Geothermal Direct Use-2

DOE/ID/13040--T3
GEOTHERMAL DIRECT USE ~ ~ 008686

9 2
ENGINEERING AND DESIGN
\ GUIDEBOOK
Pad J. E m u , Editor
Ben C. Lunis, Editor
*
Geo-Heat Center
k g o n Institute of Technology
Klamath Falls,Oregon 97601
-
Published 1991
Prepared under the sponsorship of the

united states Department of Energy
Idaho operations office
Idaho Falls, Idaho 83415
Contract Number
DE-FGO7-9OID 13040
DISCLAIMER
This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an

agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States
Government nor any agency Thereof, nor any of their employees,
makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal
liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or
usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process
disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately
owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product,
process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or
otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement,
recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any
agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein
do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States
Government or any agency thereof.
DISCLAIMER
Portions of this document may be illegible in

electronic image products. Images are produced
from the best available original document.
NOTICE
This report was prepared as an 8ccount of work sponsored by the United States
Government. Neither the United States nor the United States Department of Energy, nor
any of their employees, make any warranty,' expressed or implied, or assumes any legal
liability or responsibility for the accuracy, pnpleteness, or usefulness of any information,
apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe
privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or
service by trade name, mark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute
or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government
or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not
necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof.
GEOTHERMAL DIRECT USE

ENGJNEERING AND DESIGN GUIDEBOOK
sec?ond Edition
Comments, criticisms and suggestions regarding

the subjectmatter areinvited. Any errorsor
omissions in the data should be brought to the
attention of the Editor. If required, an errata
sheet will be issued.
Printed in the United States of America.

-- ISBN 1-880228-00-9
4
. . .. : ., , . . . , , . , . , . ,. . .' ~ . ..
. 1 .
',
..
11
Department of Energy
Washington, DC 20585
Geothermal Energy: A Key Element o f the National Energy Strateqy
Since the early 1970s, our Nation has been subjected t o a s e r i e s of

energy shocks resulting from the actions of international c a r t e l s ,
embargoes, and wars. Each shock has had an adverse impact on our
economy and international competitiveness, and focused our attention
on the v i t a l importance of energy t o national security in a world i n
which sudden, unanticipated perturbations i n energy supply are more
the r u l e than the exception.
In view of the unique importance of energy t o the Nation, and the need
f o r a strategy t o cope w i t h changing trends and sudden perturbations,
President Bush directed the Secretary of Energy, on July 26, 1989, t o
develop a National Energy Strategy (NES) , and stated: "Our task i s ...
t o make this strategy a living and dynamic document, responsive t o new
knowledge and new ideas, and t o global, environmental, and international
changes. 'I
/
The development of the NES represents a significant departure in scope,

from past e f f o r t s : I t is more than just an energy plan. I t represents
a comprehensive integration of environmental and economic policies with
enersy policies. The NES also represents a significant departure from
past e f f o r t s i n i t s execution: I t involved: (1) nationwide participation
i n building public consensus and understanding; (2) a careful assessment
of science and technology; (3) an evaluation of option costs; and (4) a
robust analysis of domestic and international impacts.
Among i t s key elements, the National Energy Strategy supports increased
use of renewable energy (including geothermal ) , and integrated resource
planning--a u t i l i t y p l a n n i n g process that includes the consideration of
demand reduction options and a1 ternative energy sources. Geothermal
energy clearly has a significant role t o play both i n increasing the
Nation 's supply of cost -ef f e c t i ve , environment a1 1y- acceptabl e energy, and
i n assisting u t i l i t i e s i n t h e i r integrated resource planning by providing
them w i t h an effective tool f o r demand management and demand reduction,
i .e., geothermal d i r e c t use as typified by the geothermal heat pump.
The future for geothermal energy is b r i g h t . Analyses conducted for the
NES indicate t h a t increased geothermal royalties and leasing fees on
Federal lands will l i k e l y double by the end of the century (from
$15,000,000 in 1990 t o over $30,000,000 in 2000). By the year 2030, with
an aggressive research program, geothermal capacity on 1i ne could increase
t o 43,000 MWe, whi1.e d i r e c t use (including geothermal heat pumps) could
reduce the projected national demand f o r e l e c t r i c i t y by 30,000 MWe. These
are achievements well worth striving for!
iii
The "Geothermal Direct Use Engineering and Design Guidebook", first issued
i n March, 1989, has played a key r o l e i n highlighting and f a c i l i t a t i n g the
exponential growth o f geothermal d i r e c t use--to an annual r a t e today of
over 18 t r i l l i o n BTU's. The uses are legion: aquaculture, d i s t r i c t
heating systems, agriculture, industrial process heat, crop drying,
mushroom growing, space heating, f i s h hatcheries, greenhouses, swimming
pools and spas, thermal enhanced o i l recovery (TEOR), heap-leach mining,
geothermal heat pumps, treatment of organic and toxic wastes, and
desalination. As the u t i l i z a t i o n o f geothermal energy broadens and
deepens, America will become l e s s dependent on imported o i l , and U.S.
u t i l i t i e s will be faced w i t h lower demand growth curves--truly a win-win
situation f o r a l l concerned.
I commend the authors who have given so freely o f t h e i r time t o prepare
t h i s new edition. I hope t h a t this document will stimulate you, the
reader, t o j o i n w i t h us in u t i l i z i n g geothermal energy as an integral p a r t
o f the National Energy Strategy, W
John E. Mock, Director

Geothermal Division
Conservation and Renewable Energy
May 17, 1991
iv
FOREWORD
The Geothermal Direct Use Engineering and Design Guidebook is designed to be a comprehensive, thoroughly
practical reference guide for engineers and designers of direct heat projects. These projects could include the coI1veTsion
of geothermal energy into space heating and cooling of buildings, district heating, greenhouse heating, aquaculture and ~ '
industrial processing.
The initiative to create this Guidebook came from the Geo-Heat Center, with support from the United States,
Department of Energy under grant number DE-FG07-90ID 1h40,and from the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory
(INEL) under contract number DE-AC07-76ID01570 for the purpose of communicating information COIlcerning the
conversion of geothermal energy into direct use applications. This information, which was primarily acquired through
i
assisting developers on many geothermal-direct use projects since 1978, was heretofore uncoordinated and diffuse. The
Guidebook attempts to impart a comprehensive uhderstanding of information important to the development of a geothermal
direct use project. The text is aimed primarily to the mechanical engineer or technical person responsible for project design.
The intent is that the contents should be of a practical and technical nature, and answer questions most commonly asked by
engineers designing direct use projects. In addition, the authors hope that the Guidebook will be useful to a wide circle of
persons intemted in topics ranging from: geology, exploration, well drilling, reservoir engineering, mechanical engineering,
engineering cost analysis to regulatory codes, and environmental aspects. Special attention has been paid to unification of
expert knowledge drawn from years of experience in order to ensure an integrated view of direct uses of geothermal energy.
The Guidebook is directed at understanding the nature of geothermal ~ e s o u n ' and

~ s the exploration of these resources,
fluid sampling techniques, drilling, and completion of geothermal wells through well testing, and mrvoir evaluation. It
presents information useful to engineers on the specification of equipment including well pumps, piping, heat exchangers,
space heating equipment, heat pumps and absorption refrigeration. A compilation of current information about greenhouse,
aquaculture and industrial applications is included together with a discussion of engineering cost analysis, regulation
requirements, and environmental consideration.
The purpose of the Guidebook is to provide an integrated view for the development of direct use projects for which
there is a very large potential in the United States.
V
coNTRlBuToR!3
Guidebook is written by the following authors who have graciously conttizluted their time and talent for the
preparahon of their respective chapters.
Bloomquist, R. Gordon, Geothermal Specialist, Washington State Energy Office,Olympia, WA 98502 -

Chapter 20
Culver, Gene, Associate Director, Geo-Heat center, Oregon Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls, OR 97601 -
Chapters 3,6, 7, 9, and 11
Ellis, Peter F., Senior Scientist, Radian Corporation, Austin, TX 78720 - Chapter 8
Higbee, Charles, Research Associate, Geo-Heat Center, Oregon Instituteof Technology,Klamath Falls, OR 97601 -
Chapter 18
Kindle, Cecil, Staff Development Engineer, Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories, Richland, WA 99352 -
Chapter 5
Lienau, Paul J., Director, Geo-Heat Center, Oregon Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls, OR 97601 -
Chapters 1 and 17, Editor
Lunis, Ben C., Senior Program Specialists, Geotechnology Programs, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory,
Idaho Falls, ID 83415 - Chapters 2 and 20, Editor
Rafferty, Kevin, Research Associate, Geo-Heat center, Oregon Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls,
OR 97601 - Chapters 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16
Stiger, Susan, Manager, Geotechnical Programs, Idaho National Engineering Laboratories, Idaho Falls, ID 83415 -
Chapter 7
Wright, Philip M.,University of Utah Research Institute, Salt Lake City, UT 84108 - Chapters 3 and 4
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Appreciation is expressed to Lew W. Pratsch and Kenneth Taylor, United State Department of Energy, for their
program guidance.
A special thank you is extended to the following for their peer review of the chapters.
Barrow, Jeff, Water Development Corporation, Woodland, CA 95695 - Chapter 6

Bomar, David, BalzhiserlHubbard & Associates, Eugene, OR 97402 - Chapter 6
Breckenridge, Robert, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, Idaho Falls, ID 83415 - Chpter 20
Bringel, Gunnar, VBB Allen, Salem, OR 97303 - Chapter 13
Cherry, Bob, Layne Bowler Vertiline Pumps, Memphis, TN 38108 - Chapter 9
-
Cooper, Gib, Mendxino College, Lakeport, CA 95453 Chapter 15
Evanoff, Jerry, Halliburton Services, Rio Vista, CA 94571 - Chapter 6
Fischer, Kevin, San Bemardm * 0, CA 92402 -
Chapters 10, 11, and 12
Frost, Jack, Johnston Pump Company, Azusa, CA 91702 - Chapter 9
-
Gannett, Marshall, Oregon Water Resources Department, Salem, OR 97310 Chapters 5 and 6
Hawley, James, Oregon Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls, OR 97601 - Chapter 18
-
Huttrer, Gerry, Geothermal Management Company, Evergreen, CO 80439 Chapters 6 and 18
-
Jannsen, Preston,Jannsen Well Drilling, Aloha, OR 97006 Chapter 6
Knipe, Edward, Brown and Caldwell, Pasadena, CA 91105 - Chapters 11, 12, 13, and 14
-
Li, Wemin, AgricultureResearch Academy, Tianjin, China Chapter 15
Lund, John, Geo-Heat Center, Oregon Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls, OR 97601 - Chapter 16 and 17
McGuire, Chuck, Centrilift-Hughes, Huntington Beach, CA 92649 - Chapter 9
-
Polk, Gene, N. L. Baroid, Sandia Park, NM 87047 Chapter 6
Smith, Mike, California Energy Commission, Sacramento, CA 95814 - Chapter 9
Thomas, Richard, California Division of Oil & Gas, Sacramento, CA 95814 Chapter 6 -
- -
Wang, Wanda, Geothermal Research & Training Center, Tianjin, China Chapter 15
Credit is also due to Russell Tetley and Grant Johnson, Idaho National Engineering Labowory, Idaho Falls, ID 83415,
for their technical editing.
James Hawley, Assistant Professor in the Oregon Instituteof Technology Business Department, contributed his unique
talents in the area of coordination and translation of the various computer operating systems used by the authors.
The authors especially thank Donna Gibson, Cindy Nellipowitz and Kathleen Moore of the Oregon Institute of
Technology Geo-Heat Center. Donna’s work on the 2nd edition and Cindy’s and Kathleen’s efforts on the 1st edition
frequently went beyond the n o d requirements of their positions. ProcesSing of the manuscript required dealing with a
wide variety of writing styles, mathematical equations and terminology. Their efforts, along with those of the CAD
operators, Russell Zemeke and Dan Kellum are an invaluable umtribution to the clarity of this publication.
vii
CONTENTS
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY: A Key Element in the National Energy Stategy .................................................. iii
FOREWORD.............................................................................................................................. V
CONTRIBUTORS........................................................................................................................ vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................................. vii
TABLE OF CO"Ts.............................................................................................................. ix
CHAPTER 1 ~ O D U ~ O N .................................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 2 DEMONSTRATION PROJECTS LESSONS LEARNED.................................................... 7
CHAPTER 3 NATURE OF GEOTHERMAL R E S O ~ ..................................................................

