume of the
BV
/
spherically shaped particle, varies with the cube of its diameter (volume being equal to ,
where d is the diameter) or its size; and its area varies with the square of the diameter (area
Bj

being equal to ). Hence, very small sized particles will settle very slowly. It, therefore,
clearly follows that the shape and size of the particles do affect their setting velocities.
The settling velocity of a spherical particle is expressed by Stoke's law, which takes the above
three factors into account. The final Stoke's equation for d < 0.1mm is expressed as:

Z
= (
18
u
− 1) 3.1
υ
[For viscous flow and small sized particles, represented by Re < 1]

Where, vs = velocity of settlement of particle (assumed to be spherical) in m/sec
d = diameter of the particle in m
G = sp. gravity of the particle
μ
υ = kinematic viscosity of water in m2/sec, and is equal to

Where, µ = absolute or dynamic viscosity of water in kg.sec/m2

ρw = density of water
Derivation of Stoke's Law
39
When a solid particle settles down in water, its downward settlement is opposed by the drag
force offered by the water. The effective weight of the particle (i.e. actual weight buoyancy)
causes the particle to accelerate in the beginning, till it attains a sufficient velocity (vR ) at which
the drag force becomes equal to the effective weight of the particle. After attaining that velocity,
the particle falls down with that constant velocity (vR ).
Now, the drag force offered by the fluid is given by Newton's law, as
Drag force
= C; A ∗ ρ
v
∗ 3. Error! Bookmark not de{ined.
2
Where, CD = Coefficient of drag

A = Area of particle
ρw = Density of water
v = velocity of fall
Note: This drag force increases with the increasing velocity, till it becomes equal to the effective
weight of the particle; and at that time, v becomes equal to vs.
The effective weight of the particle
= Total weight − Buoyancy
4 4 4
= πr , γR − πr , γ = πr , (γR − γ )
3 3 3
Where, r = radius of particle
γs = unit weight of particle
γw = unit weight of water
Eqs. (1) and (2) will become equal when v becomes equal to vs in Eq. (1).
vR 4 ,
C; A ∗ ρ ∗ = πr (γR − γ )
2 3
vR
4
C; πr ∗ ρ ∗ = πr , (γR − γ )
2 3
8 d
∗ (γ − γ )
vR = 3 2
R
C; ∗ ρ
4 ∗ g(ρR − ρ )d
vR =
3 C; ∗ ρ
4 ∗ g(G − 1)d
vR =
3 C;
40
The coefficient of drag (CD), has been found for a viscous flow and small particles (size d <

0.1mm) to be equal to

Where, Re is the particle Reynolds number =
υ
Therefore, Eq. (9.3) then becomes,
4 ∗ g(G − 1)d
vR =
3 24
w
4 w
vR = ∗ g(G − 1)d ∗
3 24
g u
vR = ∗ (G − 1)d ∗
18 υ
g u
vR = ∗ (G − 1) ∗
18 υ
The above Stoke's equation is valid for particles of size less than 0.1mm; in which case, the
viscous force predominates over the inertial force, leading to what is known as streamline
settling.
If, however, the settling particles are larger than 0.1mm, the nature of settling tends to become
turbulent, with a transition zone in between. It has been established that turbulent settling occurs
for particle size greater than 1.0mm, whereas settling remains transition settling for particle sizes
between 0.1mm to 1.0mm.
The relation between coefficient of drag (CD) and Re for these three types of settling are as
follows:
(a) For streamline settling (d < 0.1mm) Here Re < 1; and
24
Xm =
w
(b) For transition settling (d between 0.1mm and 1.0mm)
Here 1 < w < 10,

24 3
Xm = + + 0.34
w w
(c) For turbulent settling (d > 1.0mm)
Here w < 10,

Xm = 0.34 v\ 0.4
For turbulent settling, the equation 9.3 reduces to:
41
vR = 1.8gd ∗ (G − 1)
This equation is known as Newton's equation for turbulent settling.
The above formulas represent the theoretical settling velocities of discrete spherical particles.
The actual settling velocities in the sedimentation basins will be much less than those calculated
by these formulas, because of the non-sphericity of the particles, the upward displacement of the
fluid caused by the settling of other particles, and convection currents.
Based upon experiments, Hazen has formulated a table (Table 3-1) giving the values of the
settling velocities (popularly called (hydraulic settling values) for different sized particles in still
liquids at 10ºc.
42
Table 3-1 Hydraulic Settling Values in mm/sec in still liquids at 10ºc
Settling velocity in mm/sec

Diameter of particles
Type of material Particles of Sp. Particles of Sp.
in mm
gravity 2.65 gravity 1.20
Course sand 1.00 100 12.0
0.80 83 9.6
0.60 63 7.2
Medium sand 0.50 53 6.0
0.40 42 4.8
0.30 32 3.6
Fine sand 0.20 21 2.4
0.15 15 1.8
0.10 8 1.2
Very fine and 0.08 6 0.53
0.06 3.8 0.30
0.05 2.9 0.21
Silt 0.04 2.1 0.13
0.03 1.3 0.076
0.02 0.62 0.034
0.015 0.35 0.019
0.010 0.154 0.0084
Fine silt 0.008 0.098 0.0054
0.006 0.055 0.0030
0.005 0.0385 0.0021
Clay 0.004 0.0247 0.0013
0.003 0.0138 0.00076
0.002 0.0062 0.00034
0.0015 0.0035 0.00019
Fine clay 0.001 0.00154 0.000084
0.0001 0.0000154 0.00000084
Colloidal clay 0.0001
43
At higher temperatures such as 26°c (i.e. average temperature prevailing in our country), the
value of settling velocity will be about 50% more than these values.
The above experimental values have also been expressed in mathematical form as modified
Hazen's equation for transition zone, given by:
3 + 70
vR = 60.6d ∗ (G − 1)d ∗ ) *
100
for particles between 0.1 and 1mm
The above equation yields the following:
For inorganic solids, G = 2.65;
Settling velocity for inorganic solids
3 + 70
vR(NO) = 60.6d ∗ (1.65)d ∗ ) *
100
vR(NO) = d ∗ (3 + 70)
Similarly, settling velocity for organic matter (for which G = 1.2)
3 + 70
vR() = 60.6d ∗ (10.2)d ∗ ) *
100
vR() = 0.12d ∗ (3 + 70)
2. Grit Chambers
As stated earlier, the grit chambers are the sedimentation basins placed either before the screens
or after the screens, but certainly, prior to the primary sedimentation tank. The grit chamber
removes the inorganic grit, such as sand, gravel, and other mineral matter that has a nominal
diameter of 0.15 to 0.20 mm or larger. Actually, grit will also include smaller mineral particles
that may settle, as well as non-putrescible organic matter, such as rags, coffee grounds, vegetable
cuttings, ash clinker, wood pieces, and tea leaves. Even though, some of the grit components,
such as coffee grounds are organic, they are essentially non-biodegradable over time spans
involved here in grit collection and disposal. The quality and quantity of grit in the sewage
determine the design factors and choice of grit removal method.
The amount of grit collected is a function of the removal device, its operation, and the quantity
of grit in the sewage, and therefore, it varies over a wider range. The grit quantity may vary
between 0.004 - 0.037m3/1000m3 of sewage for separate sewage system; while this may range
between 0.004 - 0.180 m3/1000 m3 for combined sewage system.
44
Generally, grit chambers are designed to remove all particles with a nominal diameter of 0.02mm
having settling velocity of about 2.3cm/s (at 10ºc); although some grit removal devices are
designed to remove 0.15mm sand particles having settling velocity of about 1.3cm/s (at 10°c).
It is not at all desirable to remove any organic matter in grit chambers, because no further
treatment of removed grit is provided. The grit chamber must hence, be designed to scour the
lighter organic particles, and while the heavier grit particles remain settled.
Grit chambers or Grit channels, as they are sometimes called, are designed to have constant
velocity horizontal flow at varying discharges. The constant velocity is achieved by providing a
velocity control section, such as a proportional flow weir at the effluent end of a rectangular
chamber; or a parshall flume (venturi flume) in a parabolic (or V) shaped chamber, as discussed
below:
i. Constant Velocity Horizontal Flow Grit Chambers.

Such a grit channel is an enlarged channel or a long basin, in which the cross-section is increased,
so as to reduce the flow velocity of sewage to such an extent that the heavy inorganic materials
do settle down by gravity, and the lighter organic materials remain in suspension, and, thus, go
out along with the effluent of the grit basin. The important point in the design of the grit basins is
that the flow velocity should neither be too low as to cause the settling of lighter organic matter,
nor should it be so high as not to cause the settlement of the entire silt and grit present in sewage.
The flow velocity should also be enough to scour out the settled organic matter, and reintroduce
it into the flow stream. Such a critical scouring velocity is, infact, given by the modified Shield's
formula, which states that
Critical scour velocity
= V = 3 to 4.5gd(G − 1)
For grit particles of 0.2mm (d), the above formula gives critical velocity values of 0.11 to
0.25m/sec. This fixes the limits for optimum flow velocity for design of grit basins. In practice, a
flow velocity of about 0.25 to 0.3m/sec is adopted for the design of grit basins.
In order to prevent large increase in flow velocity at peak hours due to increased discharge, and
thus, to avoid the scouring of the settled grit particles from the bottom, it is preferable to design
the grit chambers for D.W.F. (Dry weather flow), and to provide additional units for taking
increased discharge at peak hours. If, however, a single unit is to be designed, or there are large
variations in discharge, then the grit chamber is designed for generating optimum velocity at
peak discharge and a velocity control section, such as a proportional flow weir or a parshall
flume venturiflume), is provided at the lower (effluent) end of the grit channel, which helps in
varying the flow area of the section in direct proportion to the flow, and thus, helps to maintain a
45
constant velocity in the channel (within the permissible limits of ±5 to 10% over the designed
value), even at varying discharges.
When a proportioning flow weir is used as a velocity control device, then a rectangular cross-
section is required for the grit channel; but however, when a parshall flume is used as a velocity
control device, then a parabolic cross-section is required for the grit channel, in order to keep the
flow velocity constant, as shown in Figure 3-4(a) and (b).
Figure 3-4 Velocity control sections for horizontal grit channels
3. Design of a Rectangular Grit Chamber provided with a Proportioning Weir at Effluent

End
The depth and detention time provided for a grit basin are inter dependent, and are based on the
considerations of settling velocity of inorganic particles through water. A detention time of about
40 to 60 seconds is generally sufficient for a water depth of about 1 to 1.8m. After fixing the
depth and the detention time, we can easily design the dimensions of a rectangular chamber, as
its length will then be equal to velocity * detention time.
As stated earlier, generally two to three separate chambers in parallel (as shown in Figure 3-5)
should be provided; one to pass the low flow, and the other to pass (along with the first of course)
the high flow. This will also help in manual cleaning of the chambers, as one unit can work,
while the other is shut down for cleaning.
46
Figure 3-5 Modem rectangular grit chamber (not showing scraper arrangements)
The grit chambers can be cleaned periodically at about 3 weeks interval, either manually,
mechanically or hydraulically Hand cleaning is done only in case of smaller plants (of capacity
less than about 4.5 million liters per day), while mechanical or hydraulic cleaning is adopted for
larger plants. In manual cleaning, grit is removed by shovels, etc., by hand; in mechanical
cleaning, grit is removed with the help of machines; and in hydraulic cleaning, grit is removed by
the force of water -jet directed from a central point and removed through the pipes in the side
walls or bottom of the chamber.
The removed grit may contain some organic matter, and can be washed prior to its disposal, if
necessary, by using certain patented machines, and the wash water returned to the plant influent.
Washed grit may still contain about 1 to 5% of putrescible organic matter.
The silt and grit, etc. removed by the grit chambers can be easily disposed of either by burial or
burning (incineration) or for raising law lying areas by dumping. It cannot be used for
preparation of concrete, as it contains sufficient organic matter.
Example 3-2
A grit chamber is designed to remove particles with a diameter of 0.2mm, specific gravity 2.65.
Settling velocity for these particles has been found to range from 0.016 to 0.022m/sec, depending
on their shape factor. A flow through velocity of 0.3m/sec will be maintained by proportioning
weir. Determine the channel dimensions for a maximum wastewater flow of 10,000cu m/day.
Solution
Let us provide a rectangular channel section, since a proportional flow weir is provided for
controlling velocity of flow.
47
Horizontal velocity of flow = Vh = 0.3m/sec.

Settling velocity is between 0.016 to 0.022 m/sec, and hence let it be 0.02m/sec.
Q = velocity ∗ crosssection = V¢ ∗ A
Where, Q = 10,000cu m/day = 0.116m3/sec
Therefore,
0.116 = 0.3 ∗ A
0.116
A= = 0.385 m
0.3
Assuming a depth of 1m, we have the width (B) of the basin as
1 ∗ B = 0.385
B = 0.385m ≅ 0.4m
Settling velocity
Vs = 0.02m/sec
Depth of the basin 1
Detention time = = = 50sec
Settling velocity 0.02
Length of the tank = V¢ ∗ Detention time = 0.3 ∗ 50m = 15m
Hence, use a rectangular tank, with dimensions:
Length (L = 15m) Width (B = 0.4m) and Depth (D = 1.0m)
Example 3-3
Design a suitable grit chamber cum Detritus tank for a sewage treatment plant getting a dry
weather flow from a separate sewerage system @400 1/s. Assume the flow velocity through the
tank as 0.2m/sec and detention period of 2 minutes. The maximum flow may be assumed to be
three times of dry weather flow.
Solution
The length of the tank
= Velocity ∗ Detention time = 0.2 ∗ (2 ∗ 60) = 24m
Assuming that each detritus tank is designed for passing D.W.F,
The discharge passing through each tank
= 400[/s = 0.4m, /sec
Therefore, Cross-sectional area required
Discharge 0.4
= = = 2m
Velocity 0.2
Assuming the water depth in the tank to be 1.2m,
The width of the tank
48
Area of cross section 2

= = = 1.67m ≅ 1.7m
Depth 1.2
Hence, use a Detritus tank with 24m*1.7m*1.2m size.
At the top, a free-board of 0.3m may be provided; and at the bottom, a dead space depth of
0.45m for collection of detritus may be provided.
Thus, the overall depth of the tank = 1.2 + 0.3 + 0.45 = 1.95m.
The tank will be 1. 7m wide up to 1.5m depth, and then the sides will slope down to form an
elongated trough of 24m length and 0.8m width at the bottom with rounded corners, as shown in
figure below.
4. Design of Parabolic Grit Chamber provided with a Parshall Flume

i. Parshall Flume
A parshall flume, also called a venturi-flume, is a horizontally constricted vertical throat in an
open channel, as shown in Figure 3-6. Such a venturi-flume, as we know, can be used as a
discharge measuring device, and also as a velocity control device. This device is made use of for
its latter purpose in a grit channel. .
The venturi-flume, as a velocity control device, is preferable (to the proportional flow weir, etc.,
as it involves negligible head loss, and can also work under submerged conditions for certain
limits.
49
Figure 3-6 Parshall flume

These limits of submergence are: 50% in case of 0 .15m throat width, and 70% for wider throat
widths up to 1m. Another advantage of a venturi-flume is, that: one control section can be
installed for 2 to 3 grit chambers. Moreover, the venturi-flume is a self cleaning device, and there
is no problem of clogging.
The discharge passing through a parshall flume of the type shown in Figure 3-6, is related to the
water head (i.e. upstream water depth) by the formula:
Q = 2.264 W ∗ (HP ),/
Where, W = the width of the throat in m
Q = Flow in m3/sec
Ha = Depth of flow in upstream leg of flume at one third point in m.
The above equation is applicable to flumes of 0.3m to 3m in width.
Typical design dimensions for parshall flumes are given in Table 3-2.
50
Table 3-2 Standard dimensions for parshall flumes (with respect to Figure 3-6) in cm
Flow range
Throat
maximum in A A1 C C1 F G K N
width W
106 l/sec
Up to 5 7.5 46.0 45.0 17.5 25.5 15.0 60.0 2.5 5.6
5 - 30 15.0 61.0 60.0 31.5 39.1 30.0 60.0 7.5 11.3
30 - 45 22.5 86.5 85.0 37.5 56.6 30.0 75.0 7.5 11.3
45 - 170 30.0 135.0 132.2 60.0 83.1 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5
170 - 250 45.0 142.5 139.7 75.0 101.0 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5
250 - 350 60.0 150.0 147.2 90.0 118.8 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5
350 - 500 90.0 165.0 161.9 120.0 154.7 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5
500 - 700 120.0 180.0 176.6 150.0 190.6 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5
700 - 850 150.0 210.0 206.0 210.0 262.5 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5
850 - 1400 240.0 240.0 235.3 270.0 334.4 60.0 90.0 7.5 22.5
ii. Parabolic Grit Channel
In order to maintain a constant horizontal flow velocity (¦§ ) through a grit channel, we have to
ensure that the cross-sectional area of the channel changes with the changed discharge in direct
proportion to the change in discharge. Thus, if x is taken along the width side and y is taken
along the depth side of a channel x-section, then the cross-section must be such that
Q
V¢ = Q = constant = C
¨ xdy
Also, the discharge through the velocity control section, placed at the down end of the grit
channel, in general, is given by the equation
ª = X ∗ « ¬
Where, n is the discharge coefficient of the control section; 1.5 for venturi-flume, and 1 for
proportional flow weir (also called Sutro weir).
Equating Q from equations (9.4) and (9.5), we get
Q
C E xdy = C ∗ y O

C xy = C ∗ y O
C x
y O+ =
C
y O+ = C ∗ x
For a parshall flume, n = 1.5,
51
« .2+ = X ∗ x
« = X ∗ x
Hence, when parshall flume is used as the velocity control device, then the channel section
should be governed by equation « = X ∗ x (x representing width, and y representing depth);
which is a parabolic section.
Hence, a parabolic channel section has to be designed, when we provide a parshall flume as a
velocity control device. The method of designing the dimensions of a parabolic grit channel is
explained in example 9.4.
If a rectangular channel is used instead of a parabolic channel, then its width is constant:
i.e. x = k. Then, using equation (9.6),
« ¬+ = X ∗ x = X ∗ ®
« ¬+ = X
¯−1=0
¯=1
Hence, for a rectangular channel section, we need a control section, such as a Sutroweir,
whose discharge equation is of the form ª = ∗ « where K is a constant.
Example 3-4
Design a grit chamber for a horizontal velocity of 25cm/sec and a flow which ranges
from a minimum of 25000cum/day to a maximum of 100,000cu-m/day. Average flow is
62500cu-m/day.
Solution
Let us adopt 4 grit channels, each designed to carry discharges as:
2
(i) Minimum discharge =
= 6,250cu m/day
,,
(ii) Normal maximum discharge =
= 25,000cu m/day
/ 2
(iii) Average discharge =
= 15,625cu m/day
(iv) Let each unit be designed to carry a peak discharge of 1.33 times the normal maximum
discharge,= 1.33 ∗ 25000 = 33,325 cu. m/day
Let a vertically controlled flume be used to maintain constant velocity. The flow in the
control section is assumed to be at critical depth.
Let us now design the parabolic channel X-section:
For a parabolic channel,

Area of cross-section = ° = , ± ∗
Where, B = Top width and D = Depth.
52
²
Since ° = ; and Vh = 0.25m/sec,
³´
(For all discharges), we can easily work out, A values corresponding to peak, maximum,
average, and minimum discharges.
Therefore,
Q¶FP·
A for Q¶FP· (A¶FP· ) =
0.25
33325 1 0.386
= ∗ = = 1.54m
24 x 60 x 60 0.25 0.25
Similarly,
QSP¸
A for QSP¸ (ASP¸ ) =
0.25
25000 1 0.289
= ∗ = = 1.16m
24 x 60 x 60 0.25 0.25
QP¹F
A for QP¹F (AP¹F ) =
0.25
15625 1 0.181
= ∗ = = 0.72m
24 x 60 x 60 0.25 0.25
QSNO
A for QSNO (ASNO ) =
0.25
6250 1 0.072
= ∗ = = 0.29m
24 x 60 x 60 0.25 0.25
At maximum discharge
Let us limit the maximum width of the channel to 1.5m at Qmax
Then,
2 2
ASP¸ = ± ∗ DSP¸ = ∗ 1.5 ∗ DSP¸
3 3
Equating eqn. (ii) and (v), we have
2
1.16 = ∗ 1.5 ∗ DSP¸
3
1.16 ∗ 3
DSP¸ = = 1.16Y
2 ∗ 1.5
The total energy upstream of control section is given by:
¦
º = +
2Z
(Neglecting velocity of approach in the channel)
º =
Hence at maximum discharge
53
º = DSP¸ = 1.16Y
Total energy at critical point i.e. at the point of jump formation:
v»
= E» = y» + + HC
2g
Where, HL is the energy or head loss in jump
Assuming that the head loss in control section (HL) is 10% of the velocity head in the control
section, we have
v»
HC = 0.1
2g
v» v»
E» = y» + + 0.1
2g 2g
But, in the control section, at critical depth,
v»
y» =
g
v» v» v» v»
E» = + + 0.1 = 1.55
g 2g 2g g
Using Bernoulli's theorem,
Total energy at upstream point in channel
= Total energy at critical point in control section
v»
E = E» = 1.55
g
From equation 6.9, E1 = D
Hence,
v»
D = 1.55
g
Using the value of Dmax, as equal to 1.16 at maximum discharge,
1.16 ∗ 9.81
V» at Q SP¸ = = 2.71m/sec
1.55
V» at Q SP¸ 2.71
y» at Q SP¸ = = = 0.74m
g 9.81
The discharge through the control section is:
Q = (W ∗ y» ) V»
Where, W is the throat width; and W*yc is the flow area of the throat.
54
Q
W=
y» ∗ V»
QSP¸ 0.289
W= = = 0.144m ≅ 1.5m
y» ∗ V» (both at QSP¸ ) 0.74 ∗ 2.71
Let us use throat width W = 0.15m.
For other flow conditions:
Using the above used two formulas,
v»
y» =
g
Q = W ∗ y» ∗ V»
Q
V» =
W ∗ y»
Q
¼W ∗ y ½
y» = »
g
Q
y» =
V
gW
Knowing Q and W, we can find yc at different discharges.
From eqn. (9.13) derived above,
v»
D = 1.55 = 1.55y»
g
Knowing yc at different discharges, we can find D at different discharges.
Then finally, for a parabolic section,
2
A= B∗D
3
A
B = 1.5
D
Knowing A at various discharges, already computed, we can find B at different discharges,
because D is known at different discharges.
The values of B are, thus, calculated for other discharges, as shown in table below.
55
-
A
Q B = 1.5
y» = D = 1.55y» D
Q V
gW
Condo 3 Q in m3/sec A m2
m /day
where W = 0.15
Peak 33,325 0.386 1.54 0.88 1.36 1.70*
Average 15625 0.181 0.72 0.53 0.82 1.32
Minimum 6250 0.072 0.29 0.29 0.45 0.97
Maximum 25000 0.289 1.16 0.72 1.12 1.56
In place of 0.74
calculated earlier due
to adoption of 0.15m
as the value of W
instead of 0.144)
*Limited to 1.55 m.
With B and D values, computed
puted in col. (6) and (7) of the above table, we can draw the parabolic
section, which is approximated to a practical trapezoidal section, as shown in Figure 3-7.
Figure 3-7 Grit channel section

5. Detritus Tanks
Detritus tanks are nothing but rectangular grit chambers, designed to flow with a smaller flow
velocity (of about 0.09m/sec) and longer detention periods (about 3 to 4 minutes) so as to
separate out not only the larger grit, etc., but also to separate out the very fine sand particles, etc.
Due to this, a large amount of organic matter will also settle out along with the inorganic grit,
sand, etc. This organic material is then separated from the grit by control of currents in the tank
56
through baffles, or by controlled aeration of the flow through the tank. The rising air bubbles will
then separate the lighter organic matter from the descending grit. The grit is removed con-
tinuously by means of scraper mechanism. All other details of detritus tanks remain the same as
those of a rectangular grit chamber.
3.1.3 Tanks for Removing Oils and Grease

1. Skimming Tanks
Skimming tanks are sometimes employed for removing oils and grease from the sewage, and
placed before the sedimentation-tanks. They are, therefore, used where sewage contains too
much of grease or oils, which include fats, waxes, soaps, fatty acids, etc. These materials may
enter into the sewage from the kitchens of restaurants and, houses, from motor garages, oil
refineries, soap and candle factories, etc. They are, thus, normally present in large amounts in the
industrial wastewaters.
If such greasy and oily matter is not removed from the sewage before it enters further treatment
units, it may form unsightly and odorous scums on the surface of the settling tanks, or interfere
with the activated sludge treatment process, and inhibit biological growth on the trickling filters.
These oil and greasy materials may be removed in a skimming tank, in which air is blown by an
aerating device through the bottom. The rising air tends to coagulate and congeal (solidify) the
grease, and cause it to rise to the surface (being pushed in separate compartments), from where it
is removed.
The typical details of a skimming tank are shown in Fig. 9.10. It consists of a long trough shaped
structure divided into two or three lateral compartments by means of vertical baffle walls (having
slots in them) for a short distance below the sewage surface, as shown. The baffle walls help in
pushing the rising coagulated greasy material into the side compartments (called stilling
compartments). The rise of oils and grease is brought about by blowing compressed air into the
sewage from diffusers placed at the bottom of the tank.
The collected greasy materials are removed (i.e. skimmed off either by hand or by some
mechanical equipment. It may then be disposed of either by burning or burial.
Sewage enters the tank from one end, flows through longitudinally, and finally goes out through
a narrow inclined duct, as shown. This is so narrow that the suspended heavier particles are
carried up its slope and out of the tank. A detention period of about 3 to 5 minutes is usually
sufficient, and the amount of compressed air required is about 300 to 6000m3 per million liters
¾
of sewage. The surface area required for the tank can be found out by using the formula:
° = 0.00622 ∗
¦¿
Where, q = Rate of flow of sewage in m3/day
57
Vr = Minimum rising velocity of greasy material to be removed in m/minute

= 0.25m/minute in most cases
The efficiency of a skimming tank can be increased cconsiderably
onsiderably (three to four times) by passing
chlorine gas (2mg/liter of sewage) along with the compressed air. Chlorine may also be added as
a solution with the sewage discharge, just ahead of the air diffuser plates. The action of chlorine
is to destroy the
he protective colloidal effect of protein, which holds the grease in emulsified form.
2. Vacuators
Grease can also be removed from the sewage by vacuum floatation method, by subjecting the
aerated sewage to a vacuum pressure of about 00-25cm of mercury forr 10 to 15 minutes in a
vacuator. This causes the air bubbles to expand and move upward through the sewage to the
surface. The rising bubbles lift the grease and the lighter waste solids to the surface, where they
are removed through skimming troughs. HeavHeavier
ier solids settle to the tank bottom, where they are
collected and carried away for sludge treatment and dis
disposal.
3. Disposal of Skimmings
The oil and greasy material removed as skimmings from the skim
skimming
ming tanks or vacuators can be
disposed of either by burning or burial. It is generally too polluted to be of any economic use.
However, it may sometimes be converted in to soap lubricants, candles and other non-edible
non
products. It may sometimes be digested in digesters, which prove beneficial only if the mineral
mi
oils are less in amount, and vegetable and organic matters predominate. The latter digest easily,
and produce gases of high fuel value.
58
3.2 Primary Wastewater Treatment
Primary treatment consists in removing large suspended organic solids. This is usually
accomplished by sedimentation in settling basins.
The liquid effluent from primary treatment, often contains a large amount of suspended organic
material, and has a high BOD (about 60% of original).
Sometimes, the preliminary as well as primary treatments are classified together, under primary
treatment.
The organic solids which are separated out in the sedimentation tanks (in primary treatment) are
often stabilized by anaerobic decomposition in a digestion tank or are incinerated. The residue is
used for landfills or soil conditioners.
3.2.1 Sedimentation
1. Necessity of Sedimentation in Treatment of Wastewaters
As discussed in the previous pages, the screens and the grit chambers do remove most of the
floating materials (like paper, rags, cloth, wood, tree branches, etc.) and the heavy inorganic
settleable solids from the sewage. However, a part of the suspended organic solids which are too
heavy to be removed as floating matters, and too light to be removed by grit chambers (designed
to remove only the heavy inorganic solids of size more than 0.2 mm, and of sp. gravity 2.65), are
generally removed by the sedimentation tanks. The sedimentation tanks are thus designed to
remove a part of the organic matter from the sewage effluent coming out from the grit chambers.
In a complete sewage treatment, the sedimentation is, in fact, carried out twice; once before the
biological treatment (i.e. primary sedimentation) and once after the biological treatment (i.e.
secondary sedimentation). When chemical coagulants are also used for flocculating the organic
matter during the process of sedimentation, the process is called chemical precipitation or
sedimentation aided with coagulation. This is generally not used in modern days, as discussed,
later.
Other sewage treatment units which work on the principle of sedimentation are: Septic tanks,
Imhoff tanks, etc. Septic tanks and Imhoff tanks combine sludge digestion with sedimentation,
whereas the sludge deposited in primary as well as in the secondary settling tanks, is separately
digested in the sludge-digestion tanks.
2. Sedimentation Tanks
The clarification of sewage by the process of 'sedimentation' can be affected by providing
conditions under which the suspended material present in sewage can settle out. This is brought
about in specially designed tanks called sedimentation tanks.
59
Out of the three forces which control the settling tendencies of the particles (enumerated earlier),
the two forces i.e. the velocity of flow, and the shape and size of the particles, are tried to be
controlled in these settling tanks. The third force i.e. the viscosity of sewage or the temperature
of sewage is left uncontrolled, as the same is not practically possible.
The velocity of flow can be reduced by increasing the length of travel travel,, and by detaining the
particle for a longer time in the sedimen
sedimentation
tation basin. The size and the shape of the particles can
be altered by the addition of certain chemicals in water. These chemicals are called coagulants,
and they make the sedimentation quit quitee effective leading to the settlement of even very fine and
colloidal particles. However, their use is not made in "Plain Sedimentation" (or generally
general called
"sedimentation"), but is being made in the process called "chemical precipitation" or
"sedimentation
ion with coagulation". This will be discussed later.
Sedimentation basins are thus designed for effecting settlement of particles by reducing the flow
velocity or by detaining the sewage in them. They are generally made of reinforced concrete and
may be rectangular
ectangular or circular in plan. Long narrow rectangular tanks with horizontal flow
(Figure 3-8)) are generally preferred to the circular tanks with radial or spiral flow (Figure
( 3-9).
Figure 3-8 Rectangular sedimentation tank
The capacity and other dimensions of the tank should be properly designed, so as to affect a
fairly high percentage of removal of the suspended organi
organicc material. A plain sedimentation tank
under normal conditions may remove about 60 to 65% of the suspended solids, and 30 to 35% of
the BOD from the sewage.
i. Types of Sedimentation Tanks

Sedimentation tanks may function either intermittently or continuously
continuously.
The Intermittent settling tanks called quiescent type tanks are simple settling tanks which store
sewage for a certain period and keep it in complete rest. After giving it a rest of about 24hours,
during which the suspended particles settle down to the bottom of the tank, the cleaner sewage
60
from the top may be drawn off and the tank be cleaned off the settled silt. The tank is again filled
with raw sewage to continue the next operation. This type of tank, thus, functions intermittently
as a period of aboutut 30 to 36 hours is required to put the tank again in working condition. This
necessitates
sitates the commissioning of at least two tanks. Such tanks are generally not preferred,
because a lot of time and labor is wasted and more units are required
required. They have, therefore,
become comp1etely obsolete these days.
In a continuous flow type of a sedimentation tank, which is generally used in modem days, the
flow velocity is only reduced, and the sewage is not brought to complete rest, as is done in an
intermittent type.
ype. The working of such a tank is simple, as the water enters from one end, and
comes out from the other end. The velocity is sufficiently reduced by providing sufficient length
of travel. The velocity is so adjusted that the time taken by the particle to travel from one end to
another is slightly more than the time required for settlement of that particle. The theory and
design of such a tank is discussed below in details.
Figure 3-9 Circular sedimentatio

sedimentation tank
ii. Design of a Continuous Flow Type of a Sedimentation Tank

In the theory which is applied to the design of such sedimen
sedimentation
tation basins, it is assumed that the
sediment is uniformly distributed
tributed as the sewage enters the basin. In Figure 3--10, let the water
containing uniformly distributed sediment, enters the rectangular tank with a uniform velocity V.
If Q is the discharge entering the basin, the flow velocity V is given by:
Q
V=
BH
Where, B = Width of the basin,sin, and
H = Depth of sewage in the tank
61
Figure 3-10 Elevation of a rectangular sedimentation tank

