Dr.

Heleen Touquet is a researcher and part-

UNSILENCED: MALE SURVIVORS SPEAK
time assistant professor at the faculty of
Social Sciences at the University of Leuven,
Belgium. From March until July 2018 she was OF CONFLICT-RELATED

a visiting fellow at the Centre for European

Studies at Harvard University. Her research
SEXUAL VIOLENCE IN SRI LANKA
about conflict, reconciliation, mobilisation,
conflict-related sexual violence and gender
has been published in various peer-reviewed
journals. She is currently researching of
sexual violence against men during the wars
SEPTEMBER 2018
in the former Yugoslavia.

itjpsl.com
stop-torture.com

TEMPLO.CO.UK
@T_E_M_P_L_O
 CONTENTS

“It is an integral part of the FOREWORD BY CHRIS DOLAN ................................. 4

torturer’s choice of methods, I. INTRODUCTION ........................................ 7

when the story be told, no one II. BACKGROUND .......................................... 9

1. CONFLICT-RELATED SEXUAL .................... 9

is going to believe it.” VIOLENCE AGAINST MEN

2. SEXUAL VIOLENCE ............................ 11

INGER AGGER AND SOREN BUUS JENSEN AGAINST MEN IN SRI LANKA

III. METHODS AND LIMITATIONS............................. 16

IV. KEY FINDINGS ........................................ 20

1. VICTIMS .................................... 20

2. PERPETRATORS ............................... 20

3. LOCATIONS .................................. 21

4. SEXUAL VIOLENCE AGAINST .................... 22

MEN AS AN INSTITUTIONAL POLICY

4.1.SEXUAL VIOLENCE AS PART .............. 22

OF THE TORTURE STYLE

4.2.THE SILENCE .......................... 25

WRITTEN INTO THE ACT

4.3.STRATEGY DOES NOT .................... 29

PRECLUDE OPPORTUNISM

5. DEHUMANISATION AND HUMILIATION ............. 31

6. TYPES OF SEXUAL ABUSE ...................... 34

6.1. FORCED NUDITY ....................... 34

“I am giving this statement to help 6.2. GENITAL MUTILATION .................. 36

prevent that these nasty things, 6.3. RAPE ................................ 39

such as the torture and sexual violence 6.4. FORCED MASTURBATION ................. 40

I suffered will not happen to any Tamils 6.5. COERCED SEXUAL ACTS ................. 41

or
. to any human beings.”
6.6. ENFORCED PROSTITUTION ............... 41

6.7. SEXUAL SLAVERY ...................... 42

WITNESS 202 7. PHYSICAL, MENTAL ........................... 42

AND SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES

V. CONCLUSIONS .......................................... 47

ENDNOTES ................................................. 48

3
FOREWORD:
that has its roots in a in Europe since 2009 have first inserts a plastic
very specific history of not been violated in one pipe into the victim’s
conflict, the evil flowers or more of the multiple anus, through which he then

CHRIS DOLAN
of which are seen in a ways described? And yet, inserts barbed wire, before
post-conflict “peace” that how few have felt able to withdrawing the pipe and
is more akin to “victors’ disclose? The report stands leaving the wire inside the
justice” done by one group as testament to the careful anus). Yet multiple elements
of men to another. Students work over the last half- of the more conventional
and practitioners of peace decade of International Truth forms of penile rape also
building everywhere should & Justice Project lawyers depicted here – generally
pay attention not only to how and counsellors who, in the of men kept in solitary
what is described here is midst of a general climate confinement in between the
seen by the perpetrators as of disbelief about conflict- formal torture sessions
DR CHRIS DOLAN WORKS WITH of Terrorism Act of 1978. the confrontation with its intrinsic to “rehabilitation” related sexual harms suffered – wholly undercut the
MALE SURVIVORS OF CONFLICT- More than anything, this deeply sexualised forms and processes, but also to how by men, have patiently and usefulness of an artificially
RELATED SEXUAL VIOLENCE report demonstrates that nature in turn radically such rehabilitation is a systematically provided a simplified sex/power dichotomy
FROM UGANDA, RWANDA, BURUNDI, there is method to what, extends our understanding deliberate process of further form of reparation that and replace it with evidence
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF upon reading individual of conflict-related sexual debilitation – not just of is not their immediate suggestive of a more complex
CONGO, ERITREA, SOMALIA AND testimonies, might seem to violence against men – for the individuals, but of their responsibility, but is sex-power synergy.
SOUTH SUDAN.1 be madness. even if the horrendous abuses communities; once relatives nonetheless in their gift,
detailed here happened in have purchased the victim’s namely; to listen, to hear, These rapes using the penis,
This is a human rights report In the process of doing so, the so-called “post-conflict” release on the black and to believe. whether done by lone or
with a difference. Rather than in addition to the immediate period, let no one imagine market created at the multiple perpetrators, are
providing a snapshot of what purpose of connecting the for a moment that they are interstices of extrajudicial There is much in this report undoubtedly always infused
happened in a particular harms to the perpetrators, not conflict-related. If detention procedures and that it is hard to listen with the situational power
place at a particular time, it takes us into so many in any doubt, couple the paramilitary groupings, he to, let alone to hear. Some and powerlessness of the
it collates, sifts through, broader dimensions of harms reported ethnic identity of has little option but to of the subtexts that play perpetrator and victim
and articulates the essence suffered by men in detention. the majority of perpetrators, leave the country. throughout can also be a respectively. In reading the
of what has been done in Unusually, within its with the language in which challenge to deeply held victims’ accounts, it is
a range of places over an presentation of the overall the forced “confessions” Methodologically, this report beliefs connected to sexual though hard not also to infer
extended period from 2009 pattern of violations against are written, and the highly has much to teach us in terms violence. In the midst of that they frequently involve
to date (2018). While many men detained in Sri Lanka, it ethnicised verbal degradation of establishing evidence of the multiple grotesque and moments of sexual expression
of those whose testimonies confronts us with the sexual that is frequently used by patterns. Drawing on hundreds inventive forms of sexual for the perpetrator; why
appear here were detained and sexualised specifics of the perpetrators to compound of testimonies collected torture that are shown to else would some of them wish
without charge, it was much that happens within the physical violation. If over time from individuals have taken place in detention to strip themselves naked?
always by perpetrators detention centres. These still in doubt, pay attention left too damaged – and too centres such as Joseph camp,2 Why else touch and hold the
embedded within the same set are dimensions that many to the sense of shame unsafe - to stay in their we also find that reality victim in perceptibly sexual
of governmental security human rights reports across described by victims, and the home country, it demonstrates has further wrong-footed the ways? Why else make repeat
institutions in “post- a variety of geographical multiple ways in which this the centrality of data infamous mantra that visits to the same victim?
conflict” Sri Lanka, operating and political contexts have undermines not only their collection from refugees – “rape is not about sex, Why, in some instances,
against the backdrop – perhaps unintentionally, individual, but also their and the fact that refugees it’s about power”. does the perpetrator offer
of around a decade of and certainly uncritically social functioning. are disproportionately the victim some reprieve
“rehabilitation” of alleged - helped to disappear by affected by sexual violence. The slamming of drawers onto from the other forms of
former Liberation Tigers of placing them under the rubric The report thus adds a It is through hearing the the male genitalia, and the torture provided he does not
Tamil Eelam (LTTE) members, of ‘torture’. whole new dimension to repetition of specific anal rapes using barbed wire resist the sexual violation?
and further conditioned by the argument that conflict- details of practice, and that are described here, (Scenarios that also draw
the long-standing Prevention Without in any sense related sexual violence is triangulation from one require a particularly high attention to the reality
weakening our understanding simply another point on a isolated testimony to level of intentionality and, of sexual slavery of men
that what is described is continuum of male-to-female another, that the larger at least on the surface, in detention.)
torture as defined by the gender-based violence that picture of (perhaps offer low prospects of
1984 Convention against has its roots in peace-time unwritten) policy emerges. sexual gratification for the
Torture and other Cruel, gender relations between One is left wondering how perpetrators. The barbed wire
Inhuman or Degrading men and women. Here it is many of the Sri Lankan rapes support the rape as
Treatment or Punishment, gender-based sexual violence Tamil men who have arrived power thesis (the perpetrator
4 5
 I. INTRODUCTION
Such questions, along with your finger-nails pulled out), weight of evidence of
the frequent descriptions constitutes the moment at both systematic abuse and
of victims being beaten or which detainees’ capacity systematic opportunism
asphyxiated to the point of to resist is broken, and contained in the pages of
passing out only to wake up decisions to ‘confess’ are this report.
to find their anuses sore and taken. Furthermore, the
bleeding, are suggestive of testimonies also show that Read for its descriptions of
wider patterns of repressed suicide is contemplated sexualized torture, or read
same-sex desire being acted by many of the victims for what these descriptions
upon under circumstances specifically in response to suggest about the conflict-
in which the emotional the sexual elements of their related deployment of sexual
dimensions of such desire suffering. In that sense, the violence against men more
are safely structured out answer to the question of broadly, this report, coming
of the picture. However, whether sexualized violence shortly after the 23 July
they are only some of the is effective in breaking down 2018 release of the findings
questions that any reader the victim, seems relatively of the Special Rapporteur on
of this report should be clear – at least from the the promotion and protection
asking themselves. Perhaps victims’ perspective. of human rights while
one of the most critical countering terrorism, ups the
must be; ‘Does sexualized That said, the sexual ante – or put more directly,
violence occupy a particular motives of some perpetrators raises the stakes – for us Nearly ten years after specifically on male collected by the ITJP
and pre-designated appear to be acted on in all. the war, the Tamil victims’ experiences of over the last four years
place in a hierarchy of holding cells rather than For the Government of Sri population in the heavily sexual violence. provide a unique resource
torture tactics?’ in the primary torture Lanka, there is no escaping militarised north of that gives insight into
chamber – and in parallel the fact that a complex of Sri Lanka continues to The ITJP has brought to the strategic patterns of
A reading of the testimonies to the structured sequence security organs has to all suffer the consequences light sexual violence sexual violence against
upon which this report is of non-sexual torturing intents and purposes morphed of the 30 year conflict. against women and girls men taking place in Sri
based does indicate that, done by other perpetrators. the so-called Prevention Various reports by in the past, and has Lanka, the role of the
for many of the victims, In other words, we cannot of Terrorism Act into an NGO’s and international advocated on behalf of the various security forces,
the sexualized violence, always be sure at which unwritten Promotion of organisations have survivors, however this the impact on survivors
coming on top of multiple level the sexual activity Torture Act. The PTA, even
provided evidence that time it made a deliberate as well as the barriers
and extreme non-sexual forms was first contemplated, and if not used to charge the
much as the war has choice to focus on male to access justice and
of torture (including being we thus need to beware detainees directly, has given
officially stopped, the victims. This choice was services.
suspended upside down, of uncritically imputing rise to a deeply disturbing
violence is still ongoing. inspired by the fact that
asphyxiation, being branded the intentions of the pattern of grotesque and
with red-hot irons, having perpetrators from the sexualised excesses and must Thousands of former sexual violence has been Sexual violence against
your head repeatedly pushed outcomes as experienced by correspondingly be repealed fighters and surrendees a consistent feature of men and boys in Sri
and held under water, having the victims. forthwith. For activists, were brought to what were the stories of male Sri Lanka takes place in a
academics and policy called “Rehabiliation lankan refugees and asylum deeply unequal context
Nonetheless, while credible makers, the findings so ably Centres” by the government seekers. This indicates a (economically as well as
statements of the intentions presented here, urgently after the conflict ended widespread and egregious with regard to gender
of perpetrators (beyond oblige us to reconsider the in 2009. However, the pattern of sexual violence
obtaining the information boundaries between torture ‘rehabilitation’ consisted against men that has so
or “confessions” that are and conflict-related sexual of collective punishment far not received the
the supposed outputs of violence, boundaries that and arbitrary detention, attention it deserves.
torture) are unlikely to be have for too long been
sometimes for several The report provides a
forthcoming anytime soon, policed by spuriously and
years. While the ITJP has narrative analysis of
we should never assume that inadequately evidenced
extensively documented the experiences of the
those in overall command had gendered assumptions – namely
victims’ experiences more than one hundred
no responsibility for what that men are victims “only”
was likely to happen under of the former (torture), of multiple violations male victims of sexual
their watch; explanations of and women primarily and including abductions, violence by the state
individual ‘indiscipline’ “disproportionately” of the detentions and extortion, security forces in Sri
cannot explain away the latter (sexual violence). this report focuses Lanka.3 The testimonies,
6 7
 II. BACKGROUND
and ethnicity), that is Sri Lanka produced by the
marred by widespread UN and the Sri Lankan
violence against women and police in 2014 does not
sexual violence against contain any reference
women and girls, as well to men and boy victims
as against ethnic and of sexual violence.4
sexual minorities. The Neither does The Policy
victims suffer multiple Framework and National
violations including Plan of Action (NPoA) to
abductions, detentions address Sexual and Gender–
and extortion. While based Violence 2016-2020,
reports by international approved by the Cabinet
organisations such as in June 2016.5 The same
ITJP and Human Rights goes for the report on a
Watch have provided 2017 workshop on tackling
evidence that there stigma, sponsored by the
are a substantial British High Commission.6
number of male victims
of state-perpetrated Male victims’ stories are
sexual violence, silenced locally, 1.WHAT DO WE is problematic because With that caveat in mind,
in many cases there is a the studies that have
their experiences are due to the stigma, the KNOW ABOUT lack of knowledge about been done in the last
frequently ignored in legal barriers and a lack CONFLICT-RELATED the issue and male rape decade do indicate that
reports and contexts of documentation. While
discussing conflict- the issue is silenced,
SEXUAL VIOLENCE is wrongly conflated sexual violence against

related sexual violence it is also to a certain AGAINST MEN? with homosexuality.