C 23
CHAPTER 4 EXPLORATION FOR DIRECT HEAT RESOURCES........................................................ 55
CHAPTER 5 GEOTHERMAL FLUID SAMPLING TECHNIQVES........................................................ 99
CHAPTER 6 DRILLING AND WEU CONSTRUCTION................................................................... 115
CHAPTER 7 WELL TESTING AND RESERVOIR EVALUATION........................................................ 153
CHAPTER 8 MATERIALS SELECI'ION GUIDELINES..................................................................... 171
CHAPTER 9 WELL PUMPS....................................................................................................... 191
CHAPTER 10 PIPING................................................................................................................. 229
CHAPTER 11 HEAT EXCHANGERS............................................................................................ 247
CHAPTER 12 SPACE HEATING EQVIPMENT................................................................................ 263
CHAPTER 13 HEAT PUMPS...................................................................................................... 283
CHAPTER 14 ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION............................................................................... 295
CHAPTER 15 GREENHOUSES.................................................................................................... 305
CHAPTER 16 AQUAT.URE ................................................................................................... 319
CHAPTER 17 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS.................................................................................. 325
CHAPTER 18 ENGINEERING COST ANALYSIS.............................................................................. 349
CHAPTER 19 REGULATORY AND COMMERCIAL ASPECTS............................................................ 395
CHAPTER 20 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS..................................................................... 437
ix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
By Paul J. Lienau
*Heat center
Klamath Falls, OR 97601
1.1 BACKGROUND various regulatory and commercial aspects that affect the
development of geothermal direct use projects. Information is
The use of low- and maderate-temperature (50 to 300°F) provided on pertinent geothermal definitions, ownership,
geothermal resources for direct use applications has increased leasing, agencies involved, injection requirements, etc., for the
Significantly since the late 1970s. As a result of this growth, federal government and western states.
and the need to have available state-of-the-art information for
geothermal direct use project development for engineers, The second phase could involve interdisciplinary
designers and developers, this Guidebook was published. activities of geology, geochemistry, geophysics, drilling, and
reservoir engineering. In Chapter 3, the nature of geothermal
In 1979, Direct Utilization of Geothermal Energy: A reso- is discussed including: geological processes,
Technical Handbook (Anderson, 1979)was published. Since resource classifications, description of low-to-moderate
that time a great deal of new idormation has been made temperature g e o t h e d resources in 25 physiographic
available. Valuable information gained from operating provinces of the United States and the potential for geothermal
experience on many projects has been inclnded in this development. Chapter 4 discusses exploration strategies where
Guidebook. The technical content and the practicality of this the main objective is to site wells that intersect the resource.
Guidebook is more extensive. Drilling is usually expensive and the present eumomics of
most direct heat applications will not support an extensive
In 1977 and 1978, the United States Department of exploration program. Geothermal fluid -ling techniques,
Energy, Division of Geothermal Technology, issued Program Chapter 5, suggests sample treatment (stabilization) and field
opportunity Notices that enabled the government to cost-share analysis techniques appropriate for ensuring that the sample is
a significant portion of the high frontad financial risk with truly representative and minimizes errors that may result frmn
private and municipal developers in a variety of direct use changes in water samples between time of collection and time
projects. Many lessons were learned about institutional of analysis. Fluid chemical characteristicscould be applied to;
building heating projects, district heating systems, agribusiness process design, materials selection, plant operation and
projects, and industria! projects that were developed under the maintenance, reservoir evaluation and aquifer compatibility for
cost-shared program. These lessons and the information injection. Chapter 6 presents methods used for drilling and
obtained from a multitude of other direct use projects provide wmpletion of geothermal wells and the data needed by
the background for the Guidebook. engineers and consultants to assist them in specification
writing, selection of contractors, drilling and COIilpletion
inspection. The puspose ofChapter 7,Resemoir Engineering,
1.2 CONTENTS is to aquaht the direct use project engineer or developer with
how to interpret the analytical information provided by a
A geothermal direct use project utilizes a natural resource hydrologiston well testing, reservoirassessment, and reservoir
-a flow of geothermal fluid at elevated temperatures, which management. It provides guidance in the practical sense of
is capable of providing heat to buildings, greenhouses, setting up testing ani3 monitoring programs, what to specify,
aquaculture ponds, industrial processes, and the cooling of and how to evaluate the resource in so far as the design &d
buildings by means of refrigeration. Geothermal utilization life of the project are affected.
requires a unique blending of skills to locate and assess a
resource, and to concurrently match the varied needs of the The preliminary and conceptual design of a direct use
user in order to develop a su-ful project. Each resource project could take place concurrentlywith reservoir testing and
development project is unique, and the flow chart (Figure 1.1) evaluation. Special consideration should be given to design
of a typical procedure for development is intended to serve as and selection of equipment such as well pumps (Chapter 9),
a guideline of logical steps in the development of a project. piping (Chapter lo), heat exchangers (Chapter 1l), and space
The development of a project should be approached in phases heating equipment (Chapter 12). Development of direct use
so as to minimize risk and costs. The first phase generally systems requires careful corrosion engineering if the most cost
I involves securing rights to the resource, which are presented effective material selectionsand design choices are to be made.
in Chapter 19. This chapter provides an overview of the Chapter8provides guidelineson material selection forlow
1
Qather Prellmlnary In1Ormallon Secure Righls lo Reswrce '
I *-I
be!eLJ
.L
Analyze DrHllng Result9
plan Project
--
r
-
b l . .*I
hknn
Lkwurd
Padorm Final Deslgn Oblaln EnrfronmenlalPermltS
conetruc1Ion Operation
--0-- ---
2
temperature geothermal systems (120 to 220"F), as well as Historically, direct uses of geothermal energy in the
guidance in materials design of heat pump systems for very United States were by small resorts, and limited space and
low-temperature geothermal resources (< 120°F). district heatkg systems. The oil price shocks of the 1970s
revived interest in the use of geothermal resource3 as an .
The Guidebook should prove useful for understanding alternative energy source. Beginning in 1977, the United
important factors in the conceptual and final design of space States Department of Energy initiated numerous programs that
heating and cooling systems (Chapters 12and 14), commercial caused significant growth in this industry. These programs
heat pump systems (Chapter 13), greenhouse heating systems involved technical assistance to developers, the preparation of
(Chapter 15), aquacultum (Chapter 16), atld selected industrial project feasibility studies for potential users, cost sharing of
applications (Chapter 17). Engineerins cost analysis, Chapter demonstration projects (spaceand district heating, industrial,
18, is designed to provide an understanding of the skills agricultural, and aquaculture), zesource assessments, loan
necessary to complete a lifecyclecost analysis of a proposed guarantees, support of state resources, investigations and
project. Regulatory statutes, commercial and environmental documentations, commercialization activities, and others.
aspects, Chapters 19 and 20, are important considerations in Also adding to the growth were various federal and state tax
any direct use project. Because these p t s are unique in c&t programs (Lunis, 1988).
each state, statutes and state agencies are identified for the
developers convenience. As of 1990,the United States had substantial direct use
geothermal energy developments representing an estimated
The editors and authors hope that this Guidebook will annual energy utilization of nearly 19,OOObillion Btu/y (Lund,
help to bring about the successful implementation of plans for 1990). Table 1.1 gives the distribution of use according to
and the development of, low-to-moderate geothermal application, which includes the largest single application, the
resources. enhanced oil recovery operations in Montana,North Dakota,
South Dakota and Wyoming. Below, each application is
described, explaining how the resource is used, and what the
1.3 DIRECT USE DEVELOPMENT IN THE ecmomics and growth trends are.
UNITED STATES
Expansion of geothermal energy projects will broaden the Table 1.1 United States Geothermal Use by
energy base of our country in the near term, further confirm Application in 1990
an alternate energy technology based on domestic energy
supplies, and thus, contribute in the long term to our nation's'
energy security. Annual
No. of capacity Energy
Studies by the United States Geological Survey state that Amlication Sites 1106 Btuh) fl@ Btulu]
the resource base for geothermal is very large. Chapter 3 Geothermal Heat Pumps' 197 5,028 5,656
provides a summary of the thermal energy available from Spaceband District 122 560 1,476
1,324 identified hydrothermal convection- and conduction- Heating
dominated geothermal systems. The estimated well head Resorts and $pas 114 234 1,452
energy from < 190 to 300°F geothermal systems, assuming a Aquaculture 17 224 1,180
recovery factor of 0.25, is 302 Quad. A Quad is 10" Btu and
the total annual energy consumption of the United Statis is
80 Quads. The estimatesinclude resource temperature >50°F
- Greenhouses
Industrial Processes
EnhandOilRecovery" 4
35
11
183
100
1.164
464'
403
8.156
above the near annual air temperature at the d a c e , G d . 500 7,493 18,787
therefore, exclude an enormous amount of shallow ground-
water in the United States. Industry recognizes that such a. Includes 30 states with residential geothermal heat
shallow waters may be useful as a source of thermal energy pumps using over 110,OOO units.
for heat pumps. b. Includes Klamath Falls residential downhole heat
exchanger systems (550), schools 0, apartment
Most people think of geothermal energy as a western buildings (13), churches (4), and RenoMoana
states resource; however, there are significant projects residential downhole heat exchanger (300).
developing tbis resource for space conditioning and district c. Includes two systems reported under construction:
heating where low-temperature (40 to 90°F) groundwater Mammoth Lakes (118x lo9B W ) , and Bridgeport (14
aquifers exist in the central and eastern states. Groundwater x lo9 Btu/h). The city of Klamath Falls system is
!
1 and earth coupled (vertical configuration) heat pump systems undergoing reconstruction of the distribution piping.
1
i depend upon the average groundwater temperature. The d. Enhanced oil recovery located in 4 states (based on
I USGS data).
i temperature of the ground and aquifers at various depths is
i
I controlled by the geothermal gradient, and thus, are
j considered geothermal.
!
3
i
1.3.1 Jidustrial temperature than the air and the liquid-refrigerant exchanger
permits a closer temperature approach than an air-refrigerant
Industrial applications mostly need the higher exchanger. The total effect is that the groundwater and earth
temperatures while space heating and agriculture pre- coupled systemsshows improved performance when compared
dominately use low temperatures. Chapter 17 includes to air source systems.
examples of industrial uses that include: enhanced oil
recovery (200"F), heap leaching operations to extract precious The fastest growing segment of the market is ground-
metals (230"F), dehydration of vegetables (270"F), mushom water and earth coupled heat pumps used for space heating and
growing (235"F), and others worldwide such as pulp and paper cooling. It is estimated that over 110,OOO geothermal heat
procesSing ( W F ) , and diatomaceous earth drying (360°F). pumps systems are being used in the United States. Part of
the popularity of these systems is because of the recent
Drying and dehydration may be the two most important promotion by electric utility companies throughout the
rocess uses of g e o t h e d energy. A variety of vegetable and country, mainly in the midwest and east. It has national
fruit products can be considered for dehydration at geothermal appeal because groundwater temperaturea down to 40°F can be
temperatures. Dehydrationprocesses involve either continuous used in geothermal,heat pump systems.
belt conveyors or batch dryers, using low temperature air from
100 to 200°F. Blowers and exhaust fans move the air over 1.3.3 Resorts and Pools
coils through which the geothermal fluid flows. The heated
air then flows through the beds of vegetables or fruits on G e o t h e d energy used for swimming pools and spas
conveyors, to evaporate the moisture. Geothermal Food is the earliest use of the resource. Natatoriums and large
Processors near Fernly, Nevada, dehydrates onions, garlic, resorts developed at hot springs, located in both the eastern
celery, and carrots using 270°F geothermal fluid. In 1990, and western United States, were popular in the 1800s and
this will save an estimated 86.0 billion BWy, which is were reminiscent of those in Europe. Many of,these continue
equivalent to replacing 119 x 106 ft3 of natural gas, to be used today, and in some cases, elaborate facilities have
coITesponding to a savings of
been operating since 1978.
- $350,000/y. This plant has been developed. For example, Faimont Hot Springs Resort,
a major new all-year resort near Butte, Montana, is using a
640 ff geothermaI well (160°F) for space heating a l4O-mm
When oil is produced, only about a third of the oil in the hotel, mini-zoo, game room, and restaurant in addition to
ground can be recovered by simply pumping production wells. large indoor and outdoor Swimming pools. The resort also
Enhanced recovery (the injection of water to move oil toward boasts a golf course, convention center, and time-share
production wells) is often used to recover up to an additional condominiums.
third of the original oil. In the oil fields of North and South
Dakota, Wyoming and Montana, geothermal fluid is produced In 1990, 114 resorts using geothermal energy were
with the oil from several deep zones. This fluid is often identified, the largest being Paynes Fountain of Youth and Hot
between 140 and 212°F as it is produced at the d a c e , and Springs State Park in Wyoming.
this heat is extremely useful in the enhanced recovery of
additional oil. Efficient enhanced oil recovery is a function of 1.3.4 Greenhouses
the temperature and chemical compatibility of the injected
fluid compared to the oil formation. In 1990, the contribution A number of commercial crops can be raised in green-
from enhanced oil recovery is estimated at 8,156 x lo9Btuly houses, making geothermal resources in cold climates parti-
for the four states; however, the amount of use may vary cularly attractive. Crops include vegetables, flowers (potted
depending on the price of oil. and cut), house plants, and tree seedings.
1.3.2 Geothermal Heat Pumps Greenhouse heating can be accomplished by several