Now, every discrete particle is moving with a horizontal velocity V and a downward vertical
velocity
elocity VS. The resultant path is given by the vector sum of its flow velocity (V) and its settling
velocity (Vs).
Assuming that all those particles, whose paths of travel are above the line BD, will pass through
the basin, we have from geometric consider
considerations:
¦ a
=
¦ _
¦∗_
¦ =
a
From equation (9.25)
_ ª ª
¦ = ∗ =
a ±_ ±a
À
It shows that all those particles with a settling velocity equal to or greater than 9C will settle
down, and be removed. In other words, no particle havi
having
ng a settling velocity more than or equal
À
to 9C will remain suspended in such a tank.
À
It was mentioned above, that a particle having settling velocity greater than or equal to 9C will be
removed. In fact, it was the case when the particle entering at full' height H of the tank was
À
considered. Truly speaking, even the smaller particles having settling velocities lower than 9C
will also settle down, if they happen to enter at some other height h of the tank. In that case,
when the particles are entering
ntering at some other height h of the tank, all those particles having their
¢ À
settling velocities ≥ 9C will settle down.
62
If yo represents the number of particles of a given size that are settled out, and y being the total
number of particles of that size, then the percentage of that particular sized particles which shall
Qh ¢
Q
be remove is ; and is equal to for an assumed uniform distribution of particles. Hence, if 70%
of particles of a given size are proposed to be removed in a settling tank, then the settling
À À
∗
9C 9C
velocity of that sized particles must be kept ≥ . In other words must be kept less than

equal to * settling velocity of that sized particle.
À
9C
It, therefore, follows that the quantity i.e. the discharge per unit of plan area is a very
important term for the design of continuous flow type of settling tanks; and is known as over
flow rate or surface loading or overflow velocity.
Normal values of overflow rates ranges between 40,000 and 50,000 liters/sq.m/day for plain
primary sedimentation tanks; and between 50,000 and 60,000 liters/sqm/day for sedimentation
tanks using coagulants as aids and about 25,000 to 35,000 liters/sqm/day for secondary
sedimentation tanks.
Decreasing the overflow rate will lead to the settlement of even those particles which are having
lower values of their settling velocities. Hence, smaller particles will also settle down, if the
overflow rate is reduced. Further, with a given Q, the overflow rate can be reduced by increasing
the plan area of the basin. It therefore, follows that an increase in the plan area (i.e. width x
length) will increase the efficiency of sedimentation tank; and theoretically speaking, depth does
not have any effect on the efficiency of sediment removal. However, it is important for practical
considerations, and also for making allowance for deposition of sludge and silt.
Usual values of effective depth (i.e. depth excluding the bottom sludge zone) range between 2.4
and 3.6m (generally not exceeding 3m).
Another important term, which is used in connection with the design of sedimentation basins, is
its detention time or detention period or retention period. The detention time (t) of a settling tank
may be defined as the average theoretical time required for the sewage to flow through the tank.
It is, this, the time that would be required for the flow of sewage to fill the tank, if there was no
outflow. In other words, it is the average time for which the sewage is detained in the tank.
Hence, it is the ratio of the volume of the basin to the rate of flow (i.e. discharge) through the
basin.
Therefore,
Detention time, t, for a Rectangular tank
Volume of the tank B∗L∗H
= =
Rate of {low Q
Similarly, the detention time for a circular tank
63
d (0.011d + 0.785H)
=
Q
Where, d = Diameter of the tank
H = Vertical depth at wall or side water depth.
The detention time for a sewage sedimentation tank usually ranges between 1 to 2 hours. The
lower value of detention period (i.e. 1 hour) is generally adopted when the activated sludge treat-
ment is used in secondary treatment after the sedimentation; and the higher and more normal
value (i.e. 2 hours) is generally adopted when the trickling filters are used as the secondary
treatment.
Larger detention periods will result in higher efficiency; but too long a period induces septic
conditions, and should be avoided. However, if the secondary sedimentation is to be avoided, a

longer detention period of about 2 hours to 3 hours may be adopted.
The width of the tank is normally kept at about 6m, and not allowed to exceed 7.5m or so. The
length of the tank is generally not allowed to exceed 4 to 5 times the width. The cross-sectional
area of the sedimentation tank is such as to provide a horizontal flow velocity of about
0.3m/minute. The total amount of flow from the tank within 24 hours generally equals the
maximum daily flow of sewage.
The maximum diameter of a circular tank may be kept 60m or so.
iii. Short Circuiting in the Sedimentation Tanks

For the efficient removal of sediment in the sedimentation tanks, it is necessary that the flow is
uniformly distributed throughout the cross-section of the tank. If currents, on the other hand,
permit a substantial portion of the water to pass directly through the tank without being detained
for the intended time, the flow is said to be short circuited. Properly designed inlets and outlets
near the entrance and the exit may reduce the short circuiting tendencies, and distribute the flow
more evenly. Moreover, relatively narrow tanks are less affected by inlet and outlet disturbances,
and by currents caused by breezes.
But however, in actual practice, certain amount of short circuiting will always exist, and,
therefore, the actual average time taken by a batch of water in passing through a settling tank
(called flowing through period) will always be less than the detention period, which is the
corresponding theoretical time. The ratio of the 'flowing through period' to the 'detention period'
is called the Displacement efficiency.
Flowing through period
Displacement ef{iciency (%) =
Detention period
64
Note: In order to counteract the effects of short circuiting, it may be necessary to keep a high
detention period or a smaller surface loading than that obtained from the theoretical
considerations for obtaining the desired results.
iv. Constructional Details of the Sedimentation Tanks

The following features of such tanks need special attention:
a. Inlet and Outlet Arrangement

In order to reduce short circuiting, and to distribute the flow uniformly, proper arrangement
must be made for smooth entry of water. A most suitable type of an inlet for a rectangular
settling tank is in the form of a channe
channell extending to full width of the tank, with a
submerged weir type baffle wall, as shown in Figure 3-12.
Figure 3-11 Section of a submerged type or a weir type inle

inlet
A similar type of outlet arrangement is also used these days. It consists of an outlet channel
extending for full width of the tank and receiving the water after it has passed over a weir, as
shown in Figure 3-12.
Figure 3-12 Section of a submerged type or weir type outlet
65
b. Baffles
Baffles are required to prevent the movement of organic matter and its escape along with
the effluent; and to distribute the sewage uniformly through the cross-section of the tank,
and thus to avoid short circuiting. Both inlets and outlets are, therefore, protected by
hanging baffles, 0 to 90 cm in front of them, and submerged 45 to 60 cm below the flow
line, as shown in Figure 3-8. Some other arrangement of placing baffles may be designed,
but it should not be too complicated. Moreover, too many baffles may result in
concentration of currents and is as bad as too fewer baffles are.
c. Skimming Troughs
When the amount of oils and greasy matter present in sewage is small, it is generally
uneconomical to provide a separate skimming tank. In such cases, a skim trough is
generally provided in the sedimentation tank itself, near its outlet end, as shown in Figure
3-8.
In manually operated tanks, the skimming that float to the surface may be pushed into the
trough by squeezes with hand. Whereas, in mechanically operated tanks (such as in
Figure 3-8), the skimming may be pushed by the same scraper blades which collect the
sludge while moving along the bottom, and push the skimming into the end trough, when
they move near the surface along with the endless chain to which they are attached.
d. Cleaning and Sludge Removal
The suspended organic solids contained in sewage, settle down at the bottom of the
sedimentation tank, and have to be removed periodically. The removal of the deposited
sludge before it becomes stale and septic is necessary not only because it reduces the
capacity of the tank and its detention period, but also because it leads to the evolution of
foul gases formed due to the anaerobic decomposition of the settled organic matter. The
sedimentation tanks are, therefore, cleaned from time to time at frequent intervals, either
manually or they are provided with mechanical arrangements for cleaning.
Modern sedimentation tanks, however, are generally provided with mechanical cleaning devices.
For example, in Figure 3-8, the sludge is scraped by scrapers and brought to the hopper at the
outlet end, and is removed daily or often. The scrapers can work either continuously or at any
desired intervals of time. Similarly, in a circular tank (Figure 3-9), the sludge is scraped and
brought to the centre, and likewise removed. For tanks without mechanical sludge removing
equipment, an additional minimum depth of about 0.8 to 1.2 m should be provided for storage of
settled materials, and is called sludge zone.
66
Example 3-5
Design a suitable rectangular sedimentation tank (provided with mechanical cleaning equipment)
for treating the sewage from a city, provided with an assured public water supply system, with a
maximum daily demand of 12 million liters per day. Assume suitable values of detention period
and velocity of flow in the tank. Make any other assumptions, wherever needed.
Solution
Assuming that 80% of water supplied to the city becomes sewage, we have the quantity of
sewage required to be treated per day (i.e. maximum daily).
= 0.8 *12 million liters = 9.6*106liters
Now assuming the detention period in the sewage sedimentation tank as 2 hours,
The quantity of sewage to be treated in 2 hours i.e. the capacity of the tank required
9.6
Q= ∗ 2 ∗ 10/ litres = 0.8 ∗ 10/ litres = 800cu. m
24
Assuming that the flow velocity through the tank is maintained at 0.3m/minute;
The length of the tank required
= Velocity of {low ∗ Detention period = 0.3 ∗ (2 ∗ 60)m = 36 m
Cross-sectional area of the tank required
Capacity of the tank 800
= = = 22.2 m
Length of the tank 36
Assuming the water depth in the tank (i.e. effective depth of tank) as 3m,
The width of the tank required
Area of cross section 22.2
= = = 7.4 m
Depth 3
Since the tank is provided with mechanical cleaning arrangement, no extra space at bottom is
required for sludge zone.
Assuming a free-board of 0.5m,
The overall depth of the tank
= 3 + 0.5 = 3.5m
Hence, a rectangular sedimentation tank with an overall size of 36m * 7.4m * 3.5m can be used.
Note: This satisfies the requirements like: length not more than 4 to 5 times the width; and the
width not more than 7.5m or so; the depth between 2.4 to 3.6m, etc.
Alternatively,
Instead of assuming the depth, we may assume an overflow rate as 40,000 liters/m2/day.
Q
= 40,000 liters/m /day
BL
67
Q 9.6 ∗ 10/
BL = = = 240m
40,000 40,000
240 240
B= = = 6.67m
L 36
Area of cross section 22.2
The depth required = = = 3.3m
Width 6.67
Hence, we can alternatively use a tank of dimensions 36m * 6.7m *(3.3 + 0.5m) overall depth i.e.
36m * 6.7m * 3.8m size.
3.2.2 Sedimentation Aided with Coagulation (Type II Sedimentation)

1. Chemical Precipitation and Coagulation
Very fine suspend particles, present in wastewaters, which cannot be removed in plain
sedimentation, may sometimes, be settled by increasing their size be changing them into
flocculated particles. For this purpose, certain chemical compounds (like ferric chloride, ferric
sulphate, alum, chlorinated copperas, etc.) called coagulants, are added to the wastewaters, which
on thorough mixing, form a gelatinous precipitate, called floc. The fine mud particles and other
colloidal matter present in wastewaters get absorbed in these floes, forming the bigger sized
flocculated particles. The process of addition and mixing of chemicals is called coagulation. The
coagulated sewage is then made to pass through sedimentation tank, where the flocculated
particles settle down, and get removed.
The characteristics and efficiency of the important coagulants used in sewage treatment are given
in Table 3-3.
68
Table 3-3 Properties of the important coagulants used in sewage treatment
B.O.D. SS removed
pH value
removed as Dosage
Name of required
.No. as percentage percentage required Remarks
coagulant for proper
of total of total in ppm
functioning
present present
80 - 90 90 - 95 25-35 5.5 to 7.0 This coagulant is widely used for
Ferric
l. sewage treatment, wherever,
chloride
coagulation is adopted.
60 80 35-40 8.0 to 8.5 Ferric sulphate has been found to be
more effective than chlorinated
Ferric
copperas, if used in conjunction
2. sulphate
with lime. Hence ferric chloride and
with lime
ferric sulphate are mainly used, as
coagulants in sewage.
60 80 40-90 6 to 8.5 It is generally not used in sewage
3. Alum although used for treating water
supplies on a large scale.
70-80 80--90 35-80 5.5 to 7.0 This coagulant is effective for
Chlorinated
4. and producing sludge for activated
copperas
9.0 to 9.5 sludge process.
2. Merits and Demerits of Coagulation Process in Sewage Treatment

As pointed out earlier, the coagulation process is generally not adopted in modern sewage
treatment plants, mainly because of the following reasons:
1. More advanced methods of sewage treatment based on biological actions are available
these days, and they are preferred to coagulation.
2. The coagulation process has various disadvantages, such as discussed below:
Disadvantages or Demerits of Coagulation in Sewage Treatment
(i) The biological secondary treatments used these days for treating sewage is complete in
themselves, and do not require coagulation. Moreover, coagulation rather makes some of
these processes more difficult.
(ii) The chemicals used in coagulation react with sewage, and during these reactions, they
destroy certain micro-organisms, which are helpful in digestion of the sludge, thus
creating difficulties in sludge digestion.
(iii) Cost of chemicals is added to the cost of sedimentation, without much use, and thereby
making the treatment costlier.
69
(iv) The process of coagulation and subsequent sedimentation produces larger quantities of
sludge than that produced in plain sedimentation, and thus adding to the problems of
sludge disposal.
(v) The process of coagulation requires skilled supervision and handling of chemicals.
In view of all these disadvantages, the coagulation of sewage has become obsolete these days. It
may still, however, be adopted in certain special cases, such as:
(a) For treating sewage from industries, using some specific chemicals in their processes.
(b) It is particularly advantageous, where there is large seasonal variation in sewage flow or as
an emergency measure to increase the capacity of an overloaded plain sedimentation tank.
The various advantages offered by the coagulation process are:
(i) Sedimentation aided with coagulation produces better effluent with lesser BOD and
suspended solids, as compared to plain sedimentation.
(ii) Coagulated settling tank requires less space than that required by an ordinary plain
settling tank.
(iii) Coagulation process may also remove the phosphates from sewage, which may help in
controlling eutrophication (the excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants in a
river stream. The nitrogen and phosphorous present in the sewage and industrial
effluents being discharged into the rivers, serve as fertilizing elements, which in the
presence of sun-light, stimulate the growth of algae and other aquatic plants) of river,
into which the effluent is being discharged.
70
Table 3-4 Preliminary and primary treatment unit functions and efficiencies
BOD Removal of Removal of

Disposal of
Type of Process or unit removal as SS and DS Bacterial load as
S.No Purification effected residuals
Treatment employed percentage as percentage percentage of
of original of original original
l. Preliminary (a) Removal of floating Coarse and fine 5-10 2 - 20 10 – 20 Screenings can be disposed of easily,
Treatment materials dead animals, screens of either by burials or burnings.
like tree branches, different designs
pieces of rags, wood
and other large sized
floating materials.
(b) Removal of heavy Grit chambers 10-20 20 - 40 10 - 20 The grit can be easily disposed of either
settleable inorganic or Detritus tanks by burials or burnings for raising low
solids. lying areas.
(c) Removal of fats and Skimming tanks 20-30 20 - 40 10 - 20 The skimming contains unstable
greases or Vacuators volatile organic materials and have to
disposed of by first stabilizing them in
digestion tanks by anaerobic process.
2 Primary Removal of suspended 30-35 60-65 25-75 Sludge containing organic material
(i) Sedimentation
Treatment settleable has to be stabilized first, in digestion
tanks or
organic solids tanks and the digested material is then
used as a manure or soil builder.
20-30 40-60 25-75 The effluents are generally disposed

(ii) Septic tanks
30-40 60-65 25-75 of for sewage farming on land. These
(iii) Imhoff tanks
units combine sludge digestion along
with sedimentation in these tanks.
71
4- SECONDARY/BIOLOGICAL AND TERTIARY WASTEWATER

TREATMENT
4.1 The Role of Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment
Micro-organisms, such as bacteria, play an important role in the natural cycling of materials and
particularly in the decomposition of organic wastes. The role of micro-organisms is elaborated
further here because they are also important in the treatment of wastewater. What is waste for
humans and higher vertebrates becomes a useful food substrate for the micro-organisms. In both
natural and engineered treatment systems micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and
crustaceans play an essential role in the conversion of organic waste to more stable less polluting
substances. They form what is termed a 'food chain'. For example inorganic and organic
substances in wastes are consumed by bacteria, fungi and algae. These are in turn consumed by
protozoa and nematodes (some fungi however trap nematodes) and the latter by rotifers.
In a natural water body, e.g. river or lake, the number and type of micro-organisms depends on
the degree of pollution. The general effect of pollution appears to be a reduction in species
numbers. For example in a badly polluted lake, there are fewer species but in larger numbers,
while in a healthy lake there can be many species present but in lower numbers.
Micro-organisms are always present in the environment and given the right conditions of food
availability, temperature and other environmental factors, they grow and multiply
(
Figure 4-1)
72
Figure 4-1 Generalized representation of growth of micro-organisms
Micro-organisms require cellular building blocks, such as (carbon) C, (hydrogen) H, (oxygen) O,

(nitrogen) N, (phosphorus) P, and minerals for growth. These can be obtained through
consuming organic substances containing these elements, or from inorganic materials, such as
carbon dioxide, water, nitrate and phosphate. Micro-organisms also require energy. They obtain
this through respiration. In this process organic carbon is oxidized to release its energy. Oxygen
or other hydrogen acceptors is needed for the respiration process. Algae and photosynthetic
bacteria can also utilize energy from sunlight, while certain types of bacteria can utilize energy
from chemical reactions not involving respiration. The building blocks and energy are used to
synthesize more cells for growth and also for reproduction.
In the treatment of wastewater three types of overall processes are distinguished to represent the
conversion of organic wastes by micro-organisms. The classification is based on whether the
environment where the process takes place is aerobic, anaerobic or photosynthetic. Under
aerobic conditions (in the presence of oxygen), micro-organisms utilize oxygen to oxidize
organic substances to obtain energy for maintenance, mobility and the synthesis of cellular
material. Under anaerobic conditions (in the absence of oxygen) the micro-organisms utilize
nitrates, sulphates and other hydrogen acceptors to obtain energy for the synthesis of cellular
material from organic substances. Photosynthetic organisms use carbon dioxide as a carbon
source, inorganic nutrients as sources of phosphate and nitrogen and utilize light energy to drive
the conversion process.
73
Micro-organisms also produce waste products, some of which are desirable and some
undesirable. Gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen are desirable, since they can be easily
separated and do not produce pollution. Gases such as hydrogen sulphide and mercaptans,
although easily separated require treatment for odour. Micro-organisms' cellular materials are
organic in nature and can also cause pollution. It would be desirable if the cellular materials have
undergone self oxidation (endogeneous respiration utilizing own body cells) to produce non-
biodegradable materials that are relatively stable. Self-oxidation is achieved when there is no
substrate/food available.
The microbiological conversion reactions of organic waste into cellular material can be
empirically represented as shown below.
(i) Conversion under aerobic conditions (see diagram below):
Under aerobic conditions ammonia is further oxidized to nitrate. Phosphorus and sulphur
contained in the organic substances are oxidized to phosphate and sulphate. These can be further
utilized by the micro-organisms for synthesis.
(ii) Conversion under anaerobic conditions (see diagram below):
Methane (CH4) is a useful gaseous by-product of anaerobic conversion, because it can be
combusted to produce heat/energy. On the other hand if it is released to the atmosphere without
being combusted, it contributes to the greenhouse gas effect.
(iii) Conversion under photosynthetic conditions:
74
Sunlight
aCO2 + rH2O + tNH3 Cw Hx Oy Nz + bO2
As shown by the conversion reactions (the utilization of organic wastes for food by micro-
organisms) the product is mainly the cellular material of the micro-organisms i.e. more
organisms are produced. The growth yield is the weight of micro-organisms produced per unit
weight of organic substances consumed by the micro-organisms. The growth yield depends on
the type of substrate and environmental conditions. The smaller the value of the growth yield the
better it is for waste treatment, because less sludge is produced which requires disposal. Its value
is usually between 0.2 and 0.5 for aerobic conversion, while the corresponding value for
anaerobic conversion is smaller.
4.1 Microbial Growth Kinetics
Prokaryotic organisms such as bacteria reproduce mainly by binary fission (i.e., each cell gives
two daughter cells). Growth of a microbial population is defined as an increase in numbers or an
increase in microbial mass. Growth rate is the increase in microbial cell numbers or mass per
unit time. The time required for a microbial population to double in numbers is the generation
time or doubling time, which may vary from minutes to days.
Microbial populations can grow as batch cultures (closed systems) or as continuous cultures
(open systems) (Marison, 1988a).
1. Batch Cultures
When a suitable medium is inoculated with cells, the growth of the microbial population follows
the growth curve displayed in Figure 4-2, which shows four distinct phases.
i. Lag Phase
The lag phase is a period of cell adjustment to the new environment. Cells are involved in the
synthesis of biochemicals and undergo enlargement. The duration of the lag phase depends on
the cells’ prior history (age, prior exposure to damaging physical or chemical agents, culture
medium).
75
Figure 4-2 Microbial growth curve

For example, no lag phase is observed when an exponentially growing culture is transferred to a
similar medium with similar growth conditions. Conversely, a lag period is observed when
damaged cells are introduced into the culture medium.
ii. Exponential Growth Phase (Log Phase)

The number of cells increases exponentially during the log phase. The exponential growth varies
with the type of microorganism and growth conditions (e.g., temperature, medium composition).
Under favorable conditions, the number of bacterial cells (e.g., Escherichia coli) double every
15 - 20 min. The growth follows a geometric progression
X @ = X eμ@
Where µ - specific growth rate (h-1),
Xt - cell biomass or numbers after time t, and
Xo - initial number or biomass of cells.
Using the natural logarithms on both sides of Eq. (2.20), we obtain
ln Æc = ln ÆÇ + Èv
Where µ is given by
ln Æc − ln ÆÇ
È=
v
If n is the number of population doublings (i.e., number of generations) after time t, the doubling
time td is given by
t
tB =
n
µ is related to the doubling time td by
ln 2 0.693
μ= =
tB tB
76
Cells in the exponential growth phase are more sensitive to physical and chemical agents than
those in the stationary phase.
iii. Stationary Phase

The cell population reaches the stationary phase because microorganisms cannot grow
indefinitely, mainly because of lack of nutrients and electron acceptors, and the production and
the accumulation of toxic metabolites. Secondary metabolites (e.g., certain enzymes, antibiotics)
are produced during the stationary phase. There is no net growth (cell growth is balanced by cell
death or lysis) of the population during the stationary phase.
iv. Death Phase

During this phase, the death (decay) rate of the microbial population is higher than the growth
rate. Cell death may be accompanied by cellysis. The viable count of microorganisms decreases,
although the turbidity of the microbial suspension may remain constant.
2. Continuous Culture of Microorganisms

So far, we have described the growth kinetics of batch cultures. Maintenance of microbial
cultures at the exponential growth phase over a long period of time can be achieved by growing
continuously the cells in a completely mixed reactor in which a constant volume is maintained.
The most commonly used device is the chemostat (Figure 4-3), which is essentially a complete-
mix bioreactor without recycle. In addition to the flow rate of growth-limiting substrate,
environmental parameters such as oxygen level, temperature, and pH are also controlled. The
substrate is added continuously at a flow rate Q to a reactor with a volume V containing
concentration X of microorganisms. The dilution rate D, the reciprocal of the hydraulic retention
time t, is given by
Q 1
D= =
V t
-1
Where D - dilution rate (time )
V - reactor volume (L)
Q - flow rate of substrate S (L/time), and
t - time
In continuous flow reactors, microbial growth is described by
dX
= μX − DX = X(μ − D) 4.2
dt
X @ = X e(μ+;)@
77
Figure 4-3 Chemostat for continuous culture of microorganisms

Equations (2.26) and (2.27) show that the supply rate of the limiting substrate controls the
specific growth rate µ. At D > µ max, we observe a decrease in cell concentration and a washout of
the population. Cell washout starts at the critical dilution rate Dc, which is approximately equal
to µ max.
The mass balance for X is given by
dX
V = μXV − QX 4.2
dt
μSP¸ S
= XV − QX 4.3
KR + S
At steady state
dX Q μSP¸ S
= 0… µ = D = =
dt V KR + S
At steady state, the substrate concentration S and the cell concentration X in the reactor are given
by eqn. 4.4 and 4.5 respectively
D
S = Ks 4.4
μSP¸ − D
X = Y(SN − SF ) 4.5
Where Y - growth yield,
78
Si - influent substrate concentration, and

Se - effluent substrate concentration
The steady state breaks down at very low or very high dilution rates.
3. Other Kinetic Parameters

There are three important parameters in microbial growth kinetics: growth yield Y, specific
growth rate m, and specific substrate uptake rate q.
Ë
c
The rate of increase of microorganisms in a culture ( ) is proportional to the rate of substrate
Ì
c
uptake/removal ( ) by microbial cells:
BÍ B8
= Y B@ 4.6
B@
Where Y - growth yield coefficient expressed as mg cells formed per mg of substrate used,
dX/dt -rate of increase in microorganism concentration (mg/L/day), and
dS/dt – rate of substrate removal (mg/L/day).
A more simplified equation showing the relationship between the three parameters is the
following:
μ = Yq 4.7
Where µ -specific growth rate (time-1),
Y - growth yield (mg cells formed per mg of substrate removed), and
q - substrate uptake rate (mg/L/day).
i. Growth Yield.
As shown above, growth yield is the amount of biomass formed per unit of amount of substrate
removed. It reflects the efficiency of conversion of substrate to cell material. The yield
coefficient Y is obtained as
Í+ÍÎ
Y=
8Î +8
4.8
Where So and S - initial and final substrate concentrations, respectively (mg/L or mol/L),
Xo and X - initial and final microbial concentrations, respectively
Several factors influence the growth yield: type of microorganisms, growth medium, substrate
concentration, terminal electron acceptor, pH, and incubation temperature.
79
Yield coefficients for several bacterial species are within the range 0.4–0.6 (Heijnen and Roels,
1981).
For a pure microbial culture growing on a single substrate, the growth yield Y is assumed to be
constant. However, in the environment, particularly in wastewater, there is a wide range of
microorganisms, few of which are in the logarithmic phase. Many are in the stationary or in the
declining phase of growth. Some of the energy will be used for cell maintenance. Thus, the
growth yield Y must be corrected for the amount of cell decay occurring during the declining
phase of growth. This correction will give the true growth yield coefficient, which is lower than
the measured yield. Equation (4.7) becomes:
μ = Yq − k B
Where kd is the endogenous decay coefficient (day-1)
ii. Specific Substrate Uptake Rate q

The specific substrate uptake (removal) is given by
dS
q = /X
dt
-1
Where q (time ) is given by the Monod’s equation:
ÏSÐ
q = q SP¸ 4.9
K R + ÏSÐ
iii. Specific Growth Rate µ
This is given by:
BÍ⁄B@
μ= Í
Where µ (day-1) is given by Monod’s equation:
ÏSÐ
µ = µSP¸
K R + ÏSÐ
The in situ specific growth rate of bacteria in wastewater was measured using the labeled
thymidine growth assay (thymidine is a precursor of DNA in cells). In an aerobic tank, the
specific growth rate m was 0.5 d-1 (doubling time td = 1.4d) whereas in an anaerobic tank m was
equal to 0.2 d-1 (td = 3.9d) (Pollard and Greenfield, 1997). In waste treatment, the reciprocal of m
is the biological solid retention time θc, that is
1
μ=
θ»
1
Thus
= Yq − k B
θ»
4. Physical and Chemical Factors Affecting Microbial Growth
80
i. Substrate Concentration.
The relationship between the specific growth rate m and substrate concentration S is given by the
Monod’s equation (Fig. 2.14a):
ÏÌÐ
µ = µÓkÔ d ÕÏÌÐ 4.10

Where µ max - maximum specific growth rate (h-1)

S - substrate concentration (mg/L),
Ks - half-saturation constant (mg/L).
This is the substrate concentration at which the specific growth rate is equal to µÓkÔ /2. Ks
represents the affinity of the microorganism for the substrate. µ max and Ks are influenced by
temperature, type of carbon source, and other factors.
Figure 4-4 Relationship between the specific growth rate µ and substrate concentration S
(a) Monod’s saturation curve; (b) Lineweaver–Burke plot
Monod’s equation can be linearized using the Lineweaver–Burke equation:
1 KR 1
= +
μ μSP¸ ÏSÐ μSP¸
Figure 2.14b shows a plot of 1/µ vs 1/S. The slope, y-intercept, and x-intercept are (Ks/µ max),
(1/µ max), and (-1/Ks), respectively. This plot allows the computation of Ks and µ max. Ks values for
individual chemicals found in wastewater are between 0.1 and 1.0 mg/L (Hanel, 1988).
81
ii. Temperature
This is one of the most important factors affecting microbial growth and survival. Microbial
growth can occur at temperatures varying from below freezing to more than 1008C. Based on the
optimum temperature for growth, microorganisms are classified as mesophiles, psychrophiles,
thermophiles, or extreme thermophiles.
Microbial growth rate is related to temperature by the Arrhenius equation:
μ = Ae+Ö/L
Where A - constant,
E - activation energy (kcal/mole),
R - gas constant, and T - absolute temperature (K)
Psychrophiles can grow at low temperatures because their cell membrane has a high content of
unsaturated fatty acids, which helps maintain membrane fluidity, whereas a high content of
saturated fatty acids help thermophiles function at high temperatures. The decreased m at high
temperatures is due to the thermal denaturation of proteins, particularly enzymes, as well as
changes in membrane structure, leading to alterations in cell permeability.
iii. pH
Biological treatment of wastewater occurs generally at neutral pH. In general, the optimum pH
for bacterial growth is around 7, although some may be obligately acidophilic (e.g., Thiobacillus,
Sulfolobus) and thrive at pH < 2. Fungi prefer acidic environments with a pH of 5 or lower.
Cyanobacteria grow optimally at pH higher than 7. Bacterial growth generally results in a
decrease of the pH of the medium through the release of acidic metabolites (e.g., organic acids,
H2SO4). Conversely, some microorganisms can increase the pH value of their surrounding milieu
(e.g., denitrifying bacteria, algae).
pH affects the activity of microbial enzymes. It affects the ionization of chemicals and thus plays
a role in the transport of nutrients and toxic chemicals into the cell.
iv. Oxygen Level

Microorganisms can grow in the presence or in the absence of oxygen. There are divided into
strict aerobes, facultative anaerobes (can grow in the presence or in the absence of oxygen), and
strict anaerobes. Aerobic microorganisms use oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor in
respiration. Anaerobic counterparts use other electron acceptors such as sulfate, nitrate, or CO2.
Some microorganisms are microaerophilic and require low levels of oxygen for growth. Through
their metabolism, aerobes may render the environment suitable for anaerobes by using oxygen.
Upon reduction, oxygen forms toxic products such as superoxide (O2-), hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2), or hydroxyl radicals. However, microorganisms have acquired enzymes to deactivate
82
them. For example, H2O2 is destroyed by catalase and peroxidase enzymes, whereas O2- is
deactivated by superoxide dismutase. Catalase and superoxide dismutase-catalyzed reactions are
represented by:
4.2 Types of Biological Process for Wastewater Treatment
4.2.1 Biological filtration of sewage