Additionally, male
men in conflict settings is
geographically widespread
in Sri Lanka. The booklet extent a public secret.
victimisation is often not and far from uncommon.
on SGBV issues A Police Some people (e.g. former There is a small but
coded as such by human However, there are many
Officer’s quick reference LTTE fighters) are aware growing literature on
rights organisations and gaps and ambiguities with
guide to understanding, that it happens, but when sexual violence against
others, who label it regard to definitions and
investigating and it is talked about, it is men in conflict or
‘abuse’ ‘humiliation’ or research designs often
preventing Sexual and usually only in hushed conflict-affected settings.
‘torture’.8 This seriously vary. Additionally, all of
Gender Based Violence in tones and euphemisms. It consists both of
distorts perceptions of the quantitative research
This report aims to break theoretical analyses
the extent of the problem that has been done so
this silence. that seek to explain why
and leads to a lack of far has taken place on
such violence occurs,
recognition. A study by
The analysis contains research on the mental
Leiby on the coding of
many statements that health impact of sexual
sexual violence by the
have been taken literally violence against men and
Truth Commissions in El
from the testimonies and strategies for healing,
Salvador and Peru revealed
interviews. They are as well as research on
that the actual number
however very graphic in prevalence. One of the
of male victims was much
their description of the major impediments for
higher than indicated
violence and may shock researching the issue
initially: 53 and 22
the reader. While there fully, is the lack
percent respectively as
is a risk that this might of reporting due to
opposed to the 1 and 2
desensitize, this choice social stigma and legal
percent reported by the
was made consciously as barriers: homosexuality
Commissions.9 There is no
the author wanted to is still criminalised
doubt that most statistics
represent the voices in 71 countries and the
vastly underestimate the
of the survivors as rape of men is often not
extent of the problem.
authentically as possible. recognised in law.7 This
8 9
the African continent. 30.4 per cent of men had at the hands of older men assaulted by vigilante authorities to the outside actors. The LTTE
Johnson et al. conducted experienced or witnessed and boys as well as host groups in order to documentation of sexual severely punished
a study in Liberia among the sexual abuse of a man; communities 4. refugee intimidate and demobilize violence, whether troops who committed
former combatants. They among non-refugee Sudanese boys and men suffered them.19 Sexual violence is committed during, before sexual violence.25
found that 32.6 per men residing in a conflict- sexual violence in work a powerful weapon because or after the conflict,
cent of males and 42.3 affected state in Sudan, contexts. In 2018 a report it impacts on core aspects whether against women, Sexual violence against
per cent of females almost half (46.9 per by the OHCHR highlighted of people’s identity and girls, men or boys, has men has been frequently
had experienced sexual cent) had experienced or the sexual abuse of men in through the weaponising been extremely limited. documented during times
violence, compared with witnessed the sexual abuse detention in Libya.16 of stigma, destroys the Sexual crimes are not of heightened political
7.4 per cent and 9.2 per of a man.13 social fabric. investigated let alone contention in Sri Lanka,
cent among non-combatants, There is a clear continuum prosecuted, and over though the focus was often
respectively.10 A study in More recently, the between sexual violence The ITJP has documented the years government on conflict in the south of
the Eastern DRC in 2010 Independent International in so-called peacetime both male and female representatives have the country.
found that almost one- Commission of Inquiry on and sexual violence in perpetrators of sexual repeatedly denied
quarter (23.6 per cent) the Syrian Arab Republic conflict: outside of all- violence. In the majority or minimalised the The activist and former
of men had experienced has repeatedly documented out war, sexual violence of cases discussed in this problem, fostering a JVP-leader (Janatha
sexual violence (760,000 sexual violence against is used by many state report, the perpetrators culture of impunity for Vimukthi Peramuna or
individuals).11 The men and detention.14 A 2017 actors in many countries are men. Sexual violence perpetrators.22 There is People’s Liberation Front)
Refugee Law Project in report by UNHCR on sexual across the world in times gives the perpetrator a also little likelihood Lionel Bopage for example,
Uganda found that, in a violence against men and of heightened political sense of hypermasculine that a transitional in his account of torture
screening of 447 adult boys in the Syria crisis15 contention in order to identity, while at the justice mechanism will be during the JVP uprising
male refugees, more than revealed that between 19.5 demobilise and repress same time compromising the established that and the Era of Terror in
one-third (38.5 per to 27 percent of male citizens, political masculine identity of the will address the multiple the 1970s writes that “men
cent) had experienced respondents interviewed in dissidents, ethnic victim by subordinating gendered harms caused and women prisoners have
sexual violence in their Iraqi Kurdistan, Jordan communities, people with and objectifying him.20 during the decades- reportedly been raped and
lifetime, including 13.4 and Lebanon confirmed particular religious long conflict.23 male prisoners have said
per cent in the year having experienced sexual beliefs etc. Sexual abuse 2.CONFLICT- that they were forced
preceding the screening.12
A survey of Sudanese
harassment or unwanted
sexual contact as boys.
as a form of torture (of
both women and men) has
RELATED SEXUAL Sexual violence against
women, men, girls and boys
to sexually abuse women
prisoners.”26 The diary of
refugees revealed that During a focus group been documented in every VIOLENCE AGAINST is and has been committed Rohitha Munasinghe, a man
within the framework of region. Kenya and Egypt MEN IN SRI LANKA to a large extent by of Sinhala background who
the project, refugee women are two recent examples those in the country’s was held in the Eliyakanda
in Jordan estimated that of cases where sexual Sexual violence against extensive security Torture Camp in the same
30 to 40 percent of adult violence was used against men and boys in Sri Lanka apparatus who profit from
men in their community women and men in order is embedded in a wider a culture of impunity.
had experienced sexual to demobilise particular system of gender-based The ongoing violence
violence in detention in groups. In Kenya, during violence and widespread has a traumatising and
Syria. The study further the post-election violence (sexual) violence against demobilizing effect on
identified four patterns of in 2007, both women and women and girls as well as the population that
sexual violence against men were targetted by against ethnic and sexual also benefits particular
males: 1. conflict- perpetrators who sexually minorities which has been political elites.24
related sexual violence abused them.17 Men were extensively documented The Tamil minority in
by multiple parties to not only raped but also over the years.21 Sexual the north has been
the conflict, 2. sexual forcibly circumcised violence against men and disproportionally affected
violence against LGBTI and, in some instances, boys therefore has to be by sexual violence by
persons by parties to the castrated.18 During the seen in connection with state security forces,
conflict and by multiple protests in Tahrir square (sexual) violence against both during the war and in
types of perpetrators in Egypt, after the women and girls, misogyny the post-conflict context.
in their countries of downfall of the regime and homophobia. No allegations of sexual
asylum 3. refugee boys of Hosni Mubarak, women violence have been made
10 suffered sexual violence and men were sexually The response of the against the LTTE by 11
period also describes include a substantial constitutes a different boys were interviewed.33 providing details on the
sexual torture of men.27 number of men is one kind of sample. Yet his Sexual violence and numbers and types of
The Indian Peacekeeping conducted early on in findings again indicate sexual torture of men abuses and locations. The
Force, which operated in the conflict by clinical similar patterns of was also documented in thesis by V. Sanjithkumar
Sri Lanka between 1987 psychologist Anna Doney sexual torture. For the 2016 by the UN Special provides a more
and 1990 also committed and psychiatrist Daya 1998 study, he examined Rapporteur on Torture and sociologically inspired
sexual violence against Somasundaram in 1988.30 41 tortured Tamil men. by the Office of the High narrative analysis that
men.28 In recent years, It is the only study Thirteen men (32 percent) Commissioner for Human is similar to what this
the Asian Human Rights so far that was done reported having been Rights Investigation report does, but it
Commission documented in country. While the sexually assaulted, and on Sri Lanka in 201534 focuses on a smaller
instances of the sexual study was conceptualized seven (17 percent) said (OISL, see table). The group. The thesis is also
torture of Sinhala men in more broadly as a they had been raped. OISL investigation thus far not accessible to
police stations mainly in research project on the In all but one case, interviewed 18 men who had the larger public.
the south of the country. psychological impact of the perpetrators were been victims of sexual
The report Narratives of torture, it does contain connected to the security violence, and it concluded
Justice mentions several some results about sexual forces. In 2000, Peel and that men in detention
cases of anal rape with violence against men his co-authors. reviewed in Sri Lanka “were as
barbed wire, beatings that do suggest similar the medico-legal reports likely to be subjected
to the genitals and the patterns as those in the of 184 Sri Lankan men who to sexual violence as
sexual abuse of Sinhala current day testimonies: had been referred to the female detainees”. For her
men and boys.29 The “Some ex-detainees Medical Foundation for the qualitative study, Dr.
document however does not reported sexual abuse. Care of Victims of Torture Nishanth V. Sanjithkumar
contain any cases Male prisoners were made between January 1997, interviewed 12 Tamil men
of the sexual abuse of to stand with their and December 1998. Of the from the US and Canadian
Tamil men in the north of genital organs on a table. 184 men, 38 (21 percent) diaspora who were
the country. This part of the body is said they had been sexually abused by the
then hit using a short sexually abused during security forces.35
The earliest study of sand-filled piece of PVC their detention.
Tamil victims of sexual pipe or wooden strips. This report differs from
violence in Sri Lanka to Wire loops were sometimes Freedom from Torture the aforementioned
inserted into the male published two reports studies, in that it
organ ripping the skin and in 2012 and 2015 that focuses exclusively on
men were kicked between documented sexual violence male victims and provides
the legs. Objects were against Tamil women and a narrative analysis of
inserted in the anus.”31 men.32 For the 2012 report, their experiences. It also
Unfortunately, it does 27 men were interviewed, focuses on methodological
not indicate how many of whom 15 said they had issues such as how the
men of the total experienced some form of ITJP enables disclosure,
number were victims of sexual violence. In 2015, as well as on the
sexual violence. Freedom from Torture found strategic uses of sexual
that 83 out of 125 men (66 torture and different
Dr. Michael Peel, a percent) reported sexual layers of silencing. While
medical doctor working for violence. Of those men 38 the excellent studies by
the Medical Foundation had experienced rape. Peel and Freedom from
for the Care of Victims Torture have also included
of Torture in London In 2013 Human Rights a large number of male
published two studies on Watch published a report victims, the focus of
Tamil men in 1998 and on sexual violence these reports has been
2000. As Peel worked against women and men in more on the medical and
with refugees and asylum detention in Sri Lanka, psychological aftermath
12 seekers in the UK, his for which 27 men and 3 of the torture and on 13
RESEARCH ON CONFLICT- SPECIAL
RAPPORTEUR ON
TORTURE

RELATED SEXUAL VIOLENCE

JUAN MENDEZ

AGAINST MEN IN SRI LANKA

OISL
UNSPECIFIED
INVESTIGATION NUMBER

PEEL - MEDICAL
FOUNDATION FOR
THE CARE OF
VICTIMS OF TORTURE

18 MALE V. SANJITHKUMAR
VICTIMS
FREEDOM
13 MALE FROM TORTURE
FREEDOM
VICTIMS FROM TORTURE

(OUT OF 41)

12 MALE
15 MALE 83 MALE VICTIMS
VICTIMS VICTIMS
(OUT OF 27) (OUT
PEEL- THE LANCET OF 125)

DONELLY IN
SOMASUNDARAM HUMAN RIGHTS
WATCH

38 MALE
VICTIMS
(OUT
OF 184)
27 MALE
UNSPECIFIED VICTIMS AND
NUMBER 3 BOYS

1988 1998 2000 2012 2013 2015 2016 2017

III. METHODS
families. Any descriptions were sexually abused relationship of trust with
or parts that could lead to multiple times each time they the victims by providing
the identification of the were detained.40 physical and mental safety.