methods: b e d pipe, unit heaters, finneed coils, soil heating,
Groundwater or earth coupled heat pumps arc systems plastic tubing, cascadhg, and a combination of these methods
designed to use the earth as a heat source or sink or both. as covered in Chapter 15. The use of geothermal energy for
Chapter 13 provides details on using groundwater heat pumps heating can reduce operating costs and allows operation in
for commercial buildings. Geothermal fluid is either pumped colder climates where commercial greenhouses would not
or water is circulated through a pipe buried vertically in the normally be economical.
ground, transferring t h e d energy to or from a water-to-
refrigerant heat exchanger in the heat pump. In a typical Economics of a geothermal greenhouse operation
reversible heat pump installation, the heat exchanger serves as depend on many variables, such as the type of crop, climate,
the condenser or the evaporator, depending upon whether the resource temperahre, type of structure, etc. An example is
heat pump is in a cooling or a heating mode. These types of the raising of roses near Helena, Montana, where using
heat pumps offer several distinct advantages over the use of air geothermal energy in a 75,500 ftz greenhouse reduces heating
as a source or si& the ground is usually at a more favorable costs by 80% and overall costs by 35 96.
4
Gfeenhouses are one of the fastest growing applications Geothermal district heating systems are capital
in the direct use industry. A number of the existing green- intensive. The principal costs are initial investment costs for
house systems 'are expanding. Systems expanding are Utah production and injection wells, downhole and circulation
Roses, Bluffdale, Utah; Flint Greenhouses near Buhl, Idaho, pumps, heat exchangers, pipelines and distribution network,
- and a new experimental facility and commercial &ace with a floheters, valves and umtrol equipment, etc. Operating
geothermal energy delivery system is at Lake County, expenses, however, are in comparison lower and amsists of
California. Burgett Floral at Animas, New Mexico, has pumping power, system maintenance, control, and
-
developed 16 acres, and the state with the largest total use
for greenhouses is Idaho, with 14 sites in operation.
management. The typical savings to co~lsumefsrange from
30 to 50% of the cost of natural gas.
-
1.3.5 Aauaculture A showcase of district heating developments is located
at Elko, Nevada, where there are two systems. Elk0 Heat
Aquaculture involves the raising of freshwater or marine Company is a private company that has experienced
organisms in a controlled environment to enhance production considerable growth since it first began opedug in 1982.
rates. Chapter 16 provides methods to determine the heat loss The project started &a USDOE Program Opportunity Notice
from ponds and the design of geothermal system for aquacul- demonstration project (see Chapter 2) codsting of tluee
ture projects. The principal species raised are aquatic animals buildings: a laundry, bank and hotel/casino. The system has
such as catfish, bass, tilapia, sturgeon, shrimp, and tropical grown to include 14 customers and a sewage treatment plant.
fish. The application temperature in fish farming depends on The Elk0 C~untySchool District in conjunction with the Elk0
the species involved. Typically, catfish grow to market size Hospital, has been Servicing the high school, junior high (heat
in 4 to 6 months at 65 to 80°F;trout in 4 to 6 months at 55 pump system), gymnasium, school administrative offices,
to 64"F, and prawns in 6 to 9 months at 80 to 86°F. The hospital, convention center, city hall and the d c i p a l pool.
benefit of a controlled rearing temperature in aquaculture One of the most impressive aspects of this system is the 100°F
operations can increase growth rates by 50 to 10096,and thus, temperature drop through the closed loop servicing the
increase the number of harvests per year. Water quality and buildings.
disease control are very important in fish farming.
Others that have experienced considerable growth are
In the United. States aquaculture projects using San Bernardino, California system and Warren Properties at
geothermal fluid exist in A~~zoM, Idaho, Oregon, Colorado, Reno, Nevada (doubling in size). When completed, Mammoth
Wyoming, and California. Aquaculture is one of the fastest Lakes district heating will be the largest development in the
growing applications for using low-temperature geothermal country. This is followed by the Etchfield cofiectional
energy. In the late 198Os, four locations in Arizona began center at Susanville, California and the two systems in Boise,
raising catfish, tilapia, and bass using from 80 to 105°F Idaho, the downtown commercial and Warm Springs
geothermal fluids. residential district heating systems.
Aquaculture projects at the Hot Creek Hatchery near .The Peppermill Casino, Reno, Nevada, has the largest
Mammoth Lakes, California and the Fish Breeders of Idaho at space and domestic hot water system followed by the 550
Buhl, Idaho, are the largest aquaculture use sites. individual homes that utilize downhole heat exchangers in
Klamath Falls, Oregon. Chapter 11 provides details on the
1.3.6 Smce and District Heating design and use of both plate type and downhole heat
exchangers.
District heating involves the distribution of heat (hot
water or steam) from a central location, through a network of The potential for geothermal district heating in the
pipes to individual houses or blocks of buildings. The United States is very large. An inventory identifies a total of
distinction between district heating and space heating systems, 1,277 hydrothermal sites witbin 5 mi of 373 cities in eight
is that space heating usually involves one geothermal well per western states, with a combined population of 6,720,000
structure. Chapter 12 provides information on equipment for persons. The combined heat load for all cities (exclusive of
geothermal space heating system. industrial loads) is estimated at 1.3 x 10'' BtUry (Allen, 1980).
Currently, 18geothermal district heating systemsare Operating
An important consideration' in district heating projects is (677x 109 ~tu/y).
the thermal load density, or the heat demand divided by the
ground area of the district. A high heat density is required to
make district heating economically feasible, because the
distribution network that transports the hot water to the
co~lsumersis expensive.
5
1.4 CONCLUSIONS Lienau, P. J.; Culver, G. and J. Lund, " G e o t h d Direct
Use Developments in the United States", report
The heat energy contained beneath the United States prepared for USDOE, Klamath Falls, OR, 1988.
could, in theory, provide most of the future low-temperature
energy needs of this nation. The actual contribution wiil be Lund, J. W.; Lienau, P. J. and G.Culver, "The Current
determined by the effort-time, p p l e , andfunding-de\roted Status of Geothermal Direct use Development in the
to broad research, development, and demonstration programs Unit& States - Update: 1985-1990", Geothermal
with participation by federal, state, and local governments in Resources Council 1990 Jnternational Symposium on
cooperation with industry, universities, laboratories and the Geothermal Energy, 1990. *
American people.
Lunis, B. C., "Geothermal Direct Use Projects in the United
The U;Sc direct use industry is and will continue to States - Status and Trends", INEL paper for Jigastock
experience a significant growth rate. The largest growth 88, Idaho Falls, ID, 1988.
should continue to occur in the use of geothermal heat pumps,
aquaculture, greenhousing, and district heating will add to the Muffler, L. J. P., Editor, "Assessment of Geothermal
expansion of the industry. Resources of the United States - 1978", U.S.
Geological Survey Circular 790, Reston, VA, 1979.
REFERENCES Reed,M., Editor, "Assessment of Low Temperature

Geothermal Resources of the United States - 1982",
Allen, E., "Preliminary Inventory of Western U.S. Cities U.S. Geological Survey Circular 892, Reston, VA,
with Proximate Hydrothermal Potential", VBB Allen, 1982.
Salem, OR, 1984.
Anderson, D. N. and J. Lund, Editors, "Direct Utilization

of Geothermal Energy: A Technical Handbook",
Geothermal Resources council Special Report No. 7,
Davis, CA, 1979.
6
CHAPTER 2
DEMONSTRATION PROJIZCTS
LESSONS LEARNED
By Ben C. Lunis
EG&G Idaho, Inc.
Idaho Falls, ID 83415
2.1 LNTRODUCTION 2.2 BACKGROUND
The use of geothermal energy for direct usk applications The use of geothermal energy in direct-use applications
was aided through the development of a number of field was primarily limited to health spa applications before 1977.
experiment projects funded on a'cmt-shared basis by the U.S. State-of-the-art engineering, construction, and economic and
Department of Energy, Division of Geothermal and institutional data were lacking in a period when greater use of
Hydropower Technology. Although not all of the projects alternate energy forms was needed. The U.S. Department of
became operational, they all provided significant observations Energy (DOE), Division of Geothermal Technology, as part
that may help futuredevelopers from "reinventing the wheel. " of the national geothermal program plan, which had the goal
This chapter provides a summary of the lessons leamed about of enccjuraging the private and municipal development of
institutional heating projects, district heating system, geothermal re~ourcesfor direct-use of these resources, issued
agribusiness projects, and industrial projects that were two Program Opportunity Notice (PO") solicitations
developed under the cost-shared program. requesting proposals to cost& field experiment projects.
Table 2.1 PON Projects Administered By USDOE
DOGID 15W
DOGID 1983
DOESAN 1983
DoGm I982
DOESAN 1982
DOGID 1981
DOGID I=
DOESAN 1981
WESAN 1981
7
The notices, issued in 1977 and 1978, enabled the 1. The Haakon School project provides space heating for
govemment to ‘cost-share a significant portion of the high school buildings and then the geothermal fluid is cascaded
front-end financial risk with private and municipal developers in.= to a community district heating area in Philip,
in a variety of applications. Twenty-three projects r e d t e d South Dakota.
and were started in 1978 and 1979. Fifteen of these projects
became operational; the regainder were discontinued for a 2. The St. Mary’s Wospia,project in Pierre, South Dakota,
variety of reasons. demonstrates the feasibility of using 108°F fluid to
provide for space and domestic hot water heating.
The development of the PON projects produced many
benefits, perhaps the most important being the lessons that 3. The Utah State Prison project system provided space and
bwm&arned in &e initiaticmof a relativery new technology. domestic hot water heating in the minimum security
This chapter is directed toward those lessons learned so that facility. Problems, dated to the existing system that
greater effort can be expended in advancing the state-of-the-art were retrofitted for geothermal use and lack of system
in geothermal direct use developments, rather than in acceptance by prison personnel,resulted in the transfer of
reinventing the wheel. the use of the geothermal fluid to a new minimum
security facility built specifically to use geothermal
energy to heat domestic water for a facilitytht has B
2.3 PROJECTS’ SYNOPSES very high hot water demand.
The PON projects are located throughout the western half 4. Montana’s Warm Springs State Hospital project has a
of the United StaM as shown in Figure 2.1. The projects are good operating system, but it is inactive becausethe State
categorized into four groups: 1) institutional heating, has not provided funding to replace the failed production
2) district heathg, 3) agzjbusiness, and 4) industrial (Table well submersible pump.
2-1). Following is a brief synopsis of these projects.
5. Douglas High School, Box Elder, South Dakota, was
unable to have its well completed into the Madison
aquifer and the project was abandoned.
6. The THS Hospital in Marlin, Texas, continued to operate

satisfactorily until the hospital closed in 1987.
7. The Navarro College operated successfully for about a

year, but was halted because of high operating costs.
8. A project in El Centro, California, had an inadequate

resource.
2.3.2 District Heating
The following rmmmafizesexperiencewith district heating

projects:
1. The district heating system in~Ellco,Nevada, initially

provided heating service to three customers and
geothermal fluid for direct use in a laundry. Tbis
successful system continues to be expanded.
2. Pagosa Springs, Colorado, has a fine closed-loop system,