The effluent from the primary sedimentation tank contains about 60 to 80% of the unstable
organic matter originally present in sewage. This colloidal organic matter, which passes the
primary' clarifiers, without settling there, has to be removed by further treatment. This further
treatment of sewage, called secondary or biological treatment, is carried out by changing the
character of the organic matter, and thus converting it into stable forms (like nitrates, sulphates,
etc.) by oxidation or nitrification.
The character of the sewage may be changed by different methods, which are broadly classified
into:
(i) filtration, and
(ii) Activated sludge process.
These processes help in changing the unstable organic matter into stable forms, and thus
ensuring their removal, when the effluent from these units is settled in secondary sedimentation
tanks. The sludge settled in secondary settling tanks may be disposed of in the manner explained
earlier.
All the secondary treatment processes (i.e. filters as well as activated sludge process) are
designed to work on aerobic bacterial decomposition. This is because of the fact that aerobic
decomposition does not produce bad smells and gases as are produced by the anaerobic
decomposition, and also because aerobic bacteria are more active than anaerobic bacteria (the
rate of doing work by aerobic bacteria being three times that of the anaerobic type at 30°c).
Hence, in the biological treatment units, the main aim is to produce suitable 'environmental
conditions, which may help in stimulating the growth of these aerobic bacteria.
The filter units used for secondary treatment consist of open beds of coarse aggregates over
which sewage (i.e. effluent from the primary clarifier) is sprinkled intermittently. The necessary
contact surface for the growth of aerobic bacteria is provided by the aggregates in the bed, and
the aeration is provided by nature. The effluent from filter units is settled out in secondary
clarifiers. On the other hand, an activated sludge treatment unit consists of aeration tanks of long
83
detention (period, in which the activated sludge mixed with t):1e sedimented sewage (i.e.
effluent from primary clarifiers) is agitated and aerated. The sludge solids, thus kept in
suspension will provide the necessary contact surfaces for the growth of aerobic bacteria. The
mixed liquor after agitation is settled out in secondary clarifiers. The sludge so settled in
secondary clarifier is called the activated sludge as it contains a lot of oxygen, and is thus
biologically active. This sludge will be disposed of after digestion, although a small part of it will
be taken to aeration tanks for keeping the activated sludge process going.
There are various kinds of filters that are commonly employed either singly or in combinations,
for giving secondary treatment of sewage. All these filters try to oxidize the unstable organic
matter into stable forms, mainly be aerobic decomposition.
The different types of filters that may be used in sewage treatment are:
1. Contact beds
Used at very small plants, and have become almost obsolete these days). In contact beds, also
known as contact filters, sewage is kept in contact with the filtering media for a certain period
(i.e. during first contact period). As the sewage percolates through the filtering media, fine
colloidal organic matter is trapped in the voids between the particles of the filtering media. Due
to this, an organic film is produced around the particles of the filtering media. A large number of
aerobic bacteria present in this film will carry out the oxidation of the organic matter present in
this film, by the process of aerobic decomposition. In order to make sufficient oxygen available
for the growth of aerobic bacteria, the filter is left empty (without any sewage) for a certain
period (i.e. second contact period). The filter during this period, will absorb oxygen from the
atmosphere, and will complete the oxidation process. This constitutes one cycle of operation.
The stabilized organic matter in the first cycle will be washed away by the fresh sewage in the
next cycle of operation.
Constructional Details
A typical plan and section of a contact beds unit is shown in Figure 4-5. A contact bed is a water
tight rectangular tank, filled with a filtering media, consisting of gravel ballast, or broken bricks
or stones. The size of the media particles may vary between 20 to 40mm. The depth of the
filtering media varies between 1 to 1.8m (the common being 1.2m). These tanks are generally
dug below the ground level, and are provided with water-tight concrete lining, as shown. A
siphonic dosing tank is generally provided to serve two or three contact beds. The dosing tank
will receive sewage from the primary sedimentation tanks, and will supply it to the different
contact beds, turn by turn, at regular intervals by the timed siphonic action. Ordinary tanks
84
without siphons, and operated manually by valves may also be used. The sewage percolating
through the filtering media is collected at the bottom by a system of suitably laid open-jointed
under-drains. The effluent coming out from the effluent pipe may be taken to the secondary
sedimentation tank for settling out the oxidized organic matter.
Figure 4-5 Contact beds
Operation
The sewage is, first of all allowed from the dosing tank, so as to fill the bed completely, and to
stand to a depth of about 5 to 10cm above their top surface. While doing so, the outlet valve is
kept closed. This filling takes about 1 hour. The dosing tank supply is then closed, and the
sewage is left over the beds as it is, for about two hours or so (called the first contact period).
The colloidal matter present in sewage will be transferred to voids during this period.
The outlet valve is then opened, and the sewage is removed slowly. This emptying of the bed
should be carried out slowly so that the colloidal matter trapped in the voids of the filter media
does not get washed out with the down-moving sewage. The beds are now kept empty at rest for
a period of about 4 to 6 hours (called the 2nd contact period or the empty period). During this
period, the organic matter trapped in the voids gets oxidized by aerobic bacteria in the presence
of free oxygen that rushes into the filter voids from the atmosphere. This completes one full
85
cycle of operation, which takes about 8 to 12 hours. The stabilized organic matter from the voids
is finally washed down the contact material in the next emptying of the tank.
Since the inflow of sewage is continuous, while the beds are to be operated intermittently,
several units will have to be constructed, so that the sewage can be applied in turn to the
different units. As pointed out earlier, siphonic dosing tanks are generally used for this
purpose. Continuous attendance is, of course, necessary to operate the different units in
succession.
Performance and Rate of Loading
The effluent obtained from the contact beds is slightly turbid and odorless, as it removes about
80% of the suspended solids, and 60 to 75% of the BOD. But due to its intermittent operation,
the rate of loading is very low; and it should not exceed 110 liters per day per sq. m. of the filter
for beds of 1.2 to 1m depth. Moreover, with the passage of time, as the filtering media goes on
clogging more and more, the rate of loading is reduced accordingly. After 4 to 5 years, the beds
become almost fully clogged, and are removed, washed and dried. The under-drains are also
washed, and the beds reinstated.
Use: Although the contact beds produce satisfactory effluent and consume little head, they are
generally not adopted these days; mainly because their rate of loading is quite less, and they thus,
require large land areas for their installation. Moreover, their intermittent operation requires
continuous attendance. All such factors make them unsuitable for use in modern days, when
more efficient filters have been designed. They may, however, still be used for small isolated
institutions, where the quantity of sewage to be treated is very small; or at places where available
head is limited, and further pumping is undesirable.
2. Intermittent sand filters

Intermittent sand filters were the earlier forms of biological units of sewage treatment, and are
now rarely used because of their large area requirement. They may still however, be used at
certain places, to give highly nitrified and polished effluent, such as in case of treating sewage
from tuberculosis hospitals.
Intermittent sand filters are more or less like contact beds, with the difference that the contact
media here is finer than that in the contact beds; and also, there is no concrete lining around the
filter media, as was there in the contact beds.
Construction and Operation
The plan and section of a typical intermittent sand filter is shown in Figure 4-6. It consists of an
underground rectangular tank, 1 to 1.25m deep, 1000 to 4000 sq. m. in plan, and made by
86
excavating the earth without any lining on sides or bottom. The sand, (i.e. the filtering media) is
filled in this tank to a depth of about 0.75 to 1.05 m.
The bottom of the tank is made sloping gently towards the under drains, which are placed at
about 9 m apart in trenches below the bottom of the sand. These under-drains are nothing but the
vitrified tile pipes with open joints of about 1 cm, and surrounded by graded gravel.
Figure 4-6 Intermittent sand filter

A siphonic dosing tank is generally provided to serve two or three filter beds. The dosing tank
will receive sewage from the primary sedimentation tank, and supply it to the different filter beds,
turn by turn, at regular intervals, by the timed siphonic action. Ordinary tank without siphons,
and operated manually by valves, may also be use.
The sewage from the dosing tank is spread intermittently over the filter bed, through distribution
pipes, which are provided with side openings;-as shown. These distribution pipes are laid at
about 9 to 18m apart. The depth of sewage applied to the entire filter bed is about 5 to 7.5cm. As
the sewage percolates through the bed, the suspended organic matter present in sewage gets
trapped in the voids between the particles of the filtering media. The organic matter is thus first
removed by the straining action of the filter. This trapped organic matter is then acted upon by
the aerobic bacteria which can flourish well in the presence of free oxygen rushing in from the
atmosphere during the period the filter bed is kept at rest after the sewage dose has percolated
down.
Design Criteria
87
As stated earlier, the intermittent sand filters are rectangular in plan with an area of about 1000 to
4000sq. m, with length to width ratio, as about 3 to 4. The depth of sand varies between 0.75 to
1.05m.
The sand used in the filtering media should be clean and sharp, with an effective size (D10) of
;×h
;Øh
about 0.2 to 0.5mm and uniformity coefficient ( ) ranging between 2 to 5. If the finer sand is
used, the filter will be rapidly clogged, and if the coarser sand is used, the penetration of the
solids will be too deep, and the distribution of sewage will be difficult. The top 15cm layer of
this sand may be kept of finer variety than that of the rest, which is generally kept uniform in
grain size. However, if different gradation of sand are used (thought not necessary), then the
coarsest layers should be placed near the bottom, and the finest towards the top. The finer the
sand used the purer and better effluent will be obtained, as more impurities and bacteria will be
trapped, but the filter will clog quickly. In addition to this sand layer, a bottom layer of about
15cm of gravel may also sometimes be placed, so as to facilitate the drainage of the effluent.
The rate of loading for the intermittent sand filters is less than that permitted for the contact beds
(which contain coarser filtering media). The commonly adopted values of the hydraulic loading
(i.e. the rate at which the sewage is applied) ranges between 80 to 110 liters per day per sq.m of
plan area of the filter bed. In the olden days, these filters were being designed to directly treat the
raw sewage with loadings of the order of 50 liters/sq.m/day.
To prevent any displacement of the sand by the incoming sewage, concrete blocks may
sometimes be placed on the sand bed at the outlet points in the distributing pipe system.
It is a common practice to apply sewage dose for 24 hours on one bed, and then to apply it on the
second bed, keeping the first bed at rest. Usually, three to four beds may thus function in rotation.
Cleaning of the Filter
The condition of a filter bed, in relation to the extent of its clogging, should be carefully
observed; and if necessary, the bed should be put out of operation, when it requires cleaning or
rest. A complete rest of 1 to 4 weeks becomes necessary, if septic conditions prevail in the bed.
The septic conditions are more likely to occur, when the top layers of the sand are clogged due to
non-oxidation of some suspended solids, which are transferred into humus. In such case, the top
5 to 7.5cm sand layer may be raked and replaced by clean sand.
Performance and Use
The effluent obtained from an intermittent sand filter is of excellent quality, with suspended
solids < 10ppm, and BOD < 5ppm. This effluent is better than that obtained from any other
ordinary type of sewage treatment, and can be disposed of even without dilution. However, these
filters require large land areas, and huge quantities of sand for their installations, as their rate of
loadings are very low. These filters cannot, therefore, be economically used at larger plants.
88
They may, however, still be used for treating smaller quantities of polluted sewages coming out
from hospitals or isolated commercial and industrial institutions. In very cold climates, these
filters may further pose troubles due to danger of sand surface freezing.
3. Trickling Filters for Biological Filtration of Sewage

The conventional trickling filters and their improved forms, known as high rate trickling filters
are now almost universally adopted for giving secondary treatment to sewage. These filters, also
called as percolating filters or sprinkling filters, consist of tanks of coarser filtering media, over
which the sewage is allowed to sprinkle or trickle down, by means of spray nozzles or rotary
distributors. The percolating sewage is collected at the bottom of the tank through a well
designed under-drainage system. The purification of the sewage is brought about mainly by the
aerobic bacteria, which form a bacterial film around the particles of the filtering media. The
action due to the mechanical straining of the filter bed is much less. In order to ensure the large
scale growth of the aerobic bacteria, sufficient quantity of oxygen is supplied by providing
suitable ventilation facilities in the body of the filter; and also to some extent by the intermittent
functioning of the filter.
The effluent obtained from the filter must be taken to the secondary sedimentation tank for
settling out the organic matter, oxidized while passing down the filter. The sewage influent
entering the filter must be given pre-treatments including screening and primary sedimentation.
Construction and Operation of Trickling Filters
Trickling filter tanks are generally constructed above the ground. They may either be rectangular
or more generally circular (Figure 4-7and Figure 4-8). Rectangular filters are provided with a
network of pipes having fixed nozzles, which spray the incoming sewage in to the air, which
then falls over the bed of the filter, under gravity.
The circular filter tanks on the other hand, are provided with rotary distributors having a number
of distributing arms (generally four arms are used). These distributors rotate around a central
support either by an electric motor, or more generally by the force of reaction on the sprays.
Such self-propelled reaction type of distributors (Figure 4-9) is now-a-days preferred and used.

The rate of revolutions varies from 2RPM for small distributors to less than RPM for large
distributors. The advantage of having two or more arms is not only to get reaction sufficient to
rotate the entire mechanism but is also to pass the fluctuating demands by taking low flows in
two arms, and the remaining two arms coming into operation only at the times of higher flows.
The distributing arms should remain about 15 to 20cm above the too surface of the filtering
media in the tank.
89
Figure 4-7 Typical section of a conventional circular trickling filter
Figure 4-8 Photographic view of a conventional circular trickling ffilter

ilter with rotary distributors
90
Figure 4-9 Photographic view of Rotary Distributors (Reaction type)

There is an important difference between the action of rotary distributors and that of spray
nozzles. With a rotary distributor, the application of sewage to the filter is practically continuous;
whereas with spray nozzles, the filter is dosed for 3 to 5 minutes, and then rested for 5 to 10
minutes before the next application. In any case, however, dosing tanks with siphons, receiving
sewage from the primary clarifiers and supplying it to the filters at regular intervals, are used.
The dosing tank for a filter with circular distributors will, however, be designed to have a smaller
capacity (i.e. about 1 to 3 minutes detention capacity), as against a higher capacity (of about 5 to
10 minutes detention capacity) for filters with spray nozzles.
The filtering media, as pointed out earlier, consists of coarser materials like cubically broken
stones or slag, free from dust and small pieces. The size of the material used may vary between
25 to 75mm. The filtering material should be washed before it is placed in position. The quality
of the stone used should be such as not to be easily affected by acidic sewage, and should be
sufficiently hard (with hardness of about 12 on Brinels Hardness machine). Its resistance to
freezing and thawing is another important property, especially for northern regions. Usually,
stones from rocks like granite or limestone may be used.
The depth of the filtering media may vary between 2 to 3 meters. The filtering material may be
placed in layers; with coarsest stone used near the bottom, and. finer material towards the top.
The walls of the filter tank are made honey-combed or otherwise provided with openings for
circulation of air, all through: Sometimes, instead of constructing the supporting walls, the
filtering material may be stacked above the ground with its natural angle of repose, so as to
ensure better circulation of air from the surrounding atmosphere.
91
Sometimes, forced ventilation, by forcing the air vertically up

upwards
wards through the filter by the use
of fans or other mechanical equipment, may be used; but it has not been found to increase the
capacity of well-constructed
constructed tricklin
trickling filters.
A satisfactory ventilation is achieved when properly designed under drains, having adequate
openings, are provided under the filter bed. Besides ensuring satisfactory drainage, such drains,
will also ensure satisfactory ventilation and aeration of the filter bed. Vitrified clay blocks
(Figure 4-10)) are generally used as under
under-drains.
drains. These blocks have top openings of such size
that the stone can be placed directly on them, and yet they furnish flow chann
channels
els -with' sufficient
capacity for the heaviest hydraulic loading. These blocks are laid on a reinforced concrete floor,
(about 10 to 15cm thick) which is sloped gently (at about 1 in 300) towards the main effluent
rectangular channel.
Figure 4-10 Under

nder drains
This main effluent channel may be provided adjoining the central column of the distributor, as
shown in Fig. 9.18 (a) and (b); or may be provided along the circular periphery of the filter. The
flow in this channel has characteristics similar to the flow in a wash
wash-water
water trough of a rapid sand
filter used in water supplies. The slope of the channel should be sufficient to ensure a flow
velocity of about 0.9 m/sec. The depth and the width of this central channel should be such that
the maximum flow is carried below the level of the under
under-drains.
Types of Trickling Filters
Trickling filters can be broadly classified into:
(1) Conventional trickling filters or Ordinary trickling filters or Standard rate or Low
Lo rate
trickling filters;
(2) High rate filters or High rate trickling filters
Strictly speaking, all what we have spoken so far is about conventional or standard rate trickling
filters. The high rate filters of modern advancements, also function on the same
sam lines, and are
having the same constructional details, but with the difference that provision is made in them for
recirculation of sewage through the filter, by pumping a part of the filter
filter-effluent
effluent to the primary
settling tank, and re-passing
passing through it and the filter. The high rate filters make it possible to pass
sewage at greater loadings, thus requiring lesser space and lesser filter media. The process of
92
'recirculation' and its use in making high rate filters shall be discussed thoroughly, a little later,
after we finish the general description of trickling filters, and the comparative characteristics of
both types.
Merits and Demerits of trickling filters
The various advantages of the trickling filters are:
(i) Rate of filter loading is high, as such requiring lesser land areas and smaller quantities of
filter .media for their installations.
(ii) Effluent obtained from the trickling filters is sufficiently nitrified and stabilized. They
can remove about 75% of BOD and about 80% of suspended solids. The effluent can,
therefore be easily disposed of in smaller quantity of dilution water.
(iii) Working of tricking filters is simple, and does not require any skilled supervision.
(iv) They are flexible in operation, and they can, therefore, withstand the application of
variety of sewages having different concentrations and compositions. Even if they are
overloaded, they can recoupe after rest.
(v) They are self-cleaning.
(vi) Mechanical wear and tear is small, as they contain less-mechanical equipment.
(vii) Moisture content of sludge, obtained from trickling filters, is as high ~ 99% or so.
(viii) Trickling filters have been found to operate more efficiently in warm weather, and
produce an effluent appreciably lower in BOD. Hence, they are of immense-use in hot
countries.
The disadvantages of the trickling filters are:
(i) The head loss through these filters is high, making automatic dosing of the filters
necessary (through siphonic dosing tanks). The total head loss through such a filter will
be equal to the head loss through the circular distributor [about 45 to 58 cm] plus the
loss in the feed piping and in the siphon as well as the entrance loss. Generally, these
extra losses will total to at least 15 cm.
(ii) Cost of construction of trickling filters is high.
(iii) These filters cannot treat raw sewage, and primary sedimentation is a must.
(iv) These filters pose a number of operational troubles such as given below:
(a) Fly Nuisance. The filter fly, psychoda, which develops in the filter particles, may prove to be
nuisance, as the same may be carried away into the habitation.
This problem may be controlled by flooding the filter with sewage for 24 hours or more. The
flooding will destroy the larvae, and usually interfere slightly with the results of operation.
However, two or more filters will be needed, in order that, while one is flooded, another is
available to treat the sewage.
93
Another method of controlling fly nuisance is by using insecticides, such as D.D.T., chlordance,
and benzene hexachloride, etc. in the filter plant. When using insecticides for fly control, the
flies may sometimes develop resistance to one particular insecticide, In such a case, the
insecticide used must be changed. An insecticide may be applied at the siphon chamber or at any
other place in the plant that may be more convenient. The dosage of insecticide required is
normally 1 to 2mg/l based on the total daily sewage flow, but is applied over a period of about 2
hours. Application should be used on active content of the insecticide.
(b) Odour Nuisance. Odors, generally, do not prevail in trickling filters using rotary distributors;
but however, when fixed nozzles are used, H2S and other odorous gases are frequently released
from the sprays into the atmosphere. The usual remedy is to chlorinate the sewage to prevent
formation of H2S gas, or to neutralize that already formed.
Some odors may also be evolved due to sludge, and also due to anaerobic conditions which may
prevail as and when the sewage becomes stale. The remedy is to chlorinate the sewage, and to
keep sewage fresh by recirculation, as is done in rapid filters.
(c) Ponding trouble . Sometimes, the voids in the filter media get clogged due to heavy growth of
fungi and algae. This may result in ponding of the sewage over the filter bed. This trouble, posed
by algae and fungi, can be controlled by chlorinating the sewage, which kills the algae, thus
causing unloading of the accumulated material. Other methods of controlling algae are to add
copper sulphate to the sewage, and resting the bed for some time.
Besides these external controlling factors, the algae is utilized by the worms and larvae
particularly of the psychoda fly, which feed on the vegetable matter; and in the process, bring
about a biological change.
Ponding at the surface is, therefore, most common during the winter months, when the worms
and larvae are driven down from the surface by cold. Near spring time, however, they return to
the surface, breaking up the vegetable growth in the filter, and causing heavy discharge of humus
from the bed. This process is called spring off loading.
The humus so produced is easily settleable and is allowed to settle down in the secondary
clarifier. Sometimes, separate tanks, similar to settling tanks, called Humus tanks may be used
for this purpose. They are provided, particularly when the effluent from the filters is to be
discharged into the rivers, and a high degree of purification is needed. Although humus is inert,
yet it cannot be allowed to pass into the river streams, because ultimately it produces a large
quantity of mud, and impedes the course of the river stream in question.
Design of Trickling Filters
The design of the trickling filter, primarily involves the design of the diameter of the circular
filter tank, and its depth. The design of the rotary distributors and under-drainage system is also
involved in the filter design.
94
The design of the filter size is based upon the values of the filter-loadings, adopted for the design.
This loading on a filter can be expressed in two ways:
(i) By the quantity of sewage applied per unit of surface area of the filter per day. This
is called hydraulic-loading rate and expressed in million liters per hectare per day.
The value of hydraulic loading for conventional filters may vary between 22 and 44
(normally 28) million liters per hectare per day (as against the value of
1.1ML/ha/day for intermittent sand filters). The hydraulic loading can still be
increased to about 110 to 330 (normally 220) M.L/ha/day in the high rate trickling
filters.
(ii) By the mass of BOD per unit volume of the filtering media per day. This is called organic
loading rate, and expressed in kg of BO Ds per hectare meter of the filter media per day.
The value of organic loading for conventional filters may vary between 900 to 2200
kg of BOD5 per ha-m. This organic loading value can be further increased to
about 6000-18000 kg of BOD5 per ha-m in high rate trickling filters.
With an assumed value of organic loading, (as between 900 to 2200kg/ha-m), we can
find out the total volume of the required filter, by dividing the total BOD5 of the
sewage entering the filter per day in kg by the assumed value of the organic loading.
The organic loading can thus, decide the volume of the filter.
The hydraulic loading, on the other hand, gives us the area of the filter required; when
the total sewage volume entering the filter per day is divided by the hydraulic loading,
(assumed between 22 and 44 Ml/ha/day).
Knowing the volume and area of the cylindrical filter, we can easily find out its
diameter and depth.
It may also be mentioned here that the filter diameter and depth is designed for average
value of sewage flow. The rotary distributors, under-drainage system, and other
connected pipe lines etc. are, however, designed for peak flow, and of course checked
for the average flow. Moreover, since the rotary distributors are available indigenously
only up to 60m in length, it is desirable to keep the dill of the filter tank up to a
maximum of 60m. If the required filter diameter is more than 60m, then it is better to
use more units of lesser diameter.
Performance of Conventional Filters and Their efficiencies

The effluent obtained from a conventional trickling filter plant is highly nitrified and
stabilized. The BOD is reduced to about 80 to 90% of the original value. The BOD left
in the effluent is generally less than 20ppm or so. The sludge obtained in the secondary
clarifier is thick, with moisture content of about 92%. It is heavy and easily digestible.
95
The filter is very flexible, and can even take intermittent shock loads without any
detrimental effects. Hence, a conventional or standard rate filter plant is very useful to
medium towns and industrial cities requiring full treatment of sewage.
The efficiency of such a conventional filter plant can be expressed by the equation
evolved by National Research Council of U.B.A., and given by.
100
η(%) =
1 + 0.0044√Ù
Where, η = Efficiency of the filter and its secondary clarifier, in terms of percentage of
applied BOD removed
u = Organic loading in kg/ha-m/day applied to the filter (called unit organic
loading)
This equation shows that the BOD removed by the filter plant depends upon the
organic loading adopted. Greater is the loading, lesser is the efficiency and thus lesser
BOD is removed. This equation holds good when there is no recirculation. In case of
recirculation,
Example 4-1
a. Design suitable dimensions of circular trickling filter units for treating 5 million
liters of sewage per day. The BOD of sewage is 150mg/l.
b. Also design suitable dimensions for its rotary distribution system, as well as the
under-drainage system.
Solution
Total BOD present in sewage t6'be treated per day
= 5 ∗ 150kg = 750kg
Assuming the value of organic loading is 1500kg/ha-m/day [i.e. between 900 to
2200kg/ha-m/day],
The volume of filtering-media required
750
= ha − m = 0.5ha − m = 5000m,
1500
Assuming the effective depth of filter as 2m,
The surface area of the filter required
5000
= = 2500m .
2
Using a circular trickling filter of diameter 40m,
The number of units required
96
Total area required 2500

= =π ≈ 2 units
Area of one unit ∗ 40
4
Check for Hydraulic loading
The surface area of the filter bed required can also be worked out by assuming the
value of hydraulic loading, say as, 25 million litres per hectare per day (between 22 to
44ML/ha/day)
Surface area required
Total sewage to be treated per day
=
Hydraulic loading per day
5
= ∗ 10,000 = 2000m
25
The surface area chosen is 2500m2, which is greater than 2000sq. m, and hence safe.
Hence, 2 units each of 40m diameter and 2m effective depth (i.e. 2.6m overall depth),
can be adopted. An extra third unit as stand-by may also be constructed.
Design of Rotary Distributors
Rotary distributors, as said earlier, are to be designed for peak flow, which may be
considered as 2.25 times the average flow.
Peak sewage flow per day
= 2.25 ∗ 5ML/day = 11.25ML/day = 0.13m, /sec
This flow is divided into two filter units; and, therefore,
Flow through each unit at peak flow
= 0.065m, /sec
Assuming that the velocity at peak flow is 2m/sec through the central column of the
distributor,
The diameter of the central column
0.065 1
= ∗ π = 0.2m
2
4
Provide a central column of 0.2m in diameter, but check the velocity through the
column at average flow, as it should not be less than 1m/sec or so.
Check for velocity at average flow
Discharge through each unit at average flow
5
= ML/day = 2.5ML/day = 0.029m, /sec
2
Velocity at average flow
97
0.029
=π = 0.92m/sec
4 ∗ 0.2
Since the velocity at average flow becomes slightly less than the minimum permissible
of 1m/sec, we should reduce the adopted diameter slightly. Let us use 0.19m diameter,
then
The velocity at average flow
0.029
=π = 1.023m/sec > 1m/sec ; permissible
4 ∗ 0.19
The velocity at peak flow will then be

0.065
=π = 2.29m/sec
∗ 0.19
4
Hence, we may use a central column of 0.19m in diameter. If, however, the central
column of 0.19m in diameter is not available, we may permit 0.2m (8") diameter central
column, as the velocity at average flow is quite near the allowable minimum value.
Design of Arms
Let us use rotary reaction spray type distributor with 4 arms.
Then, the discharge per arm
0.065 ,
= m /sec = 0.016m, /sec
4
Diameter of filter used = 40m.
Arm length
40 − 2
= = 19m
2
We can use each arm of 19m length with its size reducing from near the central column
towards the end. The first two sections, each of 6m length, and the third section of 7m
length, can be used.
The flow in the arms has to be adjusted in the proportion of the filter area covered by
these lengths of arm. Therefore, the area covered by the different lengths of arm is
calculated first.
Let A1, A2, and A3 be the circular filter areas covered by each length of arm, starting
from the central column. Allowing for 0.3m diameter in centre to be used for central
column, etc., these areas would be:
A = π(r − r ) = π(6.15 − 0.15 ) = 118.69m
A = π(12.15 − 6.15 ) = 344.77m
A, = π(20 − 12.15 ) = 792.5m
98
Total area of filter (A)

= π(20 − 0.15 ) = 1256m Check!
Proportionate areas served by each section of arm (numbered from the centre towards the
end) are worked out as:
A 118.69
1R@ = = = 9.45%
A 1256
A 344.77
2OB = = = 27.45%
A 1256
A, 792.5
3B = = = 63.1%
A 1256
Full discharge through an arm, i.e., 0.016m3/sec, will flow through the first section, and
this will go on reducing through the second and third sections.
(i) Design of 1st section

Discharge = 0.016m3/sec
Assuming the velocity through the arm as 1.2 m/sec,
0.016
The area required = = 0.0133m
1.2
0.0133
Diameter require = π = 0.13m = 130mm
4
(ii) Design of second section
Discharge through the second section
100 − 9.45
= (100 − 9.45)% ∗ 0.016 = ∗ 0 016 = 0.0145m, /sec
100
Q 0.0145
Area require = = = 0.012m
V 1.2
0.012
Diameter required = π = 0.124m = 124mm
4
(iii) Design of third section
Discharge through the third section
63.1
= (100 − 9.45 − 27.45)% ∗ 0.016 = ∗ 0 016 = 0.010m, /sec
100
0.010
Diameter required = π = 0.103m = 103mm
1.2 ∗ 4
Each arm length can thus be made of three sections, i.e. first 6m from centre to be 130mm
diameter, next 6m of 124mm diameter, and the last 7m of 103mm diameter. If economy is
99
not much affected, and or if different sized pipes are difficult to join, then the entire arm
length may be kept of 130mm diameter; or the first 12m may be kept of 130mm diameter,
and the last 7m of 103mm diameter.
Design of Orifices
Each arm section will be provided with different number of orifices, depending upon the
discharge to be passed through each section.
Total discharge through each arm = 0.016m3/sec.
Assuming that 10mm diameter orifices are provided with coefficient of discharge (Cd) being
0.65,
π
The discharge through each orifice with an assumed water head, causing flow, as 1.5m,
= CB ∗ A ∗ 2gh = 0.65 ∗ ∗ (0.01) ∗ √ 2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 1.5 = 2.768 ∗ 10+ m, /sec
4
Total number of orifices through each arm
Total discharge through each arm 0.016
= = ≈ 58
Discharge through each ori{ice 2.768 ∗ 10+
Hence, use a total of 58 orifices in the arm; the number of orifices in each section of the arm
is given as:
Number of orifices through the first section
9.45
= ∗ 58 ≈ 5
100
Number of orifices through the second section
27.45
= ∗ 58 ≈ 16
100
Number of orifices through the third section
63.1
= ∗ 58 ≈ 37
100
Spacing of orifices can be
/
In the first section, 5 number in 6m length, i.e. @ 2 = 1.2m c/c
/
In the second section, 16 numbers in 6m length, i.e. @/ = 0.375m c/c

In the third section, 37 numbers in 7m length, i.e. , = 0.189m c/c
Design of Under-drainage System
Total discharge through each filter unit at peak flow = 0.065m3/sec.
Let us design the under-drainage system with a central rectangular channel, fed by radial
laterals discharging into the channel. The under-drain block lengths, containing semi-
elliptical openings, can be used as laterals.
100
The size and slope of the rectangular effluent channel should be such as to allow, say a
velocity of 1m/sec through it (min. = 0.9m/sec).
Discharge 0.065
Area of channel = = = 0.065m
velocity l
Using 0.225m width,
0.065
Its depth = = 0.288m ≈ 0.3m
0.225
The slope of the bed of this channel S, is given by:
1
Q = ∗ A ∗ R /, ∗ S/
N
Where, N = Manning's Coefficient = 0.018 (assumed)
A = 0.225m ∗ 0.3m = 0.0675m
A 0.0675
R= = = 0.082
P (0.225 + 0.3 + 0.3)
1
0.065 = ∗ 0.0675 ∗ (0.082) /, ∗ S/
0.018
0.065
S/ =
0.706
1
S=
117.9
Hence, use a central effluent channel, 0.225m (9") in width and 0.3m (12") in depth
below the bottom level of laterals. The channel may be laid at a slope of 1 in 118.
The under-drain block lengths can be placed in rows, discharging into the effluent
channel. The radial under-drains may be laid at a slope of 1 in 40.
Let us use 10cm (4") diameters, semi-circular under-drain blocks. These laterals should
be designed to run approximately half-full, so as to ensure proper ventilation. Let us
assume that laterals run at a depth of 0.3D, where D is the diameter of circle of which the
lateral section is a semi circle. Then
q = 0.196 ∗ Q
a = 0.252 ∗ A
1
Q = ∗ A ∗ R /, ∗ S/
N
Therefore, Q through a circular sewer of D = 0.1m is given by:
1 π ∗ (0.1) 0.1 /, 1 /
Q= ∗ ∗) * ∗) * = 0.00815m, /sec
0.013 4 4 40
q = 0.196 ∗ 0.00815 = 0.0016m, /sec
Discharge through the filter
101
= 0.065m, /sec
Discharge through each lateral
= 0.0016m, /sec
Number of laterals required
0.065
= = 40
0.0016
So, use 40 laterals in all laid radially in the circular filter tank of 40m in diameter.
Velocity through the lateral at peak flow
q 0.0016
= = = 0.81m/s > 0.75 (required)
a 0.252 ∗ π ∗ (0.1)
4
Velocity at average flow:
0.0016
q P@ P¹FPTF {U = = 0.00071m, /sec
2,25
q P¹ 0.00071
= = 0.087
Q 0.00815
Þ B P
For À of 0.087, from table 4.8, ; = 0.2 = and ß = 0.143
aP¹ = 0.143 ∗ A
q P¹ 0.00071
vP¹ = = = 0.632m/sec > 0.5 m/sec (required). ok
aP¹ 0.143 ∗ π ∗ (0.1)
4
Hence, use 40 semi circular radial laterals, of 10cm diameter each discharging into the
effluent channel (at a slope of 1 in 40).
Example 4-2
The sewage is flowing @ 4.5Million liters per day from a primary clarifier to a standard
rate trickling filter. The 5-day BOD of the influent is 160mg/l. The value of the adopted
organic loading is to be 160 gm/m3/day, and surface loading 2000 l/m2/day. Determine
the volume of the filter and its depth. Also calculate the efficiency of this filter unit.
Solution
Total 5-day BOD present in sewage
160 ∗ 4.5 ∗ 10/
= = 720,000gm/day
10,
Volume of the filter media required
Total BOD 720,000gm/day
= = = 4,500m,
Organic loading 160gm/m, . day
Surface area required for the filter
102
Total {low 4.5 ∗ 10/ l/d

= = = 2250m
Hydraulic loading 2000 l/m . d
Depth of the bed required
4500
= = 2m
2250
Efficiency of the filter is given by Eq. (9.32) as
100
η(%) =
1 + 0.0044√Ù
Where, u = organic loading in kg/ha-m/day
Organic loading, u = 160 gm/m3/day
1 hectare. m = 10 m . m = 10 m,
Ù = 1600kg/ha − m/day
Hence,
100
η(%) = = 85.03%
1 + 0.0044√1600
Comparison of Conventional and High rate Trickling Filters
This comparison is given in Table 1-1
Table 4-1 Conventional vs high rate trickling filters
Conventional or standard rate