AND LIMITATIONS
survivor were taken out. On average the team members
The testimonies have been NVIVO, a software package for spend at least three or
numbered, starting with “W”. qualitative data analysis four days (4 to 5 hours
These numbers refer to the was used for coding and per day) with the victims
files in the ITJP archives. analysing the data. The for the purpose of taking
The statements also vary codes were applied based on their testimony. The reason
considerably in length. a grounded theory approach. for spending so much time
While most of them comprise This means that no list of with the witness is partly
several pages, some were codes was decided upon before to build the trust that
quite short and describe only the analysis, but that codes enables disclosure, but also
This report is based on a testimonies took place in Testimonies W1 till W40, were particular aspects of the were based on the content of to ensure the accuracy of
content analysis of 121 the post-conflict period, taken for the Stop Torture sexual violence and not all the testimonies. Given the the account, so the witness
testimonies of Sri Lankan ranging from 2009 until 2017, report, which was dedicated of the other torture or the process of data selection, can take time to review
male victims, all Tamils. The under the different post- to the issue of torture abduction. This restricted the inherent selection the statement and check
men were interviewed by ITJP conflict governments of Sri and sexual violence and the qualitative analysis bias and the limits on the completeness before signing
investigators in the course Lanka. Most of the abuses published in 2014.38 For this as it limited the kind of data, the purpose of the it. The building of trust
of the organisation’s work on cited by the victims in occasion, the interviewees profile one can develop of the report is not to bring a of course does not solely
various issues related to the the testimonies have been were selected because it was victims. While many did, not statistical analysis of male- depend on the amount of time
human rights situation in Sri corroborated by medico-legal known they were suspected all witnesses were able to directed sexual violence, investigator and witness
Lanka between 2014 and 2018. reports (MLR’s) conducted to be survivors of sexual describe their sexual abuse but rather to provide a spend together, but also
The testimonies were taken by independent doctors, torture. By chance, half of in detail, some just gave a narrative analysis that on his or her training and
in undisclosed locations in official documents, scars on them were female survivors short description. Some were centers both on the types of skills. The issue of sexual
the UK, Holland, France and their bodies and reports by (not included for the unable to do so because they sexual violence, on issues torture usually comes up when
Switzerland. All interviewed insider witnessess.37 All present report) and half had blocked the trauma from related to disclosure and the victim feels safe and
men are Tamils who have fled victims were asked whether male survivors. For all their memory. Others felt it the question of how sexual confident that he can share
abroad. While the approach of they had given interviews to of the other testimonies, was too painful or shameful violence against men is part with the investigators. ITJP
the different investigators other human rights groups, the process was different: to speak about it. Several of a broader strategy. also follows up afterwards.
varies slightly, they in order to ensure the they were taken within also told the investigators It has established a psycho
generally use a list of originality of the work and the framework of ITJP’s they had fainted at the point More than two thirds of the social project with group
questions that is the same to avoid overlap. The author investigations into known the sexual abuse began and testimonies that ITJP has therapy, English and art
throughout the interviews. of the report also conducted units and sites such as the could not remember details.39 collected over the years are lessons, as well as giving
The questions centre on the a focus group discussion Joseph Camp torture site This has to be taken into of male victims. This is warm clothes, insoles
gathering of evidence for (FGD) with eight victims in among others. Even though account when considering the not unusual: the reports by for shoes,41 rape alarms,
(war) crimes, with sexual London, and interviewed four the majority of statements numbers in the section on Dr. Peel and Freedom from assistance in getting legal
violence being one of the victims separately during were not collected with a the types of sexual abuse. Torture both also contained representation, medical
foci. All questions were the course of writing this view to finding evidence of This number indicates the a majority of male victims. referrals and referrals to
translated into Tamil by a report. The purpose of these sexual abuse, nearly all of number of instances for the A number of reasons come
Tamil interpreter who was interviews and the focus the testimonies contained sexual assaults that were to mind as to why the men
present at the interview.36 group discussion was to multiple instances of sexual described in detail. In constitute such a majority.
The violations cited in the explore how the survivors violence. This means that it general, these numbers can be On the one hand, men were
dealt with the aftermath is highly likely that sexual seen as the minimum of the more likely to have been
of sexual violence and how violence is at least an number of assaults of that members of the LTTE, and
they made sense of what was aggravating and in some cases particular type. The counting therefore to be detained.
done to them. In all but one a determining cause of flight of instances and different On the other hand, men also
case, these interviews were into exile. kinds of sexual abuse was constitute the majority of
conducted in English with a complicated by the fact that refugees and asylum seekers
Tamil interpreter. Large sections of the victims were nearly always from Sri Lanka.
interviews were redacted by subjected to multiple forms
Some of the data from the the ITJP before the analysis of sexual abuse. Several were The trained team of
testimonies was used for due to safety concerns for also detained multiple investigators takes
ITJP’s earlier reports. the survivors and their times over several years and great care to build up a
16 17
housing organisations and It should be noted that stool, anal pain) and am walking if I cases what was also present during
so on. This way of working, neither the interviews nor discussed those, but not the three out of the four short
as well as the fact that the data from the testimonies sexual abuse itself. Others accidentally catch had happened to them interviews with individual
interviews are conducted provided any generalisable spoke about their abuse in my testicle the pain and the detainee survivors. The fourth one
out of country of origin evidence with regard to indirect ways, for instance spoke English. Neither the
essentially explains why ITJP the existence of a gender by mentioning that they had is there. With my just told me the TID discussion nor the interviews
has been able to collect dynamic between survivors been unconscious due to anus, when I go to officer had asked were recorded, though notes
so many statements on such and investigators. It is the torture, but woke up were taken on which the
a stigmatized issue. This sometimes assumed that men with their pants on their the toilet, there is him to massage him analysis is based. Statements
was also corroborated by would only disclose to men knees, or with anal pain and still pain now and while naked. made during the focus group
the victims themselves, who and women to women. However, bleeding. Sometimes, the discussion are labelled FGD
expressed that they were in this case many men felt extent of the torture is such
sometimes my anus in the report and are not
willing to talk precisely comfortable speaking to the that victims cannot remember bleeds. I think the W288 attributed to the
because of the safety female investigators. For very clearly what happened individuals who took part for
measures, the trust building some, age and gender did play when. This happens in
pain in my anus and Additionally, 26 statements reasons of privacy.
process and the guarantees an important role, as they particular when the torturers testicles is alluded to sexual violence
for privacy. Several of felt they were able to speak make them drink alcohol or without giving further In the discussion of the
the victims also said that out because the investigator asphyxiate them with petrol
because of something findings, a number of
details of where, when and
they wanted to talk about was an older man, but this fumes. One example is witness that happened how (this is a 21 percent of statements are highlighted
their experiences as that was by no means universal.42 298. He cannot remember the total number). as examples. The sample of
would help prevent it from The interviewed doctors details of his sexual abuse,
whilst I was held 121 testimonies however does
happening to others. See also emphasized that in their but his injuries suggest that in detention. Apart from the testimonies contain more instances of
for example the following experience, the dynamics he was anally raped and that of survivors, an additional the issue under discussion.
statement by Witness 126: of disclosure are very his testicles were squeezed: twenty one interviews were A conscious choice was made
dependent on personal W298 conducted by the author over to provide the most striking
preferences and backgrounds. examples rather than fully
I am giving this I have been asked the course of five months
list all instances of a
between October 2017 and
statement because Many survivors said they if anything sexual Another aspect that made February 2018. The purpose particular type of abuse.
were willing to speak about coding difficult at times is This would have made the
the world should happened to me. I the fact that victims
of these was to hear the
their experiences because survivors’ perspectives, as report unreadable.
know the situation ITJP could guarantee strict don’t know. When I often use euphemisms to well as to get insight into
privacy. They said that describe the abuse, saying
is still not normal was taken in 2016 the dynamics of disclosure
while they would talk to the they were “massaged” or and stigma, as well as issues
in Sri Lanka and investigators, and might anything could have someone “hugged” them. The regarding the silencing
following excerpt from W288
detention, torture disclose to the doctors who happened. I was of male victims locally.
did the MLR’s, they would illustrates this: Interlocutors were the five
and sexual violence never disclose to relatives, unconscious most investigators who collected
is still happening. given the huge stigma. of the time with I heard in Boosa the survivors’ stories,
Nevertheless, they often also five independent medical
expressed satisfaction at only underpants on. that detainees were doctors who work with Sri
W126 having been able to disclose, I had pain in my anally raped and I Lankan male survivors or who
and said they wanted the rest wrote medico-legal reports
of the world to know what had anus and around my felt this is what for them, as well as two
happened to them, so that it genital area in my happened to some of interpreters, a human rights
would never happen to anyone activist from Sri Lanka and a
again. It should be noted testicles. But I the guys in my cell. Sri Lankan journalist based
that not all survivors did had pain everywhere In those situations, in Europe. Four survivors
disclose in as much detail, agreed to be interviewed
and some were too traumatised because I had been the TID person would in person, and in February
to say more than “I was beaten so much. At come along and bring 2018, a focus group was
sexually abused many times”. conducted in London with a
Yet others showed physical
the time I couldn’t the detainee to the group of seven survivors and
signs of sexual abuse (e.g. separate the pain interrogation area. their counsellors who also
problems urinating, passing interpreted. An interpreter
18 but now, when I I did ask in a few 19
IV. KEY FINDINGS with sticks on my
private parts. She
tied my penis with
become bigger and
then she put my
penis inside the
between his legs
when the pole had
been inserted into
thin thread and drawer. I heard them my anus. Each time
pulled it. She spoke all laughing. the men came into
Tamil but she was my room alone and
Sinhalese. She had a W297 smelt of alcohol.
strongly built They often burned
body like men.
3. LOCATIONS me with cigarettes.
1. VICTIMS the disappeared, or because
they had campaigned for a
have been involved in
torture and killing in most
Always in uniform. The victims mention many Each time they
places of detention in the
All of the victims in the
political party or worked for conflicts and Sri Lanka is no
testimonies, showing that
forced me to perform
an NGO. In all but one case, exception.46 Two male victims
testimonies are Tamil men who W182 sexual violence takes place oral sex and I
victims’ families paid bribes described sexual torture by
were abducted or arrested and has taken place across
after the conflict ended in
to end the torture.44 A large female perpetrators.47 48
Witness 297 is abused different settings: in the
had no choice but
number of victims were forced In a number of other cases,
2009. Their ages vary, with together with another various “rehabilitation to do so. Telling
to sign “confessions” in victims describe that female
the youngest victim 14 at detainee. Four women are centres”, army camps, prisons
Sinhala, a language most of officers are present during
and centres of detention
the investigator
the time of the violations, present, and one of them
and the oldest in his late
them do not speak. the sexual torture, they
assists with the sexual of the CID and TID as well this is extremely
laugh at the victims and
forties. The period of torture, masturbating as unofficial places of
2. PERPETRATORS enjoy watching the torture. distressing and
confinement ranges from a the victim: detention in houses and
couple of days to several
Witnesses w182 describes a
other buildings.49 I cannot tell
The perpetrators belong to female intelligence officer
years. Some of the men were
who sexually tortures him. We were brought her about each
LTTE cadres during the war. the various branches of the The testimony of W277, a 24-
Others were not cadres, but security services in the The pattern of control and
naked into a room year old who was abducted individual time that
country:45 The testimonies domination that is observable
were forcibly recruited to
in all of the accounts with four female by a white van in 2016 and
this happened or if
the LTTE and performed tasks mention the Terrorist abused several times during
such as for example getting Investigation Division (TID), of sexual violence is no police officers, two the time he was detained they ejaculated as I
different when it comes to
the injured to the hospital. the Criminal Investigation
female perpetrators: in skirt uniform, is a typical example am trying to forget
There seems to be a tendency Department (CID) (both of a victim who has suffered
in recent years however, to divisions of the Sri Lanka two wearing sari and multiple abuses. what happened to me.
arrest or abduct men who have police), and different I was also one was pregnant.
only tenuous links with the branches of the military. The
victims are not always able
interrogated by a (…) X opened a I was forced to W277
LTTE (such as for instance
the fact that their uncle to identify to which force female intelligence drawer in a low perform oral sex in
or brother was a member) or the perpetrators belong, as The testimony of W190 is an
they are sometimes dressed
officer who badly table. He told me this manner about example of a survivor who
none at all.43 Some men were
detained because they had in civilian attire. Apart tortured me. She to bend forward and ten to fifteen times
from the interrogators, the
been seen at a protest for
was in uniform. to put my penis – I am not sure of
detainees are also abused by
those who come to bring them She beat me with inside the drawer. the exact number of
food or the people who guard
batons. She was the I couldn’t do it times. The men that
their cells. The perpetrators
are often drunk and smell of worst torturer. She properly, so one of did this to me were
cigarettes and alcohol.
sexually tortured the female police the same two that
While women are often me. She stamped on officers started had done it before
essentialised as nurturing
my private parts masturbating me and also the man who
and naturally less violent
than men, female perpetrators and she beat me so my penis could had held my head
20 21
was detained several times put a long piece thoughts in my mind. tools over a wide range of (…) When the sexual Additionally, the various
and sexually abused multiple detention locations, time forms of sexual violence used
times on these different of wood in my anus. It is difficult periods, and security forces, torture happened on the detainees require
occasions. W190 arrived in They placed a pipe in Tamil culture reinforcing the conclusion to me, only a few particular tools, for example
the United Kingdom in 2015 that it was part of an the regular use of drawers,
and currently lives with up my anus with to speak of such institutional policy within cadres told me that of barbed wire and pipes.
his wife and children. He barbed wire inside things. the security forces.”52 similar things
attempted suicide due to There has been a lot of
the memories of the sexual and when they pulled The current analysis of the happened to them. discussion in the academic
abuse. He was first abducted it out and I bled. W190 testimonies confirms these I assume that it literature on the question
and detained for one month statements by the OISL: the of whether sexual violence
in 2011. During that time he
These are many (detained in 2015) sexual violence meted out to
happened to many in conflict is employed
underwent torture (squeezing events. I cannot The case of W200 is similar,
the detainees is clearly part more who were simply by military groups as a
the testicles, beating, of the distinct torture style deliberate strategy or
petrol bagging,50 and falaka51)
recall the number. he was anally raped with
employed by the security
too embarrassed to whether it is a practice that
a piece of barbed wire in
and was sexually abused many services. The concept of talk about it. is condoned by commanders.
Joseph Camp in 2009 and was
times. Four years later, ‘torture style’ used here is In this particular case,
he was abducted again and
W190 sent to rehabilitation camps.
derived from Darius Rejali’s the sexual violence that
Subsequently he was detained
kept for eight days. During (detained in 2011) seminal study on modern W3 occurs can be defined as
again twice and sexually
that second detention, he clean torture Torture and strategic, as it forms part
abused again.
was tortured, branded and Democracy.53 He defines torture W232 was abused in an army of a broader set of torture
During those eight
sexually abused multiple style as a regimen of torture camp. He says he was aware techniques and takes place
times again.
days they also 4.SEXUAL techniques that appears in that anal rape was a common in a context where torture