;Figure 2.1 PON projects location map. but the final resolution of water rights has limited
expansion of the customer base for a period of time. The
system is being expanded.
2.3.1 Institutional Heating
3. The Boise City, Idaho, system is a technically excellent
Institutid heating projects involved several operating system. However, reservoir wncerm have limited
facilities. One of these experienced a drilling failure and expansion.
another one had an inadequate resource. Theprojects are:
8
4. Madison county, Idaho, planned to cascade the fluid 2.4 PON PROJECT SUMMARY DATA
from a potato processhg plant to a district heating system
in the city of Rexburg. However, the well did not Key geothermal iesoutce characteristics and project costs
produce adequate flow. are given in Table 2.2 to provide a brief overview of *e PON
projects.
5. Monroe City, Utah, produced a reasonably good well,
but the project ecOnOmicS precluded
of the 164°F resource with 600 gpm fl 2.5 SIGNIFICANTFINDINGS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
The system in Klamath Falls, Oregon, operated
satisfactorily for one year with 14 govement buildings Many lessons were learned during development of the
and 8 homes. Pipe failure halted operation from 1986 to PON projects. Significant findings and recommendations,
1990, when after successful litigation, the pipe was both positive and negative, are summarized below. Greater
replaced in 1990. detail can be found in the referenced final reports.
7. The Susanville, California, operation is successful and 2.5.1 Every Proiect is Uniaue
expansion is also projected.
If there is a geothermal law, it is that every project is
2.3.3 Agribusiness unique. The development of the PON projects stressed the
uniqueness of each direct use project. Legal and institutional
The following summarizes experience with agribusiness considerations vary state to state and location to location.
projects: Each resoutceand each well drilled in a given resourcevaried
in many characteristics. The fluids produced from the
1. Utah Roses demonstrates the feasibility of using a 123°F geothermal wells required the use of different types of piping
resoutce to supply heat in a -acre greenhouse located at and equipment materials. The physical location of each
Sandy, Utah. This project precipitated another Utah project impacted the availability and quality of goods and
Roses greenhouse geothermal project adjacent to the Utah services. The PON activities showed there is no potential to
State Prison PON project. rubber-stamp developmentactivities and amplified the need for
qualified task performers.
2. The Diamond Ring Ranch in central South Dakota, used
artesian flowing fluid to heat numerous ranch structures, 2.5.2 Simlicitv is Kev to b r ational Success
operate a grain drying facility, provide domestic and
stock watering, and irrigate fields. Antifieem, used in Most OC the PON projects are located in smaller
the closed-loop system, leaked out and was never communities or even in isolated locations (such as the
replaced. The owner returned to the use of the fluid Diamond Ring Ranch in central South Dakota). Lack of
from the existing well to its original purpose, watering highly trained personnel to build and operate the system, and
and irrigating. suppliers with limited inventories stressed the need for simple
systems. Systems wmponents that are different from those
3. The Kelly Hot Springs, California, project used an normally operated by plant operators can Contribute to
existing hot spring to heat a greeohouse. Currently, it is rejection of the new “complicated‘ geothermal system, as WBS
being used to rear catfish. observed at the Utah State Prison. Conversely, the simplicity
of the Pagosa Springs closed-loop system has led to acceptance
4. The Aqua Farms project near Dos Palmos, California, is and pride on the part of the town’s operators.
rearing tilapia and catfish, and is expanding.
2.5.3 A Strong Promoter is Needed to Develm Each Proiect
2.3.4 Jndustrial
Most of the PON projects had one or more individuals
who were the chief cause of each project’s success. The
uniqueness of each project, and sometimes the tasks that
ect at the ORE-IDA food procesSing appeared to be insurmountable, required the guiding efforts of
facility in Ontario, Oregon, has a 10,054 ft deep well very dedicated project chamions. For example, the Pagosa
with a bottom hole temperature of 380°F. Inadequate Springs project, f a d with potential water rights battles, was
fluid flow halted the project, but accommodations were carried through to s u ~ f u operation
l due to the ongoing
provided for possible rework of the well at a later date. efforts patiently and continuously provided by the town’s
mayors and water system’s supehsor. Frequent visits with
2. Holly Sugar had a similar experiencein Brawley, Califor- the system’s customers, other well owners, and appropriate
nia, where a 10,OOOft deep well had inadequate flow. local and state officials contributed to the project’s success.
9
Table 2.2 PON Projects Resource Characteristics
’A‘?: I
- >
:’ ,-,
-’ “ ; t i ”
Well Depth Maximum Flaw Rate Temperature Peak Heat Loss Instal. cost
P&ect 0 (mm) a Flow Method (10Btulhr) (sooo)
Institutional Heating
Douglas High School 3,679 - - - 463
EI Centro NIA’ - - - -
Haakon School 4,266 300 153 8.4 1,211
Klamath County YMCA 1,400 - 147 7.0 285
N a v m College 2,664 315 125 NIA 1,070
St. Mary’s Hospital 2,176 385 108 5.5 738
THS Hospital 3,885 160 150 NIA 996
Utah State Prison 1s o 0 0 100 180 5.5 828
Wann Springs State 1,498 60 154 1.8 757
District Heating
Boise City 800 1,500 to 2,000 ea. 172 100.0 6,757
1.103 No test 155 - -
1,893 - -
2,010 - - -
Elk0 Heat Company 852 400 in 11.4 1,398
Klamath Falls 367 500 218 - 2,330
Madison County 3,932 - 72 - 889
MO8M 900 250 250 9-5 1,193
Monroe City, UT 1,500 600 164 - 1,135
Pagosa Springs, CO 300,275b 600 to 1,200 131,148 9.1 1,488
Susanville 930 600 175 12.3 1,670
Agribusiness
Aqua Farms 7ea. 1&800 2,500 79 to 107 Artesian 34.2 575
Diamond Ring Ranch 4,112 170 152 Artesian 3.3 403
Kelley Hot Springs spring La%e 194 Artesian I
- -
Utah Roses 4,944 180 123 pumped 2.9 856
Industrial
Holly Sugar 10,000 3 NIA - -
OREDDA Foods 10,054 - 380 - 2,530
a. Not available.
b. A third well drilled to 299 A was abandoned.
At the Utah State Prison, lack of sellinq maintenance accommodate a geothermal system. This situation emphasii
personnel on the project resulted in their rejection of the the need to totally sell potential users on a geothermal district
original system installed under the PON Program. heating system and to obtain written retrofit commitmentsvery
early in the project development period.
Strong technical expertise was not normally available in
the smaller communities where systems were developed; and Obligations of funds to perform retrofits could be
those skills had to be developed. incorprated into the basic package to help ensure having
customers. Numerous expressionS of interest were given
from potential users in Pagosa Springs, but the lack of final
2.5.4 Customers Are Needed for District Heating Systems resolution of the water rights issues delayed adding new
customers that would in turn improve the project’s revenue
Although this appears to be so obvious a need that it is stream. The Elk0 project initiated development work with
not worthy of mention, the opposite is true. Perhaps the most only three customers, on the basis that they could later expand
successful project from a technical and operational standpoint, the number of users. -However, without the federal funding
the Boise City system was faced with serious problems because provided through the PON program, the now successful
of lack of customers. A number of organizations and project would not have been feasible. The Haakon School,
individuals were committed to becoming customers, but many recognizing the potential to utilize the spent geothermal fluid
would not expend funds to change their systems to after it exited the community heating district, was unable to
10
add customers because of the legal arrangements they had greatly increased the understanding and functioning of the
entered into with the heating district. The near-term small legal and institutional needs, making the way easier and
customer base contributed to the decision to cancelstheMonroe smoother for later developers.
City project.
The Boise City project entailed establishing a completely
2.5.5 Fundine and Costing Methods Can Affect new utility for which few of the attendant circumstances were
JkveloDment clearly deiined or definable. This translated to a major
amount of work and cost. Project managers were also faced
The PON projects stressed the need to develop as many with having four governments involved: federal, state, city,
of the details as possible early in the project development and the Boise Warm Springs Water District, adding to their
stage. institutional problems.
Initial assumptions regarding unrealized resource capa- Established water rights proved to be a concern,
bilities, coupled with the detailed project cost estimate (almost particularly with Pagosa Springs. A conditional water right
doubling the preliminary cost estimate), resulted in discontinu- was not granted for this project until June 3, 1987. This has
ing the Monroe City, Utah,district heating project. Realistic resulted in a negative impact on obtaining new customers.
near-term system loading would not be sufficient to generate
enough revenue to cover system operating costs. The lack of Existing well owners can initiate actions that delay and
funding for retrofits contributed to the tenuous financial restrict growth. Klamath Falls well owners spearheaded the
p i t i o n of the Boise district heating system. The inability to passage of an ordinance favorable to existing owners that
obtain funds to replace the Warm Springs State Hospital sub- delayed the development of the project over 2 years.
mersible pump caused a proven system to become inoperative.
Even though the payback period for the pump is very short, State of Idaho bonding requirements gave no recognition
statefunding methodologiesand the legislature’s non-provision to the county’s special relationship with the state, causing
of funding halted the replacement. Funding limits precluded Madison County to seek bonding that was not available from
drilling a planned second well that may have been productive ordinary bonding conqdes. They resolved the situation by
for the ORE-IDA project. Without the tax benefits received placing funds in an escrow savings account.
during the first year of operation ctf the Utah Roses project at
a time of extremely high interest rates, it is likely that the first District heating systems have the potential to be regulated
year’s savings would not have been economically satisfactory. as a utility, depending on each state’s d e s .
1
2.5.6 b ea1 and Institutional Considerations Plav a Major 2.5.7 Oualified Personnel Are Needed -
-
Role
The development of the PON projects has generally
Environmental assessments prepared for the different resulted in a source of qualified designers, engineen,
PON projects generally indicated minimalimpact, and thiswas constructors, and developers. The varied expertise needed to
borne out during project performance. The Haakon School rmccessfully complete a geothermal project places great
project experienced additional expenditures of funds and responsibility on those initiating a project to seek out
required more time than originally planned. This was to add competent help. Remote, scattered geothermal sites generally
a treatment facility to remove sulfates containing radium-226 do not have local expertise, and until that is developed, help
found in the Madison aquifer geothermal fluids. Discharge of is needed from outside areas.
spent fluids into the Missouri River by St. Mary’s Hospital
and into the Boise River by the city of Boise created extensive Each project requires its gharnDion(s1to successfullr carry
permitting actions and special activities before authorization a project through to completion. Those PON projects that had
was granted by state and federal agencies. Similar approval dedicated persons were basically more mrccessful than those
actions were required for the Utah State Prison project. Utah that had lesser support, for whatever reason.
Roses spent considerable effort *to obtain their d a c e
discharge permit. The Warm Springs State Hospital, through If qualified local contractors are available in the prject
a comprehensive review of Montana’s statutes, found that area, they should be used because they have to with their
many shortcomings existed in the a m s of clear definition of work.
state agency jurisdiction
situation also applied, in 2,5.8 Direct Use Projects Can Be Economical
Projects utilizing geothermal fluids directly to provide