S. No Characteristics High rate filters
filters
Depth of filter Varies between 1.6 to 2.4m Varies between 1.2 to 1.8m
1
media
Size of filter 25 to 75 25 to 60
2
media
3 Land required More land area is required as Less land area is required as
the filter loading is less. the filter loading is more.
4 Cost of It is more for treating equal It is less for treating equal
operation quantity of sewage quantity of sewage.
5 Method of Continuous application, less Continuous application, more
operation flexible requiring less skilled flexible, and more skillful
supervision. operation is required.
6 Types of The effluent is highly The effluent is nitrified up to
effluent nitrified and stabilized, with nitrite stage only and is thus
produced BOD in effluent s 20ppm less stable, and hence it is of
slightly inferior quality. BOD
in effluent ≥ 30ppm.
7 Dosing interval It generally varies between 3 It is not more than 15 seconds,
to 10 minutes. The sewage is and the sewage is thus applied
generally not applied continuously.
continuously but is applied at
103
intervals.
8 Filter loading
values
(i) Hydraulic Varies between 20 to 44ML Varies between 60 to 330ML
loading per hectare per day per hectare per day.
(ii) Organic Varies between 900 to Varies between 6000 to

loading 2200kg of BOD5 per ha-m of 18,000kg of BOD5 per hectare
filter media per day. meter of filter media per day.
9 Recirculation Not provided generally Always provided for increasing
system hydraulic loading.
10 Quality of Black, highly oxidized with Brown, not fully oxidized with
secondary slight fine particles fine particles.
sludge produced
Recirculation of Treated Sewage and its Use in High Rate Trickling Filters
Recirculation of sewage is an essential and important feature of high rate filters. The
recirculation consists in returning a portion of the treated or partly treated sewage to the
treatment process. Usually, the return is from the secondary settling tank to the primary
settling tank, or to the dosing tank of the filter, as shown in Figure 4-11. Sometimes, the
effluent from the filter itself, before it enters the secondary clarifier, may be sent back to
the primary clarifier.
Figure 4-11 Single Stage commonly adopted Recirculation Process

In some other cases, and to obtain better efficiency, two stage recirculation process may be
adopted. A two stage recirculation process consists of having two filters arranged in' series,
as shown in Figure 4-12. Various other combinations are possible.
104
Figure 4-12 Two stage commonly adopted Recirculation Process

Recirculation improves the operating results of filters, because of the following reasons:
(i) Recirculation allows continuous dosing of the filters, irrespective of the fluctuations
in flow.
(ii) Recirculation equalizes and reduces loading, thereby increasing the efficiency of the
filter.
(iii) Recirculation provides longer contact of the applied sewage with the bacterial film
on the contact media, thereby seeding it with bacteria, and accelerating the
biological oxidation process.
(iv) The influent remains fresh all the time, and also helps in reducing odors. The fly
nuisance is also comparatively less.
It may, however, be noted that although the effluent would greatly be reduced in its BOD
content because of the re-circulated flow, yet a large volume of sewage through the filter
tends to wash off the filter before nitrification has had time to take place, resulting in loss
of nitrates in the effluent, thereby slightly lowering the quality of the effluent. For this
reason, a high rate filter plant with single stage recirculation may not show as good results
as those obtained from a conventional trickling filter plant. For comparable or better
results, two high rate filters are constructed and operated in series, as shown in Figure 4-12
As pointed out earlier, various recirculation schemes may be used, the most common being
to pump back apart of the effluent from each filter to the influent of the same filter.
Efficiency of High Rate Filters
The efficiency of high rate filters depend upon the volume of the re-circulated flow (in
comparison to the volume of raw sewage) and also upon the organic loading.
à
á
The ratio ( ) of the volume of sewage re-circulated (R) to the volume of raw sewage (I) is
called recirculation ratio, and is an important feature in obtaining the efficiency of the
filter plant (or to work out the required degree of treatment for obtaining certain
efficiency), The recirculation ratio is connected to another term called recirculation factor
(F) by the relation:
R
1+ I
F=
R
¼1 + 0.1 ∗ I ½
The recirculation factor (F) also represents the number of effective passages through the
à
á
filter. Thus, when there is no recirculation and is zero, F is unity.
The efficiency of the single stage high rate trickling filter can then be worked out by using
the equation,
105
100
η(%) =
b
1 + 0.0044M¦ ∗ â
Where, Y = the total organic loading in kg/day applied to the filter, i.e. the total BOD in kg.
ã
³∗ä
The term is also called unit organic loading on filter, i.e., u
V = Filter volume in hectare meters
F = Recirculation factor
in the second stage, it is obtained as:
Final efficiency in the two stage filter
100
η =
0.0044 b
1 + 1 − η ∗ M¦ ∗ â
Where, Y' = Total BOD in effluent from first stage in kg/day
V' = Volume of second stage filter in ha-m
F' = Recirculation factor for the second stage filter
η‘= Final efficiency obtained after two stage filtration
These equations are very important, as they form the basis of designing high rate filters,
Effects of Recirculation on Sizes of Treatment Units
Recirculation through the primary sedimentation tanks requires extra capacity in these
tanks, because the flow passing through them is increased, and under some conditions, the
size of the secondary sedimentation tanks may also have to be increased. The volume of
the filter, no doubt, will not be affected by recirculation, but the distributor will have the
capacity to handle the increased flow.
If recirculation is from the effluent of the secondary sedimentation tank to the inlet of the
primary sedimentation tank, then both the tanks will have to be made larger. For example,
with a flow of 4 million liters per day and a recirculation ratio of 0.5, both tanks will have
to be designed, so as to provide the required detention period and overflow rate for a flow
of 6 million liters per day, and the volume will thus have to be 50% greater. However, if
the recirculation is from the effluent of the filter (before entering the secondary clarifier)
i.e., the underflow of the secondary clarifier, the secondary clarifier need not be larger,
since the detention period and· overflow rate remain constant.
Types of High Rate Filters
There are three principal proprietory types of high rate filters. Their patented proprietory
names are:
(1) Biofilters
(2) Accelo filters
106
(3) Aero filters

The patent for two of them is for the method of application of sewage to the filter.
Although in practice, through cross-licensing and expiration of patents, these features no
longer control the use of high rate filters.
(1) Bio-filters
The bio-filters are comparatively shallow filters with 1.2m to 1.5 in depth (the depth is
kept less on the consideration that the main action of treatment is involved in the upper
surface layers of the filter). The filter utilizes recirculation of a portion of the filter
effluent to the primary settling tank for a second passage through the filter. If additional
treatment is necessary to lower the BOD content in the effluent, such as in the case of
strong sewages, a second stage filter may be provided. Also the quality of final effluent
can also be changed by altering the loading rate and the recirculation ratio, Figure 4-13
shows the various arrangements of Bio-filters utilizing one stage or two stage treatment.
These filters are capable of giving any desired degree of treatment by appropriate
selection of flow diagram and recirculation ratio. Organic loading adopted, normally,
ranges between 9,000 to 11,000kg of BODs per hectare meter per day. The total
hydraulic loading may range between 110 and 330 million liters per day per hectare.
(a) Single Stage complete treatment (bio-filter)
(b) Single Stage intermediate treatment (bio-filter)
107
(c) Two stage complete treatment (bio-filter)
Figure 4-13 Flow diagrams of Bio-filter plants
(2) Accelo-filters
These filters are normally 1.8 to 2.4m deep and utilize the direct recirculation of
unsettled filter effluent to the distributor feed. Various arrangements, such as shown in
Figure 4-14, may be used. The applied loadings usually vary between the same limits as
for the bio-filters.
Figure 4-14 Flow diagrams for Accelo-filters
(3) Aero-filters
In the aero-filters, a continuous, uniform and low rate of application of sewage over the
filter media is maintained. Whereas, in the bio-filters and accelo-filters, the recirculation
108
is used for more intimate contact of sewage with the biological film of organic matter
formed within the particles of the filter media; in the aero-filters, on the other hand,
the same results are obtained by the use of special type of distributor designed for
frequent "rain drop" applications. Recirculation is used only during periods of low
sewage flow; and then only in amounts necessary to ensure operation of the
distributor. If additional treatment is required to lower the BOD of the effluent, a
second stage filter may also be used; flow diagrams used are shown in Figure 4-15.
Figure 4-15 Flow diagrams for Aero-filters

Aero-filter beds are usually more than 1.8m deep. The recommended organic loading
may range between 11000 to 12000kg of 5 day-BOD per hectare meter per day. The
hydraulic dose, for proper functioning of filters, should not be less than 150 million
liters per hectare per day (which may need recirculation during low flow rates).
Example 4-3
A town having a population of 30,000 persons is producing the following sew ages:
(i) Domestic sewage @ 120 lpcd having 200mg/l of BOD.
(ii) Industrial sewage@ 300,000 lpd having 800mg/l of BOD.
Design high rate single stage trickling filters for treating the above sewage. Assuming that,
the primary sedimentation removes 35% of BOD. Allow an organic loading of
10,000kg/ha-m/day (excluding re-circulated sewage). The recirculation ratio is 1.0; and
the surface loading should not exceed 170Ml/ha/day (including re-circulated sewage).
Also determine the efficiency of the filter and the BOD of the effluent.
Solution
109
Quantity of domestic sewage produced per day

= 120 ∗ 30,000 liters/day = 3.6Ml/day
BOD for domestic sewage = 200mg/l
Total BOD of domestic sewage per day
= 3.6 ∗ 200kg/day = 720kg/day
Quantity of industrial sewage produced per day = 300,000 liters.
BOD of industrial sewage = 800 mg/l
Total BOD of industrial sewage
300,000 ∗ 800
= = 240kg
10/
Total BOD of domestic as well as industrial sewage per day
= 720 + 240 = 960kg/day
Out of this BOD, 35% is already removed in primary clarifier.
BOD to be removed by filter unit
= 960 ∗ 0.65 = 624kg/day
Volume of filter media required
Total BOD removed 624
= = ha − m = 624m,
Organic loading 10000
The total volume of sewage flowing
= 3.6 ∗ 10/ + 300,000) = 3.9 ∗ 10/ l/day
A recirculation ratio of 1 means that the" volume of recirculated 15ewage
R = Original volume = 3.9 ∗ 10/ l/day
Total volume (i.e., original + recirculated)
= 2 ∗ 3.9 ∗ 10/ l/day = 7.8 ∗ 10/ l/day
Filter area required
Total {low volume 7.8 ∗ 10/ l/day
= = = 458.8m
Surface loading 170 ∗ 10/ l/ha. day
Diameter of the filter tank required
458.8 ∗ 4
= = 24.17m
å
Hence, use, say, 24m diameter tank with area as = 452.16m2.
Depth of filter media required
Volume of {ilter media 624m,
= = = 1.38 m
Surface area 452.16m
Efficiency of this filter is given by Eq. (9.34) as:
110
100
η(%) =
b
1 + 0.0044M¦ ∗ â
Where, Y = Total organic loading, i.e., total BOD applied to filter in kg/day = 624kg/day
V = Volume of filter in ha-m
/
= = 0.0624 ha − m
,
R
1+ I
F=
R
¼1 + 0.1 ∗ ½
I
Here R = I
1+1
F= = 1.65
(1 + 0.1 ∗ 1)
100
η= = 74.6%.
624
1 + 0.0044M
0.0624 ∗ 1.65
BOD of the effluent left
(100 − 74.6)
= ∗ 624 = 158.49 kg/day
100
Total volume of effluent = 3.9*106l/day
BOD concentration in the effluent
158.49 ∗ 10/
= mg/l = 40.6mg/l
3.9 ∗ 10/
Example 4-4
Determine the size of a high rate trickling filter for the following data:
(i) Sewage flow = 4.5 Ml/d
(ii) Recirculation ratio = 1.5
(iii) BOD of raw sewage = 250 mg/l
(iv) BOD removal in primalY tank = 30%
(v) Final effluent BOD desired = 30mg/l.
Solution
Quantity of sewage flowing into the filter per day
= 4.5 ∗ 10/ [/uæ«
BOD concentration in raw sewage = 250mg/l
Total BOD present in raw sewage
= 4.5 ∗ 10/ ∗ 250mg/l = 1.125kg
111
BOD removed in primary tank = 30%

BOD left in the sewage entering per day in the filter unit
= 1125 ∗ 0.7 = 787.5kg
BOD concentration desired in final effluent = 30mg/l
Total BOD left in the effluent per day
= 4.5 ∗ 30 kg = 135 kg
BOD removed by the filter
= 787.5 − 135 = 652.5kg
Efficiency of the filter
BOD removed 652.5
= ∗ 100 = ∗ 100 = 82.85%
Total BOD 787.5
Using equation (9.34),
100
η(%) =
b
1 + 0.0044M¦ ∗ â
Where, η = 82.85%
Y = Total BOD in kg = 787.5kg
R
1+
F= I
R
¼1 + 0.1 ∗ I ½

Here, ç
= 1.5 (given)
R
1+ I 1 + 1.5
F= = = 1.89
R (1 + 0.1 ∗ 1.5)
¼1 + 0.1 ∗ ½
I
100
82.85 =
787.5
1 + 0.0044M¦ ∗ 1.89
V = 2000m
Assuming the depth of the filter as 1.5m,
The surface area required
2000
= = 1333.3m
1.5
Diameter of the circular filter required
π
= M1333.3 ∗ = 41.2 m
4
112
Hence, use a high rate trickling filter with 41.2m diameter, 1.5m deep filter media, and
with recirculation (single stage) ratio of 1.5.
Example 4-5
Determine the Size of a high rate trickling filter for the following data:
Flow = 4.5 Mld
Recirculation ratio = 1.4
BOD of raw sewage = 250 mg/l
BOD removed in primary clarifier = 25%
Final effluent BOD desired = 50mg/l
Calculate also the size of the standard rate trickling filter to accomplish the above
requirement.
Solution
Total BOD present in raw sewage per day
= 4.5 ∗ 10/ ∗ 250mg/l = 1125kg
BOD removed in the primary clarifier = 25%
BOD entering per day in the filter units
= 0.75 ∗ 1125kg = 843.75kg
Permissible BOD concentration in the effluent = 50kg/l
BOD allowed to go into the effluent
= 50mg/l ∗ 4.5 ∗ 10/ = 225kg
BOD removed by the filter per day
= 843.75 − 225 = 618.75kg
BOD removed 618.75
= ∗ 100 = ∗ 100 = 73.3%
Total BOD entering 843.75
Efficiency of the filter is given by Eq. (9.34) as
100
η=
b
1 + 0.0044M¦ ∗ â
Where, Y = Total BOD applied to the filter per day in kg = 843.75kg
R
1+ I
F=
R
¼1 + 0.1 ∗ I ½

= 1.4 (given)
ç
Where,
113
R
1+ I 1 + 1.4
F= = = 1.85
R (1 + 0.1 ∗ 1.4)
¼1 + 0.1 ∗ ½
I
100
73.3 =
843.75
1 + 0.0044M
¦ ∗ 1.85
V = 665.4m
Using 1.5m depth of the filter,
665.4
Area required = = 413.6m
1.5
413.6 x 4
= = 23.8m
π
For an equivalent standard rate filter; F = 1
100
73.3 =
843.75
1 + 0.0044M ¦
V = 1231m,
Using depth of filter as 1.5m,
1231
Surface area required = = 820.8m
1.5
820.8 ∗ 4
= = 23.3m
π
Example 4-6
A single stage filter is to treat a flow of 3.79*106 l/d of raw sewage with BOD of
240mg/l. It is to be designed for a loading of 11086kg of BOD in raw sewage per hectare
meter, and the recirculation ratio is to be 1. What will be the strength of the effluent,
according to the recommendations of the National Research Council of USA.
Solution
Total BOD present in raw sewage
= 3.79 ∗ 10/ l ∗ 240mg/l = 909.6kg
Filter volume required
114
Total BOD in raw sewage in kg 909.6

= = = 0.082 ha − m
Given BOD loading rate of 11,086 kg/ha 11,086
Assuming that 35% of BOD is removed in primary clarifier,
The amount of BOD applied to the filter
= 0.65 ∗ 909.6kg = 591.24kg
100
η=
b
1 + 0.0044M
¦∗â
where Y = Total BOD applied to the filter in kg = 591.24kg
V = Vol. of the filter in ha-m = 0.082ha-m
R
1+ I
F=
R
¼1 + 0.1 ∗ ½
I

Where, ç
=1
R
1+ 1+1
F= I = = 1.65
R (1 + 0.1 ∗ 1)
¼1 + 0.1 ∗ I ½
100
η= = 77.45%
591.24
1 + 0.0044M
0.082 ∗ 1.65
The amount of BOD left in the effluent
= 591.24 ∗ (1 − 0.7745Ðkg = 133.32kg
BOD concentration in the effluent
Total BOD 133.32 ∗ 10/
= = mg/l = 35.18mg/l
Sewage volume 3.79 ∗ 10/
Example 4-7
The design flow of sewage is 3.8million liters per day, and the BOD of the raw sewage is
300mg/l. Design a single, stage Bio filter to produce an effluent having a BOD of 45mg/l
or less.
Solution
Total BOD present in raw sewage per day
= 3.8 ∗ 300kg = 1140kg
Assuming that 35% of this BOD is removed in the primary sedimentation tank,
The total daily BOD applied to the filter
115
= 0.65 ∗ 1140kg = 741kg

The total daily BOD present in the effluent (permissible maximum)
= 3.8 ∗ 45kg = 171kg
Total daily BOD to be removed by the filter
= 741 − 171 = 570kg
570
= ∗ 100 = 76.92%
741
Assuming an organic loading of say 10,000 kg/ha-m/day [i.e., between 9,000 to 14,000],
Volume of filter required
Total daily BOD removed 570
= = = 0.057 ha − m = 570m,
Organic loading 10,000
100
η=
b
1 + 0.0044M
¦∗â
Where, Y = Total daily BOD applied to filter in kg = 570kg
V = Volume of filter = 0.0518ha-m
η = 76.92%
100
76.92 =
570
1 + 0.0044M
0.057 ∗ â
0.44
√F =
0.3
F = 2.15
From
R
1+ I
F=
R
¼1 + 0.1 ∗ I ½
R
1+ I
2.15 =
R
¼1 + 0.1 ∗ I ½
R
= 1.47
I
Hence, the recirculation ratio used will be 1.47 ≅ 1.5.
Note: The ratio can be reduced by reducing the organic loading.
116
4. Other Miscellaneous Types of Filters

Besides the ordinary sand filters, contact beds, and both types of trickling filters (standard
rate as well as high rate), other types of filters, such as, Dunbar filters, magnetic filters,
rapid sand filters, etc. may also sometimes be used under special circumstances. These
th.ree types of filters are briefly noted below:
(i) Dunbar Filters
Dunbar filters are similar to intermittent sand filters in so far as their construction and operation
is concerned, except that, here the filter media is graded from bottom to top from 150 to 1mm
size. At each dose of sewage, the filter is flooded, which then slowly percolates down.
The filtering process is continued till the filter gets clogged. The surface of the filter is
then cleaned.
Thus, surface loading may be kept about 25 million liters per hectare of surface area per
day (i.e. 2500Ml/m2/day). The BOD removed is up to 85% or so.
(ii) Magnetic Filters
In this type of filter, a layer of crushed magnetic ore of iron is provided in about 80 mm
thickness, and is supported on a non-magnetic metal wire screen. Sewage is filtered
through the magnetic layer, which removes the impurities purely by mechanical
straining action. Filter is regularly cleaned, as and when the loss of head becomes more.
These filters are not in common use these days.
(iii) Rapid Sand Filters
Rapid sand filters are like rapid gravity filters used in treating raw public water supplies.
They may be adopted in treatment of sewage for reclaiming the used water, and then to
utilize the reclaimed water for gardening, etc. However, such filters are generally not
adopted, as they get clogged very soon.
4.1.2. Secondary Sedimentation
Secondary Settling Tanks or Humus Tanks

It was pointed out earlier also that a filter, in fact, does remove only a very small
percentage of the finely divided suspended organic matter present in sewage, while the
majority of this organic matter undergoes a change of character, only due to the
biological oxidation and nitrification taking place in the filter. Due to this· aerobic
oxidation and nitrification that takes place in the filter, the organic solids are converted
into coagulated suspended mass, which is heavier and bulkier, and would thus settle
~own by gravity, if allowed to do so in sedimentation tanks. The effluent of the filter is,
therefore, passed through a sedimentation tank, called Secondary clarifier or Secondary
settling tank or Humus tank. A secondary clarifier is a general term used for the tank,
117
which is used for settling the effluent from a filter or from an activated sludge process.
However, the word Humus tank specifically refers to the secondary settling tank, used
for settling the filter effluent, because humus is produced in the filters only.
A secondary clarifier used for settling the effluents from the filters is similar to a primary
settling tank, with a detention period of 1.5 to 2 hours, and over-flow rate ranging
between 40,000 to 70,000 liters per sq. m. of plan area per day. Ordinary rectangular
tanks with horizontal flow (Figure 3-8) or circular tanks with spiral flow (Figure 3-9) may
be used. Sometimes, a third type, i.e. hopper bottomed vertical flow type tanks (such as
shown in Figure 4-16 are also used, especially for the secondary clarifiers. They are
circular tanks with deep conical hoppers, with diameter as well as height ranging
between 7.5 to 9m. They are very costly, and as such, not generally used these days, and
ordinary rectangular tanks with horizontal flow 'are generally preferred even for secondary
clarification.
Figure 4-16 Hopper-bottomed conical vertical flow type sedimentation tank
The secondary clarifiers provided for settling the effluent from the high rate filters
(provided with recirculation of its filtered-settled sewage), will have larger capacities, so
as to provide adequate settling time for the total rate of flow, and in addition, should be
provided with necessary recirculation devices.
The sludge settled at the bottom of the humus tanks should be continuously and rapidly
removed, and sent to the digestion tanks, either directly or through primary clarifiers.
Example 4-8
Design percolating filters with conical humus tanks for treating 7 million liters of sewage
per day.
Solution
118
We will design conventional trickling filters, with a hydraulic loading, 28Ml/ha/day [i.e.
22 to 44].
Surface Area of the filter bed required
7
= ha = 2500m
28
Using two equal sized circular tanks, we have the diameter of each tank
2500 4
= ∗ = 39.9m ≈ 40m
2 π
Hence, use two trickling filters, each of 40m diameter. A third extra unit as stand-by unit
may also be provided. The depth of the filter provided may be kept 2m or so.
Design of Conical Humus Tank
Assuming the detention period as 1.5 hours, the capacity of the tank required
7
= ∗ 1.5 ∗ 10/ l = 0.43710/ l = 437cu. m
24
The volume of each conical tank, such as shown in Fig. 9.26, is given by .
1 åu
¦=è ∗ é ∗ ]êvℎ
3 4
Using 4 Nos. with 7.5m depth of each tank, we have the total surface area required for all
4 tanks
437
= = 58.27m
7.5
Diameter of' each tank (d) is given by
1 åu 58.27
∗ =
3 4 4
d = 7.46m ≈ 7.5 m
Hence, use 4 tanks with diameter 7.5m and height also as 7.5m. One additional tank as
stand-by unit may also be provided; thus, using 5 tanks in all.
4.1.3. Activated Sludge Process (Aerobic Suspended Culture)

The activated sludge process provides an excellent method of treating either raw sewage or more
generally the settled sewage. The sewage effluent from primary sedimentation tank, which is,
thus normally utilized in this process, is mixed with 20 to 30 per cent of own volume of activated
sludge, which contains a large concentration of highly active aerobic micro-organisms. The
mixture enters an aeration tank, where the micro-organisms (coated around the sludge solids) and
the sewage, are intimately mixed together, with a large quantity of air for about 4 to 8 hours.
Under these conditions, the moving organisms will oxidize the organic matter, and the suspended
119
and colloidal matter tends to coagulate and form a precipitate, which settles down readily in the
secondary settling tank. The settled sludge (containing micro organisms) called activated sludge,
is then recycled to the head of the aeration tank, to be mixed again with the sewage being treated.
New activated sludge is continuously being produced by this process, and a portion of it being
utilized and sent back to the aeration tank, whereas the excess portion is disposed of properly
along with the sludge collected during primary treatment, after digestion.
The effluent obtained from a properly operated activated sludge plant is of high quality, usually
having a lower BOD than that of a trickling filter plant. BOD removal is up to 80-95 per cent,
and bacteria removal is up to 90-95 percent. Moreover, land area required is also quite less. But,
however, in this process, a rather close degree of control is necessary in operation to ensure
(i) that an ample supply of oxygen is present
(ii) that there is intimate and continuous mixing of the sewage and the activated sludge
(iii) that the ratio of the volume of activated sludge added to the volume of sewage being
treated is kept practically constant.
Moreover, there is the problem of obtaining activated sludge, at the start of a new plant. Hence,
when a new plant is put into operation, a period of about 4 weeks may be required to form a
suitable return sludge, and during this period, almost all the sludge from the secondary
sedimentation tank will be returned through the aeration tank. A new plant may also sometimes
be seeded with the activated sludge from another plant, so as to quickly start the process in the
new plant.
Various Operations and Units of an Activated Sludge Plant

1. Primary Treatment Units of an Activated Sludge Plant
A typical flow diagram for a conventional activated sludge plant is shown in Fig. 9.36. As
pointed out earlier, the removal of grit and larger solids by screening in grit chambers
and primary sedimentation tanks is generally considered necessary before aeration. The
pre-removal of these settleable solids is helpful in preventing deposits on aeration devices,
and thereby not reducing their efficiencies. Moreover, such materials, if not pre-removed,
may settle down in the aeration tank, and by decomposition, interfere with the treatment
process. Accordingly, grit removal, screening, and primary sedimentation are considered
necessary for a conventional activated sludge process.
120
Figure 4-17 Flow diagram for a conventional AS plant giving high degree of treatment
Since, in this process, it is very much desirable to keep the sewage as fresh as possible, a
somewhat shorter detention period is provided in the primary sedimentation tanks than is
required for most other treatment processes. This period of primary detention may vary
with the size of the plant and the characteristics of sewage, but tank size will generally
provide an overflow rate of about 40,000 liters per sq-m of plan area per day. For a depth
of about 2.4 m, the detention time will be about 1.4 hours.
2. Aeration Tanks of an Activated Sludge Plant

From the primary sedimentation tank, the sewage flows to the aeration tank, and is mixed
with the activated sludge. The aeration tanks (or aeration chambers, as they are sometimes
called) are normally rectangular tanks, 3 to 4.5m deep and about 4 to 6m wide. The length
may range between 20 to 200m, and the detention period between 4 to 8 hours for
municipal sew ages. Air is continuously introduced into these tanks.
Methods of Aeration: There are two basic methods of introducing air into the aeration tanks,
(1) Diffused air aeration or Air diffusion

(2) Mechanical aeration
Sometimes, a combination of both may also be used which may then be called as
combined aeration.
These methods are discussed below:
(1) Diffused Air Aeration.
In the diffused air aeration method, compressed air under a pressure of 35 to 70kN/m2
(0.35 to 0.7kg/cm2), is introduced into the aeration chamber, through diffusion plates or
other devices are called diffusers. The main criteria for selection of a particular diffuser are
that it should be capable of diffusing air in small bubbles, so as to provide the greatest
possible efficiency of aeration. Porous plates and porous tubes, made of quartz or
crystalline alumina (Aluminum oxide) are generally used as diffusers. Plates are generally
square in shape with dimensions of 30cm x 30cm, and they are usually 25mm thick. These
121
plates are fixed at the bottom of aeration tanks. Tube diffusers are generally 60cm long
with internal diameter of 75mm and thickness of wall equal to 15mm. These tubes are
suspended in the aeration tank, and can be taken out for cleaning, without emptying the
tank. The effective areas for the above standard plate and tube diffusers work out to
780cm2 and 1160cm2, respectively.
Two types of aeration tanks are generally used. In one design, the tank is formed into a
succession of ridges and furrows (Figure 4-18) and air is forced upward through diffuser
plates placed at the bottom of the furrows. Such a tank is called the ridge and furrow type
of aeration tank.
Figure 4-18 L-section of a ridge and furrow type of an aeration tank

Another popular design is the spiral flow type of aeration lank. (Figure 4-19). In this tank,
air is introduced near the side of the tank in such a way that spiral flow results in the tank;
as shown. The compressed air, in such a tank, can be supplied either through a plate
diffuser or a tube diffuser, although tube diffusers are most widely used. This type of tank
requires small quantity of compressed air at low pressure. Spiral motion set up by the
compressed air, released through the tube diffusers, causes the required aeration.
122
Figure 4-19 Cross-section of a spiral flow type of an aeration tank

Quantity of air required in diffused aerators. In order to determine the capacity of the air
compressor, it is necessary to determine the quantity of air that will be required. On an
average, it may be assumed that about 4000 to 8000m3 of free air will be required per
million liters of sewage being treated. But this provision depends on the strength of sewage
and various other factors. With respect to the BOD removal, the usual rate adopted is
100m3/day of air per kg of BOD removed. Since only about 5% of oxygen in the air is
actually involved in the biochemical action, the modern practice in design is to rationally
calculate the oxygen requirement of the given wastewater and select aerator accordingly
Volume of returned activated sludge: The volume of returned activated sludge from
secondary clarifier to the aeration tank mainly depends upon the extent of BOD desired to
²ì
²
be removed. It is usually expressed as percentage of flow of sewage as where QR is the
returned sludge rate in m3/d and Q is the sewage inflow rate in m3/d. Simple variation with
the extent of desired BOD removal is shown in Table 4-2 below:
Table 4-2 Variation with the extent of BOD removal
Extent of BOD removal Quantity of returned sludge as

desired in ppm percentage of sewage flow
150 25
250 30
400 35
300 40
500 48
600 53
123
(2) Mechanical Aeration. In the air-diffusion method, as pointed out above, a lot of
compressed air (90 to 95%) gets wasted, as it simply escapes through the tank without
giving oxygen to the sewage; although it helps in bringing about the required agitation of
sewage mixture. In order to affect economy, atmospheric air is brought in contact with the
sewage in the mechanical aeration method. In this mechanical aeration method, the sewage
is stirred up by means of mechanical devices, like paddles, etc. (called surface aerators) ; so
as to introduce air into it from the atmosphere by continuously changing the surface of
sewage by the circulation of sewage from bottom to top. The only important requirement in
this method is to have thorough agitation of sewage, so as to bring it in intimate contact with
the atmosphere. The aeration period depends on the mechanical process adopted for
agitation. It generally varies between 6 to 8 hours. The quantity of the returned sludge, in
mechanically aerated aeration tanks, is usually about 25 to 30 percent of the flow of sewage.
Types of Surface Aerators: Various types of mechanical aerators have been designed, and
are available in compact units, as patented devices. In most of these devices, the mixed
liquor (i.e. sewage and activated sludge) is made to move slowly in channels, 0.9 to 1.2 m
deep, and 1.2 to 1.5 m wide. During this forward motion of the mixed liquor, it is agitated
by some mechanical means, such as paddles, which break the surface, and cause wave
action exposing a new surface to the air, till the entire liquid gets sufficient oxygen.
In Haworth system of mechanical aeration, 1 m deep aeration tank is divided by thin walls
in a series of long and comparatively narrow channels (70m x 1.5m plan area), and gives a
total travel of about 1.5km. At about midway of its length, two rows of paddles, revolving at
1.5rpm are provided with a horizontal shaft crossing each channel for the aeration of sewage.
The liquid is imparted a velocity sufficient to keep the sludge in suspension. The detention
period of these tanks is about 15 hours, and the returned sludge ranges between 15 to 20%
of the sewage flow. This method is generally used at Sheffield in England; and is hence
also known as Sheffield system of mechanical aeration.
Another system of mechanical aeration, called Hartley system, is similar to the above
Haworth system, with the modification that here the paddles are kept inclined at some
angle with the vertical, and are fixed at the end of the channel. The diametergonal baffles
are provided across the channel to maintain spiral flow.
In a third method, known as Simplex aeration method, a square tank with hopper bottom
(Figure 4-20) is generally used.
124
Figure 4-20 Section of a simplex aerator

Sometimes a rectangular tank may also be used; but in that case, it must be divided
suitably, into square units. At the centre of the tank, a hollow uptake tube is suspended
from the top with a distance of about 15cm from the bottom of the tank. A steel cone with
spiral vanes is provided at the top of the uptake tube and it is driven by a motor placed at
the top of the tank. The cone is revolved at a high speed (60 rpm) which sucks the mixed
liquor through the uptake tube by creating suction at the bottom, and sprays it at the
surface towards the sides in the tank. Numerous air bubbles are formed in this process,
which bring about satisfactory aeration of sewage. Sewage also gets thoroughly mixed up
with the activated sludge during its downward journey.
The mechanical aerators have gained considerable popularity in recent years. Their
simplicity and ease of maintenance has resulted in their increasing popularity, especially for
smaller plants. They are, however, sensitive even to slight variations in water levels.
(3) Combined Aeration. In combined aerators, the diffused-air aeration as well as the
mechanical aeration is combined together in a single unit. A well known type of such an
aerator unit is called 'Dorroco aerator, and is shown in Figure 4-21In this type of an aerator,
the aeration of sewage is achieved by diffusing air through bottom diffuser plates, as well as
by rotating paddles @ 10 to 12rpm. as shown. Spiral motion, so set up, brings about the
required aeration. Such an aerator is very efficient, detention period is smaller (3 to 4 hours),
and requires less amount of compressed air as compared to the diffused-air aeration.
125
Figure 4-21 Section a Dorroco aerator or Imhoff aerator
3. Secondary Sedimentation Tank of an Activated Sludge Plant

From the aeration tank, the sewage flows to the final sedimentation tank. This tank will
normally be of the general type (like a primary tank), with certain modifications. Since,
there are no floating solids here; provisions for the removal of scum or floatage are not
needed. The suspended particles in the aeration tank effluent are light in weight, and are thus
markedly influenced by currents. Therefore, in these secondary settling tanks, a considerable
length of overflow weir is desirable, to reduce the velocity of approach. Good design should
provide a, weir overflow rate, not, exceeding 150m3/day per lineal meter of weir. This value
is based on average flow of sewage and not to the mixed liquor flow.
Solids loading are another important factor, which governs the design of secondary basin. This is
because of the fact that in the secondary tank, hindered settling occurs and hence the settling
velocity of discrete particles may not govern its design, as in the case of a primary sedimentation
tank. The solids loading rate based on mixed liquor flow to the settling tanks, may be kept at
about 100-150 kg/m2 per day at average flow, and should not exceed 250 kg/m2 per day at peak
flows. Such rates ensure adequate sludge thickening and concentrated sludge returns.
The surface area for activated sludge settling tanks should be designed for both overflow rate
and solids loading rate, and larger value adopted.