sexually abused me
VIOLENCE AGAINST predictable combinations method of abuse by the is institutionalised and
across time. The data from security forces. accepted as a means to
I was abused by 5 MEN AS AN the testimonies indicate achieve particular goals
many times. More
to 6 men on more INSTITUTIONAL that the torture style and
Although I was not (ranging from the extraction

than 5-6 occasions. than one man did POLICY the forms of sexual torture of information to the
this, including all have remained constant over conscious of exactly subordination of the Tamil
Sometimes one man time. Sexual violence is also community). These cases are
those who tortured 4.1. SEXUAL VIOLENCE AS PART
constant across different
what they had done not isolated incidents
and sometimes more OF THE “TORTURE STYLE”
me. These abuses locations and across differentto me, I knew I had nor are the detainees
than one. Always branches of the security solely victims of unusually
took place in my Earlier reports have been violated and
in my room. They concluded that the sexual
system (branches of both opportunistic guards
that something had
made me touch their tiny room and in
police and armed forces). whose behaviour is condoned
violence perpetrated by the
been forced into my by commanders.
penises. They made the interrogations
Sri Lankan security forces is
A small number of victims
part of a deliberate policy
anal passage which
me masturbate them. room. These many
told the investigators that The testimonies suggest
that serves to demobilize,
acts included anal intimidate and dominate the
they were aware that the had caused the pain agreed upon methods: besides
They ejaculated on Tamil minority. The Office
security forces routinely the consistent use of
and bleeding. This I
my face but not into rape, masturbating
used sexual violence against particular tools, numerous
of the High Commissioner for
males. W3 is such an example. already knew victims also told the
my mouth. They put them, insertion of
Human Rights Investigation
He was sexually abused in investigators that several
wood and the barbed
on Sri Lanka (OISL) that
the Welikanda Rehabilitation was a common method officers usually participate
their penis in my investigated human rights
Centre, shortly after the end of abuse by together in gang rapes.
mouth. They put wire tube up my anus abuses between 2002 and 2011
of the conflict. Many victims described to
concludes that “incidents the security forces
their penises in my and oral sex. When
the investigators that the
of sexual violence were
Prior to my torture, abuse of LTTE officers who abused them
anus and that caused I tried to commit
not isolated acts but part
would come in pairs, often
of a deliberate policy to
I knew that they members held in
me great pain. They suicide in November
dressed in their uniforms,
inflict torture (to obtain
it was the instances information, intimidate, were conducting custody.
humiliate, inflict fear). The
of sexual abuse that practices followed similar
sexual torture on
22 were the darkest patterns, using similar the other detainees. W232 23
sometimes (partly in) Two new men came would shut and lock other officer. the suicide vest intimate areas of the body if
civilian clothing. The they have not been trained
into my room. I saw
officers help each other to the door. One of the and if I failed to to do so. Within Sri Lanka,
their faces when
abuse the victim, with the officers wore SLA W276 cooperate with them the medico-legal examination
abuse occurring both in cells of torture victims takes
they opened the
and interrogation rooms. army trousers and In the case of witness 200,
I would be killed. place in the framework of
door. They removed
No specific logic could be a civilian t-shirt the abuse by two officers The man I didn’t court cases, and Tamil male
determined as to the timing happens in his cell and not survivors usually do not
my clothes. I was
of the abuse that would hold and had short hair. know restrained me, press charges for fear of
in the room where he is
standing against the
across cases: sexual violence The other man wore usually interrogated. Yet and interrogator retaliation against them or
occurred both during and the interrogation continues their families. All of these
wall. They removed
after interrogation, and
civilian clothes. X pushed his penis elements enhance
during the abuse.
all my clothes, my
before and after confession. They swore and used inside my anus and the plausible deniability for
The following nine excerpts the perpetrators.
shirt, trousers and
from various testimonies
bad language in The interrogator raped me.
underwear. One was
illustrate the way security Sinhalese which I X pulled down his The silence on sexual
officers operate: they violence is also written
wearing a t-shirt
usually come in pairs, and
could understand. trousers took out W200 into the act because it is
and the other a
take turns sexually abusing Two came together his penis and rubbed 4.2. THE SILENCE WRITTEN INTO based on the transgression
the detainee. The excerpts of societal taboos regarding
are just a few of
white collared and sexually it in my face. When THE ACT sexuality, specifically
the numerous examples.shirt, and both assaulted me. I tried to move my implicating victims in the
In their book on torture
transgressions of these
had brown police head, the other man under the Pinochet regime taboos. The fact that one
At night pairs of type trousers. They W221 in Chile, Inger Agger and
beat me. He then Soren Buus Jensen write:
is implicated in one’s own
officers would come
54
victimisation makes it more
didn’t say anything. forcefully inserted “It is an integral part of difficult for victims to
to my room and force I was able to see Two officers whom I the torturer’s choice of
his penis into my speak of their experiences
me to have oral sex that they lowered hadn’t seen before methods, when the story is
to others. Some of the
mouth. When I tried told, no one is going to
with them. One of their trousers. They entered the room. believe it.” This is what
sexual abuse of Tamil men
to evade, they implicates them in what can
them on one night began to rape me. They were wearing makes sexual torture such
be understood as homosexual
slapped me. The man an effective method: the
was my interrogator. uniforms. They silence is written into the
acts, while homosexuality
who held me, then is in fact deemed deeply
Every night different W2 handcuffed me at the act. Sexual torture is a
unacceptable for many members
changed places with form of so-called “clean
men would come whom back and kicked me of the Tamil community and is
the interrogator X torture”, a set of coercive
55
to this day still illegal in
I didn’t know from Two men (the same and shouted in a techniques that do not leave
and came and did many traces or wounds on the
Sri Lanka. This destabilises
the interrogations. each time but not degrading manner the victims’ understanding of
the same, he pushed body that forensic medicine themselves as men. Witness
All of them were in the men who took me that I was a Tamil can identify as evidence for
his penis into my sexual violence, except in
285 for example told the
civil clothes. I from my home) came dog. They spoke in investigators he was told by
mouth. Then they the worst of cases. Given the
his perpetrators that he was
think on 4 nights I to my room about 3 very broken Tamil. fact that in these cases most
told me to be on victims see a doctor abroad
“acting like a gay” and
experienced sexual to 4 times and took I was sexually didn’t want to get married
all four on the only quite some time after
after the incident:
violence. me from the small abused by these two they have been abused, there
floor, they pulled generally is not a lot of
room to another officers. One officer
down my underpants. physical evidence left that
W197 small room without came behind me and can directly link rectal,
They told me they penile and other injuries to
furniture. The room held my head and
had proof of my sexual violence. A factor
had a light and forced me to perform that compounds the problem is
involvement in the that not all doctors are able
electricity. They oral sex on the
24 recent recovery of to do these examinations of 25
I was taken back and be a breadwinner for This silencing effect is not surprising. There are survivor were to press taboo on any issue related
his family. A recent study dovetails with the denial no incentives or structures charges, he could himself to sexuality. Additionally,
to the bigger room of Tamil masculinity calls by the government and the available locally that be charged with sodomy. the lack of free media in the
and the officers who it the Warrior-Hero ideal: culture of impunity.59 The would allow victims to However even if these laws country and the repression
“Attributes include physical social taboo on sexuality in disclose in a safe manner were changed, the legal of civil society actors
abused me said to and psychological strength, general and homosexuality or a manner that guarantees process for survivors of in general, as well as
the other officers courage in the face of in particular is so strong their privacy. There are sexual violence is more than donors who prioritise local
danger, leadership, sexual that officials and government only very few centres in daunting, as the experiences projects on reconciliation
that I was acting prowess, and self-reliance.”56 sympathizers do not even the north where torture of female survivors show. and inter-ethnic relations
like a gay. “Gay” Due to their experiences of need to explicitly deny the victims can get psychosocial One woman who mustered the are obstacles to the
sexual violence, male victims rampant and brutal sexual support.64 Doctors in state courage to file an official documentation of stories
was the only word can no longer attain this violence against men as it hospitals who treat victims complaint against her of sexual violence against
I understood as hegemonic masculinity. They is highly unlikely anyone whom they suspect might perpetrator, lost her job men by local organisations.
see themselves as tainted will bring it up. When the have been tortured, are and had to wait for 14 years Some local human rights
they were talking and unfit for marriage. Associated Press published an pressured to inform the for a verdict.70 Victims’ organisations are keen to
in Sinhala. … after Not only have they been article based on a selection police. Police officers are families who do complain to show the post-conflict country
incapable to resist the of ITJP witnesses in November often present during medical the Sri Lankan Human Rights is progressing and the
that incident I abduction and torture, they 2017, the government in its examinations.65 The legal Commission (HRCSL) are the torture issue is an obstacle
did not feel like have also not been able to response hardly mentioned the framework in Sri Lanka does frequent target of reprisals to that.74 Additionally,
protect themselves from sexual aspect of the torture not provide for adequate and and intimidation, which have there is the process of the
getting married being raped or otherwise at all.60 In a short response effective remedies for sexual been extensively documented normalisation of violence
any more. Whenever sexually abused. This is to AP, Defence Secretary violence. In particular, the by both ITJP and the Sri which has resulted in a low
deemed ‘unmanly’: real men Kapila Waidyaratne said that legal definition of rape is Lanka Campaign.71 There are capacity to engage or express
I speak to my are thought to resist and “the government of Sri Lanka inadequate and does not meet serious issues with regard to outrage after years of
girlfriend, I fight.57 This disbelief that is for zero tolerance with international standards: witness protection, despite intimidation among the wider
men can be sexually abused regard to sexual abuse and so section 363 of the Penal Code the fact that a Witness public. Those with alleged
remember what was
is illustrated in a recent on.” The reaction was similar recognizes only women as Protection Act was passed in LTTE links are also generally
done to me. scientific article by two Sri to the earlier denial of victims of rape and only men 2015.72 The Sri Lankan seen as ‘deserving’ of
Lankan lecturers in law: they reports on the sexual abuse as perpetrators.66 Only girls police also lacks capacities punishment.75 In recent years,
propose an adaptation of by Sri Lankan peacekeepers in can be victims of statutory to effectively investigate the government, as well as
W285 the laws on rape and sexual Haiti, which were rejected by rape (section (e) of the sexual crimes. donors and diplomats have
abuse to include men and boys the army as a fabrication.61 62 law).67 The definition of rape taken aim at the messengers,
Male victims commonly but insist that “social and is limited to penile-vaginal The lack of documentation of attempting to discredit the
experience a loss of biological factors” make male Two op-eds by journalists in penetration, excluding anal sexual violence against Tamil organisations that document
masculinity due to the rape only a rare occurrence the Sri Lankan Daily Mirror rape, digital penetration men by local human rights the widespread human rights
torture and sexual violence. in Sri Lanka.58 Male rape is also steered clear of the (with a finger), penetration organisations further feeds abuses and sexual torture.
The common conception of not a rare occurrence in Sri ubiquitous sexual violence with any other part of into the denial. Activists do All of these factors
what it means to be a ‘real Lanka, it is rather a rare in the statements, instead the body (i.e. - tongue), not document the experiences contribute to the culture
Tamil man’ - in other words occurrence that male rape focusing on the issue of forced oral sex, or even when of those who are abducted of near total impunity that
the hegemonic masculinity- survivors can speak about the branding of detainees, foreign objects or dildos illegally but focus on those perpetrators profit from.76
is that he should be their experiences, given which they argued must have are used. Marital rape is not detained under the PTA
married, have children, that victims are seen as been self-inflicted. The a crime, and the provision legislation. Human rights
unmanly. Many victims have piece argued that because on intoxication does not work in the Tamil north
deeply internalised these the accusations were so count if the woman consumed is made very difficult by
beliefs of what it means to ludicrous, they simply alcohol herself.68 extensive militarisation and
be a real man, which also must be untrue, offering an surveillance. Additionally,
becomes an obstacle in their alternative explanation Additionally, as in many human rights organisations
healing process. Male victims namely that the victims paid other countries formerly have had the training and
who commit suicide often a doctor to anesthetize and under British colonial rule, experience documenting sexual
feel that this is their last then brand them.63 consensual sex between two violence against women
resort, as they find that they men or two women is illegal and girls, but not sexual
should be self-reliant and The lack of explicit denial (section 363 of the penal violence against men and
not seek help. about the sexual nature of code on unnatural offences).69 boys.73 In part this is due
the abuse of Tamil civilians As a consequence, if a male to the very strong social
26 27
THE CYCLE OF wearing the same
4.3. SEXUAL OPPORTUNISM not to implicate themselves
in acts which could be
kind of green army
STIGMA SILENCE DENIAL
Dominant interpretations considered homosexual.
of conflict-related sexual T-shirt and pants.
violence have always focused The cases of W36, W205,
He had his rifle
AND IMPUNITY on the strategic aspects of
it, while the sexual aspects
W14, W20, W29, W267 and
W203 however provide at slung across his
have often been written least some indications
out of these narratives.77 that individuals taking back. He removed my
However, the fact that the advantage of their position clothes including
sexual violence against male of power for their own sexual
detainees is part of a set gratification. W36’s story
my underwear. He
of torture methods does not reveals a pattern of both told me to hold
GOVERNMENT preclude the fact that some sexual abuse by interrogators
his penis. When I
DENIAL guards and officers might take and opportunistic abuse by
advantage of the situation guards. In this section in refused he slapped
for their own sexual his testimony, the guard
pleasure. The methodical use who brings him food, comes
me and told me
of sexual violence by the Sri into his cell and forces “Tamil dog you
Lankan state security forces, him to perform oral sex.
combined with the impunity When the man hears boots
will be dead if
and denial of the crimes in the hallway, he quickly you do not hold
by the state, creates an stops. This suggests that
atmosphere where individual he does not want to get
it”. In fear I
officers, guards and civilians caught abusing a detainee, held it. He told me
CULTURE can take advantage. and that he might be acting
LACK OF LOCAL to masturbate him.
DOCUMENTATION OF IMPUNITY on his own, for his own
The distinction between what gratification. Before this I did. Before he
is opportunistic behaviour specific incident, W36 is also
ejaculated we heard
and what is strategic is not abused by the interrogators
always straightforward, as who rape him in the sounds of boots
the testimonies do not always interrogation room. by the door. He
contain enough contextual
information about the quickly pushed me
In the following
perpetrator or the context to away and pulled up
make the claim. In order to days they continued
make a complete assessment, his pants and left.
to give me only a
SILENCE OF THE one would also need to
SURVIVORS interview perpetrators.78 In little food once a
the testimonies, the victims W36
day. After a couple
cite many instances of guards
who come to victims’ cells of days, the guard
at night to sexually abuse who brought the
them, but it is not clear to
what extent this behaviour food, placed the
is to be interpreted as food in front of me
purely opportunistic, or
whether on the other hand and laughed at me
it is being condoned by and left the room.
LACK OF SAFE SPACES STIGMA AND commanders. Victims may also
AND LEGAL BARRIERS OSTRACISATION be more likely to frame their After a half hour
abuse or rape as strategic he came back into
for it it to fit within a
heteronormative framework and my room. He was
X
28 29
 at the ankles with
In another example of such with them, promising they Another case that indicates a I was still are most commonly compared
opportunistic behaviour, would be freed if they mixture of sexual opportunism to animals: the interrogators
rope and put some
Witness 205 is raped by agreed. Both witness 299 and and seeking personal financial suspended upside call the Tamils ‘kottiya’,
sellotape over my
an unknown man who brings witness 130 recount such gain is that of witness 248, down. I begged for the Sinhala word for Tiger
sellotape and rope to his instances where guards offer the 14 year old boy who is (a synonym for member of
mouth. He made me
cell. W205’s mouth is taped them help in exchange for repeatedly called upon to water and then one the LTTE) or they call them
lie down and pulled
so he is not heard screaming sexual favours. sexually serve soldiers and of the men pushed “dog”. Other terms used
and shouting, and ropes are civilians, with one soldier were “bastard” “cocksucker”
my underwear down to
tied around his ankles and acting as his pimp (see open and urinated in and “motherfucker”. The
He said to me in
my ankles. I tried
hands to make sure he does section 4.5). my mouth. perpetrators also often laugh
not move during the rape. broken Tamil: “If at the detainees’ pain, fear
shouting through
you agree to have a 5. and disgust.