regulatory and other involved persons, was generally space conditioning, domestic hot water, heat for agriculture,
beneficial and necessary in working through the maze of processing, aquaculture and other uses can be built
approvals. The efforts spent by these pioneering projects have economically. The payback periods for the FQN project
, 11
would be considered too long by many; but, expertise The Elk0 wildcat well (where no advance knowledge of
developed through this effort is now available to help deveiop artesian pressure was known), produced 800 gpm artesian
projects with shorter payback periods. Each direct-useproject flow, but not without problems. A leak at a casing lap and
has to be evaluated to determine its competitive position with open hole bridging resulted in a well rework program that cost
the other energy sources that may (or may not) be available at more than the original well. Insufficient information for the
the specific project site. design of the well completion program is considered to be the
causative factor. Knowledgeable drilling personnel should be
2.5.9 Cascaded Uses Can Imrove Economics utilized, especially when drilling a wildcat well.
The Haakon School District receives an annual income The Utah Roses well site, situated among t h e d wells
from a small heathg district in Philip, South Dakota, which and springs, was selected because of convenience and because
utilizes the geothermal fluid after it leaves the school complex. no scientific casecould be established for a more geologically
However, restrictions in the agreement W e e nthe school and desirable drill site within two miles. The well is less
the district limit future expansion. The Diamond Ring Ranch productive than minimum expectations, but a Significant
first used their fluids for heating, then grain drying, watering portion of the heating needs are being met.
and irrigating. ORE-IDA would have cascaded their food
processing operation to provide space and water heating. The 3,942 ft deep Madison County well had outstanding
Other PON deveiopers indicated that cascaded uses, when permeability and productivity, but oniy 72°F k q e d w e 8
added, could materially improve project economics. were encountered. Casing would have been required to drill
deeper, perhaps 2,000 ft more, to achieve the
2.5.10 Well Sitine Affects Resource DeveloDment desired temperature of 120°F. The cost of casing could have
made the project uneconomical. Neither air driIling nor heavy
Adjustment of a well siting by any distance within several mud usage to control lost circulation was feasible for the
thousand feet did not appear to be a factor for those projects deeper drilling effect.
(Haakon School and St. Mary's Hospital) that selected the
Madison aquifer as their resource. However, this was not Because of economic considerations, the ORE-IDAwell
verified for the Douglas High School project because drilling was not drilled at the primary site. The location selected was
failed before the Madison aquifer was reached. because of its psition over a predicted fault. It is closer to
the plant, on company property, and would have saved piping
The Utah State Prison resource test program indicated the costs. It is believed that, had the primary site been drilled,
well production capacity would be stressed when both tlfe adequate flow could have been obtained. The 10,054 ft deep
prison's and the adjacent Utah Roses' wells were operated at well, with a bottom hole temperature of 380"F, was
higher use rates. This was later verified when the prison well pressurized at 140 lb/in2at the wellhead and 350 gpm of water
lost its artesian flow, which did not return until the reservoir was pumped into the well to produce a mini-hydrofac in the
was allowed some time to restore itself. The prison added a lower zones. However, the effort was unsuccessful.
production pump to their system to maintain flow, but limited
pumping of the reservoir was required. The Douglas School System drilling effort failed for a
number of reasons: unwillingness of the contractor to modify
St. Mary's Hospital well could have located anywhere the drilling methodologies because of the footage drilling
within the immediatevicinity of the existing travertine mound. contract payment, an improperly maintained mud program that
Since this was within 100 ft of the existing steam heating allowed casing on the walls, and possible drilling rig limit-
plant, the distribution costs were minimal. ations contributed toward not being able to drill past the 3,639
ft level into the Madison aquifer.
Acid treatment to improve well production had little
benefit for the Warm Springs Hospital, but the 70 to 90 gpm 2.5.11 S m t Geothermal Fluid Disposal Can Be A
flow achieved is adequate to meet the project's needs. Significant Consideration
The location of other geothermal wells in a given area is The Haakon School'project geothermal fluid contained
no guarantee of results. Four production wens for the Boise radium-226, necessitating the addition of a treatment plant
City district heating system were drilled, and even though using barium chloride as the treating agent. The treatment is
other wells existed in the area, one of the four drilled proved needed to permit ultimate discharge into a nearby river.
to be nonproductive. Pagosa Springs had three wells drilled Modification of the system was also required to prevent
in the vicinity of numerous existing wells, and one of these sulfates from precipitating in piping between the treatment
was unsuccessful. plant and a twocell settling pond.
12
Direct discharge of spent geothermal fluids into nearby 2.5.13 Direct-Use Proiects Can Operate Satisfactodv
rivers, such as at Boise, St. Mary’s Hospital, and the Utah
State Prison, necessitated considerable activity to obtain The W o n School, St. Mary’sHospital, Warm Springs
necessary permits and approvals. State Hospita€, Boise, Elko, Pagosa Springs, Klamath Falls,
Mom, and Susanvilleprojects have all operated through one
The Eko Heat Company had to repeat the entire water or more heating seasons in good to excellent fashion.
rights permitting process because the fluid would be surface operator acceptance was good for most projects, except that
discharged rather than the original plan to use an injection experienced at the Utah State prison project. Minor problems
well, which would have required injection pumping. This were observed with fitting leakage. Scaling probIems were
proved to be time CoLlSuming and costly. minimal; in fact, the geothermal fluid side of the Utah State
Prison project’s heat exchanger was much cleaner than the
Considerable delay OcCulTed for the Utah Roses project secondary side that served an existing system. The Warm
because of codision and delay in interfacing between state Springs State Hospital project operated very well until a pump
and federal agencies, primarily because it was a m. The failed, it has not been replaced because of state funding
pioneering efforts of the PON projects should result in less methodologies. System operation and capacities were
effort being expeaded by developers of later projects. generally as expected, but a limited customer base impacted
the Boise City project’s revenues.
2.5.12 PiDinp and Production Svstems Needs Are Uniaue to
Each Proiect
2.6 SIGNIFICANT FINDINGS AND
The Utah State Prison geothermal system remained clean, RECOMMENDATIONS FROM SPECIFIC PROJECTS
primarily by maintaining a carbon dioxide blanket in the surge
tank to prevent aeration of the fluid. However, considerable The previous section addressed general lessons learned.
o p e r a t i d problems were experienced because the existing This section covers specific project findings,
hot water heating system that was modified to accotiuuodate recommendations, and alternate considerations not addressed
geothermal heating had leakage from corroded pumps and previously.
fittings, deterioration, and an inoperable temperature control
system. 2.. 1 Institutional Heating Proiects
Pressure surges brought about in the Boise City district Institutional heating projects addressed in this section
heating multi-pump system caused significant problems that include the Haakon School, Philip, SD; St. Mary’s Hospital,
required system modification to permit gradual flow changes. Pierre, SD;Utah State Prison, Draper, UT,Warm Springs
State Hospital, Butte, MT; Douglas High School, Box Elder,
M a t e d versus uninsulated piping has to be determined SD;City of El Centro, CA; Klamath County YMCA, Klamath
for each application. Eko Heat Companyutilizedan insulated Falls, OR; N a v m College, Corsicanna, Tx, and THS
system, but subsequent evaluation indicated that uninsulated Hospital, Marlin, T.
piping could be used in many localities, depending on local
conditions. 2.. 1.1 Haakon School
Considerable evaluation work on long range performance The Haakon School project demonstrates the feasibility of
of heat exchangers for the Utah Roses project was performed. using moderate-temperature geothermal fluids from the
Finnedapper-tube heat exchangers were selected because of Madison aquifer to provide space and water heating for school
lower installed costs, even if they would have to be replaced and business buildings. Significantfindings are as follows (R.
in 5 years. J. Hengel, January 1977 to March 1986): .
The Diamond Ring Ranch project stressed the need to 1. A qualified and experienced water well engineer needs to
passively protect the geothermal system from freezing in cold, be retained to plan and monitor well drilling.
remote locations.
2. Restrictions in the agreement between the school and the
Project personnel also learned that isolation valving heating district limited future expansion.
should be installed extern1 to an installation to prevent
building interior flooding damage. 3. Radium-226 found in the Madison aquifer fluids caused
the expenditure of added funds for M unplanned
The use of corrosion coupon tests or monitoring samples treatment facility.
with newly available corrosion detection equipment can avoid
costly material failures and loss of reliability in the operational
system.
13
4. Injection of spent fluids was considered but ruled out 4. Discharge of the spent geothermal fluids into the
because of cost of drilling an injection well and Missouri River created extensive permitting activities.
unacxqtability of discharging untreated g e o t h e d
fluids containing radium-226 into the subsurface. Even 5. When g e o t h d fluid is discharged into a.nver, flow
though the fluids originatd below ground, regulations should not be intempted for a long enough perid to
canrestrict injection, requiring treatment beforeinjection. allow silt to !ill the discharge ports.
5. Any required water treatment system should be 2;6.1.3 Utah State Prison
thoroughly tested. Piping containing barium chloride
slurry to remove radium-226 from the discharged geo- The project demonstrated the feasibility of using a
thermal fluid caused extensive deposits that resulted in moderate-temperature (180°F)resource to provide space and
valves not operating. An external baffle-type mixer was domestic hot water heating for a minimum security facility.
installed between the treatment plant and the settling Significant findings are as follows (Case, Lowe and Hart,
ponds, solving the problem. Inc., March 1979 to January 1986):
6. An experimental ion exchange system was used to remove 1. The resource test program showed that the reservoir
sulfates without leaving deposits in the piping. It lost its would be stressed when both the prison and nearby Utah
effectiveness quickly and was rejected because of the Roses were operated at higher use rates. This was later
excessive quantity and cost of barium sulfate required. verified.
7. Contact areas of filament wound epoxy pipe should be 2. Considerable permitting activity was required in order to
dry before making joints to prevent leakage. discharge spent g e o t h e d fluid into the Jordan River.
8. Separate smaller heat exchangers were selected over one 3. The existing hot water heating system, because of leak-
large plate-type heat exchanger to avoid shutdown of the age, deterioration, and techaid problems, resulted in
entire system in the event of failure of the large single downtime not attributed to, but blamed on, the
heat exchanger. geothermal system. The geothermal system remained
clean through the use of a carbon dioxide blanket in the
9. Building owners should operate their systems at the same surge tank.
pressure found in the main distribution piping, or provide
a pressure reducing valve, if needed. This allows all 4. The demand for hot water is very high in this type of
users to operate at the most efficient pressure. prison facility and the contribution of g e o t h e d heat
could be increased through piping heat exchangers in
10. The school was unable to further utilize spent geother-mal series (to achieve a greater temperature drop of the
fluid because of the legal arrangements they had entered geothermal fluid), rather than in parallel.
into with the town heating district.
5. Maintaining a carbon dioxide blanket in the surge tank
2.6.1.2 St. M a d s Hospital prevented ’geothermal fluid aeration, thus preventing
corrosion.
The St. Mary’s Hospital demonstrates the feasibility of
using a low-temperature (108°F)resource to provide hot water 6. A backup geothermal fluid circula@g2pumpwas added
and space heating. Significant findings are.(St. Mary’s and a temperature sensor was relocated to provide better
Hospital, September 1984): flow control through the heat exchanger.
1. The well could been located anywhere within 100 Et of an -7. The lack of proper support from operating personnel led
existing travertine mound, and the selected location near to the abandonment of the geothermal system.
the project resulted in low piping-costs.
2.6.1.4 Warm Snrines State Hmital
2. Consideration should be given to using cooler temper-
ature. fluids at shallower depths with greater volumes The project demonstrated the feasibility of using a
(e.g., 500 gpm at 92°F)for heat pump applicati6ns rather moderate temperature (154°F)resoutce to provide space and
than drilling to greater depths for hotter fluids. hot water heating for the hospital. Significant findings are as
follows (MultiTech, Inc., January 31, 1979 - June 30, 1983):
3. Tapping natural gas zones could be accoIllplished by
sleeving the well to the proper depth.
14
1. Mud control was difficult because of delays in delivery, 13. Applicable code and other requirements should be
lack of mud-handling equipment, flow'of formation water determined as soon as possible to allow time to process
into the wellbore, and labor problems. Logging the permits and meet standards.
upper sections of the wellbore was unsuccessful due to
high mud gel strength and lack of hole stability. 14. State funding procedures resulted in the system not
becoming operative again after failure of the production
2. The duplex mud pumps used lacked sufficient pressure pump in March 1983, even though a very short payback
and capacity to allow the use of jet nodes to aid in hole period was possible.
cleaning.
2.6.1.5 Pouelas High School
3. Certain oil field chemicals are available to fix mobile
fines that could cause a deep zone of skin damage The project was halted due to uncertainties and the lack
observed through pump testing. Pilot tests can be run to of funding to complete the well to the desired depth.' (The
evaluate this possibility. well drilling funding was not part of the PON project.)
Significant findings are (Douglas School System District No.
4. Temperature and flow rate surveys can be run to 51-1, Match 30, 1979):
determine the source(s) of fluid production in order to
isolate zones of nonproduction. 1. The drilling failure resulted from the lack of a properly
maintainedmud program, and the inability to modify the
5. Some wells may not be good candidates for conventional drilling program because of the footage drilliig contract
fracture stimulation. payment method and the driller's unwilliugnkss to change
it. The drilling equipment may have reached its limits.
6. Acid treatment and reworking of the well improved the Sticking the drill stem twice in the wellbore also.
production capability but not to the extent anticipated. contributed to the failure.
However, the flow (70 to 90 gpm) was adequate.
2.6.1.6 El Centro
7. Restricting drilling times caused major drilling
inefficiencies. . This project to provide space conditioning and water
heating for the El Centro Community Center in California was
8. Drilling additional wells could be more economic81 than halted because of an inadequate resource. Significantfindings
rework and deeper drilling. are (Geothermal Direct Heat Applications Program Summary,
November 1980 and September 1981):
9. The use of corrosion coupon tests or monitoring samples
with proper corrosion detection equipment to determine 1. Equipment and materials may be difficult to obtain from
fluid characteristics can lead to proper equipment suppliers for small, one-time projects. This is
selection, in turn preventing costly replacements of particularly true when the items, such as well casing, are
components. in short supply. Regular long-term customem get
preferential treatment.
10. Failure of the lineshaft pumps (pump bowls and impellers
wearing out very quickly and elastomer spider failures) 2. Regulatory approvals took longer than estimated. A local
was a disappointment, but did provide an insight into government is often slowed by restraints associated with
pumping fluids laden with particulate matter and bidding and procurement.
identified the problems with that type of pump. The
remote well site location resulted in several delays, 2.6.1.7 Klamath Countv YMCA
altering plans frequently to accommodate lack of
equipment and services. 1. Use of an engineer experienced in geothermal design can
help eliminate some problems and effktively deal with
sh0 others as they arise. The engineer of this project had
definition of terms, regulatory requirements, and state previously designed 6 geothermal heating systems.
cy jurisdiction over geothermal development.
2. It was originally believed the production well would
tudy and development should be coordinated produce fluids at about 160 to 165°F. The well actually
with everyone concezned throughout the project life. produced 140°F water probably due in part, at least, to
-..
15
communication between the injection and production 2.6.2 District Heating Proiects
wells. By ’addingplates to the plate type heat exchanger
and adjusting flows, the engineer was able-to make the ’ This section addresses district heating projects, including
system meet the heat demands. Boise City, Boise, ID; Elk0 Heat Company, Elko, NV;City
of Pagosa Springs, Pagosa Springs, CO; Madison county,
3. After a period of operation, the injection wen casing Rexburg, ID; Monroe City, Monroe, trr, City of Klamath
expanded upward several inches requiring a flexible Falls, KIamath Falls,OR; Moana, Reno, NV, and the City of
connection between the piping and the casing. The Susanville, Susanville, CA.
casing continues to expand and contract depending on the
flow and temperature of injected fluid. 2.6.2.1 Boise Citv
4. Minor problems with air locks in the heat exchanger were The project demonstrates the feasibility of utilizing a
noted after periods of low flow. A back pressure valve moderate-temperature (170°F) resource to provide district
between the exchangers and injection well solved the heating in the city of Boise, Idaho. Significant findings are
problems. (Hanson, J.P., 1985):
2.6.1.8 Navarro CoIlege 1. Four production wells were drilled, and even though
other wells existed in the area, one well did not produce.
The Navarro College, Corsicanna, Texas, project
demonstratesthe feasibiIityof utilizing 125°F geothermal fluid 2. Disposal of spent geothermal fluid into the Boise River
for heating domestic water systems, forced air heating, and an involved more time, effort, and cost than was originally
aquaculturepond. Significantfindings are (Geothermal Direct planned. Permitting actions were also significant.
Heat Applications Program Summary, September 1981): (Current regulations may necessitate injection of the spent
fluids or other control measures.)
1. Injection at minimum energy consumption proved to be
more difficult than expected. It is recommended that an 3. Pressure surges in a multi-pump system can be signifi-
experienced industrial waste injection consultant be cant. It became necessary to modify the installed system
employed early in the project if injection disposal is to permit gradual flow rate changes during sequencing of
likely to be needed. pumps with different capacities.
2. There is no standard method of economic analysis. The 4. An in-line booster pump was added to the system to
assumptions USBd to arrive at any payback period or rate reduce the amount of fluid needed to maintain system
of return must be highly qualified to understand its pressure. Bypass restrictions were also added at the end
significance. of each service leg, greatly reducing the amount of fluid
discharge.
3. The amount of time and effort required to turn a final
design, which is complete in terms of an engineering 5. Numerous pipeline routes were umsided. The fmal
review, into an acceptable bid package was much greater selection was based on the technical ability of the
than expected. Overall, the time and effort required to building to be retrofitted, the cost, the size of the heat
get from completed design to negotiated construction load, and the owner’s willingness to connect to the
subcontract was greater than planned. Intermediate steps system.
were: generate bid package, reproduce and issue
package, advertise, answer questions, evaluate bid, 6. Various pipeline materials were umsidered. Asbestos
investigate contractor, and negotiate to get final signed cement pipe covered with polyurethane foam insulation
subcontract. was selected over other alternates. This aelection was
made to retain the heat energy content and not be
2.6.1.9 THS Homital susceptible to corrosion by surrounding soils. Pre-
insulated piping was found to be less expensive than other
The THS Hospital project demonstrates the feasibility of alternates.
utilizing 150°F geothermal fluid for space and hot water
heating. Significant findings are (Geothermal Direct Heat 7. The project is an excellent example of what can be
Applications Program Summary, November 1980 and achieved through proper technical direction and support.
September 1981): However, these successes were marred because of the
inability to expand the customer base enough to achieve
1. The number of permits required and the effort necessary a positive cash flow. The lack of funding for retrofits,
to obtain them were significantly underestimated in the the resistance to change, and the “why fix it if it isn‘t
inilial project planning. broken” attittide contributed to the inadequate customer
16
base. Concerns over the use of the geothermal reservoir, 5. Securing permits and approvals is a lengthy process.
state and local activities, and limited sales of service Water rights should be well understood and addressed
continue to impact the project. potential ixitomers have early ih the project. Disposal can be a most perplexing
not been prone to expend funds for retrofits, even though problem and should be attended to as s001las possible.
they can teceive geothermal fluid at 70% of natural gas
prices. 6. Changing from injection to surface disposal caused a
repeat of the entire water rights permitting process.
8. Boise City had to establish a new utility for which few of
the conditions were defined, resulting in major expenses 7. The initial customer base of three was not large enough
and added time. The involvement of four governments to warrant the investment, but recognizing the potential
added to the complexity. to expand, the Eko Heat Company was williug to
subsidize the system. This approach has paid off and the
9. Significant effort was directed toward the resolution of system is continuing to be significantly expanded.
legal and institutional activities, indicating their
importance in the development of a district heating 8. Every effort should be made to establish an adequate
system. customer base by responding to concerns over system
reliability and efficiency, meeting projected heat
2.6.2.2 Elk0 Heat Commnv. Elko. Nevada demands, and establishing energy costs savings.
This project demonstrates the feasibility of using a 9. The budget can change continually until the production
moderate-temperature reso- (177°F)to provide space and well is completed and the disposal method selected.
hot water heating for a small district heating system in Eko,
Nevada. Significant findings are (h4. W. Lattin, June 1983): 10. Geothermal fluid may be used directly for certain
applications. The Vogue Laundry uses the fluid directly,
1. The Eko wildcat well p r o d d 800 gpm, but with claiming better performance than with the original
problems. A leak at a casing lap and open hole brid-ging domestic hot water.
resulted in a well rework program that cost more than the
original well. Insufficient information was available for 2.6.2.3 Cihr of Paeosa Smings. Paeosa S~rines.Colorado
the design of the well completion program.
This project demonstrates the feasibility of utilizing a
2. A lineshaft turbine pump was selected over a submersi- mod&temperature (131 to 149°F) resource to provide
ble pump because of the shallow setting depth and district heating in the town of Pagosa Springs, Colorado.
reported problems with electric motors on submersibles. Significant findings are (Goering, S.W.,August 1984):
3. Flow testing revealed leakage in the wellbore. The 1. Drilling new wells was d+ermined to be more cost-
lessons learned from this are: (a) when formation effective than refurbishing existing wells.
stability is marginal, open hole methods of well comple-
tion should not be used, and (b) special.precautions 2. Three wells were drilled in the vicinity of numerous
should be taken in the design of wells that encounter producing wells, but one was unsuccessful.
artesian conditions. If the well casing joints are not
adequately sealed, the shut in pressure of the well can 3. Simplicity of design is important to trouble-free operation
force fluids out of the wellbore into the formation, and acceptance, especially in smaller communities. The
causing groundwater quality problems and possible city chose to use mostly manual controls, recognizing the
springs to occur. Repair work required to c o m t added cost of automation and the resistance of the local
artesian conditions was far in excess of what it would operators to accept a "complex" system.
have cost to properly case the well from the start.
4. Geothermal fluid can be used successfully to meet diverse
4. A major decision involved selecting insulated over non- customer needs in a harsh winter-mountain environment
M a t e d piping. kuse.insulated piping can cost up to where temperatures can drop to -40°F.
500 % more for the materials, nonindated piping may be
a viable option. A study of temperature losses in the 5. The need for strong supporters is proven at Pagosa
Eko system indicates that noninsulated piping could be Springs. Continuing concerns over water rights and
acceptable in many locations, depending on local system reliability are being effectively met through the
conditions, such as flow rate, moisture content of.$he continuing positive efforts of the involved city personnel.
soil, etc.
17
6. Keeping. the public, state and other agencies regularly 3. The near-term small customer base contributed to the
involved is of g k t value in obtaining well drilling and decision to halt the project. Actual costs that almost
other permitk. doubled the estimated cost were also a factor.
7. The use of local contractors is generally more desirable 2.6.2.6 City of Klamath Falls. Klamath Falls, Ore~on
than obtaining support outside &e community, assuming
the proper support is available near the project. The Klamath Falls, Oregon, project demonstrates the
feasibility of using a 210°F r e s o w to provide district heating
8. Water rights issues can have a significant project impact. to a large number of government buildings. The significant
The conditional rights decree was not obtained until June findings are (Geothermal Direct Heat Applications Program
1987, having a negative impact on potential customers. Summary, September 1981):
Prior to this, the city operated on a temporary permit.
1. In areas with a high number of existing users, afairly in-
2.6.2.4 Madison Countv. Rexbura. Idaho depth preconstruction survey of use and attitudes should
be completed.
This project was not developed because the geothermal
fluid temperature was only 72°F at 3,932 ! Iwell depth. 2. Existing users should be completely informed, if neces-
Significant findings are (Kuntz, J. F., August 1982): sary, by personally delivering letters on pump testing
results and on-going monitoring. Public hearings do not
1. During the open hole drilling, it was impossible to lift suffice in that turnout of existing users does not develop
the drilling cuttings because of the numerous permeable until they feel threatened. From the City of Klamath
strata. Falls experience, once the existing users feel threatened,
they cannot believe the data given to them by the
2. Significant flows of cooler tempera- water can enter Reservoir Engineer.
and flow down a wellbore below the bottom of the casing
and cool geothermal fluids. 3. Existing well owners can delay and restrict growth.
Owners spearheaded the passage of an ordinance favor-
3. The use of air drilling or heavy muds may not be able to them that in turn delayed the project for over two
practical to stop lost circulation. Heavy muds could Y.-
increase pressure, thus resulting in an increase of lost
circulation. Casing may be the only feasible means to 4. The joining systems in fiberglass piping can fail. Lock
permit deeper drilling. rings were attached with an epoxy adhesive that was im-
properly manufactured or applied. The adhesive failed,
4. The well, although not successful for geothermal use, is allowing axial movement, which resulted in leakage. A
a prolific producer of drinking water and can be used as lack of isolation valves necessitated draining the
such when the city’s need arises. fiberglass system each.time a leak occurred.
5. State bond requirements gave no special recognition to 2.6.2.7 Moana, .Reno, Nevada
the county’s special relationship with the state, causing
the county to seek bonding that was not available. This The Moana project in southwest Reno, Nevada, demon-
was resolved through the use of an escrow savings strates the feasibility of ushg a 250°F resource for district
8ccount. heating numerous homes. The significant ’findings are
(Geothermal Direct Heat Applications Program Summary,
2.6.2.5 Monroe. City, Monroe. Utah November 1980 and September 1981):
The production from the well (600 gpm, 164°F) did not 1. Public education is essential. A survey of 1,OOO long-
meet the needed capacity to provide space and hot water time residents of Reno, where geothermal energy has
hating for commercial, municipal, and domestic district been used over 50 years, showed 77% had little or no
heating applications. Significant findings are (Blair, C. K., knowledge of geothermal energy.
December 1982):
2. Heat sales agreements can be difficult to develop. A
1. Detailed project feasibility analyses should be completed loag-term agreement that meets the needs of both the user
befote developing field production facilities. . - and the developer is critical. It is economically important
to have agreements to supply base load heat to a group of
2. The lack of a centrally locatdcustomer load produces users rather than have to meet the peak load of one user
prohibitive system capital costs. The user load should be for a very short period of time, under utilizing the
obtained during the early part of the project life. systems’s productive capacity.
18
3. Having the customer use the existing heating system is 3. Automatic valve equipment on the wellhead that protects
beneficial. It relieves concern over the possibility of the the distribution line from waterhammer and excessive
geothermal reservoir being used up, and allows peak pressure drop during pump startup may be overdesiped.
loads to be met with the fossil fuel backup system. A single, fast-acting, automatic reset valve may provide
I , I
the needed protection.
4. A district heating system could be regula& as a utility.
The utility issue depends upon the rulings of each state. 4. The use of off-the-shelf fi~edapper-tube heat exchang-
This should be determined early in the life of a project. ers may be more economical if they do not become c o r n
ded for a reasonable period, say five years. Instalkg an
2.6.2.8 Citv of Susanville. Susanville. California F- and P-type heat exchanger would probably require
more fluid flow at these low temperatures. The use of
The Susanville, California, project demonstrates the fancoil-type heat exchangers would require less fluid
feasibility of utilizing a 175°F resource for space and domestic flow.
hot water heating in public buildings. The significant findings
are (Geothermal Direct Heat Applications Program Summary, 5. Surface discharge into the Jordan River was a major
November 1980 and September 1981): issue, causing considerable delay.
1. Greater education is needed to separate high-temperature 6. Because of its extremely competitive nature, greenhouse
well drilling problems from problems encountered in low- operation must in itself be sutxessM. A good geother-
temperature operations. mal system only adds to the competitive edge; it does not
necessarily create it.
2. The use of a construction management team is bene-
ficial, allowing field decisions to be made more quickly. 7. Considerable delay occurred because of delays and con-
fusion between state and federal agencies because the
3. Extensive detail in specification packages minimizes project was a first.
misunderstandings.
8. Without the tax benefits received during the first oper-
4. Excellent initial resourceevaluation enhances engineering ating year, and at a time of very high interest rates, the
and project prbgress. first year’s savings would not be satisfactory.
2.6.3 Agribusiness 2.6.3.2 Diamond Ring Ranch. Haakon Countv. South