The detention period for such a sedimentation tank may be kept between 1 − 2 hours, as
the same is usually found to give optimum results.
The length to depth ratio of these tanks may be kept at about 5 for circular tanks, and 7 for
rectangular ones. The depth may be kept in the range of 3.5 to 4.5m.
126
Since final settling is always required in an activated sludge plant, so as to provide the
return activated sludge, duplicate secondary settling tanks are generally considered
necessary.
4. Sludge Thickener and Sludge Digestion Tank of an Activated Sludge Plant.

The sludge which is settled in the primary sedimentation tank as well as the extra activated
sludge i.e. the sludge from the secondary settling tank in excess of that required for
recirculation is digested as usual and described earlier, before drying and disposing it of.
However, since the sludge obtained in a sludge digestion plant contains too much of
moisture (98% to 99%), and is therefore very bulky, may sometimes be reduced in its
moisture content by first sending it to a sludge thickner unit, also ·called a sludge
concentrator unit.
The thickening of sludge can be carried out in three types of thickening units:
(i) gravity thickners
(ii) floatation thickners
(iii) centrifugal thickners
The gravity thickners are the simplest and most commonly adopted units, for thickening
sludge. Such a thickner consists of a small circular open tank, similar to a conventional
sedimentation tank except that it is deeper to accommodate a greater volume of sludge,
and has a heavier raking mechanism.
Slowly rotating rake mechanism, like deep trusses (Figure 4-22) or vertical pickets, are
provided to stir the sludge gently, opening up channels for water to escape, thereby
promoting densification of sludge. Incoming flow enters from behind an inlet well in the
centre of the tank, and is directed downward. The supernatant liquor continuously
overflows a peripheral weir, while underflow of thickened sludge is drawn from a bottom
sump in the tank.
127
Figure 4-22 A typical gravity thickener

Depending upon the characteristics of the sludge, these tanks may be designed for typical
surface loading @ 15 to 35m3 per day of sludge per m2 of tank area. They can also be
designed based on the kg wt. of solids present in the coming sludge; say @ 20 to 40 kg per
day per m2 of tank area for activated sludge; and@ 90 - 120kg per day per m2 of tank area
for primary sludge (if at all a thickner is provided or used for that also). The capacity of
the tank would be finally decided to obtain a detention period of 3 to 4 hours, thereby
fixing its depth.
128
The thickened sludge, having reduced moisture content of 90 - 93% (say), and quite less in
volume (say % of original), is finally sent to sludge digestion, and sludge drying. The
supernatant liquor, having properties similar to raw sewage, is sent back to join the plant
influent.
The process of sludge digestion, using a sludge thickner before the digestion tank, helps
in reducing the capacity of the digestion tank; and by proper control of digestion
conditions, lower detention periods are used, which further reduce their capacities, and
the rate of digestion is also made high. Such a digestion, which is used in modern large
sized plants, is called high rate digestion.
It may also be pointed out that in an activated sludge treatment plant, special provision
must be made for removing the activated sludge quickly from the secondary settling tank
(and for resending it to the head of the aerator), so as to prevent it from becoming
anaerobic.
Design considerations involved in an activated sludge plant

1. Aeration Tank Loadings
The important terms which define the loading rates of an activated sludge plant, include:
(i) Aeration Period (i.e. Hydraulic Retention Time - H.R.T)
(ii) BOD loading per unit volume of aeration tank (i.e. volumetric loading)
(iii) Food to Micro-organism Ratio (â/í ævî\)
(iv) Sludge age.
All these loading terms are discussed below in details.
(i) The Aeration Period or H.R.T

The aeration period (t) empirically decides the loading rate at which the sewage is applied to
the aeration tank. For continuous flow aeration tank, this value is determined in the same
manner as it is determined for an ordinary continuous sedimentation tank, as per equation
(9.29) as:
Volume of the tank
Detention period =
Rate of sewage {low in the tank
¦ î¯ Y,
=
Y,
ª î¯
uæ«
V
t= ∗ 24 hour
Q
Where, t = aeration period in hours
V = Volume of aeration tank
129
Q = Quantity of wastewater flow into the aeration tank, excluding the quantity of
recycled sludge.
(ii) Volumetric BOD Loading

Another empirical loading parameter is volumetric loading, which is defined as the BOD5
1oad applied per unit volume of aeration tank. This loading is also called organic loading.
Volumetric BOD loading or Organic loading
Mass of BOD applied per day to the aeration tank through in{luent sewage in gm
=
Volume of the aeration tank in m,
Q ∗ Y (gm)
=
V (m, )
Where, Q = Sewage flow into the aeration tank in m3
Yo = BOD5 in mg/l (or gm/m3) of the influent sewage
V = Aeration tank volume in m3
This loading is quite similar to the BOD loading rate per cum of filter volume, as used and
adopted in biological filtration.
(iii) Food (F) to Micro-organisms (M) Ratio

F/M ratio is an important rational organic loading rate, adopted for an activated sludge
process. It is a manner of expressing BOD loading with regard to the microbial mass in the
system. The BOD load applied to the system in kg or gm is represented as food (F), and the
total microbial suspended solid in the mixed liquor of the aeration tank is represented by M.
Daily BOD load applied to the aerator system in gm
F/M ratio =
Total microbial mass in the system in gm
If Yo (mg/l) represents the 5 day BOD of the influent sewage flow of Q m3/day, then
eventually,
The BOD applied to the Aeration system = Yo mg/l or gm/m3
Therefore, BOD load applied to the aeration system
= F = Q ∗ Yo gm/day (i)
The total microbial mass in the aeration system (M) is computed by multiplying the average
concentration of solids in the mixed liquor of the aeration tank, called Mixed Liquor
Suspended Solids (MLSS), with the volume of the aeration tank (V).
M = MLSS ∗ V
= X@ ∗ V (ii)
Where, Xt is MLSS in mg/l
Dividing (i) by (ii), we get
130
F F Q Y
ratio = = ∗
M M V X@
F/M ratio for an activated sludge plant is the main factor controlling BOD removal. Lower
the F/M value the higher will be the BOD removal in the plant. The F/M ratio can be varied
by varying the MLSS concentration in the aeration tank.
(iv) Sludge Age

The sludge age is an operation parameter related to the F/M ratio. It may be defined as the
average time for which particles of suspended solids remain under aeration. It, thus,
indicates the residence time of biological solids in the system. While aeration periods (i.e.
liquid retention times) may be as short as 3 to 30 h, the residence time of biological solids in
the system is much greater, and is measured in days.
While sewage passes through the aeration tank only once and rather quickly, the resultant
biological growths and the extracted waste organics (solids) are repeatedly recycled from the
secondary clarifier back to the aeration tank, thereby increasing the retention time of solids.
This time is called Solids Retention Time (SRT) or Mean Cell Residence Time (MCRT) or
Sludge Age.
The most common method of expressing sludge age, usually represented by 8c in days, is to
express it as the ratio of the mass of MLSS in the aeration tank relatively to the mass of
suspended solids leaving the system per day.
Sludge age (θc)
Mass of suspended solids (MLSS) in the system (M)
=
Mass of solids leaving the system per day
For a conventional activated sludge plant, with the flow (Q), concentrations of solids (Xt),
and BOD5 (Y), as marked in Figure 4-23,
We can easily write:
(a) Mass of solids in the reactor
= M = V ∗ (MLSS)
= V ∗ X@
Where, Xt is MLSS in the aeration tank (in mg/l).
(b) (i) mass of solids removed with the wasted sludge per day
= Q ∗ X . . . (i)
(ii) Mass of solids removed with the effluent per day
= (Q − Q ) ∗ XÖ . . . (ii)
Therefore, (b) Total solid removed from the system per day
= (i) + (ii)
131
= Q ∗ X + (Q − Q ) ∗ XÖ
Now, Eq. (9.45) can thus be represented as:
V ∗ X
Sludge age = θ» =
Q ∗ X + (Q − Q ) ∗ XÖ
Where, Xr = Concentration of solids in the influent of the Aeration tank, called the MLSS,
i.e. Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids, in mg/l.
V = Volume of Aerator
Qw = Volume of wasted sludge per day.
XR = Concentration of solids in the returned sludge or in the wasted sludge (both
being equal) in mg/l
Q = Sewage inflow per day
XE = Concentration of solids in the effluent in mg/l
When the value of XE (suspended solids concentration in the effluent of activated sludge
plant) is very small, then the term ((Q − Q ) ∗ XÖ in Eq. (9.48) can be ignored, leading to:
V ∗ X1
ïð =
Q ∗ X
Figure 4-23 flow chart of conventional activated sludge plant
In addition to using sludge retention time (θc) as a rational loading parameter, another
rational loading parameter which has found wider acceptance is the specific substrate
utilization rate (U) per day, and is defined as:
Y − YÖ
U=Q∗( )
V ∗ X@
132
Under steady state operation, the mass of wasted activated sludge is further given by
Q ∗ X = αQ ∗ Q(Y − YÖ ) − K F ∗ X@ ∗ V
Where, αy = maximum yield coefficient
microbial mass synthesized
=
mass of substrate utilized
Ke = Endogenous respiration rate constant (per day)
The values of αy and Ke are found to be constant for municipal waste waters, their
typical values being:
αy = 1.0 w.r.t TSS (i.e. MLSS); and
= 0.6 w.r.t VSS (i.e. MLVSS)
Ke = 0.06 (per day)
From the above equations, we can also work out as:
1
= = αQ U − K F
θ»
Since both αy and Ke are constants for a given wastewater, it becomes necessary to define
either θc or U.
Figure 4-24 Relationship between SRT (θc) and specific substrate utilization rate (U)
The θc value adopted for the design controls the effluent quality and settleability and
drainability of the biomass. Other parameters which are affected by the choice of θc values
are oxygen requirement, and quantity of waste activated sludge. Figure 4-24 gives θc
values as a function of temperature for 90 - 95% reduction of BOD of municipal
wastewaters.
133
Figure 4-25 θc values as a function of temperature

SRT as a function of aeration basin temperature for 90 - 95% BOD removal
Example 4-9
An average operating data for conventional activated sludge treatment plant is as follows:
(1) Wastewater flow
(2) Volume of aeration tank
(3) Influent BOD
(4) Effluent BOD
(5) Mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS)
(6) Effluent suspended solids
(7) Waste sludge suspended solids
(8) Quantity of waste sludge
Based on the information above data, determine:
(a) Aeration period (hrs)
(b) Food to microorganism ratio (F/M) (kg BOD per day/kg MLSS)
(c) Percentage efficiency of BOD removal
(d) Sludge age (days)
Solution
Given values are symbolized as:
Q = 35000m3/d V = 10900m3
Yo = 250mg/l YE = 20 mg/l
Xt = 2500mg/l XE = 30 mg/l
XR = 9700mg/l Qw = 220m3/d
These values are now used to calculate the desired factors, as below:
134
(a) Aeration period (t) in hr is given by Eq. (9.41) as

V 10,900
t = ∗ 24 = ∗ 24 = 7.47 h ≈ 7.5 h
Q 35,000
(b) F/M ratio F = Mass of BOD removed
35000 x 250
= Q ∗ Y = 35000 ∗ 250 gm/day = kg/day = 8750 kg/day
1000
M = Mass of MLSS
10900 ∗ 2500
= V ∗ X@ = 10900m, ∗ 2500 gm/m, = kg = 27, 250kg
1000
8750
F/M ratio = = 0.32 kg BOD per day/kg of MLSS
27,250
(c) Percentage efficiency of BOD removal
Incoming BOD – Outgoing BOD 250 − 20
= = ∗ 100% = 92%
Incoming BOD 250
(d) Sludge age in days (θc) is given by Eq. (9.48) as:
V ∗ X
θ» =
Q ∗ X + #Q − Q & ∗ XÖ
27250 kg
= = q. ôq õö÷ø
m, mg m, m,
)220 ∗ 9700 * + )35000 − 220 * ∗ 30mg/l
d l d d
2. Sludge Volume Index (S.V.I.)
The term sludge volume index or sludge index is used to indicate the physical state of the
sludge produced in a biological aeration system. It represents the degree of concentration
of the sludge in the system, and hence decides the rate of recycle of sludge (QR) required
to maintain the desired MLSS and F/M ratio in the aeration tank to achieve the desired
degree of purification.
S.V.I. is defined as the volume occupied in ml by one gm of solids in the mixed liquor
after settling for 30 minutes, and is determined experimentally.
The standard test, which is performed in the laboratory to compute SVI of an aeration
system involves collection of one liter sample of mixed liquor from the aeration tank from
near its discharge end in a graduated cylinder. This 1 liter sample of mixed liquor is
allowed to settle for 30 minutes and the settled sludge volume (Vob) in ml is recorded as to
represent sludge volume. This volume Vob in ml per liter of mixed liquor will represent the
quantity of sludge in the liquor in ml/I.
The above sample of mixed liquor, after remixing the settled solids, is further tested in the
laboratory for MLSS by the standard procedure adopted for measuring the suspended
135
solids in sewage. Let this concentration of suspended solids in the mixed liquor in mg/l be
Xob. Then SVI is given by the equation
Vob #ml/l& Vù
SVI = = ml/mg
Xob #mg/l& Xù
Vù
SVI = ∗ 1000ml/g
Xù
The usual adopted range of SVI is between 50 - 150 ml/gm and such a value indicates
good settling sludge.
Note: When the given SVI value in ml/gm is divided by 103 * 103 (i.e. 106), we will
8úç
get SVI value in l/mg. SVI value in l/mg will therefore be × . SVI value in mg/l will,
×
8úç
thus, be given by .
Size and Volume of the Aeration Tank

Eqns. (9.48 a) and (9.50) can also be combined to yield
αQ ∗ Q#Y − YÖ &θ»
V ∗ X@ =
1 + K»
This equation can be used to calculate the volume of the aeration tank (V) for an assumed
value of Xt (MLSS concentration in aeration tank) and a selected value of θc. Alternatively,
the tank volume can be determined from Eq. (9.45) for an assumed value of F/M ratio and
tank MLSS (Xt).
It can be seen that economy in reactor volume can be achieved by assuming a higher value
of Xt. However, it is seldom taken to be more than 5000 g/m3 (i.e. mg/L). A common
range is between 1000 to 4000 g/m3 (see Table 9.10). Considerations which govern the
upper limit are:
(i) initial and running cost of sludge recirculation system to maintain a high value of
MLSS;
(ii) limitations of oxygen transfer equipment to supply oxygen at required rate in a small
reactor volume;
(iii) increased solids loading on secondary clarifier which may necessitate a larger surface
area to meet limiting solid flux ;
(iv) design criteria for the tank and minimum H.R.T. (t) for the aeration tank for stable
operation under hydraulic surges.
Except in the case of extended aeration plants and completely mixed plants, the aeration
tanks are designed as long narrow channels. This configuration is achieved by the
provision of round the-end baffles in small plants when only one or two tank units are
136
proposed; and by constructing long and narrow rectangular tanks with common
intermediate walls in large plants when several units are proposed.
In extended aeration plants (other than oxidation ditches) and in complete mix plants, the
tank shape may, however, be kept circular or square when the tank capacity is small, and
rectangular with several side inlets and equal number of side outlets when the plant
capacity is large.
The width and depth of aeration channel for conventional plants depend upon the type of
aeration equipment used. The depth controls the aeration efficiency and usually ranges
from 3 to 4.5m. The higher value of depth of 4.5m is found to be more economical for
plants of more than 50MLD capacity. Beyond 70 MLD, duplicate units are preferred. The
width controls the mixing and is usually kept between 5 to 10 m. Width-depth ratio should
be adjusted between 1.2 and 2.2. The length should not be less than 30m and not ordinarily
longer than 100m in a single section length before doubling back. The horizontal velocity
should be around 1.5 m/min. Excessive width may lead to settlement of solids in the tank.
Triangular baffles and fillets are used to eliminate dead spots and induce spiral flow in the
tanks. The free-board in the tank is generally kept between 0.3 - 0.5m.
While designing the aeration tanks, due consideration should also be given to the need of
emptying them for maintenance and repair of aeration equipment. Intermediate walls
should be designed for empty conditions on either side. The method of dewatering should
be considered in the design and provided for during construction.
The inlet and outlet channels of the aeration tank should be designed for empty conditions
on either side. The method of dewatering should be considered in the design and provided
for during construction. The inlet and outlet channels should be designed to maintain a
minimum velocity of 0.2m/s to avoid deposition of solids. The channels or conduits and
their appurtenances should be sized to carry the maximum hydraulic load to the remaining
aeration tank units when anyone unit is out of operation.
The inlet should provide for free fall into aeration tank when more than one tank unit or
more than one inlet is proposed. The free fall will enable positive control of the flows
through the different inlets. Outlets usually consist of free fall weirs. The weir length
should be sufficient to maintain a reasonably constant water level in the tank. When
multiple inlets or multiple tanks are involved and the inlets should be provided with valves,
gates or stop planks to enable regulation of flow through each inlet.
Oxygen Requirement of the Aeration Tanks
137
Oxygen is required in the activated sludge process in the aeration tank for oxidation of part
of the influent organic matter, and also for endogenous respiration of the micro-organisms
in the system.
The total oxygen requirement may be computed by using the equation
Q#Y − YÖ &
O = ) − 1.42Q ∗ X * gm/day
f
Where,
BOD2 5 day BOD
f = = ≅ 0.68
BODK Ultimate BOD
1.42 = oxygen demand of biomass in gm/gm
The above formula represents the oxygen demand for carbonaceous BOD removal and
does not account for nitrification. The extra requirement of oxygen for nitrification is
theoretically found to be 4.56kg O2/kg NH3 - N oxidized to NO3 - N.
The total oxygen requirement per kg BODs removed for different activated sludge
processes are given in table 9.10 in col. (11). The amount of oxygen required for a
particular process will increase with the range shown in the table, as the F/M value
decreases.
The aeration facilities of the activated sludge plant shall be designed to provide the
calculated oxygen demand of the waste water against a specific level of D.O. in the
wastewater. The aeration devices, besides supplying the required oxygen demand, shall
also provide adequate mixing or agitation, so that the entire MLSS present in the aeration
tank will become available for the biological activity. The recommended D.O.
concentration in the aeration tank is in the range of 0.1 to 1.0mg/L for conventional
activated plants; and is in the range of 1-2mg/L for extended aeration type of activated
plants; and shall be above 2mg/L when nitrification is required in the activated sludge
plant.
Aerators are rated on the basis of the amount of oxygen (kg) that they can transfer to the
tap water under standard conditions at 20°c, 760mm Hg barometric pressure and zero DO
per unit of energy consumed.
The oxygen transfer capacity (N) under field conditions can be calculated from the
standard oxygen transfer capacity) (Ns) by the formula:
NR ∗ #DR − DC &#1.024&#L+ °»& ∗ α
N =
9.17
Where, N = Oxygen transferred under field conditions in kg O2/kWh
Ns = Oxygen transfer capacity under standard conditions in kg O2/kWh
Ds = Dissolved oxygen-saturation value for sewage at operating temperature
138
DL = Operation DO level in aeration tank, usually 1 to 2 mg/L

T = Temperature in degree c.
α = Correction factor for oxygen transfer for sewage, usually 0.8 to 0.85
Oxygen may be supplied either by surface aerators or by diffused air aeration systems
employing fine or coarse diffusers. In diameter, surface aerators are preferred because of
easier maintenance. The oxygen transfer capacities of surface aerators, and fine and coarse
diffused air systems, under standard conditions, lie between 1.2 - 2.4, 1.2 - 2 and 0.6 -
1.2kg O2/kWh, respectively.
Tank Dimensions
Adopt aeration tank of depth 3m and width 4.5m. The total length of the aeration channel
required
Total volume required 1386
= = = 102.7m, take 105m
B∗D 4.5 ∗ 3
Provide a continuous channel, with 3 aeration chambers, each of 35m length. Total width
of the unit, including 2 baffles each of 0.25m thickness = 3 * 4.5m + 2 * 0.25 = 14m. Total
depth provided including free-board of 0.6m will be 3 + 0.6 = 3.6m.
Overall dimensions of the Aeration tank will be 35 m x 14m x 3.6m.
Rate of Air Supply Required
Assuming the air requirement of the aeration tank to be 100m3 of air per kg of BOD
removed,
Air required i.e. blower capacity
121 ∗ 6300
= 100 ∗ = 53m, /min
1000
Let standard diffuser plates of 0.3m * 0.3m * 25mm size, releasing 1.2m3 of air/min/m2
with 0.3mm pores may be used. Then, the total No. of plates required
53
= = 491; take 500
1.2 ∗ 0.3 ∗ 0.3
Let us now provide more plates in the initial length of the tank; provide 45% of plates in

the 1st , length; 30% of plates in the 2nd , length; and 25% in the last , length.
Therefore, Plates to be provided in the 1st chamber = 45% * 500 = 225
Plates to be provided in the 2nd chamber = 30% * 500 = 150
Plates to be provided in the 3rd chamber = 25% * 500 = 125
The diffuser plates are now adjusted as to ensure a minimum clear distance of 0.9m along
the channel length, to avoid interference from the rising streams of bubbles. The centre to
centre spacing of plates along channel length, will therefore be 1.2m, and hence in a
139
,2
.
channel of 35m length, we would be able to accommodate only about [ i.e. No. of
spacing - 1)] = 29 - 1 = 28 plates. In order to provide a total of 225 plates in this length of
2
= 8 plates in each row, placed side by side along the width of

35m, we will have to use

the chamber. Hence, use 8 plates placed along the width of each chamber, constituting as
one row, and provide 28 such rows@ 1.2 m c/c distance.
In the second chamber of 35m length, we have to provide only 150 plates, and hence c/c
spacing of rows (8 plates ill each row)
35
= = 1.86m; take @ 1.8 m c/c
150
8
rd
In the 3 chamber, No. of plates required is only 125; and hence spacing of rows in this
chamber
35
= = 2.24m; take @ 2.2 m
125
8
Hence adopt 8 plates in each row and rows are placed @ 1.2m c/c in the 1st chamber, @
1.8m c/c in 2nd chamber; and@ 2.2m c/c in the 3rd chamber.
Design of Secondary sedimentation Tank
Adopting a surface loading rate of 20m3/day/m2 at average flow of 6300m3/day,
(i) Surface area required
6300
= = 315m
20
Adopting a solids loading of 125kg/day/m2 for MLSS of 2000mg/l,
(ii) the surface area required
6300 ∗ 2000 1
= ∗ = 100.8m
1000 125
The higher surface area of 315m2 is adopted.
Adopting a circular tank,
315 ∗ 4
diameter of tank = = 20m
π
Weir loading for a circular weir placed along the periphery of the tank having length 20 1t
will be:
6300 ,
= m /day/m = 100.3 < 150; ok!
20π
Note: lf weir loading exceeds the permissible value, we may provide a trough instead of a
single weir at the periphery.
140
Hence, provide 20 m diameter secondary settling tank.

Design of Sludge Drying Beds
In order to design sludge drying beds, the quantity of excess wasted sludge will be
calculated by using the equation (9.48 a) as:
V ∗ X@
θ» =
Q ∗ X
6300m, /d ∗ 2000gm/m,
4.65 d =
Q ∗ X
6300m, /d ∗ 2000gm/m,
Q ∗ X = = 2800kg/d
4.65 d
For 10 kg/m3 S.S. concentrating in secondary sludge, excess secondary sludge volume
2800kg/d
= = 280m, /d
10kg/m ,
Note: This secondary sludge volume of 280m3/d shall be taken to sludge drying beds,
along with the primary sludge. The volume of primary sludge can be calculated if the
concentration of suspended solids in sewage is known along with knowing the degree of
removal of suspended solids in primary settling. Since S.S. of sewage is not given in this
question, the quantity of primary sludge cannot be worked out; and hence the design of
sludge drying beds cannot to be done with the given data.
Advantages and Disadvantages of an Activated Sludge Plant
The chief advantage of the activated sludge process is that it offers secondary treatment
with minimum area requirements, and an effluent of high quality is obtained. The
conventional process was somewhat difficult to operate and needed a lot of supervision.
However, the modifications described earlier, have made the process less difficult to
operate than formerly, with the result that most secondary treatment plants being installed
today are of these types.
Compared to the trickling filter plant, the capital cost of an activated sludge plant is less,
but the operating cost is more mainly because of high power consumption for operating air
compressors and the sludge circulation pumps. Generally, the power requirement in an
activated sludge plant varies between 55 to 110 HP per million liters of sewage.
Loss of head through the plant is also quite less, and there is no fly or odor nuisance here,
as is there in a trickling filter plant. However, if there is a sudden increase in the volume of
sewage or if there is a sudden change in the character of sewage, adverse effects are
produced on the working of the process, producing inferior effluent. Moreover, the
quantity of sludge obtained is larger, and needs suitable thickening and disposal.
141
Activated Sludge Process Vs Trickling Filter Process and the Choice of One
As discussed earlier, the conventional biological or secondary treatment of sewage is

usually carried out, either by using trickling filters or by using an activated sludge process.
The basic difference between an activated sludge process and the action involved in a
trickling filter is that; whereas in a trickling filter, the bacterial film coating the grains of
the filter media is stationary and likely to become clogged after sometime; in the activated
sludge process, on the other hand, the finer suspended organic particles of sewage (settled
as activated sludge) are themselves coated with the bacterial film, which is kept moving by
the constant agitation. In the activated sludge process, therefore, the sludge floc are coated
with bacteria, and they act like free moving organisms, which are being continuously
swept through the sewage, and which in their search for food and work, oxidize the
organic matter present in sewage in a much more efficient way than that carried out in a
filter by the bacteria coated around the particles of filter media. As such, it can be stated
that an activated sludge process is more efficient than a trickling filter.
The quality of the effluent obtained in a conventional activated sludge plant is also better
than that of a trickling filter plant. But since a conventional activated sludge plant requires
a lot of skilled attendance and supervision during its operation, the modified activated
sludge processes are generally used these days (as discussed earlier).
Moreover, the modern plants are operated more rapidly at higher rates than those adopted
in conventional plants, with shorter detention periods in the aeration tanks (2 to 3 hours),
smaller amounts of air (3.13 m3/m3 of sewage treated), and lesser amount of returned
sludge (10 to 25% of sewage flow). Such a high rate activated sludge plant can produce
sufficiently good quality effluent (removing 70 to 80% of suspended solids, and 80 to 85%
of BOD from sewage), with the results lying in between those obtained by a conventional
activated sludge plant and a high rate trickling filter plant; although the available finances
and the technical development of a country is another major guiding factor.
In addition to giving a slightly better effluent, other advantages offered by an activated
sludge plant are:
(i) Lesser land area is required;
(ii) the head loss in the plant is quite low;
(iii) there is no fly or odor nuisance;
(iv) capital cost is less; and
(v) greater flexibility of operation, permitting control on the quality of effluent, is
possible. .
The disadvantages of the activated plant, on the other hand, are also laudable, as:
142
(i) high cost of operation, with greater power consumption;

(ii) a lot of machinery to be handled;
(iii) the sudden change in the quantity and character of sewage may produce adverse
effects on the working of the process, thus producing inferior effluent ;
(iv) bulking of sludge is a common trouble, which has to be controlled, especially when
industrial wastewaters with high carbohydrate content or antiseptic properties are
present. In any case, if such bulking is not there, comparatively larger sludge volume
is to be handled; and
(v) the quantity of returned sludge has to be adjusted every time, as and when there is a
change in the quantity of sewage flow, thus making the operation a little cumbersome.
Since these advantages and disadvantages weigh against each other, it is therefore,
suggested that before recommending any of these two methods, the following factors must
be thoroughly studied.
(i) availability of land for installing the treatment;
(ii) availability of suitable method of sludge disposal;
(iii) cost and availability of power;
(iv) availability and cost of machinery and its spare parts required for installing the
plant;
(v) degree of flexibility required in the operation of the process;
(vi) the quality and quantity of sewage, and the chances of variation in its quality and
quantity; and wear and tear of civil works and machinery employed in the process.
Moreover, detailed estimates for both types of treatments should also be prepared for a
particular project. The pros and cons of both methods for that project should also be
reviewed and thoroughly considered. A final decision is then taken, keeping in
consideration the economy as well as the comparative merits and demerits of each method,
and their effects on the desired aims. Normally, it is found that for towns or small cities
with medium sized plants, trickling filters are better, whereas in big cities with large sized
plants, the activated sludge plant is better.
4.1.4. Rotating biological contractors (Aerobic Attached Culture)

The Rotating Biological Contractor's process of secondary wastewater treatment has been
recently developed and does not fit precisely in to either the trickling filter or the activated
sludge categories, but does employ principle common to both of them.
A rotating biological contractor CRBC) is a cylindrical media made of closely mounted
thin flat circular plastic sheets or discs of 3 to 3.5m in diameter, 10mm thick, and placed at
30 to 40mm spacing mounted on a common shaft. Thinner materials can be used by
143
sandwitching a corrugated sheet between two flat discs and welding them together as a
unit, as shown in Figure 4-26
Figure 4-26 Rotating Biological Contractors placed in series

The RBC's are usually made in up to 8m length, and may be placed in series or parallel in
a specially constructed tank(s), through which the wastewater is allowed to pass. The
RBC's are kept immersed in wastewater by about 40% of their diameter. The RBC's are
rotated around their central horizontal shaft, at a speed of 1 - 2rpm by means of power
supplied to the shaft. Approximately 95% of the surface area is thus alternately immersed
in the wastewater and then exposed to the atmosphere above the liquid.
When the process is operated, the microorganisms of the wastewater begin to adhere to the
rotating surfaces and grow there, until the entire surface area of the discs gets covered with
1 to 3mm layer of biological slime. As the discs rotate, they carry a film of wastewater into
the air, where it trickles down the surface of the discs, absorbing oxygen. As the discs
complete their rotation, this film mixes with the wastewater in the tank, adding to the
oxygen of the tank and mixing the treated and partially treated wastewater. As the attached
microorganisms pass through the tank, they absorb other organics for breakdown. The
excess growth of microorganisms is sheared from the discs, as they move through the
wastewater tank. The dislodged organisms are kept in suspension by the moving discs.
This suspended growth finally moves down with the sewage flowing through the tank to a
downstream settling tank for removal. The effluent obtained is of equal or even better
quality than what is obtained from other secondary treatments. The quality of the effluent
can further be improved by placing several contractors in series along the tank. The
method can thus provide a high degree of treatment, including biological conversion of
ammonia to nitrates.
As is evident, a given set of discs (i.e. an RBC) serves the following purposes:
(i) They provide media for buildup of attached microbial growth.
144
(ii) They bring the growth of microbes in contact with the wastewater.
(iii) They aerate the wastewater and the suspended microbial growth in the wastewater
tank.
In this process, the attached growths are similar in concept to a trickling filter, except that
here the microorganisms are passed through the wastewater, rather than the wastewater
passing over the microbes, as happens in a trickling filter. This method realizes some of
the advantages of both the trickling filter and the activated sludge process.
The sludge produced in the process contains about 95 - 98% moisture and may amount to
about 0.4kg per kg of BOD5 applied. The theoretical model of the process is similar to that
for trickling filter, but actual design is still empirical and based on the data from the
successful working plants and as developed by the process manufacturers.
The hydraulic loading rates may vary between 0.04 - 0.06m/day, and organic loading rates
between 0.05-0.06 kg BOD/m2 per day, based upon the disc surface area. Sloughing of
biological solids is more or less continuous and the effluent contains a relatively constant
concentration. The solids settle well and clarifier surface overflow rates of about 33m3/m2
per day are reported to be satisfactory.
4.1.5. Aerobic stabilization units (Aerobic Suspended Culture)