I was sitting on the tape and showed W232

sexual relationship HUMILIATION AND
with my body that I They forced my
the floor when one with me, I will help DEHUMANISATION
man came into the didn’t want him to The men also face towards their
you to escape”. I
cell, I had not hurt me. He kneeled The sexual abuse in the
urinated on me and penises and then
said I could not do testimonies takes place
seen before. He was in front of me and within an atmosphere of forced me to drink ejaculated all over
that.
well-built, medium pulled me over half complete dehumanisation,
the urine. It was my face, laughing
objectification and domination
height and of dark way on my side with of the Tamil detainees, sickening. The pain at me, calling me
W299
complexion. He wore his one hand around
accompanied by degrading
was unbelievable. kotiya and smoking
misogynistic abuse. The
tracksuit shorts my waist and he He spoke in broken process of dehumanisation I felt extremely cigarettes while
and a banian, which put his other hand Tamil. He pulled my
is an essential precursor ashamed and dirty. doing this.
to the sexual violence that
is a sleeveless around my penis and underwear off and is meted out to the victims

undershirt, I don’t starting sucking it. came down on top of

as it prevents perpetrators W221 W142
from feeling any kind of
remember the color, I lost consciousness me. I managed to distress when they abuse Medical help is not offered,
and slippers. He so I don’t know for push him off, but
victims. The dehumanisation there are no washing While he was doing
is psychological as well as
had short hair. He how long he did I was in a lot of physical and it demonstrates
facilities. After a while that the other one
the bodies of the prisoners
smelled like he had it. When I woke up pain, so again he
the absolute control are dirty, encrusted with moved to my head
perpetrators have over
smoked and had maybe my underwear were came on top of me. victims.
dirt and dried blood. The area and forced his
detainees are kept in
arrack or some other down at my ankles, He pushed his penis isolation, and generally do penis in my mouth
The cells where the detainees
form of alcohol. my legs and hands up my anus, telling are kept are usually
not see others.79 Many victims and ejaculated.
however describe hearing
He didn’t speak untied and the tape me, I’m going to described by them as dirty, other victims scream and cry They were laughing
smelling of urine and human
to me. He tied my removed and he must help you, I’m going excrement or animal feces.
to the perpetrators to stop, throughout.
which adds extra distress.80
hands and my legs have taken it all to help you. While Sometimes there are blood All of this amounts to
stains on the walls and
with him because it he raped me he was floors. Detainees who asked
psychological torture.81 W191
wasn’t in the room. holding my mouth and for water were offered urine The domination and absolute In the following examples,
or forced to drink urine. control of the perpetrators the sexual abuse is
I was just moaning In ten cases, guards or is also manifested in the accompanied by language
W205 in pain. interrogators urinated on swear words and ethnic and referring to the Tamils as
the prisoners. The guards racial slurs they shout at
Several victims also reported repeatedly ejaculate over the the victims. The perpetrators
that guards would try to W130 detainees’ faces in order to refer to the Tamils as slaves
bribe them into having sex further humiliate them. of the Sinhalese. The Tamils
30 31
 When they came
slaves. The perpetrators also “On the third revealed the deeply gendered used to degrade men. in Sinhala but I didn’t
refer directly to the goal and misogynist nature of the understand them but could
in they would shout
of eradicating the Tamils night I was given a perpetrator’s slurs.82 Witness understand from the tone.”).
in Sinhalese, “Tiger
as a people, these statements little food by 273 recounts how the Tamil W299 Some of the Tamil victims
in particular are men are seen as prostitutes said they were not used to
Tiger”, and in
uttered while mutilating a guard in army by the perpetrators. this type of language in
the men’s genitals: broken Tamil uniform and he said They sometimes their own communities as

“we have to kill “here Tamil slave He said “I will do shouted at me using under the rule of the LTTE,
there was a strict moral
One of them squeezed what I want – let’s filthy words in
you Tamils”. here is your food.” code. The following statement
my testicles see what you can do Sinhala and Tamil. by Witness 2 is just one
example of a victim who did
saying “Tamil dogs, about it – I will do They called me Tamil
W224 “Tamil dog you will not go into detail about the
you won’t have a this.” dog, Tamil cunt and language used:
be dead if you do
generation in the Tamil cocksucker.
They said all not hold it” (his They were using bad,
future. We will W223
Tamils would become penis). derogatory words
destroy all Tamils. W197
slaves. They said and laughing at me
You are the slaves Then he tried to
Tamil people never “You Tamils need a during and after the
in this country.” make me have oral They also used filthy
listened to them. separate state. If sexual torture.
He squeezed my sex with the other words in Sinhalese
you want a separate
penis and testicles officer, holding my about Tamils and
W267 state you will have W2
together. I was head. The officer the LTTE; I knew
to take a bath in
screaming in pain told me in Tamil these words from Perpetrators also demonstrate
“They said things our urine.”
and on seeing my their control and masculine
that “you people are the past when I had hypersexuality by using
like ‘you Tamil
pain they laughed. here to do this kind heard Sinhalese mobile phones to show
dogs, are you trying W36 pornography to victims. ITJP
to fuck with the of job”. people use them. has also documented several
W4 In other cases the
They used words like instances of the use of
Sinhalese, you perpetrator’s words reveal

will always be our the goal of the sexual W275 ‘motherfucker’; this mobile phones to film the rape
and torture of female victims
He then turned me abuse: to humiliate and
is the word they and in some cases these
slaves’.” dominate, to be in absolute
over and pulled my control of the victim and The man asking the quite often used. recordings are then shown to
the male detainees in order
penis and testicles to do with him what one
questions would call
W200 wishes. In these cases
to humiliate them. Witness 18
very hard in anger. reference is made to the me ‘a Tamil dog’ and W219
for instance describes being
shown a video that shows the
“We will make sure Tamils as sexual slaves or
asked whether or not These statements reflect only rape of female LTTE cadres:
“He told me ‘you prostitutes of the Sinhalese.
that you will not I felt any shame as the tip of the iceberg in
are a dog Tamil In these instances, the
create a future Tamil detainees are also terms of the gendered and Later in the same
and should not subordinated and feminised,
I was being beaten sexualized slurs that are
Tamil with this.” video it showed
have any future such as for instance in the by them. (…) He said being used. Many victims
account of witness 299, to were too embarrassed to that four regular
generations’.” whom the perpetrators say
other degrading repeat what the perpetrators
W223 army soldiers in
‘pundaiyaandi’, the Tamil things to me such as said, particularly where it
word for female genitalia or concerned sexual terms. For
“this will be the in the example of witness 197
“pundaiyaandi” which some there is also a language
fate of the Tamils.” for whom the word “cunt” is is a word for female barrier, as not all Tamils
used. Other research has also understand Sinhalese. (E.g.
genitalia that is
32 W133 “They used abusive words 33
camouflaged uniforms (emphasis by author)
Victims are often forced to
started to rape W289 strip naked so their body On the sixth, W267
the female cadres. can be checked for scars. seventh and eighth W105
I could tell from
6. FORMS OF The scars are recorded and
day, exactly the
In two cases detainees
were further shamed
SEXUAL VIOLENCE sometimes photographed in
They asked me
the background that order to clearly identify the same things happened when interrogators took
photographs of them naked,
these were the same The sexual violence that is
person and to see whether
with the same “you were in LTTE
he took part in the war after beating or otherwise
female cadres.
described in the testimonies
or whether they have been people and the same mistreating them. The fact and we know about
can be subsumed under five that these photographs are
broader categories: 1.
detained and tortured before
results. I was your family and
(e.g. W258): taken after violence has been
W18
Forced nudity 2. Genital
naked all these inflicted upon the victim, you. You should
mutilation (the various ways
of mutilating the testicles I was fingerprinted days.
suggests they are kept as tell us the truth
In his statement, W289 a trophy images. The OISL
describes how the officers
and/or penis of the victim)
and photographed, investigation has documented otherwise you will
3. Rape and 4. Forced
show the detainees
masturbation 5. Coerced they also checked W72
the making of trophy images have to face severe
pornography on their mobile of the desecrated bodies of
sexual acts and 6. Enforced
my body for scars. deceased female fighters as consequences.” When
phones.
prostitution. When victims to not
At a later stage, voluntarily remove their
well as the photographing and I said I wasn’t
videoing of naked detainees
The officers 6.1. FORCED NUDITY
detainees are clothes, perpetrators who were forced to perform in the LTTE they
forcibly remove them, adding
forced us to watch Forced nudity is commonplace regularly forced to
for the interrogators.85 punched me in the
to the distress:
pornography on their in detention situations in
strip naked during face. Then they
many countries as a tactic On another occasion
mobile phones. They the interrogation. The first time I was asked me which unit
to intimidate and humiliate, I and 3-4 others
just searched on the and it is also a common abused was on the of the LTTE I was
practice in Sri Lanka. It were kicked and
Internet and found W258 third night of my in? When I denied
occurred in nearly all of the stripped naked and
some pornography. cases. Both the International detention. Both men this, they beat me
Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda Many victims report feeling they laughed at
We are not used to came in the night to with pipes filled
and the International shame to be naked in front of
us and used small
this kind of thing Criminal Tribunal for the clothed officers. Being forced my cell. They spoke with sand till I
to strip naked is very often wooden sticks
and it made us so former Yugoslavia have
to me in Sinhalese became unconscious
acknowledged the harm that but not always a prelude to (smaller than
uncomfortable. forced nudity can do and have sexual abuse, or, in other but it seemed due to the beating.
cases branding. Sometimes, cricket wickets)
recognised it as a violation
from their hand They removed my
of both human rights and detainees are kept naked for to beat us. While
international humanitarian several days on end, such as gestures that they clothes and I was
in the cases of witnesses 182 we were naked to
law.83 The practice has a were asking me to photographed at
serious psychological impact and 72: beat us. We were
on victims: it induces a remove my clothes. different angles
photographed while
sense of helplessness in We were kept I refused. After completely naked.
the face of imminent danger we were naked and
and makes the detainee feel completely naked for that, they forcibly They were not
when we looked down
unprotected and ashamed in nearly 8 days. Even removed my clothes. looking for scars.
front of interrogators. It we were slapped and
also raises the possible when we were taken They then removed (emphasis by author)
told to look at the
threat of sexual assault to the toilet we their own clothes.
and increases the effects of camera. They beat me
extreme temperatures.84 Forced were kept naked. We were all naked.
on my private parts.
nudity is also an element They started to
of the degradation and They didn’t make us
W182 touch me.
34 dehumanisation of victims. touch their bodies. 35
W121 overarching term genital mentioned by 42 victims. of the room but the hard through my
mutilation groups several It is an element of the
I was often types of sexual violence. torture style that is used man moved with me, underwear. It was
Witness 18 was not
photographed, but reported stripped naked for This includes squeezing the repeatedly during still squeezing my deadly painful and
testicles (forty two cases), interrogations to force
being shown naked to two interrogations in penis. He continued I shouted out in
female police officers, as putting the testicles in victims to answer questions
well as to a female LTTE
Boosa and certain drawers and slamming them or to cooperate with the to say just sign it. pain. I felt like I
shut (nine cases), kicking interrogators, for instance
cadre, with the intention of TID officers touched I refused to sign. was totally dead and
humiliating both individuals. the genitals with heavy to sign a confession.
my private parts. boots (17 cases), burning that life had gone
While I was kneeling I don’t know who the genitals (e.g. with
One of them started W 231 from me.
cigarettes or a lighter,
I was made to take they were, I three cases), putting squeezing my
think they brought chili on the genitals (one
testicles. I was One of them squeezed W263
off all my clothes, case), electric shock to
Sinhalese detainees sitting in a chair. my testicles with
including my shorts. the genitals (one case) and
The accompanying verbal
to come and forced putting a nylon rope or
I was screaming and his hand. While
Then the door was wire around the testicles
threats and humiliation
them to touch my crying from the one of them was by the interrogators or
opened and two lady and pulling it (four cases)
other persons performing
private parts. They and forced circumcision pain but continued squeezing them to
police officers came (one case). Despite their
the torture indicate that
did more than what to deny and he cause pain the other the violence is clearly
into the room. ubiquity, not just in Sri
intended to attack the
the TID officers told Lanka but also in many kept squeezing my was questioning.
Shortly after, there other countries across
person’s dignity and their

was a knock on the them to do and I the world, these types of testicles. reproductive health.