-
Dakota
Agribusiness projects discussed in this section include
Utah Roses, Sandy UT, Diamond Ring Ranch, Haakon This project demonstrated the feasibility of using an
County, SD;Aquafarms International, Inc., Dos Palmos, CA, existing moderate-temperature (152°F) resoutce for multiple,
and Kelly Hot Springs Agricultural Center, Kelly Hot Springs, d e d uses as heating structures, grain drying, stoctc
CA. watering, and irrigation. Significant findings are (Howard, S.
M., September 1983):
2.6.3.1 Utah Roses, Sandy. Utah
1. Geothermal fluid with an inflow of 170 gpm at 153°F can
. The project demonstrates the feasibility of using a be transported 4,000 ft in buried 6-in. rminsulated PVC
moderate-temperature (123°F) resource to supply heating for piping and be effectively used in plate-type heat
an existing 7-acre greenhouse facility. Significant findings are exchangers.
(Energy Services, Inc., October 1982):
2. Geothermal heating in cold, remote locations should be
1. The well site, situated among thermal wells and springs, protected from freezing. Antifreeze used in closed-loop
was selected for convenience, and no scientific evidence systemsexperienced leakage, halting the operation of the
could be established to locate a more desirable site. system because replacement costs were prohibitive.
2. The geothermal fluid flow was less than expected, but 3. Shut-off valves should be provided for each structure to
measures such as reducing control and operating costs, Jlow &icing and prevent interior flooding.
d changing to fanail type heat exchangers enabled the
ratm to double the facility size. 4. Filter s c m should be added for positive displacement
flow meters.
.
19
5. Air vents are needed at high points of gravity flow 2. The current economic climatewm jeopardize the final
transmission lines. financing of the project. The cdncept was started in
1977, contracted in September 1979, and Phase I studies
6. Lack of highly trained personnel and limited supplies completed in August 1980. investment climate
stressed the need for simple systems. changed considerably during this period.
2,6.3.3 Aauafarms International, Inc.. Dos Palmos, 3. The project was in collsort with the trends in medium and
Califonzia large size swine raising practices in the United States.
However, being located in the west, a medium-sized
The Aquafarms International, Inc., project located in the facility with the necessary flexibility in purchasing of
Dos Palmos area, Coachella Valley, California, demonstrates feed constituents and marketing of live hogs was to be the
the feasibility of utilizing 79 to 92°F fluids from three wells best approach.
to grow prawns on a year-round basis. The significant
findings are (Geothermal Direct Heat Applications Program 4. The project was an economic development effort. The
Summary, September 1981): geothermal energy utilization was a strong plus but was
the easiest part of the problem.
1. Drilling and completing relatively shallow artesian
geothermal wells can be a problem for local water well 2.6.4 Industrial
drillers. They had to be educated on conductor case use.
Industrial projects discussed below include ORE-IDA
2. Projects located some distance from an agricultural or Foods, Ontario, OR, and Holly Sugar, Brawley, CA.
industrial center should plan to obtain and include
qualified construction and maintenance personnel in the 2.6.4.1 ORE-IDA Foods
project area.
This project planned to use geothermal energy for potato
3. Heat transfer losses in large surf- area ponds can be processing, and space and domestic hot water heating at the
high and difficult to control. This can be alleviated by ORE-IDA Ontario, Oregon, plant. Flow from the 10,000 Et
keeping the pond surface area to a minimum. deep well was inadequate and the project was halted after
provisions were made for possible reworking of the well.
4. High initial percolation in new ponds can be alleviated Significant findings are (Austin, J. C., May 1982):
through fertilization to help acceleratedalgae produc-tion,
which in turn helps seal off the bottom of ponds. 1. It is believed that, had the primary well site been drilled,
adequate flow could have been obtained. Economic
5. The permitting and approval process for an aquaculture factors (proximity to the plant) caused the well to be
project can be extensive and time consuming. drilled at a secondary location that had adequate
temperature (380°F) but basically no flow. Funding limits
construction requires extensive planning and the precluded drilling a second well.
consideration of many factors such as species needs, land
contour, wind, water availability, temperatures, 2. Attempts to improve flow met with little success. The
equipment availability, soil type and permeability, well was pressured to 1,400 psi at the wellhead and 350
;ragricultural history, flooding possibility, and future gpm were pumped into the well to produce a minihydro-
plans. fracture in the zones below 7,000 ft. However, fluids
were lost near the 6,000 ft level. The use of frac balls to
2.6.3.4 Kellv Hot Springs, Aericultural Center. Kellv Hot seal the leakage did not work.
SDrings. California
3. Mud damage to the wellbore was suspected, but the
-
The Kelly Hot Springs geothermal project would have significant expenditure for chemical treating or hydraulic
demonstrated the feasibility of utilizing a new we11 near an fracturing was not considered justified.
existing'194"F hot spring to raise hogs. The project was
abandoned, and later greenhousing and fish farming occurred 2.6.4.2 Hollv Sugar. Brawlev. California
at the site. The significant findings are (Geothermal Direct
Heat Applications Program Summary, November 1980): The Holly Sugar project would have utilized geot6ermal
energy for direct processing at a sugar beet processing plaht in
1. Whenever there is a possibility of historical significance
related to the project site, such as a hot spring or other
-
Brawley, California. The well was drilled to 10,000 ft, but
inadequate flow occurred. The significant findings of this
surficial evidence of a geothermal resource,an archeo- project are not available, except that the project experienced
logical field survey should be planned as a first activity.
20
supply shortages, especially in casing that was often poor Energy Sewbes, Inc., Final Report, "Floral Greenhouse
quality and in accelerating costs (Geothermal Dirqt Heat Geothermal Heating Demonstration", Report No.
Applications Program Summary, November 1980). DOEIET127056, October 1982.
Goering, S. W.,et al., Couryand Associates, Inc., 'Direct