Oxidation Ponds and Stabilization Ponds
Stabilization ponds are open flow-through earthen basins specifically designed and
constructed to treat sewage and biodegradable industrial wastewaters. Such ponds provide
comparatively long detention periods, extending from a few days to several days, during
which time the wastes get stabilized by the action of natural forces.
Stabilization ponds may be classified as aerobic, facultative or anaerobic, depending upon
the mechanism of purification.
In a totally aerobic pond, the stabilization of wastes is brought about by aerobic bacteria,
which flourish in the presence of oxygen. The oxygen demand of such bacteria in such a
pond is met by the combined action of algae and other microorganisms, (such as bacteria
and protozoa), called algal photosynthesis, or algal-symbiosis. In this symbiosis, the algae
(which are microscopic plants) while growing in the presence of sunlight, produce oxygen
by the action of photosynthesis; and this oxygen is utilized by the bacteria for oxidizing
the waste organic matter. The end products of the process are carbon dioxide, ammonia
and phosphates, which are required by the algae to grow and continue to produce oxygen.
In an anaerobic pond, however, the stabilization of waste is mainly brought about by the
usual anaerobic conversion of organic wastes to carbon dioxide, methane, and gaseous end
products, with eruption of foul odors and pungent smells.
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In a facultative pond, the upper layers work under aerobic conditions, while the anaerobic
conditions prevail in the bottom layers. The upper aerobic layer of the pond acts as a good
check against the evolution of the foul odours from such a pond. The treatment affected
from such a pond is comparable to that of conventional secondary treatment processes.
The totally aerobic ponds will have to be of very small depths, such as below 0.5 m and
still then may require occasional stirring, to prevent anaerobic conditions in the settled
sludge. It is, therefore practically difficult to construct and use such purely aerobic ponds.
The facultative ponds, with depths varying between 1.0 m to 1.5 m; are thus most widely
used for treatment of sewage. Deeper ponds in the depth range of2.5 m to 4 m may also
sometimes be constructed to work anaerobically.
Treatment ponds have been used to treat wastewater for many years, especially for small
communities.
The term oxidation pond was originally referred to that stabilization pond which received
partially treated sewage; whereas the pond that received raw sewage was used to be called
a sewage lagoon; but in recent years, the term oxidation pond has been widely used as a
collective term for all types of ponds, and most particularly the facultative stabilization
ponds.
The results of the oxidation pond treatment are: the oxidation of the original organic
matter and the production of algae, which are discharged with the effluent. This results in a
net reduction in BOD, since the algae are more stable than the organic matter in
wastewater, and degrade slowly in the river stream into which the effluent is discharged.
The oxidation ponds, throwing their effluents in rivers, just upstream of some lakes or
reservoirs, are therefore, generally not preferred, as the discharged algae may settle in the
reservoirs, and cause anaerobic decomposition and other water quality problems. However,
the effluents from oxidation ponds can be easily used for land irrigation, particularly at
places, where they cannot be discharged into river streams.
Constructional Details.
A typical plan and section of an oxidation pond is shown in Figure 4-27. It is an earthen
pond, dug into the ground, with shallow depth. The pond should be at least 10m deep to
discourage growth of aquatic weeds, and should not exceed 1.8 m or so, as otherwise the
pond may turn into a deeper anaerobic pond rather than remaining facultative in character
without giving foul odours. The detention time in the pond is usually 2 to 6 weeks,
depending upon sun light and temperature. In cold countries, higher figure is to be adopted.
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Figure 4-27 Oxidation Pond

Better efficiency of treatment is obtained, if several ponds are placed in series, so that the
sewage flows progressively from one to another unit, until it is finally discharged.
The effluent should be entered at centre above or below the liquid surface for a uniform
mixing of the influent with the oxygen saturated pond liquor. The outlet should provide
withdrawal of effluent from different depths of pond.
Design Criteria
The surface area of the tank may be worked out by assuming a suitable value of organic
loading, which may range from 300 - 150 kg/hectare/day or so in hot tropical countries to
about 90 - 60 kg/hectare/day or so for colder countries situated at higher latitudes. Each
unit may have an area ranging between 0.5 and 1 hectare.
The length of the tank may be kept at about twice the width. The depth may be kept
between 1 to 1.5m. A free-board of about 1m may also be provided above a capacity
corresponding to 20 - 30 day of detention period. It is found that with the above assumed
organic loading, and a per capita daily BOD production of about 0.08kg, one hectare land
area will suffice for
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300 60
= = 3750, to = 750 persons
0.08 0.08
IS 5611 recommends the following values of BOD loadings over different parts of the
country, depending upon temperature, which in turn, depends on the latitude of the place,
as given in table 9.11.
Table 9.11 BOD loadings for stabilization ponds
Latitude ºN BOD5 Loading in kg/ha/d

8 325
12 300
16 275
20 250
24 225
28 200
32 175
36 150
The detention period for the stabilization pond as stated above, varies from 7 days to 42
days or so. It can be roughly estimated by using the formula:
Detention in days
1 L
= log ) *
K; L− Y
Where, L = the BOD of the effiuent enteringthe pond
Y = the BOD removed; say 90% of L or 95% of L, etc.
KD at 20°c is approximately 0.1 per day, and at other temperatures, it can be
determined by equation:
K ;#L°& = K ;# °& #1.047&L + °
Note: Since KD value increases with temperature, the detention period will decrease with
the increase in temperature.
Results Obtained
Properly operated ponds may be as effective as trickling filters in reducing the BOD of
sewage. The BOD removal is up to 90%, and coli form removal is up to 99%.
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Design of Inlet Pipe

Assuming an average velocity of sewage as 0.9m/sec, and daily flow for 8 hours only,
600
Discharge = cumecs
8 ∗ 60 ∗ 60
Area of inlet pipe required
Discharge 600 1
= =) *∗ m = 232cm
Velocity 8 ∗ 60 ∗ 60 0.9
Diameter of inlet pipe
4 ∗ 232
= = 17.2 cm; take 18cm
π
Diameter of outlet pipe may be taken as 1.5 times that of the inlet; say 27cm.
Oxidation Ditches (Pasveer Type) or Extended Aeration Lagoons
The conventional activated sludge plant has been modified to I eliminate the primary
sedimentation tank, and sludge digestion tank, in a process, called Extended Aeration,
which aims at providing an aeration tank with a longer aeration time. The flow chart for
such a process is shown in Figure 4-28
Figure 4-28 Extended Aeration Process

A common application of this process has been made in Pasveer ditches, which have been
widely used in Europe and elsewhere, and also in "package plants", available for small
installations.
Such on oxidation-ditch-plant has been found to be economical, up to say 15,000
population compared to the conventional activated sludge plant or tricking filter plant.
Such a plant also proves better than an ordinary simple oxidation pond, in the sense that it
requires only about one- fifth of the land area of that required for an oxidation pond.
The construction of an oxidation ditch plant, generally involves the construction of a
number of ditch channels, placed together side by side, having depth of about 1 to 1.5m.
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The width of the ditches is limited to the type and availability of the aeration rotors used,
and may vary between 1 to 5m. The length of the ditches is not too important, but some
effort may be made to keep the perimeter of the walls to minimum, when two or more
ditches are used side by side. The length may vary from, say, 150m to 1000m, or so.
The oxidation ditches may be constructed either in earthwork with earthen embankments
or in brick or stone masonry with vertical walls. Brick or masonry walls are preferred,
because they occupy lesser land area, and don't get eroded. Whether they are constructed
in earthwork or masonry, water-tightness is essential, to ensure the desired immersion of
the rotor.
Each ditch channel is usually equipped with a special type of horizontal axis rotor, which
serves the purpose of agitating and circulating the sewage, and thereby oxygenating the
same. The rotor, not only gives oxygen supply to the sewage, but also helps in keeping the
sewage-solids in suspension (which act as carriers of aerobic bacteria), by imparting
sewage a velocity of more than 0.3m/sec. The thoroughly aerated sewage is then settled in
a settling (tank by stopping the rotors for about 2 hours, and then taking out the clear
supernatant liquor at the time of no flow (i.e. during night hours in case of small
communities). A part of the settled sludge is used for recirculation, and the excess settled
sludge, which is well stabilized due to long detention periods (characterized by low BOD),
can be easily dried on sand beds, and disposed off suitably. A typical arrangement of an
oxidation ditch is shown in Figure 4-29.
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Figure 4-29 Plan view of a typical Oxidation ditch
Design Considerations
The volume of the aeration channel required under tropical climates should be such as to
give a detention period of 12 to 15 hours, or 800 to 2500 liters per kg of BOD load present
in the sewage admitted. The concentration of the suspended solids in the mixed liquor
should be high, say about 4000 to 5000mg/l. The volume of the ditch approximates 120 to
150cum per meter length of the rotor. The length of the standard horizontal axis cage type
rotor used is 1m. The rotor is in the form of a cylindrical cage of 0.7m in diameter, and is
rotated at a speed of 75 RPM, while dipping 10cm into the liquid.
Results obtained. The quality of the effluent obtained is quite good, with suspended solids
removal at about 95% and BOD removal at about 98%. The power consumed in the
process, is however, more than what is required in an ordinary activated sludge process (i.e.
about 4.4kW per kg of BOD admitted). However, the extra cost due to this factor is
compensated by elimination of primary settling tank and anaerobic digestion tank. This
method however, requires skilled supervision.
The method can be advantageously used for treating small quantities of wastewaters at
places where sufficient land is not available for constructing large sized oxidation ponds;
but where sufficient funds and trained personnel are available. This method is preferably
used for treating wastewaters from industries, like pharmaceuticals, canning, dairy, etc.,
located in densely populated areas.
Mechanically Aerated Lagoons
A mechanically aerated lagoon is a deeper oxidation pond, with oxygen introduced by
mechanical aerators rather than relying on the photosynthetic oxygen production alone. As
these ponds are deeper than the oxidation ponds, and as they are artificially aerated, less
detention time and areas are required. ,
The depth of these basins normally ranges between 2.4 to 3.6m, and detention time
between 4 to 10 hours. The land area required is about 5 to 10% of that required for an
equivalent oxidation pond. With the above detention period of 4 to 10 hours, the efficiency
obtained ranges between 65 to 90%. The aerated lagoons are frequently used for treating
industrial wastewaters.
4.3 Tertiary Treatment Processes
The purpose of tertiary treatment is to provide a final treatment stage to raise the effluent quality
before it is discharged to the receiving environment (sea, river, lake, ground, etc.). More than one
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tertiary treatment process may be used at any treatment plant. If disinfection is practiced, it is
always the final process. It is also called "effluent polishing.
4.3.1. Filtration
Sand filtration removes much of the residual suspended matter Filtration over activated carbon,
also called carbon adsorption, removes residual toxins
4.3.2. Lagooning
Lagooning provides settlement and further biological improvement through storage in large man-
made ponds or lagoons. These lagoons are highly aerobic and colonization by native
macrophytes, especially reeds, is often encouraged. Small filter feeding invertebrates such as
Daphnia and species of Rotifera greatly assist in treatment by removing fine particulates.
4.3.3. Nutrient removal
Wastewater may contain high levels of the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus. Excessive release
to the environment can lead to a buildup of nutrients, called eutrophication, which can in turn
encourage the overgrowth of weeds, algae, and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). This may cause
an algal bloom, a rapid growth in the population of algae. The algae numbers are unsustainable
and eventually most of them die. The decomposition of the algae by bacteria uses up so much of
oxygen in the water that most or all of the animals die, which creates more organic matter for the
bacteria to decompose. In addition to causing deoxygenation, some algal species produce toxins
that contaminate drinking water supplies. Different treatment processes are required to remove
nitrogen and phosphorus.
4.3.4. Nitrogen removal
The removal of nitrogen is effected through the biological oxidation of nitrogen from ammonia
to nitrate (nitrification), followed by denitrification, the reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas.
Nitrogen gas is released to the atmosphere and thus removed from the water.
Nitrification itself is a two-step aerobic process, each step facilitated by a different type of
bacteria. The oxidation of ammonia (NH3) to nitrite (NO2−) is most often facilitated by
Nitrosomonas (nitroso referring to the formation of a nitroso functional group). Nitrite oxidation
to nitrate (NO3−), though traditionally believed to be facilitated by Nitrobacter (nitro referring
the formation of a nitro functional group), is now known to be facilitated in the environment
almost exclusively by Nitrospira spp.
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Denitrification requires anoxic conditions to encourage the appropriate biological communities

to form. It is facilitated by a wide diversity of bacteria. Sand filters, lagooning and reed beds can
all be used to reduce nitrogen, but the activated sludge process (if designed well) can do the job
the most easily. Since denitrification is the reduction of nitrate to dinitrogen gas, an electron
donor is needed. This can be, depending on the wastewater, organic matter (from faeces), sulfide,
or an added donor like methanol. The sludge in the anoxic tanks (denitrification tanks) must be
mixed well (mixture of recirculated mixed liquor, return activated sludge [RAS], and raw
influent) e.g. by using submersible mixers in order to achieve the desired denitrification.
Sometimes the conversion of toxic ammonia to nitrate alone is referred to as tertiary treatment.
Many sewage treatment plants use axial flow pumps to transfer the nitrified mixed liquor from
the aeration zone to the anoxic zone for denitrification. These pumps are often referred to as
Internal Mixed Liquor Recycle (IMLR) pumps.
4.3.5. Phosphorus removal
Phosphorus removal is important as it is a limiting nutrient for algae growth in many fresh water
systems. (For a description of the negative effects of algae, see Nutrient removal). It is also
particularly important for water reuse systems where high phosphorus concentrations may lead to
fouling of downstream equipment such as reverse osmosis.
Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a process called enhanced biological phosphorus
removal. In this process, specific bacteria, called polyphosphate accumulating organisms (PAOs),
are selectively enriched and accumulate large quantities of phosphorus within their cells (up to
20 percent of their mass). When the biomass enriched in these bacteria is separated from the
treated water, these biosolids have a high fertilizer value.
Phosphorus removal can also be achieved by chemical precipitation, usually with salts of iron
(e.g. ferric chloride), aluminum (e.g. alum), or lime. This may lead to excessive sludge
production as hydroxides precipitates and the added chemicals can be expensive. Chemical
phosphorus removal requires significantly smaller equipment footprint than biological removal,
is easier to operate and is often more reliable than biological phosphorus removal. Another
method for phosphorus removal is to use granular laterite.
Once removed, phosphorus, in the form of a phosphate-rich sludge, may be stored in a land fill
or resold for use in fertilizer.
4.3.6. Disinfection
The purpose of disinfection in the treatment of waste water is to substantially reduce the number
of microorganisms in the water to be discharged back into the environment. The effectiveness of
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disinfection depends on the quality of the water being treated (e.g., cloudiness, pH, etc.), the type
of disinfection being used, the disinfectant dosage (concentration and time), and other
environmental variables. Cloudy water will be treated less successfully, since solid matter can
shield organisms, especially from ultraviolet light or if contact times are low. Generally, short
contact times, low doses and high flows all militate against effective disinfection. Common
methods of disinfection include ozone, chlorine, ultraviolet light, or sodium
hypochlorite.Chloramine, which is used for drinking water, is not used in waste water treatment
because of its persistence.
Chlorination remains the most common form of waste water disinfection in North America due
to its low cost and long-term history of effectiveness. One disadvantage is that chlorination of
residual organic material can generate chlorinated-organic compounds that may be carcinogenic
or harmful to the environment. Residual chlorine or chloramines may also be capable of
chlorinating organic material in the natural aquatic environment. Further, because residual
chlorine is toxic to aquatic species, the treated effluent must also be chemically dechlorinated,
adding to the complexity and cost of treatment.
Ultraviolet (UV) light can be used instead of chlorine, iodine, or other chemicals. Because no
chemicals are used, the treated water has no adverse effect on organisms that later consume it, as
may be the case with other methods. UV radiation causes damage to the genetic structure of
bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens, making them incapable of reproduction. The key
disadvantages of UV disinfection are the need for frequent lamp maintenance and replacement
and the need for a highly treated effluent to ensure that the target microorganisms are not
shielded from the UV radiation (i.e., any solids present in the treated effluent may protect
microorganisms from the UV light). In the United Kingdom, UV light is becoming the most
common means of disinfection because of the concerns about the impacts of chlorine in
chlorinating residual organics in the wastewater and in chlorinating organics in the receiving
water. Some sewage treatment systems in Canada and the US also use UV light for their effluent
water disinfection.
Ozone (O3) is generated by passing oxygen (O2) through a high voltage potential resulting in a
third oxygen atom becoming attached and forming O3. Ozone is very unstable and reactive and
oxidizes most organic material it comes in contact with, thereby destroying many pathogenic
microorganisms. Ozone is considered to be safer than chlorine because, unlike chlorine which
has to be stored on site (highly poisonous in the event of an accidental release), ozone is
generated onsite as needed. Ozonation also produces fewer disinfection by-products than
chlorination. A disadvantage of ozone disinfection is the high cost of the ozone generation
equipment and the requirements for special operators.
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4.3.7. Odour Control

Odours emitted by sewage treatment are typically an indication of an anaerobic or "septic"
condition.Early stages of processing will tend to produce smelly gases, with hydrogen sulfide
being most common in generating complaints. Large process plants in urban areas will often
treat the odours with carbon reactors, a contact media with bio-slimes, small doses of chlorine, or
circulating fluids to biologically capture and metabolize the obnoxious gases.Other methods of
odour control exist, including addition of iron salts, hydrogen peroxide, calcium nitrate, etc. to
manage hydrogen sulfide levels.
Activity
1. What is meant by activated sludge? Describe with sketch the treatment of sewage by
activated sludge process. Mention the advantage and disadvantage of the system
2. Give the approximate reasonable values in percentage of the BOD removal of the following
process
i. Plain sedimentation
ii. Activated sludge plus final sedimentation
iii. Trickling filter plus final sedimentation
3. Design a conventional activated sludge plant to treat domestic sewage with diffused air
aeration system, given the following data:
Population = 35000
Average sewage flow = 180 l/c/d
BOD of sewage = 220mg/l
BOD removed in primary treatment = 30%
Overall BOD reduction desired = 85%
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5- SEWAGE EFFLUENT DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES

Before we discuss, in our next chapter, the various treatments that may be given to raw sewage
before disposing it off, it shall be worthwhile to first discuss the various methods and sources of
disposal of sewage. The study of the sources of disposal is important, because the amount of
treatment required to be given to sewage depends very much upon the source of disposal, its
quality and capacity to tolerate the impurities present in the sewage effluents, without itself is
getting potentially polluted or becoming less useful.
There are two general methods of disposing of the sewage effluents:
(a) Dilution i.e. disposal in water; and
(b) Effluent Irrigation or Broad Irrigation or Sewage Farming, i.e. disposal on land
5.1 Disposal by Dilution and Oxygen Sag Curve
Disposal by dilution is the process whereby the treated sewage or the effluent from the sewage
treatment plant is discharged into a river stream, or a large body of water, such as a lake or sea.
The discharged sewage, in due course of time, is purified by what is known as self purification
process of natural waters. The degree and amount of treatment given to raw sewage before
disposing it off into the river-stream in question, will definitely depend not only upon the quality
of raw sewage but also upon the self purification capacity of the river stream and the intended
use of its water.
Conditions Favoring Disposal by Dilution
The dilution method for disposing of the sewage can favorably be adopted under the following
conditions:
(i) When sewage is comparatively fresh (4 to 5 hr old), and free from floating and settleable
solids, (or are easily removed by primary treatment).
(ii) When the diluting water (i.e. the source of disposal) has high dissolved oxygen (DO)
content.
(iii) Where diluting waters are not used for the purpose of navigation or water supply for at
least some reasonable distance on the downstream from the point of sewage disposal.
(iv) Where the flow currents of the diluting waters are favorable, causing no deposition,
nuisance or destruction of aquatic life. It means that swift forward currents are helpful, as
they easily carry away the sewage to the points of unlimited dilution. On the other hand,
slow back currents tend to cause sedimentation, resulting in large sludge deposits.
(v) When the outfall sewer of the city or the treatment plant is situated near some natural
waters having large volumes.
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5.1.1 Dilution in Rivers and Self Purification of Natural Streams

When sewage is discharged into a natural body of water, the receiving water gets polluted due to
waste products, present in sewage effluents. But the conditions do not remain so for ever,
because the natural forces of purification, such as dilution, sedimentation, oxidation-reduction in
sun-light, etc., go on acting upon the pollution elements, and bring back the water into its
original condition. This automatic purification of polluted water, in due course, is called the self-
purification phenomenon. However, if the self-purification is not achieved successfully either
due to too much of pollution discharged into it or due to other causes, the river water itself will
get polluted, which, in turn, may also pollute the sea where the river outfalls.
The various natural forces of purification which help in effecting self-purification process are
summarized below:
1. Physical forces are:
(i) Dilution and dispersion,
(ii) Sedimentation,
(iii) Sunlight (acts through bio-chemical reactions).
2. Chemical forces aided by biological forces (called bio chemical forces) are:
(iv) Oxidation (Bio),
(v) Reduction.
These forces are described below:
(i) Dilution and Dispersion.
When the putrescible organic matter is discharged into a large volume of water contained in the
river-stream, it gets rapidly dispersed and diluted. The action, thus, results in diminishing the
concentration of organic matter, and thus reduces the potential nuisance of sewage.
When sewage of concentration Cs flows at a rate Qs in to a river stream with concentration CR
flowing at a rate QR, the concentration C of the resulting mixture is given by
CR QR + C Q = C#QR + Q &
CR QR + C Q
C =
QR + Q
This equation is applicable separately to concentrations of different impurities, such as, oxygen
content, BOD, suspended sediments, and other characteristic contents of sewage.
(ii) Sedimentation.
The settleable solids, if present in sewage effluents, will settle down into the bed of the river,
near the outfall of sewage, thus, helping in the self purification process.
(iii) Sun-light
The sun light has a bleaching and stabilizing effect of bacteria. It also helps certain micro-
organisms to derive energy from it, and convert themselves into food for other forms of life, thus
157
absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen by a process known as photo synthesis. The
evolution of oxygen in river water due to sunlight will help in achieving self-purification through
oxidation, as given below:
(iv) Oxidation
The oxidation of the organic matter present in sewage effluents will start as soon as the sewage
outfalls into the river water containing dissolved oxygen. The deficiency of oxygen so created,
will be filled up by the atmospheric oxygen. The process of oxidation will continue till the
organic matter has been completely oxidized. This is the most important action responsible for
effecting self purification of rivers.
(v) Reduction
Reduction occurs due to hydrolysis of organic matter settled at the bottom either chemically or
biologically. Anaerobic bacteria will help in splitting the complex organic constituents of sewage
into liquids and gases, and thus paving the way for their ultimate stabilization by oxidation.
The various factors on which these natural forces of purification depend are:
(a) Temperature
(b) Turbulence
(c) Hydrograph such as the velocity and surface expanse of the river-stream
(d) Available dissolved oxygen, and the amount and type of organic matter present
(e) Rate of re-aeration, etc.
Besides affecting the dilution and sedimentation rates, the temperature also affects the rate of
biological and chemical activities, which are enhanced at higher temperatures and depressed at
lower temperatures. The dissolved oxygen content of water, which is very essential for
maintaining aquatic life and aerobic conditions (so as to avoid the anaerobic decomposition and
subsequent nuisance), is also influenced by temperature. At higher temperatures, the capacity to
maintain the DO concentration is low; while the rate of biological and chemical activities are
high, causing thereby rapid depletion of DO This is likely to lead to anaerobic conditions, when
the pollution due to putrescible organic matter is heavy.
The turbulence in the body of water helps in breaking the surface of the stream or lake, and helps
in rapid re-aeration from the atmosphere. Thus, it helps in maintaining aerobic conditions in the
river stream, and in keeping it clear. Too much of turbulence, however, is not desirable, because
it scours the bottom sediment, increases the turbidity, and retards algae growth, which is useful
in re-aeration process. Wind and undercurrents in lakes and oceans cause turbulences which
affect their self-purification.
The hydrograph affects the velocity and surface expanse of the river stream. High velocities
cause turbulence and rapid re-aeration, while large surface expanse (for the same cubic contents)
will also have the same effects.
158
The larger the amount of dissolved oxygen presents in water, the better and earlier the self-
purification will occur.
The amount and the type of organic matter and biological growth present in water will also affect
the rate of self-purification. Algae which absorbs carbon dioxide and gives out oxygen, is thus,
very helpful in the self-purification process.
The rate of re-aeration i.e. the rate at which the DO deficiency is replenished, will considerably
govern the self-purification process. The greater is this rate, the quicker will be the self-
purification, and there will be no chances of development of anaerobic conditions.
1. Zones of Pollution in a River-Stream

A polluted stream undergoing self-purification can be divided into the following four zones:
(i) Zone of degradation;
(ii) Zone of active decomposition;
(iii) Zone of recovery; and
(iv) Zone of cleaner water.
These zones are discussed below:
(i) Zone of degradation or Zone of pollution
This zone is found for a certain length just below the point where sewage is discharged into the
river-stream. This zone is characterized by water becoming dark and turbid with formation of
sludge deposits at the bottom. DO is reduced to about 40% of the saturation value (Saturation
value at 30°c = 7.6 mg/l). There is an increase in carbon dioxide content; re-oxygenation (i.e. re-
aeration) occurs but is slower than de-oxygenation.
These conditions are unfavorable to the development of aquatic life; and as such, algae die out,
but fish life may be present feeding on fresh organic matter. Moreover, certain typical bottom
worms such as Limondrilus and Tubifex appear with sewage fungi, such as sphaerotilusnatans.
(ii) Zone of active decomposition
This zone is marked by heavy pollution. It is characterized by water becoming greyish and
darker than the previous zone. DO concentration falls down to zero and anaerobic conditions
may set in with the evolution of gases like methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, etc.,
bubbling to the surface, with masses of sludge forming an ugly scum layer at the surface. As the
organic decomposition slackens due to stabilization of organic matter, the re-aeration sets in and
DO again rises to the original level (i.e. about 40%).
In this zone, bacteria flora will flourish. At the upper end, anaerobic bacteria will replace aerobic
bacteria, while at its lower end, the position will be reversed. Protozoa and fungi will first
disappear and then reappear. Fish life will be absent. Algae and Tubifex will also mostly be
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absent. Maggots and Psychoda (sewage fly) larvae will, however, be present in all but the most
septic sewage.
(iii) Zone of recovery
In this zone, the river stream tries to recover from its degraded condition to its former appearance.
The water becomes clearer, and so the algae reappear while fungi decrease. BOD falls down and
DO content rises above 40% of the saturation value; Protozoa, Rotifers, Crustaceans and large
plants like Sponges, Bryozons, etc. also reappear. Bottom organisms will include: Tubifex,
Mussels, Snails, etc. The organic material will be mineralized to form nitrates, sulphates,
phosphates, carbonates, etc.
(iv) Zone of cleaner water
In this zone, the river attains its original conditions with DO rising up to the saturation value.
Water becomes attractive in appearance and Game fish (which requires at least 4 to 5 mg/l of DO)
and usual aquatic life prevails. Same pathogenic organisms may still, however, survive and
remain present, which confirms the fact that "when once river water has been polluted, it will not
be safe to drink it, unless it is properly treated."
2. Indices of Self-Purification
The stage of self-purification process can be determined by the physical, chemical and biological
analysis of the water. Color and turbidity are the physical indices, while DO, B.O.D. and
suspended solids are the chemical indices which can mark the stages of purification. Moreover,
the biological growth present in water can also indicate the stage of purification process, as
different types of micro and macro organisms will exist in polluted water under different
conditions, as discussed in the previous sub article.
The different zones of pollution (i.e. various stages in the self-purification process) and the
physical, chemical and biological indices, characteristics of each zone, are shown in Figure 5-1.
160
howing zones of pol

Figure 5-1 Showing pollution along a river stream
3. The Oxygen Deficit of a Polluted River

River-Stream
The oxygen deficit D at any time in a polluted river
river-stream
stream is the difference between the actual
DO content of water at that time and the saturation DO content (The normal saturation
saturati DO value
for fresh water varies between 14.6mg/l to 7.6mg/l for temperature varying between 0°c to 30°c.)
at the water temperature; i.e.
Oxygen de{icit (D) = Saturation DO 6 Actual DO
In order to maintain clean conditions in a river
river-stream,
stream, the oxygen deficit must be nil, and this
can be found out by knowing the rates of de
de-oxygenation and re-oxygenation.
De-oxygenation Curve
In a polluted stream, the DO conte
contentnt goes on reducing due to decomposition of volatile organic
matter. The rate of de-oxygenation
oxygenation depends upon the amount of the organic matter remaining to
be oxidized at the given time (i.e. Lt) as well as on the temperature of reaction (i.e. n. Hence, at a
given temperature,
ture, the curve showing depletion of DO with time, i.e. deoxygenation
deoxygena curve
161
(Refer curve I of Figure 5-2)) is similar to the first stage BOD curve (Refer Figure 2-4). It can
also be expressed mathematically
cally as per Eq. (7.2).
Figure 5-2 Deoxygenation curve
Re-oxygenation Curve
In order to counter-balance
balance the consump
consumption of DO due to de-oxygenation,
oxygenation, atmosphere
atmosphe supplies
oxygen to the water and the process is called re re-oxygenation.
oxygenation. The rate at which the oxygen is
supplied by the atmosphere to the polluted water depends upon:
(i) the depth of the receiving water (rate is more in a shallow depth)
(ii) the condition of thehe body of water (rate is more in a running streamst than in a
quiescent pond)
(iii) the saturation deficit or the oxygen deficit (i.e. the deficit of DO below the saturation
value); and
(iv) the temperature of water.
Depending upon these factors, the rate of re re-oxygenation
enation can also be expressed mathematically
and plotted in the form of a curve called re
re-oxygenation curve (Refer curve II-Figure
Figure 5-2).
Oxygen Deficit Curve
In a running polluted stream exposed to the atmosphere, the de-oxygenation
oxygenation as well as the re-
re
oxygenation go hand in hand. If de
de-oxygenation is more rapid than the re--oxygenation, an
oxygen deficit will result.
Note: If the DO content becomes zero, aerobic conditions will no longer be maintained and
putrefaction will set in.
The amount of resultant oxygen deficit can be obtained by alalgebraically
gebraically adding the de-
de
oxygenation and re-oxygenation
oxygenation curves (see curve III
III-Figure 5-2).
). The resultant curve so
obtained is called thee oxygen sag curve or the oxygen deficit curve.. From this curve, the oxygen
162
deficit and oxygen balance (i.e., 100 - D) percent in a stream after a certain lapse of time, can be
found out.
It can also be seen that when the de-oxygenation rate exceeds the re-oxygenation rate, the
oxygen sag curve shows increasing deficit of oxygen; but when both the rates become equal, the
critical point is reached, and then finally when the rate of de-oxygenation falls below that of re-
oxygenation, the oxygen deficit goes on decreasing till becoming zero.
The entire analysis of super-imposing the rates of de-oxygenation and re-oxygenation have been
carried out mathematically, and the obtained results expressed in the form of famous Streeter-
Phelps equation; i.e.,
K; · L
D@ = ∗ [(10)+HI ∗.@ 6 (10)+Hþ ∗ @ ] + [D ∗ (10)+Hþ ∗@ ] 5.1
K 6 K;
Where, Dt = the DO deficit in mg/l after t days.
L = Ultimate first stage BOD of the mix at the point of waste discharge
D0 = Initial oxygen deficit of the mix at the mixing point in mg/l.
KD = De-oxygenation coefficient for the wastewater, which can be considered as equal to
the BOD rate constant determined in the laboratory, through BOD tests performed at different
times on BOD bottles, KD varies with temperature. The typical values of KD(20) vary between 0.1
to 0.2, generally taken as 0.1.
KR = Re-oxygenation coefficient for the stream. It can be determined by the field tests by using
eqn.:
3.9√v
K ;( °) =
y.2
Where, v = Average stream velocity in m/s
y = Average stream depth in m
KR varies with temperature as per the equation:
K (L) = K ( ) ∗ (1 .016)L+ °
Where, KR(T) is the KR value at roc and KR(20) is the KR value at 20°c.
Typical values of KR(20) are given in Table 5-1.
163
Table 5-1 Values of Re-oxygenation Coefficient (KR) at 20°c
S.No. Type of water body Value of KR(20) per day

l Small ponds and back waters 0.05-0.10
Sluggish streams, large lakes and
2 0.10-0.15
impounding reservoirs
3 Large stream of low velocity 0.15-0.20
4 Large streams of normal velocity 0.20-0.30
5 Swift streams 0.30-0.50
6 Rapids and waterfalls Over 0.5
The oxygen deficit curve can be plotted easily with the help of Eq. (8.3), by using different
values of t in days:
The critical time (tc) after which the minimum dissolved oxygen occurs can be found by
differentiating Eq. (8.3) and equating it to zero; which on solving gives
log ) ∗
1 K ; ∗ L – K ∗ Do + K ; ∗ D K
t» = * 5.2
K – K; K; ∗ L K;
and the critical or maximum oxygen deficit is given by

K; ∗ L
D» = (10)+HI ∗@ 5.3
K
The constant à /m is sometimes represented by f, called self-purification constant, the values
of which are given in Table 5-2.
Table 5-2 Values of self-purification constant (f = à /m )
S.No Type of water body Value of ‘f’

l Small ponds and back waters 0.5 - 1.0
2 Sluggish streams, large lakes and impounding reservoirs 1.0 - 1.5
3 Large stream of low velocity 1.5 - 2.0
4 Large streams of normal velocity 2.0 - 3.0
5 Swift streams 3.0 - 5.0
6 Rapids and waterfalls Over 5.0
dì
Using as f, the Eq. 5.2 becomes as
de
164
D
log ) 1 − (f − 1) ∗ ∗ f* 5.4
1
K ; (f – 1) L
t» =
and equation 5.3 becomes
D» = (10)+HI ∗@
L
f
Taking log, we get
log D» = log − K ; ∗ t »
L
f
K; D
Substituting the value of tc from Eq. (8.8) in Eq. (8.10), we get
log D» = log − log ) 1 − (f − 1) ∗ ∗ f*

L
f K ; (f – 1) L
1 D
log D» = log − log ) 1 − (f − 1) ∗ ∗ f*
L
f (f – 1) L
L D
(f – 1) )log − log D» * = log ) 1 6 (f − 1) ∗ ∗ f*
f L
L ( – )
D
log f = log ) 1 6 (f − 1) ∗ ∗ f*
D» L
g – i
¼; ½ = f ∗ ¼ 1 − (f − 1) ∗ ½
C ;h
∗ C
5.5

This is the important first stage equation in which L is the BOD of the mixture of sewage and
stream, and f (KD and KR also) corresponds to the temperature of the mixture of sewage and
stream at the outfall.
The above equations are of practical value in predicting the oxygen content at any point along a
stream, and thus help us in estimating the degree of waste treatment required, or of the amount of
dilution necessary, in order to maintain a certain DO in the stream.
Example 5-1
The sewage of a town is to be discharged into a river stream. The quantity of sewage produced
per day is 8 million liters, and its BOD is 250mg It. If the discharge in the river is 200l/s and its
BOD is 6mg/l, find out the BOD of the diluted water.
Solution
Sewage discharge = Qs
Q8 =
8 ∗ 10/
l/s = 92.59 l/s
24 ∗ 60 ∗ 60
Discharge of the river = QR = 200 l/s
BOD of sewage = CS = 250 mg/l
165
BOD of river = CR = 6 mg/l.