felt they enjoyed sexual torture have remained W3

door and the police largely invisible. They are He then turned me
women brought in a it because they often not coded as sexual W190 Many victims recounted how
over and pulled my
female LTTE cadre. were Sinhalese. I violence in human rights they felt an extreme pain
reports and victims often when their testicles or penis penis and testicles
I was still naked heard that if they tend to not describe them as This man had a were subjected to torsion:
very hard in anger.
and kneeling and didn’t do what the a form of sexual violence.86 polythene bag with
The consequences of genital
the cadre turned her TID officers told him and put his Once during my
mutilation however, can be
eyes away. them, they would be far reaching, with major hands inside it and detention and
(emphasis by author) beaten. injuries to the sexual organs
squeezed and twisted torture a man
and problems with sexual and
reproductive health, affecting my penis. I felt suddenly squeezed my
W18 W288 their sense of masculinity.87
as if I was dying testicles. When it
Many victims stated that they
suffered from the medical because of the pain happened my breath
6.2. GENITAL MUTILATION
Sometimes, the officers touch complications of the sexual
and shouted – “if stopped and the pain
the victims inappropriately abuse. They cited problems
or force other detainees
Genital mutilation was the
passing stool, problems you want to kill me lasted a long time.
most commonly reported
to touch them, as in the
form of sexual torture and
urinating, anal pain, anal
– just kill me”. I It totally disabled
following testimony from bleeding, lower back pain,
W288.
occurred in more than half
pain in the testicles, wanted to try and me.
of the cases (78 of the 121
penile pain, cysts on the
or 64 percent), with several
penis, problems walking and
move to see if he
individuals being subjected
problems sitting. would release my W244
to several types of genital
mutilation and some at penis as I was in
Squeezing the testicles or
multiple points in time.
penis in particular is a very so much pain. So I He then squeezed
In this report the
common practice, that was
moved to the corner my penis very
36 37
“We will make sure up my penis, they drawer and squeezed penis in the drawer on the officers and
6.3 RAPE
that you will not managed to push it the drawer against and he closed it on also to masturbate
create a future about 5 cm inside my penis - it was my penis then raped Rape is a very common form them by hand. This
of sexual torture in the
Tamil with this.” I my penis. extremely painful. me. The same thing testimonies, with both oral, happened 8 or 10
fainted as it was happened by four anal and rape with objects times over a period
occurring frequently. Oral
extremely torturous W258 W218 other army people rape occurred in 55 cases of three to four
and painful. Even with gaps in between while anal rape was described days. Sometimes the
today when I pass They took a wire The second time he each rape. The gaps
by 42 witnesses (35 percent),
same three officers
and anal rape with objects
urine I bleed. about 1/4 inch in told me to remove were irregular in by 21 (17,5 percent). Seven who interrogated
diameter. The one my sarong he put my length and longer.
men described unsuccesful
and beat me also
rape attempts. In most
W223 end was sharp. penis in a drawer The last three were cases, this type of sexual sexually abused me
In four cases, the
They forced it up and pushed it so it not the same men who
violence is accompanied by
and sometimes it
unwanted touching or forcing
perpetrators put a sharp my penis. I was squeezed my penis raped me before. the victim to touch the was done by different
object up the urinary tract.
screaming in pain. and told me to tell perpetrator.
officers. During the
The objects ranged from
pieces of wire, a piece of a They pulled the wire the truth. After 4 AM another Most cases of rape documented sessions when I was
pen, a thin metal rod to the
out once. man came in and put in the testimonies are cases
made to perform sex
stem of a coconut leaf. In
of gang rape, which has been
order for the perpetrators to
W281 my penis in the interpreted to function as acts, I was not
insert the object, the victim W77 drawer. I was bent a form of bonding between
interrogated.
is strapped to a table. This
perpetrators.90 Usually
type of torture leads to The two TID over the desk and at least two and in some
serious injuries. They inserted a thin torturers then tied this man put his cases up to six or seven
W296
metal rod into my a very thin nylon penis in my mouth.
officers take part in the
The stem from a abuse. The victims are raped
Anal rape was mentioned in
penis. rope around my both orally and anally or
coconut leaf is forced to masturbate officers
63 testimonies (52 percent).
Both penile anal rape and
very thin and sharp testicles and pulled W158 on different occasions.
anal rape with objects occur.
W99 the rope. One man As opposed to genital
in one end and One case in the sample mutilation, these types
In eight cases, multiple
perpetrators were involved in
that was inserted In several cases, putting the was pulling the rope is a case of forced of sexual violence do not
the anal rapes, while fifteen
testicles or penis inside a circumcision, a form of
into my penis. It while the other man seem to be connected to the
victims were raped by a
drawer of a table in the room sexual violence against men signing of a confession.
was excruciatingly and slamming it shut or was hitting me with with ethnoreligious overtones
single perpetrator

tying a rope around the penis that has been documented in

painful and I had to and pulling it was part of an electrical wire. The officers took me
other cases, for example in Then they told
go to the hospital. the interrogation. the post-election violence in to another different
W292 Kenya.88 In Sri Lanka there is
room. This room was
one other recent example: the
The table in the
W257 In one particularly harrowing forced circumcision of the about the same size
interrogation room Buddhist cleric Rev Wathareka
case, the drawer was shut
Vijitha Thero, a critic of the
as the others. It
had a drawer, they against the victim’s penis
I saw one of them in order to immobilize Buddhist hardliners of Bodu had a table but no
once made me put Bala Sena (Buddhist Power
dismantle a pen and him so he could be raped.
Force, a radical Sinhalese
other furniture. It
my penis inside This happened to the man on
take the narrow bit two separate occasions. nationalist Buddhist was painted a dark
the drawer and organisation) who had called
out. He stuck it colour. I was made
they slammed the I had to put my
for cooperation between
38 Muslims and Buddhists.89 to perform oral sex 39
me to be on all “you Tamil dogs, are 6.4 FORCED MASTURBATION until he ejaculated. detainee and they
fours on the floor, you trying to fuck Forced masturbation was told us to act as if After this incident
they pulled down with the Sinhalese, described in 18 testimonies W189 we were having sex I was called back to
(i.e. 14 percent of the
my underpants. you will always be with a woman. They the army camp more
cases). In most cases, Sometimes, the perpetrator
They told me they our slaves”. Both of victims are forced to masturbates the victim, as told me to touch on than 10-15 times
masturbate the perpetrator,
had proof of my these men repeatedly illustrated by this statement
the other detainee’s until 2014. Soldiers
but it also happens the by Witness 202:
involvement in the raped me and due other way around. In the chest, take his from the camp that
recent recovery of to the pain I lost
statement of witness 189, the
This time he penis in my hand and I had met on other
perpetrator is the person
the suicide vest consciousness. who brings him food. This forcibly masturbated shake it. They also occasions would come
and if I failed to
gave W189 the feeling he
me three times, he told me to take the to the bus stand or
must comply in order to keep
cooperate with them W200 receiving food. put his hand around other detainee’s approach me while I
I would be killed. my penis and penis into my mouth was walking on my
The multiple anal rapes
The initial man who way home from school
The man I didn’t cause serious injuries. did this. and the other way
Many victims spoke of anal brought my meals to tell me a time
know restrained me, around. We both
bleeding, difficulty passing
never showed up and location to be
and interrogator stool and general pain in W202 refused to do that
the anus or lower back. One after a few months. picked up later.
X pushed his penis so we were beaten
victim said he could not sit Another man took 6.5 COERCED SEXUAL ACTS
When I reported to
inside my anus and on a chair after the rapes. up.
his place. On two the location at the
raped me. It caused In three testimonies,
Anal rape with objects or three occasions detainees said they were
time they informed
severe pain so I occured in twenty cases. The forced to pretend to have sex W289
he came into my me, soldiers in an
tried to move away, objects consisted of a pipe or asked to rape another male
This example illustrates
with barbed wire, a glass room late in the or female detainee.91 In this
army jeep picked me
they both slapped bottle, a baton, a piece of excerpt witness 289 describes that some of the abuse has

and beat me, it wood, a metal pipe, a plastic afternoon. He would how TID officers used to a very public nature, with up.
pipe, the sharp end of a undo his trousers take out detainees and have several officers watching
was unbearably cricket wicket and ice cubes. them act as if they are a while victims are forced to
zipper and tell abuse each other. Given its W248
painful and really male-female couple having

The man who sexually me to touch his sex. very traumatising nature,
disgusting. They it is very likely that this After some time, the boy is
said things like abused me came once penis. He made me Sometimes the TID
type of sexual violence is also anally raped. One of

or twice a week masturbate him. I underreported. the soldiers acts as a pimp

officers came and for the boy and rents him
until the end of feared he would harm 6.6 ENFORCED PROSTITUTION out to others. The majority
took out two people
my detention and me if I did not do of his abusers are Sinhalese
and forced them to The other case that is unique soldiers and civilians, but
continued to force that. And I feared to the sample concerns the on three occasions he is also
act like they had
himself on me. he would not take repeated sexual abuse and
sex and the officers enforced prostitution of
Twice when I didn’t me to the toilet watched. They asked a teenager, witness 248.