2.7 CREDITS Utilization of Geothermal Energy for Pagosa Springs,
-
Colorado, Final Report June 1979 June 1984", Report
Information for this chapter was primarily obtained from No. DOEET-27030-7, CooperativeAgreement No. DE-
. the various interim and final reports that were prepared by the FC07-78ET27030, August 1984.
. principal investigator for each PON project, and subsequently

rmmmatized in the overall PON projects final report (Lunis, Hanson, P. J., Boise Geothermal, "BoiseGeothermalDistrict
1986). Additional information for the individual PON project -
Heating System Final Report March 1979 September
final reports are listed in the references. The contributions of 1985", Report No. DOEETL27053-6, Cooperative
each report author are gratefully acknowledged, and Agreement No. DE-FC07-79ET27053, October 1985.
appreciation is extended to each one for 'providing the
information that made the PON projects summary final report Hengel, R. J., Hengel Associates, "Direct Utilization of
and this chapter possible. G e o t h d Energy for Haakon School District, South
-
Dakota", Final Report January 1977 March 1985,
Report No. DOE/ET/27080, CooperativeAgreement No.
REFERENCES DE-FCO7-78ET 27080.
These references are available from the National , Howard, Dr. S. M., "Direct Utilization of G e o t h d Energy
Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of. in Western South Dakota Agribusiness, Final Report",
Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161. Report No. DOE/ET/27158-7, Cooperative Agreement
No. DE-FC07-78ET27158, September 1983.
Austin, J. C., CH2M Hill, Inc., "Direct Utilization of
Geothermal Energy R e s o w in Food Processing", Final Kunze, J. F., and J. K. Marlors, Energy Services, Iac.,
-
Report May 17, 1978 May 31, 1982, Report No. "Industrial Food ProcesSiag and Space Heating with
-
DOEEW28424 6, Cooperative Agreement No. DE- Geothermal Heat"; Final Report, February 16, 1979 -
AC07-78ET28424 May 1982. August 31,1982, RepoGNo. DOE-ET-27028-5, Contract
NO. DE-FC07-79ET27028, August 1982.
Blair, C. K., and L. B. Owen, Editors, Terra Tek, Inc.,
"Direct Utilization of Geothermal Resources at Monroe, Lattin,M. W., and R.D.Hoppe, Chilton Engineering,
-
Utah", Final Report, July 14, 1978 July 31, 1981, Chartered, "Direct Use of Geothermal Energy; Eko,
Report No. DOEIET127054-6, Cooperative Agreement Nevada District Heating Final Report March 1979 -June
. No. DE-FC07-ET 17054, December 1982. . 1983", Report No. DOEIET127033-6, Cooperative
Agreement No. DE-Am-79ET27033, June 1983.
Broughton, R., et al., Aquafanus Inkmational, Inc., "Direct
Use of Low Temperature Geothermal Water by Lunis, B. C., EG&G Idaho,Inc., "Geothermal Direct Use
Aquafarms Internatid, Inc., for Freshwater Program opportunity Notice Projects Lessons Learned",
Aquaculture (Prawns and Associated Species)", Report -
Final Report NO. DOE/ID-10147, 1978 1986.
NO.DOEIET127047-2 @E85005099), April 1984.
MultiTech, Inc., "Direct Utilization of Geothermal Resources
Case, b w e , and Hart, Inc., "GeotheimalHeating Retrofit at of Warm Springs State Hospital, Warm Springs,
the Utah State Prison Minimum Security Facility", Final Montana", Final Report for the period January 31,1979 -
-
Report, March 1979 January 1986, Report NO. June 30, 1983, Report No. DEETL27055-10,
DOEiETL27027-10, Cooperative Agreement No. DE- Cooperative Agreement No. FC07-79ET27055, June
FC07-79ET27027. . 1983.
Douglas School System District No. 51-1, "Geothermal St. Mary's Hospital, "Geothermal Heating Project at St.
Heating of Douglas High School Cooperative Mary's Hospital, Pierre, South Dakota", Final Report,
Demonstration Project", Final Report for project, Report No. DOE/ET/28441-7, Cooperative Agreement
terminated January 26, 1979, Report No. DOEET/ . No. DE-FC07-79ET28441, September 1984.
01727-1, CooperativeAgreement No. ET-78-FM-1727,
March30, 1979. _.
21
Smith, K.,Navarro College, "Direct Utilizationof Geothermal
Heat in Cascade Application to Aquaculture and
GreenhouseSystemsat Navarro College" Final Report for
the Period March 1, 1979 - September 30, '1984,
DOEIET/27508-1, September 1984.
U.S. Department of Energy, Division of Geothermaland

Hydropower Technologies, "Geothermal Direct Heat
Applications Program Summary", Semi-Annual Review
Meeting, November 1980.
U.S. Department of Energy, Division of Geothermal and

Hydropower Technologies, "Geothermal Direct Heat
Applications Program Summary", Semi-Annual Review
Meeting, September 1981.
22
CHAPTER,3
NATURE OF’ GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES
By Phillip Michael Wright
University of Utah Research Institute
Salt Lake City, UT 84108
and
Gene Culver
Geo-Heat Center
3.1 INTRODUCTION geologic processes. Earth energy is thermal energy at the

normal temperatureof the shallow ground, without anonoalous
Geothermal energy is a domestic resourcethat contributes enhancxinent due to geologic processes. It is energy that is
to our energy security and decreases our trade deficit by found everywhere across the United States and the world and
displacing imported fuels. It is an environmentally advan- can be used with geothermal heat pumps to heat and cool
tageous energy source that produces far less air pollution than homes and buildings, supply domestic hot water and provide
fossil-fuel sowces. Geothermal energy contributes both on the industrial heat needs. Hot dry rock energy occufs at depths of
energy supply side, with electrical power generation and 5 to 10 miles (8 to 16 km) beneath the rmrface everywhere,
directhat applications, and on the energy demand side, with and it also occurs in areas of thermal enhancement due to
savings in electricity and natural gas through use of geologic processes.
geothermal heat pumps in buildings and industry.
Naturally Occurzing hot water and steam form the
Geothermal energy is the heat of the earth. Since the hydrothemat energy resource. Hydrothermal development is
depths of the earth are very hot, heat flows outward toward economic today at a few high-grade sites. A relatively small
the surface, and the temperature of the earth increases with industry generates electrical power and supplies heat for direct
depth. The several thermal regimes in the earth give rise to uses from hydrothermal resources. Many more hydrothermal
a classification of geothermal resource types, illustrated in resources could be us& if better technology were available and
Figure 3.1. if their development were actively promoted by the Federal
and state governments. Geopressured, hot, dry rock and
magma energy all require further R&D to enable them to be
economically developed.
3.1.1 Current Contribution of Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is here today-it is not merely a hope

for the future. lke production of g e o t a l energy in the
US. currently radix third in renewable energy sources,
following hydroelectric power and biomass energy. As a
result of geothermal production today, consumption of
exhaustible fossil fuels is offset along with the release of the
greenhouse and acid-rain gases that are caused by fossil-fuel
use. Geothermal energy use in the United States is equivalent
tostheburning of about 60 million barrels (bbl) of petroleum
each year, while worldwide geothermal energy use is
equivalent to the burning of about 150 million barrels of oil
per year. The U.S. Strategic Petroleum Reserve contains
about 600 million barrels of oil, an amount that could be
replaced every four years with the savings from worldwide
geothermal use.
23
There is a very large geothermal resource base in.the installed capacity in excess of 2,100 thermal megawatts
U.S., much of'which can not yet be eumomically developed. (Mwt), including geothermal heat pumps (Liemu, et al.,
In fact, the resource base for the renewable/sustainable 1988;Lund, et al., 1990).
energies-geothermal, solar, biomass, hydropower and wind-
is much lurger than the total resource base in coal, oil, gas, Geothermal energy is found in many places on the earth
and uranium (nuclear power). in addition to the U.S., and its utilization is growing rapidly
worldwide. Approximately5,700 megawatts of electricity are
3.1.1.1 Geothermal Heat Increases our Enerev Sumlies currently being generattd in some W countriesfiom geother-
mal energy (Huttrer, 1990), and there are 11,300 thermal
At our current stage of technobgy and with current megawatts of installed capacity worldwide for direct-heat
energy costs, eumomic developmentof geothermalenergy can applications at inlet temperaturesabove95°F (35°C)(Freestop,
be accomplished in some areas where the heat is concentrated 1990). If we include the use of geothermal water at lower
by geologid processes. Geothermal water exists at many temperatures and geothermal heat pumps operating at normal
subsurface locations in the U.S. in the form of hydrothermal groundwater temperature, the energy production throughout
systems. These hydrothed systems can be tapped by the world from geothermal resources is very much greater, but
existing well-drilling and energyconversion technology to unquantified at this time.
generate electricity or to produce hot water for direct use. For
generation of electricity, hot water is brought to the d a c e Systems for use of hydrothermal energy have proven to
through production wells and is flashed to steam in p i a l be extremely reliable and flexible. During 1987, hydro-
vessels by release of pressure. The steam is separated from thermal electric power plants were on h e an average of 97 %
the water and fed to a turbine engine, which turns a generator. of the time, whereas nuclear plants averaged only 65 % and
Spent geothermal water is injected back into cooler parts of coal plants only 75 96 on-line time. Geothermal power plants
the reservoir to obviate environmental problems and to help and direct-use systems are modular, and can be installed in
maintain reservoir pressure (Figure 3.2). Some high- increments as they are needed. Both baseline and peaking
teqkrature (+450 "F, +WOOc) remurces yield steam from power can be generated. construction time can be as little as
the reservoir rather than water, and this steam is fed straight 6 months for power plants in the range 0.5 to 10 MWe and as
to the turbines. If the reservoir is to be used for direct-heat little as 2 years for clusters of plants totalling 250 MWe or
application, the geothermal fluid is usualfy fed to a heat more. Some direct-use sytems can be installed in as little as
exchanger before being reinjected into the earth. Hot water a few days.
from the output side of the heat exchanger is then used for
home heating, greenhouse heating, vegetable drying and a 3.1.1.2 Geothermal Enerm Decreases our Enerm Demand
wide variety of other uses.
No active technology for home heating and air condition-
ing is more efficient than the geothermal heat pump (GHP).
Because electricity is used only to transfer heat, not to produce
it, the GHP will deliver 3 to 4 times more energy than it
consumes. The U.S. lags behind other countries in taking
advantage of heat-pump technology. Sweden has deferred
construction of two nucIear power plants by using GHPs to
reduce electrical power needs. Canadian growth in GHPs
since 1986 has exceeded 50 5% per year. Nevertheless, more
than 100,CKu) ekctrically powered geothennal heat pumps
have been installed in homes and buildings in the U.S. (mid-
' 'Hot UpwdingWater 1990 figure). Additional installations are being actively
promoted by investoravned utilities and rural electrical
Hot Rock cooperatives as a means of promoting energy efficiency and
Heat Source better managing &man& GHPs can cut 1 to 5 kilowatts
(KWe) of peak generating capacity requirement per residential
Figure 3.2 Geothermal resources. installation. There are an estimated 25 million homes in the
U.S. that have central air conditioning without access to
~ t u gas d (Bose, 1990). Replacement of these units alone
The U.S. g & e d industry currently has an installed with GHPs over the next several decades is not uareasonable.
capacity of 2,800 megawatts of elem*calpower (MWe) from The savings wouki be 24,000 W48,000 MWe in peak summer
hydrothermal resources (Huttrer, 1990), while direct demand and 48,000 to %,O00 MWe in peak winter demand.
applications of hydrothermal energy in the U.S.have a total This. estimate illustrates what could be done in only one
24
sector-homes in the U.S. with electrical central air consider some subsurface geologic models for geothermal
conditioning. It does not include new home construction or systemsand will discuss their chemistry. The chapter will end
electrical energy used in heating and cooling buildings of the with an overview of the occurrence of geothermal resources in
industrial or public sectors. the United States.
3.1.2 potential Contribution of Geothermal Enerav A glassary of earth-science terms for this chapter and the
next is provided at the end of Chapter 4. The Appendir to
Reserves of hydrothermal energy in the U.S. are difficult this chapter is a list of the various state agencies, universities
to quantify. However, the United States Geological Survey and other groups that can provide the developer with
has estimated that geothermal energy from identified high- information on geothermal resources.
temperature U.S. hydrothermal systems could supply 23,000
megawatts of electrical energy for 30 years (Muffler, 1979).
h addition, they believe that about 5 times this amount may 3.2 THERMAL REGIME OF THE EARTH
be available from undiscovered hydrothermal tesources in the
U.S. Geothermal energy is the earth's internal heat. Many
1arge-sc.de geological processes are powered by the redistri-
Low- to moderatetemperature geothermal resources, bution of internal heat as it flows from inner, hotter regions
suitable for direct-heat application, are widely distributed to outer, cooler regions. Although the variations with depth
throughout the western and mid-western United States (Reed, in the earth of density, pressure and seismic velocity are well
1983). Discrete hydroth- ~e~oufce exist
s throughout the known, the temperaturedistribution is uncertain. It is certain
western third of the CoUIlfry in s u b d a c e reservoirs of a few that temperature within the earth increases with increasing
acres to a few square miles in extent, while in the northern depth (Figure 3.3), at least for the first few tens of kilometers,
Great Plains, major stratabound geothermal aquifers may and a steadily increasing t e q & t u r e to the earth's center is
extend in a COIlfinuous manner for thousands of square miles hypothesized. Very highly viscous or partially molten rock at
(Gosnold, 1990). It is estimated that more than 7,800 MWt temperatures between 1,200 and 2,200 "F (650 and 1,200 "C)
could be installed in district heating systems in the U.S. using is postulated to exist everywhere beneath the earth'ssurface at
presently identified resources, and that the ultimate potential depths of 50 to 60 mi (80 to 100 km),and the temperature at
is much larger. the earth's center, nearly 4,000 mi (6,400 km) deep, is
estimated to be 7,200 O F (4,000 "c) or higher.
It is difficult to estimate the ultimate potential-
contributionof geothermal energy to mankind's needs for four
200 400 600 800 1000°C
reasons:
1. Future energy costs are uncertain, and many lower-grade
geothermal resources would become economic at higher
energy prices;
C
2. Only preliminary estimates of the worldwide resource
base have been made;
3. TechoIogy is not yet available for ecmodc use of