Using equation (8.1), we have
BOD of the diluted mixture = C =

CR QR + C Q
QR + Q
250 ∗ 92.59 + 6 ∗ 200
C = = 83.21 mg/l
92.59 + 200
Example 5-2
A city discharges 1500 litres per second of sewage into a stream whose minimum rate of flow is
6000 litres per second. The temperature of sewage as well as water is 20°c. The 5 day BOD at
20°c for sewage is 200mg/l and that of river water is 1mg/l. The DO content of sewage is zero,
and that of the stream is 90% of the saturation DO If the minimum DO to be maintained in the
stream is 4.5 mg/l, find out the degree of sewage treatment, required. Assume the de-oxygenation
coefficient as 0.1 and re-oxygenation coefficient as 0.3.
Solution
From the table given at the end of the book, the value of saturation DO at 20°c is found out as
9.17mg/l.
DO content of the stream
= 90% of the saturation DO
90
= ∗ 9.17 = 8.25 mg/l
100
DO of mix at the start point (i.e. at t = 0)
8.25 ∗ 6000 + 0 ∗ 1500
= = 6.6 mg/l
6000 + 1500
(Assuming DO of sewage as zero)
Do = initial DO de{icit
= Saturation DO at mix. temp. 6 DO of mix.
= 9.17 6 6.6 = 2.57mg/l
(Assume instantaneous mixing)
Minimum DO to be maintained in the stream
= 4.5mg/l
Maximum permissible saturation deficit (i.e., critical DO deficit)
= Dc = 9.17 6 4.5 = 4.67 mg/l
Now, using equations (8.11), the first stage BOD of mixture sewage and stream (L) is given by
L ( – ) D
* = f ∗ ) 1 − (f − 1) ∗ *
D» ∗ f L
)
Substituting the values as:
166
Do = 2.57mg/l, Dc = 4.67mg/l
f=
K 0.3
= = 3
K; 0.1
We get
(, – )
L 2.57
) * = 3 ∗ ) 1 6 (3 6 1) ∗ *
4.67 ∗ 3 L
Solving by hit and trial, we get the value
a = 21.1YZ/[
Now, using
bc = a ∗ (1 6 10+dec )
Maximum permissible 5 day BOD of the mix (at 20°c)
b2 = 21.1 ∗ (1 6 10+.∗2 = 14.43mg/l) (Where, KD at 20°c = 0.1)
Now, using equation (8.1),
CR QR + C Q
C =
QR + Q
Where, C stands for concentrations of BOD
Substituting the values, we get
C8 ∗ 1500 + 1 ∗ 6000
14.43 =
1500 + 6000
Where, Cs will represent the permissible BOD5 (at 20°c of course) of the discharged wastewater.
XÌ = 68.16 YZ/[
Degree of treatment required (percent)
Original BOD of sewage − Permissible BOD
∗ 100
Original BOD.
=
∗ 100 = ô. p%
200 6 68.16
=
200
Example 5-3
A city discharges 100 cumecs of sewage into a river, which is fully saturated with oxygen and
flowing at the rate of 1500 cumecs during its lean days with a velocity of 0.1m/sec. The 5-days
BOD of sewage at the given temperature is 280mg/l. Find when and where the critical DO deficit
will occur in the downstream portion of the river, and what is its amount? Assume coefficient of
purification of the stream (f) as 4.0 and coefficient of de-oxygenation (KD as 0.1)
Solution
The initial DO of river
= Saturation DO at the given temp. = 9.2 mg/l (say)
DO of mix at t = 0 i.e., at start
167
9.2 ∗ 1500 + 0 ∗ 100

= = 8.62mg/l
1500 + 100
(Assuming that DO of sewage is nil)
Initial DO deficit of the stream
= DO = 9.2 6 8.62 = 0.58 mg/l
Also, 5-day BOD of the mixture of sewage and stream is given by
CR QR + C Q
C =
QR + Q
280 x 100 + 0 x 1500
= = 17.5 YZ/[
100 + 1500
Therefore, 5 day BOD of mix at the given temp. = Y5 = 17.5mg/l
b2 = a ∗ (1 6 10+de∗2 ) and KD = 0.1 (at 20°c)
The ultimate BOD of the mix (i.e. L)
17.5
a= = 25.58 YZ/[
0.684
Now, using equation (8.11)
L ( – ) D
* = f ∗ ) 1 − (f − 1) ∗ *
D» ∗ f L
)
25.58
( – )
) *
0.58
D» ∗ 4
= 4 ∗ ) 1 6 (4 6 1) ∗ *
25.58
D» = 4.12 mg/l
D
Now, from equation (8.8),
log ) 1 − (f − 1) ∗ ∗ f*
1
K ; (f – 1) L
t» =
t» = log ) 1 6 (4 6 1) ∗ ∗ 4* =
. pô õö÷ø
1 0.58
0.1(4 – 1) 25.58
Now,
distance = Velocity of river ∗ Travel time
= 0.1 m/sec ∗ (1.905 ∗ 24 ∗ 60 ∗ 60 sec) = 16,460 m = 16.46 km
Hence, the most critical deficit will occur after 1.905days and at point 16.46km downstream of
the point of sewage disposal.
Example 5-4
A waste water effluent of 560 l/s with a BOD = 50mg/l, DO = 3.0 mg/l and temperature of 23°c
enters a river where the flow is 28m3/sec, and BOD = 4.0 mg/l, DO = 8.2mg/l, and temperature
168
of 17°c. K1 of the waste is 0.10 per day at 20°c. The velocity of water in the river downstream is
0.18m/s and depth of 1.2m.
Determine the following after mixing of waste water with the river water:
(i) Combined discharge ;
(ii) BOD;
(iii) DO ; and
(iv) Temperature.
Solution
Particulars of Sewage thrown QS = 560 l/s = 0.56 m3/sec
Particulars of River QR = 28 m3/sec
Sewage concentrations (Cs) Concentrations (CR) in the river

BOD = 50 mg/l BOD = 4.0 mg/l
DO = 3.0 mg/l DO = 8.2 mg/l
Temp. = 23°c Temp. = 17°c
K1 at 20°c = 0.1 per day
(i) Combined discharge
= ªÌ + ªà = 0.56 + 28 = 28.56 Y, /]
Now, using equation (8.1), for concentration of mix as:
X ª + Xà ªà
X =
ª + ªà
(ii) BOD of fix
50 ∗ 0.56 + 4.0 ∗ 28 140
= = = . p rs/t
0.56 + 28 28.56
(iii) DO of mix
3.0 ∗ 0.56 + 8.2 ∗ 28
= = q. pq rs/t
0.56 + 28
(iv) Temp of mix
23 ∗ 0.56 + 17 ∗ 28
= =
.
o°
0.56 + 28
Example 5-5
125 cumecs of sewage of a city is discharged in a perennial river which is fully saturated with
oxygen and flows at a minimum rate of 1600 cumecs with a minimum velocity of 0.12 m/sec. If
the 5 day BOD of the sewage is 300 mg/l, find out where the critical DO will occur in the river.
Assume
(i) the coefficient of purification of the river as 4.0
169
(ii) the ultimate BOD as 125% of the 5 day BOD of the mixture of sewage and river water
Solution
Assume Saturation DO Concentration of the given river = 9.2
The DO of the river at the mixing point after disposal of sewage (D)
125 ∗ 0 + 1600 ∗ 9.2
= = 8.53 YZ/[
125 + 1600
Initial DO deficit (Do)
= D8 − D = 9.2 − 8.53 = 0.67 mg/l
BODs of the river at the mixing'point after disposal of sewage (Y5)
125 ∗ 300 + 1600 ∗ 0
= = 21.74 mg/l
125 + 1600
The ultimate BOD of river (mix) at mixing point (L)
= 125% BOD2 = 1.25 ∗ 21.74 = 27.17 mg/l
Now, using eqn. (7.16),
BOD2 = L ∗ (1 − 10+HI ∗2 )
21.74 = 27.17 ∗ (1 − 10+HI ∗2 )
0.8 = (1 − 10+2HI )
10+2HI = 0.2
K ; = 0.14
Using the equation
1 D
t» = log ) 1 − (f − 1) ∗ ∗ f*
K ; (f – 1) L
0.67
t» =
1
log ) 1 − (4 − 1) ∗ ∗ 4* = 1.354 days
0.14(4 – 1) 27.17
S = Velocity ∗ time = 0.12m/s ∗ 1.354 ∗ 24 ∗ 3600sec =
.
Hence, critical DO deficit will occur at 14km downstream of sewage disposal point.
5.1.2 Disposal of Wastewaters in Lakes and Management of Lake Waters

1. Lake Pollutants
Disposal of wastewaters in confined lakes or reservoirs is much more harmful than its disposal in
flowing streams and rivers. Water quality management in lakes in entirely different from that in
rivers. It is infact the phosphorous (a nutrient largely contained in industrial as well as domestic
wastewaters), which seriously affects the water quality of lakes; and is hence considered as the
prime lake pollutant. Oxygen demanding wastes may be the other important lake pollutants. The
toxic chemicals from industrial wastewaters may also sometimes very adversely affect some
170
special classes of the lakes. However, phosphorous (a nutrient) constitutes the most important
lake pollutant, and needs special study in water quality man
management of lakes.
A study of the lake systems is essential to understand the role of phosphorous in lake pollution.
The study of lakes is called limnology.
2. Stratification in Lakes
The water of a lake gets stratified during summers and winters, as discuss
discussed
ed below:
During summer season, the surface water of a lake gets heated up by sunlight and warm air. This
worm water being lighter remains in upper layers near the surface, until mixed downward by
turbulence from winds, waves, boats and other forces. Sinc
Sincee such turbulence extends only to a
limited depth from below the water surface, the top layers of water in the lake become well
mixed and aerobic. This warmer, well mixed and aerobic depth of water is called epilimnion
zone. The lower depth, which remains cooler, poorly mixed and anaerobic, is called the
hypolimnion zone. There may also exist an intermediate zone or a dividing line, called
thermocline, as shown in Figure 5-3 (a).
(b) Stratification
fication of a lake during winter.
Figure 5-3 Stratification of lakes

The change from epilimnion to hypolimnion can be experienced while swimming in a lake.
When you swim in top layers horizontally, you will feel the water warmer; and if you dive
deeper, you will find the water cooler. The change line will represent monocline. The depth of
epilimnion zone depends upon the size of the lake for the same temperature changes. It may be
as little as 1m in small lakes
es and may be as large as 20 m or more in large lakes. This depth also
depends upon the storm activity in the spring when stratification is developing. A major storm at
the right time will mix the warmer water to a substantial depth and thus create a deeper
deepe
171
epilimnion zone than its normal depth. Once formed, lake stratification is very stable, and can
only be broken by exceedingly violent storms. As a matter of fact, as summer progresses, this
stability increases; the epilimnion continues to warm, while the hypolimnion remains at a fairly
constant temperature.
With the onset of winter season, the epilimnion cools, until it is denser than the hypolimnion.
The surface water then sinks, causing 'overturning'. The water of the hypolimnion rises to the
surface, where it cools and again sinks. The lake thus becomes completely mixed, making it
quite aerobic. In regions of freezing temperatures, when the temperature drops below 4°c, the
above process of overturning (or turn over) stops, because water is most dense at this
temperature. Further cooling or freezing of the water surface results in winter stratification, as
shown in Figure 5-3 (b).
With the passing of winters and commencement of spring season, the surface water again warms
up and overturns, and lake becomes completely mixed. The lakes in regions of temperate climate
will, therefore, have at least one, if not two, cycles of stratification and turn-over every year.
3. Biological Zones in Lakes

Lakes have been found to exhibit distinct zones of biological activity, largely determined by the
availability of light and oxygen. The most important biological zones are:
(i) euphotic zone;
(ii) littoral zone; and
(iii) benthic zone.
These zones are shown in Fig. 8.4, and briefly discussed below:
i. Euphotic zone
The upper layer of lake water through which sunlight can penetrate, is called the euphotic zone.
All plant growth occurs in this zone. In deep water, algae grow as the most important plants,
while rooted plants grow in shallow water near the shore.
172
Figure 5-4 Biological zones in a lake
ii. Littoral zone

The shallow water near the shore, in which rooted plants grow, is called the littoral zone. The
extent of the littoral zone depends on the slope of the lake bottom, and the depth of the euphotic
zone. The littoral zone cannot extend deeper than the euphotic zone, as shown in Fig. 8.3.
iii. Benthic zone

The bottom sediments in a lake comprise what is called the benthic zone. As the organisms
living
iving in the overlying water die, they settle down to the bottom, where they are decomposed by
the organisms living in the benthic zone. Bacteria are always present in this zone. The presence
of higher life forms, such as worms, insects and crustaceans how however,
ever, depends upon the
availability of oxygen at the lake bottom.
5.1.3 Disposal of Wastewater in Sea Water

Sea water normally contains 20% less oxygen than that contained in fresh water of a river stream.
Moreover, sea water normally contains a large amount ooff dissolved matter. As such, the capacity
of sea water to absorb sewage solids is not as high as that of fresh water of a stream. Moreover,
sewage solids, when thrown into sea water, chemically react with the dissolved matter of sea
water, resulting in precipitating
cipitating some of the sewage solids, giving a milky appearance to sea
water and forming sludge banks banks.. These sludge banks are undesirable, as they are likely to
produce offensive hydrogen sulphide gas by reacting with the sulphate rich water of the sea.
Ass pointed out earlier, the oxygen content of sea water is less than that of fresh water, and also,
its re-aeration
aeration is slower. However, since the sea contains too larger volumes of water, most of
these deficiencies are removed, provided the sewage is taken deep into the sea and away from
the coast line.
173
Since the specific gravity of sea water is greater than that of sewage, and temperature of sea
water is lower than that of sewage, the lighter and the warmer sewage will rise up to the surface
when thrown into the sea water. This will result in spreading of the sewage at the top surface of
sea in a thin film or 'sleek'.
To prevent the backing up and spreading of sewage on the sea shore, the sewage should be
disposed of only during low tides. Large sized tanks may, therefore, be constructed to hold the
sewage during high tides. Provision of a large sized sewer, grated with a non-return valve at the
end, is also an alternative to hold the sewage during high tides.
In all, the following points should be kept in mind while discharging sewage into the sea:
(i) The sewage should be discharged in deep sea only.
(ii) In order to mix the sewage properly with sea water, the sewage should be released at a
minimum depth of 3 to 5 meters below the water level, and by taking it sufficiently

inside (about 1 ®Y) from the shore line. This measure will prevent the sewage from

accumulating on the shore, and thus preventing nuisance to baths and recreation centres
on the shores.
(iii) Before deciding the position of outfall point, the sea currents, wind direction, velocity,
etc. should be thoroughly studied. The point of disposal should be such that the sewage
is taken away from the shore by the-winds, and not brought back near the shore.
(iv) The outfall sewer should be placed on a firm rocky foundation, and encased in thick
stone masonry, so as to properly protect it from wave action, floating debris, etc.
5.2 Land Disposal and Treatment
1. Disposal of Sewage Effluents on Land for Irrigation

In this method, the sewage effluent (treated or diluted) is generally disposed of by applying it on
land. The percolating water may either join the water-table, or is collected below by a system of
under drains. This method can then be used for irrigating crops.
This method, in addition to disposing of the sewage, may help in increasing crop yields (by 33%
or so) as the sewage generally contains a lot of fertilizing minerals and other elements. However,
the sewage effluent before being used as irrigation water must be made safe. In order to lay down
the limiting standards for sewage effluents, and the degree of treatment required, it is necessary
to study as to what happens when sewage is applied on to the land as irrigation water.
When raw or partly treated sewage is applied on to the land, a part of it evaporates, and the
remaining portion percolates through the ground soil. While percolating through the soil, the
suspended particles present in the sewage are caught in the soil voids. If proper aeration of these
voids is maintained, the organic sewage solids caught in these voids get oxidized by aerobic
174
process. Such aeration and aerobic conditions will more likely prevail, if the soil is sufficiently
porous and permeable (such as sands and porous loams). However, if the land is made up of
heavy, sticky and fine grained materials (such as clay, rock, etc.), the void spaces will soon get
choked up, and thus resulting in non-aeration of these voids. This will lead to the developing of
non-aerobic decomposition of organic matter, and evolution of foul gases. Moreover, excessive
clogging may also result in ugly ponding of sewage over the farm land, where mosquitoes may
breed in large number, causing further nuisance.
Application of too strong or too heavy load of sewage will also similarly result in the quick
formation of anaerobic conditions. The greater is the sewage load, more likely it will be for the
soil to get clogged. Hence, if the sewage load is reduced either by diluting it or by pre-treating it,
it may be possible to avoid the clogging of the soil pores. The degree of treatment required will,
however, considerably depend upon the type of the soil of the land. If this soil, to be irrigated, is
sandy and porous, the sewage effluents may contain more solids and other wastes, and thus
requiring lesser treatment, as compared to the case where the soil is less porous and sticky.
The pretreatment process may be adopted by larger cities which can afford to conduct treatment
of sewage; whereas the dilution technique may be adopted by smaller cities. When sewage is
diluted with water for disposal for irrigation, too large volumes of dilution water are generally
not needed, so as not to require too large areas for disposal. The extent of land area required for
disposing a certain volume of sewage effluent can be worked out from the values given in Table
5-3.
Table 5-3 Recommended Doses for Sewage Farming
Doses of sewage in cubic meters per hectare per day

Types of soil
Raw sewage Settled sewage
Sandy 120 – 150 220 – 280
Sandy loam 90 – 100 170 – 220
loam 60 – 80 110 – 170
Clayey loam 40 – 50 60 – 110
clayey 30 - 45 30 - 60
Example 5-6
A town having population of 40,000 disposes sewage by land treatment. It gets a per capita
assured water supply from waterworks at a rate of 130l/day. Assuming that the land used for
sewage disposal can absorb 80m3 of sewage per hectare per day, determine the land area required,
and its cost at the rate of $25,000 per hectare. Make suitable assumptions where needed.
175
Solution
Population = 40,000
Rate of water supply = 130 l/day/person
Total water supplied per day
= 40,000 ∗ 130 l = 5,200,000 lites = 5,200 cu. m.
Assuming that 80% of this water appears as sewage,
The quantity of sewage produced per day
= 0.8 ∗ 5200 = 4160 cum.
Therefore, area of land required for disposing sewage
4160
= = 52 hectares
80
Providing 50% extra land fOT rest and rotation,
The total land area required
= 1.5 ∗ 52 = 78 hectares
Cost of land involved
= 25,000 ∗ 78 = $1,950,000
Example 5-7
A town disposes sewage by land treatment. It has a sewage farm of area 150 hectares. The area
included an extra provision of 50% for rest and rotation. The population of the town being
50,000 and rate of water supply 140 litres per capita per day. If 75% of the water is converted
into sewage, determine the consuming capacity of the soil.
Solution
Quantity of water produced per day
= 50,000 ∗ 140litres/day = 7,000,000l/day = 7,000 cu. m/day
Quantity of sewage produced
= 0.75 ∗ 7000 = 5,250 cu. m/day
Area of farm land provided
= 150 hectares with 50% additional reserve
Hence, area provided for immediate need
150
= = 100 hectares
1.5
100 hectares is capable of passing 5250 cum per day
Consuming capacity of soil
5250
= = 52.5 cu. m per hectare per day
100
176
2. Quality Standards for Wastewater Effluents to be discharged on Land for Irrigation

These standards are based upon the quality of irrigation water required by the crops, and thus
limit the concentrations of pollutants contained in sewage or industrial liquid wastes, which may
prove harmful to the crops.
Table 5-4 Effluent standards for Irrigation under Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986
Characteristics of effluent Standards under Environment

S.No.
i.e. pollutant of waste water (Protection) Rules, 1986
(l) (2) (3)
Color and odor All efforts should be made to remove color and
1
unpleasant odor as far as practicable
2 BOD5 100mg/l
3 Suspended Solids (SS) 200 mg/l
4 pH Value 5.5 to 9.0
5 Oil and grease 10 mg/l
6 Arsenic (As) 0.2 mg/l
7 Cyanide (as CN) 0.2 mg/l
The effluent irrigation method for disposal of sewage can be favorably adopted under the
following conditions:
(i) When some natural rivers or water courses are not located in the vicinity, the land
treatment is the only alternative left, and has to be adopted.
(ii) When irrigation water is scarcely available, the use of sewage for irrigating crops is a
good alternative.
(iii) When large areas of open land are available, broad irrigation may be practised over it
with the help of sewage effluents, and good returns can be earned by raising cash
crops. Crops like wheat, cotton,/sugarcane, plantain, grasses, fodder, coconut, orange
trees etc. have been successfully grown with advantage on sewage farms.
(iv) The method of effluent irrigation will prove useful in areas of low rainfall, as this will
help in maintaining good absorption capacity of the soil.
(v) The area for land treatment or sewage farming should preferably be porous, such as
sandy, loamy, or alluvial soils, or soft moorum. It should not be made of heavy
retentive soils like clay, etc., which prevent easy aeration of the soil voids, and thus
creating anaerobic conditions.
177
(vi) This method of disposal of sewage, poses problems during the periods when no
irrigation water is required for the crops especially during rains. This method is,
therefore preferred when sewage can be diverted to some river streams (flowing high
during rainy season).
(vii) This method is preferred in areas of low water-table, where rate of percolation may be
quite high.
Summary of Dilution Method Vs Land Disposal Method for Disposal of Sewage
(i) For disposal by dilution, large volumes of natural clean waters (with nil or very low
BOD) are required; whereas, for land disposal, large areas of land, preferably with
sandy soils, are required.
(ii) The cost of land, in land disposal method, is generally very high, especially in cities
and urban areas, which are generally situated near rivers or oceans, and thus
suggesting the choice of dilution method. Whereas, in the rural areas, where the
amount of sewage produced is less, land being available at lesser cost, no easy water
source being available, the land disposal method is a better choice.
(iii) When the cost of land is high in land disposal method, some return may be available
due to sewage farming; but then good management is also required. Dilution method
of disposal, however, when possible, is a simple method, and does not require too
much of management.
(iv) Land disposal method requires either no pre-treatment of sewage or only preliminary
treatment; whereas, dilution method of disposal, generally requires either full or at
least partial treatment.
(v) Dilution method of sewage disposal requires nil or small head pumping, because
rivers flow through the lowest contours, while land disposal requires high head
pumping, thus making the land disposal method costlier.
(vi) Land disposal method is generally found to be a better choice in hot climatic areas.
This is because of the fact that in hot areas, DO contents of natural waters are reduced,
while fish and aquatic life need higher DO concentrations, thus rendering rivers (par-
ticularly those with small dry weather flows) susceptible to too much pollution and
unfit for throwing untreated or less treated sewage. A lot of pretreatment, if required,
will make the dilution method costlier.
(vii) Land disposal saves the inland rivers from getting polluted by sewage, and returns to
the land the fertilizing elements, which were once drawn from it. Dilution in river
water will naturally cause downstream river water to become polluted, and an
unavoidable health hazard. The towns and the cities situated downstream of the
178
disposal point (particularly those near the zone of degradation and zone of active
decomposition) cannot utilize river water without thorough and costlier treatment.
Sometimes, the river water may get so much polluted that it may become almost
impossible to purify it within the normal economics; Due to the pollution of the river,
fish life may be lost, resulting in a good loss to the economy. Moreover, the
recreational uses of the river will be gone, if it becomes polluted.
Activities
1. Enumerate the two general methods adopted for sewage disposal; and discuss their merits,
and demerits explaining the conditions favorable for their adoption.
2. Write a detailed note on land treatment of sewage dealing with the chemical as well as the
engineering aspects of the process.
3. What do you understand by self-purification property of a stream? Explain the factors
affecting this property.
4. (a) What is sewage farming? What are its advantages over the method of disposal of sewage
by dilution? What crops should be grown on such farms? What precautions should be taken
in its operations to prevent health hazards either to the farm workers or to the consumers
using the produce?
(b) Calculate the area of sewage farm and type of crop to be grown if waste flow is 5 Mlpd,
(nitrogen required may be taken as 40 kg/ha/~rop and nitrogen available in waste as 20 ppm).
5. 0.04 cumecs of settled sewage having a 5 day BOD of 120 ppm and containing 4.6 ppm
of DO are discharged into a large normal stream carrying an average flow of 1.02 cumecs
with a 5 day B.O.D. at 20°c of 9 ppm, and containing 6 ppm of DO what is the value of
maximum deficit that is likely to occur downstream, assuming the temperature at 20°c
throughout, KD = 0.1, KR = 0.24, and saturation DO at 20°c = 9.2ppm. If the minimum
DO is to be kept at 5ppm, what percentage of removal is necessary in a treatment plant?
179
6- SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL

6.1 Sludge and Its Moisture Content
The sludge, which is deposited in a primary sedimentation tank, is called raw sludge; and the
sludge which is deposited in a secondary clarifier is called Secondary Sludge. Raw sludge is
odorous, contains highly putrescible organic matter, and is, thus, very objectionable. Secondary
sludge is also putrescible, though a little less objectionable. The sludge withdrawn from the
bottom of the sedimentation basins must, therefore, be stabilized before its final disposal. In
addition to its putrescibility, another problem posed by the sludge is its high moisture content. In
case of raw sludge, the moisture content is about 95%; in case of secondary sludge from a
trickling filter plant, it is about 96 to 98%; and in case of secondary sludge from an activated
sludge treatment plant, it is about 98% to over 99%. The sludge containing high moisture content
becomes very, bulky, and difficult to handle. For example, sludge with 95% moisture, contains
5litres of solid matter in 100 liters of sludge. Similarly, the sludge with 90% moisture will
contain 10 liters of solid matter in l00 liters of sludge, i.e. 5 liters of solid matter in 50 liters of
sludge. Thus, the sludge with 90% moisture will be half in quantity as compared to that of the
sludge with 95% moisture, for the same volume of solids. Similarly, sludge with 99% moisture
contains 1 liter of solids in 100 liters of sludge, whereas, a sludge with 90% moisture contains 5
liters of solids in 100 liters of sludge, i.e. 1 liter of solids in 20 liters of sludge. Hence, the sludge

with 99% moisture will be = 5 times more bulky than the sludge with 95% moisture, for

storing the same solid content.
It, therefore, follows that if the moisture content of the sludge is reduced, its volume will go on
decreasing. If moisture content is reduced to about 70 to 80%, the sludge becomes viscous; and
at about 10% moisture content, it becomes dry, and assumes powder form. The complete
moisture can, however, be removed only by special treatments, since the water is so tenaciously
held in the sludge.
Example 6-1
A sedimentation tank is treating 4.5 million liters of sewage per day containing
275ppm of suspended solids. The tank removes 50% of suspended solids. Calculate the
quantity of sludge produced per day in bulk and weight, if:
(b) moisture content of sludge is 98%
(c) moisture content of sludge is 96%
Solution
Volume of sewage treated
= 4.5*106litres/day
180
Since suspended solids amount to 275mg/l, the weight of suspended solids present in
sewage
275 ∗ 4.5
= ∗ 10/ kg/day = 1237.5kg/day
10/
Since 50% of solids are removed in sedimentation tank,
The wt. of solids removed in sedimentation tank
50
= 1237.5 ∗ = 618.75kg/day
100
a. When moisture content of sludge is 98%, then 2kg of solids (dry sludge) will
make = 100kg of wet sludge
Therefore, 618.75kg of solids (dry sludge) will make
100
= ∗ 618.75 = 30940kg
2
Hence, wet sludge or sludge produced per day
= 30,940 kg = 30.94 tonnes
Assuming the sp. gravity of wet sludge (sludge) as 1.02,
Unit wt. of sludge = 1.02t/m3
Vol. of wet sludge produced per day
Wt 30.94
= = = 30.33 m,
unit wt 1.02
Vol. of sludge (when its moisture content is 98%) = 30.33m3
Hence, the vol. of sludge when its moisture content is 98% = 30.33cu.m
b. When moisture content is 96%, then 4 kg of solids will make
= 100kg of wet sludge
Therefore, 618.75kg of solids will make
100
= ∗ 618.75 = 15468.75kg of wet sludge
4
≅ 15,470kg of wet sludge = 15.47tonnes of wet sludge
Hence, wt. of sludge (when its moisture content is 96%) = 15.47tonnes.
If sp. gravity of sludge is 1.02, then Vol. of sludge (when its moisture content is 96%)
15.47
= = 15.17m,
1.02
Hence, the vol. of sludge at 96% moisture content = 15.17cu. m.
Note: It shows that the sludge is reduced to half its volume when its moisture content is
lowered from 98% to 96%.
181
Example 6-2
There is sewage sludge with volume containing a certain moisture content p1 (percent).
What will be the volume of this sludge if its moisture content is reduced to p (percent).
Solution
Let the given sewage contains solids = W kg. Let its volume be V1 at a moisture
content of p1 (percent), and V at a moisture content of p (percent).
At moisture content of p1,
(100 – p1) kg of solids will make = 100kg of wet sludge
W kg of solids will make
100 ∗ W
kg of wet sludge
(100 − p )
=
Or Wt. of sludge produced

100 ∗ W
= kg
(100 − p )
If γs is the unit wt. of sludge, in kg/m3, then
Vol. of sludge produced
100 ∗ W 1
= ∗ m, = V
(100 − p ) γR
At moisture content of p (percent), similarly,
Vol. of sludge produced (V)
100 ∗ W 1
V= ∗ m,
(100 − p) γR
From equation (i),
(100 − p ) ∗ V ∗ γR
W=
100
From equation (ii),
(100 − p) ∗ V ∗ γR
W=
100
Equating (iii) and (iv),
(100 − p ) ∗ V ∗ γR (100 − p) ∗ V ∗ γR
=
100 100
(100 − p )
V = V
(100 − p)
Example 6-3
The moisture content of sludge is reduced from 95 to 90% in a sludge digestion tank. Find the
percentage decrease in the volume of sludge.
182
Solution
(100 − p )
V = V
(100 − p)
(100 − 95) V
V = V =
(100 − 90) 2
Thus, the volume at 90% moisture will be half of that at 95% moisture. Hence, the
percentage decrease in moisture will be 50%.
6.2 Sludge Digestion Process
As pointed out earlier, the sludge withdrawn from the sedimentation basins contains a lot of
putrescible organic matter, and if disposed of without any treatment, the organic matter may
decompose, producing foul gases and a lot of nuisance, pollution,1 and health hazards. In order
to avoid such pollutions, the sludge is, first of all, stabilized by decomposing the organic matter
under controlled anaerobic conditions, and then disposed of suitably after drying on drying beds,
etc. The process of stabilization is called the sludge digestion; and the tank where the process is
carried out is' called the sludge digestion tank. In a sludge digestion process, the sludge gets
broken into the following three forms:
(i) Digested sludge
It is a stable humus like solid matter, tary black in color, and with reduced moisture content,

,
and, is therefore, having reduced volume (about times the undigested sludge volume).
Moreover, the quality of digested sludge is much better than that of the undigested sludge, and it
is free of pathogenic bacteria which are killed in the digestion process. It may still, however,
contain cysts and eggs of bacteria, protozoa and worms.
(ii) Supernatant liquor
It includes the liquefied and finely divided solid matter, and is having high BOD (about
3000ppm).
(iii) Gases of decomposition
Gases like methane (65 to 70%), carbon dioxide (30%), and traces of other inert gases like
nitrogen, hydrogen sulphide, etc. are evolved. They may be collected (particularly the methane
which has a high calorific value) and used as a fuel.
The sludge gas, having 70% methane, has a fuel value of about 5800 kilo calorie/cu.m (i.e. 650
Btu per cu. ft. app.). The amount of gas produced, on an average, is about 0.9cu. m per kg of
volatile solids reduced in the digestion. The gas produced thus varies with the sewage produced,
and works out to about 14 to 18 liters per capita per day (usually 17l/c/d).
The digested sludge is dewatered, dried up, and used as fertilizer; while the gases produced are
also used for fuel or for driving gas engines. The supernatant liquor contains about 1500 to
183
3000ppm of suspended solids; and is, therefore, re-treated at the treatment plant along with the
raw sewage.
6.3 Stages in the Sludge Digestion Process
Three distinct stages have been found to occur in the biological action involved in the natural
process of sludge digestion. These stages are:
(i) Acid fermentation
(ii) Acid regression
(iii) Alkaline fermentation
(i) Acid Fermentation Stage or Acid Production Stage
In this first stage of sludge digestion, the fresh sewage-sludge begins to be acted upon by
anaerobic and facultative bacteria, called acid formers. These organisms solubilize the organic
solids through hydrolysis. The soluble products are then fermented to volatile acids and organic
alcohols of low molecular weight like propionic acid, acetic acid, etc. Gases like methane,
carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide are also evolved. Intensive acid production makes the
sludge highly acidic, and lowers the pH value to less than 6. Highly putrefactive odors are
evolved during this stage, which continues for about 15 days or so (at about 21°c). BOD of the
sludge increases to some extent, during this stage.
(ii) Acid-Regression Stage
In this intermediate stage, the volatile organic acids and nitrogenous compounds of the first
stage are attacked by the bacteria, so as to form acid carbonates and ammonia compounds. Small
amounts of hydrogen sulphide and carbon-dioxide gases are also given off. The decomposed
sludge has a very offensive odor, and its pH value rises a little, and to be about 6.8. The
decomposed sludge, also, entraps the gases of decomposition, becomes foamy, and rises to the
surface to form scum. This stage continues for a period of about 3 months or so (at about 21°c).
BOD of the sludge remains high even during this stage.
(iii) Alkaline Fermentation Stage
In this final stage of sludge digestion, more resistant materials like proteins and organic acids are
attacked and broken up by anaerobic bacteria, called methane formers, into simple substances
like ammonia, organic acids and gases. During this stage, the liquid separates out front the solids,
and the digested sludge is formed. This sludge is granular and stable, and does not give offensive
odors. (It has a musty earthy odor). This digested sludge is collected at the bottom of the
digestion tank, and is also called ripened sludge. Digested sludge is alkaline in nature. The pH
value during this stage rises to a little above 7 (about 7.5 or so) in the alkaline range. Large
volumes of methane gas (having a considerable fuel value) along with small amount of carbon
184
dioxide and nitrogen, are evolved during this stage. This stage extends for a period of about one
month or so (at about 21ºc). The BOD of the sludge also rapidly falls down during this stage.