satisfy him, he or bring me food. I This young man is spotted

me how I would have by soldiers from the nearby
forced an “S-Lon” did not consent the military base. He is taken to
sex with my wife,
pipe into my anus. first time and he the army base and raped by
what did I do to eight soldiers. After that
beat me until I did. first time, he is regularly
my wife. Then they
W235 I masturbated him brought back to the base to
40 brought another be abused. 41
abused by Tamil men. another one raped with a soldier acting as a widely documented in the social stigma on the victims themselves contaminated
pimp discussed in the section academic literature.95 The is particularly strong. because of the abuse.97 The
me. on enforced prostitution is Tamil survivors complained of Sexuality is a taboo issue impact on the men’s sense
In 2014 Tamil men a case in point. According problems such as lower back in Sri Lankan society and of masculinity is clear:
also came to abuse to the definition of sexual pain, anal pain, problems the social stigma on sexual men who are not able to get
W248 slavery in the 1998 report passing stool, problems violence both for women and married or provide for their
me. The Sinhalese
by the UN rapporteur on urinating, pain in the men is huge.96 While many families are not deemed to
soldiers took me to This case can also be Systematic Rape, Sexual genital area, penile pain, victims were able to trust have achieved what hegemonic
classified as a form of Violence and Sexual Slavery difficulty sitting, difficulty the investgators to tell masculinity prescribes.
another army camp in sexual slavery of a minor,
during Conflict, sexual walking. Depression, sleeping them their stories, hardly
Jaffna town near the especially given the fact slavery encompasses almost and recurring nightmares of any had disclosed to their The following statement by
that the abuse continued to
seaside. Four Tamil happen over several years. all forms of enforced the sexual abuse, intrusive wives, other family members W191 gives some crucial
prostitution. Additionally, memories, traumatic stress or friends. Several victims insight into the tensions
men were there, the report states that and suicidal ideation. All stated that they trusted the related to disclosure and
The case is unique in the
three in civilian sample because of selection
“the crime of slavery does of these were also recorded investigator to keep the stigma. This witness did not
not require government in the victims’ MLR’s. The information confidential, tell his GP, the home office
clothing and one in bias: most of those involvement or State following statement by and said they had not told or his female lawyer because
interviewed by ITJP were
army trousers, but adult men. Several experts
action, and constitutes an witness 41 illustrates these anybody in the family about he was deeply ashamed. He
international crime whether issues: their abuse. Several alluded feared that if he told them,
I don’t know if he interviewed for this report committed by State actors or to the fact that it would be his abuse might become known
however mentioned similar
was in the army. cases of the abuse of boys
private individuals. Further,
It is hard to sleep. difficult to speak about it in the Tamil community in
while slavery requires the with Tamil relatives, and Sri Lanka or abroad, as
They gave me a bra by the military or police. treatment of a person as I wake up screaming. argued that “abuse victims people look down on sexual
A lawyer in the UK working
and underwear, a on asylum cases, also spoke
chattel, the fact that a
Sometimes I feel so are looked down upon in Tamil abuse survivors. He did tell
person was not bought, sold culture.” They feared that ITJP’s investigator and
short skirt and a of a case he had treated or traded does not in any way angry and I hit the any public disclosure of an states two reasons: he trusts
sleeveless t-shirt. of boys who were stopped defeat a claim of slavery.”94
wall with my fists. I experience of sexual abuse him as a foreigner who is
at an army checkpoint in Sexual slavery is both a would have a destructive knowledgeable about Tamil
One held me and one order to be sexually abused crime against humanity and a also feel very alone impact on their private and culture (about the code of
by soldiers. According to
inserted his penis war crime. and sad. I don’t professional life. silence), and he knows that
him, this type of abuse is his story is safe with ITJP.
into my mouth. Then more common than generally In many of the other want to eat. I don’t One of the men in the focus Witness 158 did not tell his
one held me down and acknowledged. One of the testimonies, the descriptions want to come out of group discussion said: “No wife about his sexual abuse,
survivors from the focus of the sexual opportunism one will reveal it in our even though he was suffering
group in London also said of the guards, with guards my room. culture. The community from serious injuries.
he had known boys who were coming back to the same would ill treat us. In our
sexually abused by soldiers victim time and again, culture, no one speaks about
while still minors . One of sneaking into their cells W41 this. We will feel shame. No
When I got to UK and
the doctors interviewed for to sexually abuse them one in the family knows.”
this report also provided the or promising them better Several victims stated that Survivors of sexual abuse,
author an MLR of an underage treatment if they agree to of all the torture they both women and men, are
man who had been abused in a sex are all suggestive of the had experienced, it was perceived by the community to
similar fashion when he had crime of sexual slavery. the sexual violence that be ‘contaminated’ (meaning:
to regularly report back to affected them most deeply, no longer pure) and they are
the police station.
7. PHYSICAL, especially in the form of
intrusive memories that
deemed unfit for marriage.
One of the younger men said
6.7 SEXUAL SLAVERY MENTAL AND interrupted their daily that he had vowed never to

Several cases could be

SOCIAL lives. This was corroborated marry, as the sexual abuse
by the interviewed doctors,
classified as sexual slavery, CONSEQUENCES who acknowledged that the
had made him contagious, and
he did not want to pass it
which is both a crime against experience of sexual violence onto a future partner. During
humanity and a war crime.93 The mental and physical is the most devastating for the focus group discussion,
The case of the boy who was health consequences of victims, due to the intense other men employed the same
sexually abused over the sexual abuse have been feelings of shame associated language: they considered
42 course over several years with it. The impact of the 43
got a GP, I went to sexually abused. I pregnant and I did move from their I was totally
This last statement from the
him about the pain. have decided to tell not want to upset side. When they focus group points to the helpless and could
I did not tell him the investigator as her. torture, they idea that those who ‘sleep not move. I felt
with the enemy’ – although
about the sexual he is not Tamil and torture sexually. it concerns rape- are also angry and disgusted.
torture only that an international who W158 Afterwards the seen to have crossed an I felt that this
ethnic border. This sentiment
I was tortured and has a great deal of It is not difficult to see
victims will not was echoed in one of the was his way of
was in pain in that experience dealing then how sexual violence have the guts to interviews with a Tamil humiliating the
against men has a much wider activist. This is most often
testicle. He sent with survivors fight. They will linked to the situation of
community. It was
impact on the community.
me for a scan. He of sexual abuse During the focus group be distracted. It Tamil women who had sexual very painful.
discussion, several victims relations with Sinhala
told me that there and had a strong was a planned and soldiers during the conflict
said they stay silent out
was extra fluid in understanding of of fear of ostracisation organised effort to and were punished for doing W223
so. As Tambiah argues: “As a
there and he said Sri Lanka Tamil from their communities.
distract people. result of the polarisation Suicide is an expression of
They couldn’t speak about
over time it will go culture. He has their ordeal to close family based on ethnic identity in an ultimate re-approporiation
this conflict, cross-ethnic of agency by individuals
away and he gave me assured me that he members or spouses. They FGD sexual relationships can
felt isolated because of whose social agency has
some pills. It is will not release this and said they felt this be marked as treasonous, been destroyed. Suicide
even in contexts outside is a serious issue in the
a little bit better any information in was exactly the goal the After it happened, prostitution.”98
perpetrators had in mind. The community of Tamil survivors.
now but it still this statement about sexual violence meted out I started to At least nine victims who
Two men explicitly stated
bothers me. I did sexual abuse to any against them tore apart the automatically gave their statement tried to
social fabric by damaging that they felt guilty because commit suicide at one point,
not tell the home Tamil without my relationships of trust and by withdraw from they were not able to stop some of them several times.
office about being express consent. forcing victims to flee the others. Even my wife the sexual abuse from One witness, W115, who was
associated stigma by leaving happening, saying they had kept naked, attempted suicide
sexually abused the country. One of the men and family do not felt completely helpless.99 in detention. He jumped
because I was deeply W191 commented that those who had know about it. If Witness 223 likewise believed from a height but did not
fled were the lucky ones, the perpetrator’s intention succeed as his leg caught on
embarrassed nor my those who could afford it.
they knew I would be was not only to humiliate a bar. Many others expressed
female solicitor. I had a lot of pain Many others couldn’t. ostracized from my him, but also the entire thoughts of suicide during
community to which he the interviews.
I also feared that in my anus. I was Victims also said that
community. belongs:
if I told anyone bleeding. I did not the sexual abuse affected
then my sexual
their agency. It hampered
tell my wife that I their capacity to act and FGD I felt guilty and
abuse would become was raped only that their belief in their own ashamed of what had
known in the Tamil I was detained and capacity to act. The first
of the following quotes
My wife may be ready happened to me, I
community in the UK. beaten. These are illustrates their belief that to accept it, as it blamed myself I
In our Tamil culture not things you can it is specifically the sexual
was experienced by could not stop him,
aspect of the torture and
others look down at say to your wife. the implied transgression many. But if some and I felt it was
people who have been You do not talk of taboos that demobilises
others get to know better to die than
and affects their agency.
about these things The second and third quotes that you were raped to live.
in my culture and reflect on witdrawal and
by the army…
ostracisation.
she would be worried W205
44 and upset. She was This was a planned FGD 45
V. CONCLUSIONS
justice mechanisms not to
say the complete absence of
transitional justice are all
huge impediments to improving
the situation for survivors
of sexual violence.
A first step towards the
development of a proper
response to conflict-related
sexual violence against men,
would be making sure that
The analysis of the not return to their families only rarely been collected.
the voices of survivors –
testimonies shows that the of origin but have to flee If anything, the stories and
both in forced displacement
sexual abuse of Tamil men abroad after their release. data collected by Refugee
and locally - are heard and
in detention in Sri Lanka Law Project from refugees
documented. They know best
is massive and widespread While the report discusses coming from South Sudan, DRC,
what their needs are and
and has occurred throughout a significant amount of Burundi, Rwanda, or reports
are willing to speak when
the conflict and the post- data, underreporting is a emerging from Libya point out
investigators can create
conflict period. While significant issue. It is that there are other places
a safe space for them and
genital mutilation is very likely that the sample where similar violence takes
make sure there is medical
prevalent, rape and gang rape contains just a fraction of place. The sexual violence
and psychosocial follow-up.
in particular are also very what is really happening. meted out against men and
The victims have certainly
common, featuring in almost In the interviews, victims boys in Bosnia-Herzegovina
expressed the hope that their
half of the statements. The also expressed the belief also bears similarities in
testimonies will lead to
goal of the sexual abuse that their statements and its cruelty. It is the hope
change, as witness 158 said:
is partly about obtaining experiences were just the of the author that ITJP’s
“I have decided to tell the
confessions and extracting tip of the iceberg. Most modus operandi in creating a
investigator today because
information. While many testimonies relate to sexual safe environment to enable
it is my hope that we will
victims sign a confession violence in detention for disclosure for men and to
take some action so that the
in Sinhala, the goal of example, while there are systematically collect their
United Nations will take some
extracting confessions and other spaces where men and stories will be followed by
action and stop this from
information seems secondary boys are victimized. In others around the world. A
happening in Sri Lanka.”
to that of the domination interviews with lawyers and more systematic collection
and absolute control over doctors, the author was told of data on male victims will
victims, which is expressed of three concrete instances also enable us to examine
in their objectification and where younger men and boys more closely the links
dehumanisation. The analysis had been sexually targeted between misogyny, homophobia
furthermore supports the idea at army checkpoints. One Sri and the perpetration of
that sexual violence against Lankan informant said this sexual violence.
Tamil men is a crucial was part of a pattern.
element of the “torture The question that remains
style” employed by various The efforts of the ITJP to is what is to be done. The
security forces and functions systematically collect data current political environment
to demobilize and terrorise on male directed sexual in Sri Lanka, with its
the community. The men are violence have brought this stalled reconciliation
picked up in front of family particular pattern of sexual process and massive abuses
members or abducted in broad violence to light, but it is of human rights, is
daylight. Very often they do likely that other contexts unfortunately not conducive
are similar. It would be easy to major changes beneficial
to exceptionalise the brutal for either female or male
and cruel sexual violence survivors. The impunity
described in this report, but for war crimes and sexual
one should bear in mind that crimes, corruption, the
systematic data on sexual denial and silence, the
violence against men has lack of gender transitional
46 47
ENDNOTES
a discussion of sexual violence 31 Doney, op cit. p. 271 link to profit in Sri Lanka, a
against LGBTI and sex workers see: retrospective review” Torture, vol
Human Rights Watch “All Five Fingers 32 “Tainted peace: torture in Sri 27, nr 1 (2017)
Are Not the Same”. Discrimination Lanka since May 2009” (2015) and
on Grounds of Gender Identity “Out of the Silence: New Evidence of 45 The report of the OISL
and Sexual Orientation in Sri Ongoing Torture in Sri Lanka 2009 – investigation (2015, p. 23-31)
Lanka (2016) https://www.hrw.org/ 2011” (2012) contains a detailed overview of
report/2016/08/15/all-five-fingers- the security branches and command
are-not-same/discrimination-grounds- 33 Human Rights Watch. “We will structures. This graphic by the Sri
gender-identity-and-sexual teach you a lesson. Sexual violence Lanka Campaign gives an overview of
against Tamils by the Sri Lankan the structure of the various branches
22 For a discussion of government security forces.” (2013) https:// https://www.srilankacampaign.org/
denial and impunity see for example www.hrw.org/report/2013/02/26/ wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Agencies-
OISL report: p. 119 A/HRC/30/61 we-will-teach-you-lesson/sexual- Infographic-e1519237560800.png
(2015) violence-against-tamils-sri-lankan-
security-forces 46 See e.g. Sjoberg, L. Women
23 True, J. and Davies S. “When wartime rapists. Beyond sensation
there is no justice: gendered 34 OISL. A/HRC/30/61 (2015) and stereotyping. NY: NYU (2016)
violence and harm in post-conflict
Sri Lanka”. International Journal of 35 V. Sanjithkumar, N. War crime 47 ITJP has also documented cases
1 Dr. Chris Dolan is the author of 8 Legally, the designation of 15 Chynoweth, S. “We keep it in our Human Rights. Vol 21 (2017) victimisation experiences of Sri where female victims were sexually
numerous publications on sexual torture has the advantage that it heart”. Sexual violence against Lankan Tamil Makal: a qualitative abused by female perpetrators
violence against men, as well as confers an extra-territoriality. men and boys in the Syria crisis. 24 Somasundaram’s research has analysis. Unpublished PhD thesis,
producing several documentaries on States can also prosecute torture UN High Commissioner for Refugees highlighted the impact of decades University of Southern Illinois at 48 Note that there are 2960 women in
the same. He is also a Visiting without the perpetrators having to (UNHCR) (2017) http://www.refworld. of violence on Tamil civilians, Carbondale (2017) the Sri Lankan Army (out of a total
Professor at Ulster University, be available. For more on human org/docid/5a128e814.html see e.g. Somasundaram, D (2007) of 200,000 personnel), and 8000
trains humanitarian workers through rights organisations’ framings of “Collective trauma in northern Sri 36 Respondents are given a choice women in the police force (out of
CERAH, and regularly consults to the sexual violence against men: 16 UNHCR & the UN Support Mission Lanka: a qualitative psychosocial- between different interpreters of 70,000 personnel).
UN. See Charman, T. “Sexual violence in Libya “Abuse behind bars. ecological study” International both sexes
or torture? The framing of sexual Arbitrary and unlawful detention Journal of Mental Health Systems 1:5 49 ITJP’s report A still unfinished
2 Joint Operational Security Forces violence against men in armed in Libya” (2018) https://www. https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-1- 37 See ITJP. A Still Unfinished War. war (2015) contains a list of
Headquarters conflict in Amnesty International ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/LY/ 5 (2007) Sri Lanka’s Survivors of Torture and places where sexual torture has
and Human Rights Watch reports” AbuseBehindBarsArbitraryUnlawful_ Sexual Violence 2009-2015 (2015), p. been known to happen. The report
3 Some people who have experienced in: Sexual Violence against Men in EN.pdf 25 Wood, E. “Armed groups and 12-14 on Joseph Camp (2017) details
sexual abuse prefer the term Global Politics Zalewski, M. et al sexual violence: When is wartime among other the sexual abuse of
survivors rather than victims, as (eds.) London: Routledge (2018) 17 Kihato, C. “Go Back and Tell Them rape rare?” Politics & Society 37.1 38 ITJP. Op. cit. men there. Freedom from Torture’s
they feel that “victims” denies them Who the Real Men Are!” Gendering (2009): 131-161. 2015 report also contains a list of
agency. In this report the two terms 9 Leiby, M. “Digging in the Our Understanding of Kibera’s Post- 39 This issue came up frequently and detention centres, most of which
will be used interchangeably. Archives: The Promise and Perils election Violence. International 26 Bopage, L. “Torture and the JVP deserves further investigation are also mentioned by witnesses in
of Primary Documents” Politics and Journal of Conflict and Violence. Vol struggles in the south of Sri Lanka” the ITJP testimonies. An exhaustive
4 A Police Officer’s quick Society, Vol. 37 No. 1, 75-100 1, 9 (2015) (2012) https://www.researchgate. 40 See ITJP “A still unfinished war” list can also be found in the OISL
reference guide to understanding, (2009) net/publication/281460797_Torture_ (2015) investigation, p. 112
investigating and preventing Sexual 18 http://www.standardmedia.co.ke/ and_JVP_struggles_in_the_south_of_
and Gender Based Violence in Sri 10 Johnson, K. et al. “Association business/article/2000043340/mungiki- Sri_Lanka_This_article_is_written_ 41 These are needed for victims who 50 A form of asphyxiation: a plastic
Lanka of Combatant Status and Sexual raped-forcibly-circumcised-and- solely_in_my_personal_capacity_as_a_ have been subjected to falaka and bag with petrol is put over the
Violence With Health and Mental amputated-victims-genitals community_activist are suffering from severe foot-pain detainee’s head
5 Cabinet Paper 16/0964/740/006 Health Outcomes in Post-conflict
Liberia” Journal of the American 19 Tadros, M. “Understanding 27 Munasinghe, R. Eliyakanda Torture 42 For example: W190: “I have 51 The beating of the soles of the
6 British High Commission Colombo Medical Association 300(6):676-690 Politically Motivated Sexual Assault Camp (K Point). Colombo: S Godage & not told my wife or anyone else feet
and FOKUS Women. Report: Tackling (2008) in Protest Spaces Evidence from Brothers (2012) including my lawyer or the Home
Stigma of Conflict Related Sexual Egypt (March 2011 to June 2013)”. Office about any of these things. I 52 OISL report, p. 223 para 591
Violence through the Sri Lanka 11 Johnson, K. et al. “Association Social and Legal Studies Vol 25, 28 Somasundaram, D. Scarred minds. have told the investigator because
National Action Plan on Sexual and of Sexual Violence and Human Rights Issue 1 (2016) The Psychological Impact of War on I was too ashamed to tell others. 53 Rejali, D. Torture and Democracy.
Gender-Based Violence (SGBV NAP) 27 Violations with Physical and Mental Sri Lankan Tamils. New Delhi: Sage The interviewer at my last interview Princeton UP (2010)
August 2017 Health in Territories of the Eastern 20 See for example Sivakumaran, S. (1998) was a lady, and at the airport the
Democratic Republic of the Congo” “Male/male rape and the” taint” interpreter was a lady. I have
7 For an overview see Dolan, C. Journal of the American Medical of homosexuality.” Human Rights 29 Fernando, B. Narratives of told the investigator through this
“Into the Mainstream: Addressing Association 304(5):553-562 (2010) Quarterly 27.4: 1274-1306 (2005) Justice in Sri Lanka. Told through interpreter because they are older
sexual violence against men and boys or Jones, A. “Straight as a rule: the stories of torture victims. males and experienced in hearing
in conflict.” Briefing paper prepared 12 Dolan, C. op cit Heteronormativity, gendercide, and Asian Legal Resource Centre (2013) these kinds of things and I am
for a workshop held at the Overseas the noncombatant male.” Men and confident that my information will be
Development Institute, London. Vol. 13 Nagai, K. et al. “Violence Masculinities 8.4: 451-469 (2006) 30 Doney, A. “The psychological kept confidential.”
14. (2014) against refugees, non-refugees and after-effects of Torture: A Survey
host populations in southern Sudan 21 For an overview of the extensive of Sri Lankan Ex-Detainees” In 43 Freedom from Torture has observed
and northern Uganda” Global public literature on sexual violence Somasundaram, D. Scarred minds. a similar evolution (2015, p. 19)
health, vol 3, 3 (2008) and violence against women in The Psychological Impact of War on
Sri Lanka see Jayawardena and Sri Lankan Tamils. New Delhi: Sage 44 For an interview on the role of
14 E.g. A/HRC/21/50 and A/HRC/22/59 Pinto-Jayawardena. The Search for (1998) bribes in torture: see Block, W.
Justice. The Sri Lanka Papers; For et al. “Mercy for money: Torture’s
48 49
54 Agger, I. and Buus Jensen, S. 59 On the recurrent denial of For a discussion of this and other 81 See de Zoysa P. and Fernando R. Maltreatment In Sri Lanka: an
Trauma and healing under state warcrimes and human rights abuses, cases that illustrate the extreme “Methods and sequelae of torture: Iceberg Phenomenon?” Anuradhapura
terrorism. London: Zed Books (1996) see also OISL (2015): p. 19-20 difficulty to get justice for rape a study in Sri Lanka” Torture: Medical Journal; 10: 24-27 (2016)
victims see Thangarajah, P. “Rape quarterly journal on rehabilitation
55 On clean torture See Rejali, D. 60 Dodds, P. “Dozens of men say Sri and the evidentiary process in of torture victims and prevention of 93 It would be a crime against
Torture and democracy. Princeton, Lankan forces raped and tortured Sri Lanka” In: Jayawardena K. and torture 17(1):53-6 (2007) humanity if it can be proven to
NJ: Princeton UP (2010) them”. Associated Press 3 Nov 2017 Pinto-Jayawardena K. The Search for have been practiced in a widespread
Justice. The Sri Lanka Papers. New 82 See V. Sanjithkumar op. cit. and systematic way. A crime against
56 Affleck, W. ““If one does not 61 Dodds, P. “AP Exclusive: UN Delhi: Zubaan (2016) humanity can be committed without
fulfil his duties, he must not be a child sex ring left victims but 83 See Ní Aoláin, F. “Forced nudity: there being an armed conflict. A war
man”: masculinity, mental health and no arrests.” Associated Press. 12 71 Sri Lanka Campaign “I live what international law and practice crime does not need to be widespread
resilience amongst Sri Lankan Tamil April 2017. https://apnews.com/ in fear and go to work. Ongoing tell us” Just Security. 1 June 2016 and systematic but can occur only in
refugee men in Canada”. Culture, e6ebc331460345c5abd4f57d77f535c1 surveillance, harassment and https://www.justsecurity.org/31325/ the context of a conflict.
Medicine and Psychiatry (2018). intimidation in Sri Lanka’s north” forced-nudity-international-law-
For the Warrior-Hero ideal, Affleck 62 http://www.tamilguardian. (2018) https://www.srilankacampaign. practice/ 94 E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13
refers to Hellmann-Rajanayagam, D. com/content/sri-lankas-defence- org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/I-
And heroes die: poetry of the Tamil secretary-denies-reports-recent- Live-in-Fear-and-Go-To-Work-Sri- 84 For a broader discussion of 95 For an overview: Ba, I. and
Liberation Movement in northern rape-and-torture Lanka-Campaign-February-2018- forced nudity see Başoğlu E. and Bhopal, R.S. (2017). Physical,
Sri Lanka. South Asia: Journal of compressed.pdf Şalcıoğlu M. op. cit. p. 41 mental and social consequences in
South Asian Studies, 28(1), 112-153 63 Jayasuriya, R. “Facts and fiction civilians who have experienced
(2005). in AP story on asylum seeker 72 Sri Lanka Campaign “Wolves 85 See OISL (2015),p. 70-71 and p. war-related sexual violence: a
torture.” Daily Mirror. 14-11-2017 guarding sheep. Sri Lanka’s witness 122 systematic review. Public Health,
57 Research has shown, however, http://www.dailymirror.lk/article/ protection authority” (2017) 142, 121-135
that sexual trauma causes victims Facts-and-fiction-in-AP-story-on- https://www.srilankacampaign.org/ 86 See Charman, T. “Sexual violence
to freeze as an automatic biological asylum-seeker-torture-140300.html wolves-guarding-sheep-sri-lankas- or torture? The framing of sexual 96 See: Jayawardena and Pinto-
measure to protect the body from witness-protection-authority/ violence against men in armed Jayawardena. Introduction in “The
further harm, making any resistance 64 The stigma on mental health conflict in Amnesty International Sri Lanka Papers” New Delhi: Zubaan
virtually impossible. See: Hopper, issues exacerbates the situation, 73 Interview with a Sri Lankan human and Human Rights Watch reports” (2016)
J. “Sexual assault and the brain” see: Fernando, S. et al “The rights activist, 14 December 2017 in: Sexual Violence against Men in
(2018) https://www.psychologytoday. delaying effect of stigma on mental Global Politics Zalewski M. et al 97 V. Sanjithkumar similarly cites
com/us/blog/sexual-assault-and-the- health help-seeking in Sri Lanka” 74 Interview with a Sri Lankan (eds.) London: Routledge (2018) the experiences of men who said they
brain/201804/freezing-during-sexual- Asia Pac Psychiatry. 9(1) (2017) journalist, 17 December 2017 could not get married because they
assault-and-harassment 87 Norredam, M. et al. “Urologic were “no longer pure”. (op. cit. p.
65 MEDACT. The prevention of 75 See Munasinghe, V. & Celermajer complications of sexual trauma 111)
58 Edirisinghe, A. and Mudalige, torture. The role of physicians and D. “Acute and Everyday Violence in among male survivors of torture”.
N. “Male Victimization in Rape – their professional organisations: Sri Lanka”. Journal of Southeast Adult Urology 65, 28-32 (2005); 98 Tambiah, Y. “Sexuality and
Case of Sri Lanka”. Proceedings of principles and practice. London Asia. Volume 47, Issue 4 (2017) Carlson, E. “The hidden prevalence Women’s Rights in Armed Conflict in
APIIT Business, Law & Technology (2011) of male sexual assault during war. Sri Lanka”. Reproductive Health
Conference, July 20th, 2017, 76 Joint Civil Society Statement. Observations on Blunt Trauma to the Matters 12, 23 (2004)
Colombo, Sri Lanka 66 http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/ “Impunity for Sri Lankan security Male Genitals”. British Journal of
research/srilanka/statutes/Penal_ forces must end now: Call for the Criminology, 46, 16–25 (2006) 99 During the FGD, issues of
Code.pdf international community to re- masculinity were not explicitly
prioritize accountability and 88 See Kamau-Rutenberg W. “Watu linked to these feelings of
67 Section 365B of the penal code on justice in Sri Lanka” Adayaalam Wazima: A Gender Analysis of Forced helplessness and humiliation, and
the lesser offence of grave sexual Centre for Policy Research http:// Male Circumcisions during Kenya’s the victims who were interviewed
abuse does use gender-neutral adayaalam.org/joint-civil- Post-Election Violence” African separately did not reflect on how
wording. society-statement-call-for-the- Arguments (2009) their masculinity had been affected
international-community-to-re- either. This could be due to gender
68 Ramanayake, S. “Rape Convictions prioritize-accountability-and- 89 BBC News. “The Darker Side of dynamics, such as the fact that
and Sri Lanka: The Judicial Wall justice-in-sri-lanka/ Buddhism” (2015) http://www.bbc.com/ the participants were all men,
People Need to Climb” 24 July news/magazine-32929855 that the interviewer was a woman
2018 http://www.bakamoono.lk/en/ 77 Baaz, M. and Stern, M. “Curious or other issues such as a lack of
article/3230/rape-convictions-and- erasures: the sexual in wartime 90 Cohen, DK. “Explaining rape time or lack of trust. It is however
sri-lanka-the-judicial-wall-people- sexual violence”. International during civil war: Cross-national an issue that deserves further
need-to-climb Feminist Journal of Politics (2018) evidence (1980–2009).” American exploration.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14616742.201 Political Science Review 107.3: 461-
69 Additionally, the Constitution 8.1459197 477 (2013)
of Sri Lanka recognises the
(heteronormative) family as the 78 See Cohen, op. cit. 91 This type of sexual violence
fundamental unit of society, was not uncommon in the detention
deserving of protection (Article 79 This except the cases where camps during the Bosnian conflict.
27.12) detainees spent time in one of the While it is only mentioned in two
rehabilitation centres after the war testimonies, it is likely that it
70 See Karunaratne, K. “What a rape is underreported, given the intense
case says about Sri Lanka’s legal 80 See Başoğlu E. and Şalcıoğlu stigma attached to this type of
system” 22 April 2016 -https:// M. A Mental Healthcare Model for abuse.
www.ucanews.com/news/what-a-rape- Mass Trauma Survivors. Cambridge UP
case-says-about-sri-lankas-legal- (2011) 92 For an overview see Ranasinghe
system/75834. O. and Wickramasinghe S. “Child
50 51