It is, thus, seen that several months (about 4 months or so) are required for the complete

process of digestion to take place under natural uncontrolled conditions at about 21°c. This
period of digestion is, however, very much dependent upon the temperature of digestion, and
other factors. If these factors are controlled, quicker and effective digestion can be brought
about, as discussed below.
6.4 Factors Affecting Sludge Digestion and Their Control
The important factors which affect the process of sludge digestion, and are, therefore,
controlled in a digestion tank, are:
1. Temperature
2. pH value
3. Seeding with digested sludge
4. Mixing and stirring of the raw sludge with digested sludge.
Besides these important factors, certain other minor conditions like quality of water supply;
presence of copper, fluorides, and radioactive substances, etc., may also affect the rate of
digestion, but not to any appreciable extent. These important factors which are largely
responsible for controlling the rate and effectiveness of sludge-digestion are discussed below:
(1) Temperature.
The process of digestion is greatly influenced by temperature; rate of digestion being more at
higher temperatures and vice-versa. The effect of temperature on digestion period is shown in
Figure 1-1. In this figure, two distinct temperature zones are indicated; i.e.
(i) Zone of Thermophilic Digestion
In this zone of high temperature, digestion is brought about by heat loving thermophilic
organisms. The temperature in this zone ranges between 40 to 60°c The optimum temperature in
this zone is about 54°c, and at this temperature, the digestion period can be brought down to
about 10 - 15 days only. However, thermophilic range temperatures are generally not employed
for digesting sewage sludge, owning to odors and other operational difficulties.
185
Figure 6-1 Showing effect of temperature on sludge digestion period

(ii) Zone of Mesophilic Digestion.
In this zone of moderate temperature, digestion is brought about by common mesophilic
organisms. The temperature in this zone ranges between 25 to 40°c. The optimum mesophilic
temperature is about 29°c; and at this temperature, the digestion period can be brought down to
about 30 days.
Hence, it can be concluded that the sludge can be quickly digested, if the temperature in the
digestion tank is kept high. The best results are obtained at about 29°c (i.e. the optimum
mesophilic temperature) when about 90% of digestion takes place in about 30 days. But it may,
however, be pointed out that it is difficult to control temperature in practice, as it mainly depends
upon the prevailing local climatic conditions.
(2) pH Value
It was pointed out earlier that during the digestion process, a lot of volatile organic acids are
formed, as an intermediate step, in the breakdown of organic material. These volatile acids are
then converted into methane gas by a specialized group of strictly anaerobic and slow growing
bacteria, called methane formers. If the methane formers are not operating properly, an
accumulation of volatile acids may occur, causing the pH to drop to a value as low as 5.0, which
will (suppress further bacterial action. Hence, during digestion, care must be taken to keep the
acidity well under control, so that the pH during the digester start-up does not go below 6.5 or so,
and thus to see that alkaline conditions (with optimum pH about 7.2 to 7.4) may prevail
ultimately, in the final stage of digestion.
The acidity increases,
(i) with the overdosing of raw sludge;
(ii) with the over withdrawal of digested sludge; and
(iii) with the sudden admission of industrial wastes
186
The remedy in such cases is to add hydrated lime in doses of 2.3 to 4.5kg/1000 persons to the
raw sludge. The weight of raw sludge to be added daily, for the maintenance of optimum value
of pH, should also be limited to 3 to 5 per cent of the weight of the digested sludge removed.
(3) Seeding with the Digested Sludge
When a sludge digestion tank is first put in operation, it is highly beneficial to seed it with the
digested sludge from another tank. Without seeding, it may take a few months to get a tank
operating properly. Proper seeding will help attain quick balance conditions of reaction.
(4) Mixing and Stirring of the Raw Sludge with the Digested Sludge
Incoming fresh raw sludge should be thoroughly mixed with the digested sludge, by some
effective method of agitation, so as to make a homogenous mass of raw as well as digested (or
partly digested) sludge. In this way, the bacterial enzymes present in the digested sludge will get
every opportunity to get mixed with the raw sludge, and to attack it for subsequent
decomposition.
The mixing of raw and digested sludge achieved by stirring the sludge in the sludge digestion
tank by slow moving mechanical devices; or the gases of decomposition may be used to set up
agitation by circulating from bottom to top of the tank and vice versa, by means of a pumping
device.
Excessive stirring may produce harmful effects, as it may kill the bacteria. The proper stirring
however, results in even distribution of incoming sludge, breaks and reduces the scum, and helps
in increasing the production of gases.
In cold countries, where it is necessary to heat the digestion tanks, so as to maintain optimum
mesophilic temperature (about 29°c), the stirring may help in transmitting heat from the heating
coils to the tank contents; and thus to attain uniform temperature throughout the tank.
6.5 Sludge Digestion Tank or Digesters
(Aerobic Suspended Culture)

Constructional Details
A typical sludge digestion tank is shown in Figure 6-2. It consists of a circular RC.C tank with
hoppered bottom, and having a fixed or a floating type of roof over its top. The raw sludge is
pumped into the tank, and when the tank is first put into operation, it is seeded with the digested
sludge from another tank, as pointed out earlier. A screw pump with an arrangement for
circulating the sludge from bottom to top of the tank or vice versa (by reversing the direction of
rotation of the screw) is commonly used, for stirring the sludge. Sometimes, power driven
mechanical devices may be used for stirring the sludge, although these are not very popular, at
present.
187
Figure 6-2 Cross section of a typical sludge digestion tanks

In cold countries, the tank may have to be provided with heating coils through which hot water is
circulated in order that the temperature inside the tank is maintained at optimum digestion
temperature level.
The gases of decomposition (chiefly methane and carbon dioxide) are collected in a gas dome (in
smaller tanks) or collected separately in gas holders (in larger tanks) for subsequent use. The
digested sludge which settles down to the hoppered bottom of the tank is removed under
hydrostatic pressure, periodically, once a week or so. The supernatant liquor lying between the
sludge and the scum is removed at suitable elevations, through a number of withdrawal pipes, as
shown. The supernatant liquor, being higher in BOD and suspended solids contents, is sent back
for treatment along with the raw sewage in the treatment plant. The scum formed at the top
surface of the supernatant liquor is broken by the re-circulating flow or through the mechanical
rakers called scum breakers.
Design Considerations
The digestion tanks are cylindrical shaped tanks (i.e. circular in plan) with diameter ranging
between 3 to 12m. The bottom hoppered floor of the tank is given a slope of about 1:1 to 1:3 (i.e.
188
1 H: 3 V). However, when the sludge is moved to the outlet by means of some mechanical
equipment, the bottom slopes may be made relatively flat.
The depth of the digestion tank is usually kept at about 6m or so.
Deeper tanks are costlier, though more effective. Except in very large plants, it is usual not to
provide more than 2 units.
The capacity of the digestion tank is a function of sludge production, digestion period, degree of
digestion required, loss of moisture, and conversion of organic matter. If the progress of sludge
digestion is assumed to be linear, then the capacity of the digestion tank is given as:
V + V
=) *∗t
2
Where, V = Vol. of the digestion, m3
V1 = Raw sludge added per m3/d
V2 = Equivalent digested produced per day on completion of digestion, m3/d
úØ
≈
,
t = Digestion period, d
When the daily digested sludge could not be removed (even though digestion gets completed)
due to the factors, such as monsoon season, winter season, etc. ; then separate capacity for its
storage should be provided in the tank. This capacity eventually amounts to V2*T. Where, T is
the number of days for which the digested sludge is stored, and is called monsoon storage. The
total digester volume is then given as:
V + V
V=) * ∗ t + V ∗ T
2
However, when the change during digestion is assumed to be parabolic rather than linear, the

average volume of digesting sludge will be [ V − ,
(V − V ) ] and the required capacity
will be given by:
2
V = V − (V − V ) ∗ t
3
- without monsoon storage
2
V = V − (V − V ) ∗ t + V ∗ T
3
- with monsoon storage
The capacity of the sludge digestion tank calculated above may also be modified for
the following additional factors:
(i) amount of sludge withdrawn and its interval
(ii) provision of adequate free-board at top
(iii) storage for winter
189
(iv) type of pre-treatment given to fresh sludge

(v) collection of gas; etc.
Depending upon all these variable factors, digestion tanks are also designed on per capita basis.
The capacity provided per capita may range between 21 to 61 liters per capita (taking into
account the usual one month digestion period) as shown in Table 6-1.
Table 6-1 Design Capacities of the Digestion Tanks on Per Capita Basis
S. Type of raw sludge to be kg of volatile solids present Per capita

No. digested per cu. m of sludge per month capacity in
cum/capita
1 Primary sludge 8 0.021
2 Mixture of primary sludge and 7.36 0.036
secondary sludge from trickling
filters (humus tanks)
3 Mixture of primary sludge 5.76 0.061
and secondary activated sludge
4 Chemically coagulated sludge - 0.056
As pointed out earlier, the amount of the sludge gas produced in the digestion tank, ranges
between 14 to 28 liters per capita per day (usually 17 liter per capita per day or 900 liters per gm
of volatile solids digested, is quite common). The gas collected may be utilized for operating gas
engines, and for heating sludge to promote quick digestion. However, the gas collection and its
utilization is found fruitful only in ease of large plants serving more than 50,000 persons or so,
so as to produce at least about 800-1000cu. m. of gas per day.
Example 6-4
Design a digestion tank for the primary sludge with the help of following data:
(i) Average flow = 20*106l/d;
(ii) Total suspended solids in raw sewage = 300mg/l;
(iii) Moisture content of digested sludge = 85%.
Assume any other suitable data you require.
Solution
Average sewage flow = 20*106l/d
Total suspended solids = 300mg/l
Mass of suspended solids in 20*106 liter of sewage flowing per day
190
300 ∗ 20 ∗ 10/
= kg = 6000kg/day
10/
Assuming that 65% solids are removed in primary settling tanks,
Wt. of solids removed in the primary settling tank
= 65% ∗ 6000 kg/day = 3900 kg/day
Assuming that the fresh sludge has moisture content of 95%,
5 kg of dry solids will make = 100 kg of wet sludge and
3900 kg of dry solids will make
100
= ∗ 3900 kg of wet sludge per day = 78,000 kg of wet sludge per day
5
Assuming the sp. gravity of wet sludge as 1.02; i.e. Density = 1020kg/m3,
The volume of raw sludge produced/day
78000 ,
= V = m /day = 76.4 7m, /day
1020
The volume of the digested sludge (V2) at 85% moisture content is given by the formula
(9.38) as:
(100 − p )
V = V
(100 − p)
(100 − 95)
V = V
(100 − 85)
1 1
V = V = ∗ 76.4 7 = 25.49 m, /day
3 3
Assuming the digestion period as 30 days, we have the capacity of the required digestion
tank, given by Eqn. 9.40 as:
2
Capacity = V = V − (V − V ) ∗ t
3
2
= 76.47 − (76.47 − 25.49) ∗ 30 = 1274.5 cu. m
3
Providing 6.0 m depth of the cylindrical digestion tank, we have
Cross-sectional area of the tank
12675
= = 212.5m
6
Diameter of tank
212.5
= π = 16.45 m ≈ 16.5 m
4
191
Hence, provide a cylindrical sludge digestion tank (typical section shown in Fig. 9.28) 6m
deep and 16.5m diameter, with an additional hoppered bottom of 1:1 slope for collection
of digested sludge.
Example 6-5
A waste water plant produces 1000kg of dry solids per day at a moisture content of 95 percent.
The solids are 70 percent volatile with a sp. gr. of 1.05, and the remaining are non-volatile with
specific gravity of 2.5. Find the sludge volume after digestion which reduces volatile solid
content by 50 percent and decreases the moisture content by 90 percent.
Solution
Total solids produced = 1000 kg (dry mass)
Volatile solids = 70% total solids = 700kg
Non-volatile solids = 30% T.S. = 300kg
Volatile solids removed in digestion
= 50% volatile solids = 50% ∗ 700kg = 350kg
Volatile solids left in digested sludge = 350kg
Non-volatile solids in digested sludge
= 300kg (as in original sludge)
Mass of water in wet digested sludge =90%
10% mass of solids
= 300 + 350 = 650kg
10kg of solids make
= 100kg of wet sludge
Therefore, 10kg of solids contain
= 90 kg of water
Or 650 kg of solids contain
90
= ∗ 650 = 5850kg
10
Density of volatile solids
= 1000kg/m, ∗ 1.05 (p ∗ SR ) = 1050kg/m,
Similarly density of non-volatile solids
= 1000 ∗ 2.5 = 2500kg/m,
Volume of volatile solids in wet sludge
350
= = 0.333m,
1050
Vol. of non-volatile solids in wet sludge
192
300
= = 0.12m,
2500
Vol. of water in wet sludge
5850
= = 5.85m ,
1000
Hence, total volume of wet sludge
= 0.338 + 0.12 + 5.85 = 0.303m,
Example 6-6
A trickling filter plant treats 1500cum per day of sewage with a BOD5 of 220mg/l and SS of
250mg/l. Estimate the total solid production assuming that primary clarification removes 30% of
BOD and 60% of influent solids. Take the solid production in the trickling filter as @ 0.5kg/kg
of the applied BOD.
Solution
Solids removed in primary classification units of the trickling filter plant
150 ∗ 1500
= 60% of SS applied = 60% ∗ 250 = 150mg/l = = 225kg/day
1000
BOD5 removed in primary treatment = 30%
Balance BOD5 applied to filters
154 ∗ 1500
= 70% ∗ 220mg/l = 154mg/l = kg/day = 231 kg/day
1000
Solids production in filters
= 0.5 kg/kg of BOD applied = 0.5 ∗ 231kg/day = 115.5kg/day
Total solids produced daily in treating 1500 cum of sewage
= 225 + 115.5 = 340. 5kg/day
Estimated Gas Production

If it is possible to analyze the wastewater to be treated, and to determine the characteristics of the
sludge, its gas producing ability may be estimated. When such data cannot be obtained, the
following approximate values may be used as a -basis for estimating the amount of gas produced
by digestion:
About 60% of the suspended solids of sewage are removed by sedimentation; 75% by chemical
coagulation and settling; and 90% by complete treatment, such as by the activated sludge or the
trickling filters, preceded and followed by sedimentation.
About 70% of the suspended solids in the sewage are volatile, and the reduction of the volatile
matter in sludge, is about 65%. In digestion, the amount of gas produced is about 0.6cu. m per kg
of volatile matter present in the sludge, or is about 0.9cu-m per kg of volatile matter reduced.
193
The gas produced usually contains 65% methane, 30% carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of
other gases. The heat content of methane is approximately 36000kJ/m3 (8800kC/m3). The
procedure in using this information is exhibited in the following examples:
Two Stage Digestion

While treating sewage on a large scale, two stage digestion of sludge is generally adopted instead
of a single stage digestion, as discussed above. In two stage digestion, two digestion tanks, called
primary and secondary digesters, are used.
Sludge is, first, admitted into the primary digestion tank (or primary digester) and is kept there
for a period of about 7 to 10 days. The gas produced is collected in this unit. The partly digested
sludge and supernatant liquor from this primary digester are then transferred to the secondary
digestion tank (or secondary digester), where they are kept for a period of about 20 days or so.
The digested sludge and supernatant liquor from the secondary digester are then finally removed,
and disposed of suitably in a sanitary manner.
Two stage digestion gives the following advantages compared to single stage digestion:
(i) Two stage digestion is an effective method of preventing (or reducing greatly) any
tendency for the sludge to short-circuit, as may happen in a single stage digester. The
quality of supernatant liquor produced is, therefore, much better here.
(ii) Only the primary digester is provided with heating, stirring, gas collection
arrangements; while the secondary unit merely acts as a closed settling tank, so as to
produce clear supernatant liquor, thus affecting economy in construction.
(iii) Two stage digestion offers the freedom from large scum formations in any of the
digestion tanks.
(iv) It has been estimated that the total cost with two stage digestion may be less than that
for two tanks operated in parallel.
6.6 Disposal of Digested Sludge
The digested sludge from the digestion tank contains a lot of water, and is, therefore, first of all,
dewatered or dried up, before further disposal either by burning or dumping. These methods of
dewatering the sludge are discussed below:
9.30.1. Dewatering, Drying and Disposal of Sludge by Sludge Drying Beds.
Drying of the digested sludge on open beds of land (called sludge drying beds) is quite suitable
for hot countries.
Sludge drying beds are open beds of land, 45 to 60cm deep, and consisting of about 30 to 45cm
thick graded layers of gravel or crushed stone varying in size from 15 cm at bottom to 1.25cm at
top, and overlain by 10 to 15cm thick coarse sand layer. Open jointed under-drain pipes (15cm in
194
diameter) @ 5 to 7m c/c spacing are laid below the grave layer in valleys, as shown in Figure 6-3
Sludge drying beds, at a longitudinal slope of about 1 in 100. The beds are about 15 x 30m in
plan, and are surrounded by brick walls rising about 1 meter above the sand surface, as shown.
The sewage sludge from the digestion tank is brought and spread over the top of the drying beds
to a depth of about 20 to 30cm, through distribution troughs having openings of about 15 cm x
20 cm at a distances of about 2m or so.
A portion of the moisture drains through the bed, while most of it is evaporated to the
atmosphere. It usually takes about two weeks to two months, for drying the sludge, depending on
the weather and condition of the bed.
195
Figure 6-3 Sludge drying beds
The required area for sludge drying beds normally ranges between 0.05 to 0.2 sq. m per capita,
as shown in Table 1-1. In some instances, the required area is reduced by building a glass roof
over the beds, to give protection against rain and snow.
196
Table 6-2 Approximate area of Drying beds for different types of sludge
Area in m2/capita
S. No. Source of sludge Open beds Covered beds
1 Primary clarifiers 0.1 0.08
2 Intermittent sand filters 0.1 0.08
3 Standard rate trickling filters 0.12 0.10
4 High rate trickling filters 0.15 0.12
5 Activated sludge 0.18 0.14
6 Coagulated sludge 0.20 0.15
Sludge should never be applied to a bed until the preceding dose has been removed. Hence,
several drying beds will generally be required, with their number increasing with an increase in
the number of days for which the sludge is kept on the beds. Normally, sludge is removed from
the beds after a period of about 7 - 10 days; as within this period, about 30% of the moisture goes
away and the surface of sludge gets cracked. The sludge cakes are then removed by spades, and
they are dumped into a pit for further drying. The dried sludge is generally used as manure in our
country, as it contains 1.7% nitrogen, 1.5% phosphoric acid, and 0.5% potash. It may also be
used for filling up low lying areas. It may sometimes be disposed of by burning (i.e. by
incineration).
Mechanical Methods of Dewatering Sludge
In developed countries, digested sludge (sometimes even raw sludge), is often dried or
dewatered by mechanical means, such as by vacuum filtration or by high speed centrifuges.
In vacuum filtration process, the sludge is first mixed with a coagulant such as ferric
chloride, and then conveyed to a vacuum filter, consisting of a hollow rotating drum,
covered with a replaceable filter cloth. The drum rotates partly submerging into the sludge.
The vacuum created by a pump within the drum draws the moisture from the sludge
through the cloth. The sludge cake which is formed on the outside of the drum is removed
by a scraper, as the drum rotates.
High-speed centrifuges are also used for drying of raw or digested sludge, and are
becoming more popular because of small area requirements. These methods may remove
about 50% moisture.
Vacuum filtration or centrifugation of raw sludge is often adopted in situation where
sludge is to be disposed of by incineration (i.e. burning). These mechanical methods of
drying are generally used when the available area is less than that required for sludge
197
dryidge beds, or where the climates are too cold or at places where rains are frequent as
not to permit natural drying, or as a preliminary to heat drying for making fertilizer.
Elutriation of sludge
Before the sludge is dewatered by vacuum filtration method, it is generally elutriated. Elutriation
is the process of washing the sludge water, to remove the organic and fatty acids from it.
Sometimes, before dewatering, the sludge is thickened or conditioned, and then elutriated.
During the sludge digestion process, the volatile acids, alcohols, and organic acids are formed,
which if not removed, will interfere with coagulation process during dewatering by vacuum
filtration. If elutriation is done before dewatering, it will reduce the quantity of coagulants
considerably.
Sludge elutriation is carried out in sludge or multiple tanks by washing the sludge with water.
During washing, the solids are continuously kept in suspension by air or by mechanical.
Single stage, or multistage, or counter-current washing may be employed as one of the three-
methods for washing. The choice of any of these methods will depend upon the availability of
water, because single stage elutriation will require for the same alkalinity reduction, 2.5 times the
water required for two-stage elutriation, and 5 times that required for counter-current washing.
In the elutriation process, sludge and water are mixed in a chamber fitted with mechanical
devices, keeping it for 20 seconds (i.e. detention period). The sludge is then settled in settling
tanks, and excess water is decanted. The maximum surface loading on settling tank may be
40m3/m2/day with a detention period of 4 hours.
Counter-current elutriation is generally carried out in twin tanks, similar to the sedimentation
tanks, in which sludge and water enter at opposite ends. Piping and channels are so provided that
wash water entering the second stage tank comes first in contact with sludge already washed in
the first stage. The quantity of wash water required is about 2 to 3 times the quantity of sludge
elutriated.
Disposal of Dewatered Sludge
The dewatered sludge obtained from mechanical devices of western countries, is generally heat
dried, so as to produce fertilizers, As a matter of fact, the mechanical dewatering removes only
about 50% of the moisture, and hence the mechanically dewatered sludge is actually heated, so
as to fully remove the moisture from it. The dry residue is used as manure. This method is looked
upon more as a method of producing fertilizer rather than as a method of sludge disposal,
because if this method is adopted only for sludge disposal, it proves to be extremely costly, and
thus feasible only for rich countries.
198
The wet sludge, after mechanical dewatering, is sometimes, directly disposed of either in
sea or in underground trenches, or burnt, as discussed below:
Disposal by Dumping into the Sea
The dewatered wet sludge may, sometimes, be discharged at sea from hopper barges or
through outfall sewers. This method can, however, be adopted only in case of cities
situated on sea shores, and where the direction of the normal winds are such as to take the
discharged sludge into the sea, away from the shore line.
Disposal by Burial into the Trenches
In this method, the digested sludge, without dewatering is run into trenches, which are
0.9m wide x 0.6 m deep and rectangular spaced at 1 to 1.5m apart in parallel rows. When
the sludge has dried to a firm state, it is covered at top with a thin layer of soil. After
about a month, the land is ploughed up with powdered lime and planted with crops.
Disposal by Incineration
The dewatered wet sludge produced in waste water treatment plant may also be disposed
of by burning, in suitably designed incinerators, when sufficient space is not available for
its burial near the plant site, or the sludge cannot be dried and used as manure. The
following types of incinerators (furnaces) have primarily been designed and used for
incinerating wet sludge:
(1) Multiple-hearth furnace
(2) Fluid-bed furnace
(3) Flash-type of furnace
(4) Infra-red (Electric or Radiant heat) furnace.
The above mentioned types of incineration systems are, however briefly discussed below:
(1) Multiple Hearth Incinerators: The multiple hearth furnaces were originally developed
for ore-roasting in the early 1900s. In 1930, it was adopted for sludge incineration. In USA,
about 400 such furnaces are in existence, most of which are used for sludge incineration of waste
water treatment plants.
A multiple-hearth furnace is a vertical structure, consisting of a series of circular refractory
hearths, located one above the other. The structure consists of a steel shell, lined internally with
refractory. The hearths are self supporting each acting as an arch supported from the refractory
lining of the furnace shall. The hearths may be numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4,... from top to the bottom.
There may be five to nine hearths in a typical furnace and (commonly 6); they are normally built
in diameters ranging from 3 to 7.5 m, or so.
(2) Fluid-Bed Incinerators: Fluid-bed or Fluidized bed incinerator systems are
comparatively of modem origin, and consist of a furnace (reactor) having silica sand filled
in its bottom portion (above the wind box-to be used for burning of fuel) which figure
199
shows the typical section of such a furnace. The furnace consists of a vertical cylindrical
steel shell, lined with refractory, having a supporting structure in its bottom portion, to hold
the sand. This structure has a series of tuyeres, which allow the passage of air (to be passed
under pressure) upward into the sand bed. The tuyeres rest on the tuyeres plate, which can
be either in refractory or constructed of steel alloy.
(3) Flash Type of Furnace: A flash type of incinerator consists of a tower, which is heated in
the beginning by burning fuel. The wet sludge is then thrown from the top of the tower, and the
superheated gases come up from the bottom of the tower. The rising hot gases remove the
moisture from the sludge, and the water vapour will pass along with the hot gases. The dried
sludge is collected at the bottom, and can be used as burning material for the tower, so as to
reduce the cost of the external fuel required by the tower.
(4) The lnfra-red Furnaces: The infra-red (i.e. Electric or Radiant heat) furnace (Figure 6-4) is
a conveyor belt system, passing through a long refractory-lined chamber. An induced draft fan
(I.D. fan) maintains a negative pressure throughout the system. Combustion air is introduced at
the discharge end of the conveyor belt. Air picks up heat from the hot burning sludge, as
sludge and air, travel counter to each other.
Figure 6-4 Flow chart of an infra-red incineration system
Supplemental heat is provided by electric infra-red heating elements within the furnace
above the belt (not shown in figure). Cooling air is injected into the incinerator chamber to
prevent local hot spots in the immediate vicinity of the heaters, and is used as secondary
combustion air within the furnace. The furnace is designed to provide and maintain a
temperature of about 900°C in the space above the travelling conveyor.
200
Wet sludge cake is fed by gravity to the belt, which immediately gets leveled to a depth of
approximately 2.5 cm due to motion of the belt. There is no other sludge-contact or sludge-
handling mechanism on most of these units. The belt speed and travel is selected to provide
burn-out of the sludge without agitation. This feature results in relatively low level of
particulate emissions.
Fossil fuel or electrical energy may be used to provide a supplemental fuel for start up of
furnace, or to provide heat required to maintain combustion temperatures.
These furnaces provide a number of advantages, such as:
(i) low particulate matter emissions;
(ii) possible use for intermittent or infrequent loadings;
(iii) non-production of additional flue gas by the heat generated by electric power
elements; etc.
Disadvantages of incinerators: Incinerators are usually avoided for burning waste sludge of
waste-water treatment plants, so long as alternative methods of drying them to manure, or
by burial, are available; since they not only cause air-Pollution but also consume a lot of fuel,
and require continuous monitoring and upkeep. Their initial installation costs are also very high,
besides the recurring costs.
Use of Lagoons for Disposal of Raw Sludge
This method is, sometimes, used at smaller places for disposing of raw sludge without digestion.
In this method, the raw sludge is kept at rest in a large shallow open pond, called a lagoon. The
detention period is l to 2 months, and may extend up to 6 months. During its detention in the
lagoon, the sludge undergoes anaerobic digestion thereby getting stabilized. Due to this
anaerobic decomposition of sludge, foul gases will be evolved from a lagoon; and hence the
lagoons should be located away from the town, and direction of the common winds should be
such that the smells are not carried towards any localities.
A typical section for a lagoon is shown in Figure 6-5. It is a shallow pit, 0.6 to 1.2m deep,
formed by excavating the ground.
Figure 6-5 Typical section of a Lagoon for disposal of raw sludge
201
At the bottom of this pit, a 15 cm thick layer of ashes or clinker is placed. Agricultural tile drains
of about 10 cm diameter are laid at bottom as under-drains. These are placed at about 3m centre
to centre spacing. Banks are formed on both sides of the pit from the excavated earth as shown.
After the sludge has been stabilized, and the moisture has been drained away or evaporated
during its detention-fin the lagoon, the contents are dug out to about half of their original volume,
and used as manure.
This method of sludge disposal is quite cheap (as no digestion tanks are required), but the
greatest drawback is the evolution and eruption of foul gases, polluting the environment. Its use
is, therefore, restricted only to non residential areas.
Activity
1. What do you understand by digestion of sewage sludge ?
2. Enumerate the various methods that can be used to dispose of digested sludge .discussin
details the working of any of these two important methods
3. A sewage containing 200mg/l of suspended solids is passed through primary
settling tanks, trickling filters, and secondary settling tanks. How much gas will
probably be produced in the digestion of sludge from one million liters of sewage?
202
References
1- Wastewater Engineering, Treatment, disposal and reuse, Fourth edition, Metcalfe and Eddy,
McGraw- Hill.
2- Introduction to Environmental Engineering, Third edition, Davis M. and Cornwell D.,
McGraw-Hill.
3- Unit Operations and Processes in Environmental Engineering, Second Edition, Reynolds T.
and Richards P., PWS publishing comp.
4- Small and decentralized wastewater Management systems, Crites R. and Tchobanoglous G.,
McGraw-Hill.
5- Wastewater Engineering, Treatment and Reuse – Metcalf and Eddy, (2003), 4th Edition,
Tata McGraw Hill Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.
203

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What are the objectives of wastewater treatment?

What are the objectives of wastewater treatment?

What are the main characteristics measured in wastewater?

What are the main characteristics measured in wastewater?

Water Supply and

Module No: 3192

1.1 General about Wastewater Treatment .............................................................................. 1

2- CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTEWATER ....................................................................... 7

2.1 Physical, Chemical and Bacteriological Characteristic of Wastewater ........................... 7

5- SEWAGE EFFLUENT DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES ..................................................... 156

5.1 Disposal by Dilution and Oxygen Sag Curve .............................................................. 156

1- INTRODUCTION TO WASTEWATER TREATMENT

1.1 General about Wastewater Treatment

(i) modification in treatment operations, processes and concepts

Table 1-1 Important contaminants of concern in wastewater treatment

Table 1-2 Unit operations, processes, and treatment systems

Unit Operation, Unit Process, or

1.2 Objectives of Wastewater Treatment

a. Identify kinds and sources of wastewater

1.3 Wastewater Treatment Standards

A significant element in wastewater disposal is the potential environmental impact associated

1.4 Flow Sheets for Wastewater Treatment Systems

Depending on the contaminants to be removed, an almost limitless number of process

Figure 1-1 Flow chart for wastewater treatment processes

2.1 Physical, Chemical and Bacteriological Characteristic of Wastewater

Wastewater is characterized in terms of its physical, chemical, and biological characteristics.

1. Total Solids, Suspended Solids and Settleable Solids

(i) Carbohydrates such as cellulose, cotton, fiber, starch, sugar, etc.

Figure 2-1 Imhoff cone

8. Presence of Fats, Oils and Greases

9. Sulphides, Sulphates and Hydrogen Sulphide Gas

10. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

11. Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

12. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

13. Total Organic Carbon

Table 2-1 Summary of typical domestic wastewater characteristics

TOC mg/l 80 160 290

2.2 Measurement of Concentration of Contaminants in Wastewater

1. Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD)

2. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

Example 2.1 Compute

a) The equations for the total oxidation of the two con

b) From the molecular formulas of glucose and benzene, it is found that:

= (72/180 ∗ 200 + 72/78 ∗ 25)mg C/l = 103.1mg C/l

3. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Oxygen demand of wastewaters is exerted by three classes of materials:

DOS1 – dissolved oxygen of seed control before incubation, mg/l

Figure 2-2 Typical BOD curve for oxidation of carbonaceous materials

a. Ratio of COD and BOD

b. Effect of Seeding and Acclimation of Seed on the BOD Test

Figure 2-3 Lag period in BOD test

c. Effect of Presence of Algae on the BOD Test

2.3 Mathematical Model for the BOD Curve

It is desirable to represent the BOD curve by a mathemat

Figure 2-4 1st stage BOD curve

Thus, at a certain temperature, the rate of deoxygenation is assumed to be directly proportional to

Figure 22-5 BOD exertion as a function of KD

Water type KD value per day

Figure 2-6 Combined BOD curve

110 = L ∗ (1 − 10+.2

100 = L ∗ (1 − 10+.∗2 )