some hydrothermal resources and for use of hot dry Heat Flow Area
rock, magma or geopressured resources, whose potential
contributions are large; and, 600 1200 1800 O F
4. No reliable figures exist for the potential Contribution of Figure 3.3 Temperature versus depth in the czust of the earth.
geothermal heat pumps to saving of electricity and
M Wgas throughout the U.S. or the world.
Because the earth is hot inside, heat flows steadily
3.1.3 Obiective and Orpanization of Chauter outward and is permanently lost fiom the surface by radiation
into space. The mean value of surface heat flow is 0.082
The objective of this chapter is to present background wattslm2, commonly stated in milliwatts/mz as 82 mW/m2.
information on the natwe and accurrence of geothermal Becausethesurhceareaoftheearthis5.1x 10"mz, therate
resources to facilitate an understanding of the other chapters of heat loss is about 42 million megawatts (Williamsand Von
in this book. We will first Consider the t h e d regime of the Henen, 1974). White 11965) estimated the total thermal
earth and present a discussion of plate tectonics as the primary energy above surface temperature to a depth of 10 km (6.2
geologic process that generates heat sources. We will then mi), the limit of the deepest exploration drilling, at
25
1.3 x lOn I, equivalent to burning 2.3 x 10" barreis of oil. tial amount of heat had-been released, and the earth was
Since global ekergy consumption, including all types of significantlyhotter than it is today.
energy, is equivalent to the use of about 100 million barrels
of oil per day (US. Department of Energy, 1987, p. la), the At the present time, an estimated 45% b 8 5 % of the
thermal energy in rock to a depth of 10 km would supply all heat escaping from the earth is believed to be .due to radio-
of mankind's energy needs for 2.3 x lo9 days, or 6.million active decay of long-lived isotopes, which are c4mcentrated in
years. Of ,course,we do not have the means to use all of the .
the crust (Bott, 1982) The remainder is due to slow cooling
thermal energy in the upper 10 km of the crust, but the of the earth, with heat being brought up from the core by
example helps to indicate the vastness of the geothermal convection in the viscous mantle, as discussed in the next
resource. section.
The outward heat flux from the earth's interior is about A schematiccross Section of the earth is shown in Figure
5,OOO times smaller than the radiation we receive from the sun 3.4. A solid layer, the lithosphere, extends from the surface
(much of which is reflected or reradiated back into space). to .a depth of about 100 km (62 mi). The lithosphere is
Thus, the earth's d a c e temperature is controlled by the composed of an uppermost layer called the crust and of the
amount of heat we receive and retain from the sun and not by uppermost regions of the manfk, the unit that lies below the
internal heat (Bott, 1982). crust. The lithosphere is solid rock, but the mantle material
below the lithosphere behaves as a very viscous liquid due to
Threk sources of the earth's internal heat are most its high temperature and pressure, flowing very slowly under
important among several contributors: sustained stress. The crust and mantle areZcomped of
minerals whose chief building block is silica (SiOa, with
1. Heat released from decay of naturalIy radioactive higher concentrations of silica in the continental crust than in
elements throughout the earth's 4.7 billion-year history; the oceanic crust or in the mantle. The outer core is believed
to be composed of a liquid iron-nickelcopper mixture while
2. Heat of impact and compression released during the the inner core is a solid mixture of these metals. In the
original formation of the eiirth by accretion of in-falling sections that follow, we shall refer to the above divisions of
meteorim, and, the earth's interior.
3. Heat released from the sinking of abundant, heavy metals

(iron, nickel, copper) as they descended to form the LITHOSPHEIE
earth's core during an early episode when the earth

melted from the first two mechanisms.
12,756hm.
Radioactive elements have been decaying in the earth 7,92611.
I
since its formation. Some short-lived specieshave completely
decayed by now, but they contributed to heating during the
first several hundred million years after the earth was formed.
Other radioactive elements have longer half-lives, and are still
decaying today, generating heat in the process of decay. The
most important of .&ese long-lived species in terms of heat
production today are isotopes of uranium, thorium and
potassium. Figure 3.4 Interior of the earth.
The earth is believed to have formed by accretion of

material orbiting the proto-sun. The material was accelerated 3.3 GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES
toward the earth's surface by gravitational attraction. Upon *
impact, heat was released. Also, as the earth grew, the deeper The genesis of geothermaliesourceslies in the geological '
material was progressively heated by compression as material transport of anomalous amounts of heat near enough to the
continued to be added to the surface. These mechanisms,mu-. surface for access. Thus, the distribution of geothermal aceas '
pled with heat from radioactive decay of short-lived species, is not random but is governed by geological processes of
eventually resulted in the melting of a substantial portion of global, regional and local scale. This fact is important in
the material of the earth. Upon melting, the heavier compon- exploration for geothermal resources.
ents sank toward the center to form the core. The sinking
material gave up its gravitationalpotential energy in the form Geothermal reswrcescommonly have three components:
of heat due to friction with the Ipaterial it was sinking
through. At the conclusion of core formation, a very substan- 1. An anomalous Concentrationof heat, i.e. a heat source;
26
2. Fluid to transport the heat from the rock to the surface; the most part in theoceanbasins. Due to this mechanism, the
and, earth’s lithosphere is broken into about 12 large, rigid plates.
The spreading, or divergent, plate boundmies are typically
3. Permeability in the rock sufficient to form a plumbing zones thousandsof miles long and severalhundred miles wide.
system through which the water can circulate. They are characterized by major rifts or faults parallel to their
’ > long dimension-,and coincide with the world’s mid-oceanic
In this section, we will consider each of these elements mountain system. Crustal plates on each si& of the central
in turn in order to help form an understanding of the ~ t u r of
e rift zone separate at a rate of a few centimeters per year, and
geothemal resources. molten mantle material rises in the crack, where it solidifies
to form new oceanic crust. The upwelling mo1te-n rock brings
3.3.1 Heat Sources large quantities of heat to shallow depths along the axis of the
mid-ocean ridges and forms geothermal tesources in some
In geothermal areas, bigher rock and groundwater areas.
temperahuts are found at shallower depths than is normal.
This condition usually &ts from one or more of the
foliowing mechanisms:
oeaank volcano oceanic
1. Intrusion of molten rock ( m a p ) from great depth to

high levels in the earth’s crust, bringing up great
quantities of heac
2. High surface heat flow, perhaps due to thin crust, with

an attendant high temperature gradient with depth
(Figure 3.3);
hot rirlng mantla malarial
3. Ascent of groundwater that has circulated to depths of 1

to 3 mi (1.6 to 5 km) and has been heated in the normal
or enhanced gmthermal gradient; # Figure 3.5 Schematic illustration of plate tectonic processes.
4. Thermal blanketing or insulation ofdeeper rocks by thick

formations of such rocks as shale whose thermal conduc- Since new crust is being created at spreading centers
tivity is low; or while the circumference of the earth remains constant, crust
must be consumed somewhere. As the laterally moving
5. Anomalous heating of shallow rock by decay of radio- oceanic platesdpressagainst neighboring plates, some of which
active elements, perhaps augmented by thermal contain the imbedded continental land masses, the oceanic
blanketing. plates are thrust beneath the continental plates. These zones
of under-thrusting, where crust is consumed, are called
Most high-temperature geothemal resources, usually subduction zona or Benioff zones or convergent phte
used for elect&d power geneition, appear to be caused by boundaria. They are marked by the world’s deep ocean
the first mechauism, while many isolated low- and moderab trenches, formed as the sea floor is draggd down by the
temperature resourcesappear to result from the second, third subducted oceanic plate.
and fourth mechanisms, sometimes working together. The
fifth mechanism is suspected to occur on the Atlantic coastal The subducted plate descends into the mantle and is
plain of the U.S. and perhaps elsewhere, but resources heated by the Surrounaingwarmer material and by fiction due
resulting from this mechanism have not been produced. to its movement through the mantle. At the descending plate’s
upper boundary, which is rich in acean water from the layer
3.3.1.1 Plate Tectonics of oceanic sediments carried down, temperatures become high
enough to cause partial melting. Since molten or partially
One geological process that generates shallow magmatic molten rock bodies (magmas) are lighter than solid rock, the
crustal heat sources in several different ways is known as plate magmas ascend buoyantly through the crust (Figures 3.5 and
tectonics (Figure 3.5). Outward heat flux from the deep 3.6), carrying their heat to within 1 to 10 mi (1.6 to 16 km)
interior is hypothesized to form convection cells in the mantle of the surface. Volcanos result if part of the molten material
in which hotter matenal, being less viscous and more buoyant escapes to the surface, but the majority of the magma usually
than surrounding material, slowly rises, spreads out under the cools and consolidatesunderground.. Since the subductedplate
solid lithosphere, cools and descends again. The lithosphere descendsat an angle of about 45 degrees, crustalintrusion and
cracks above areas of upwelling and is split apart along linear volcanos occur on the landward side of oceanic trenches 30 to
or arcuate structures called spreading centers,which occur for 150 mi (50 to 250 km) inland (Figure 3.5). The volcanos of
27
the Cascade Range of California, Oregon and Washington,for now exposed at the surface by erosion, that have resulted from
example, overly the subducting Juan de Fuca plate and pwe large magma bodies cooling slowly at depth. Volcanic and
their origin to the process just described. The Pacific Ring of intrusive rocks of all geologic ages have been found.
Fire, which extends around the margins of the Pacific basin,
is composed of volcanos in the Aleutians, Japan, the Volcanic rocks extruded at the surface and crystalline
Philippines, Indonesia, New Zealand, South America and rocks that have cooled at depth are known collectively as
central America, all of>whichare due to subduction. igneous rocks. They have a range of chemical and mineral
compositions. At one end of the compositional range are
rocks that are relatively poor in silica (SiO, about 50%) and
relatively rich in iron (FezO, + FeO about 8%) and
magnesium (MgO about 7%). The volcanic variety of this
rock is basalt and an example is the dark lavas that form the
5 Hawaiian Islands. At the other end of the range are rocks that
are relatively rich in silica (SiO, about 64%) and poor in iron
a +
(F+03 FeO about 5 % ) and magnesium (MgO about 2%).
=! The volcanic variety of this rock, rhyolite, is lighter in color
10 =
E
than basalt and occurs mainly on land. The plutonic variety,
= which has cooled and crystallized at depth, is granite.
c
CL.
w
Magmas that result in basalt are termed maficor basicwhem
magmas that result in rhyolite or granite are termed fekic or
I SOLID MATERIAL 15
acidic.
30 -I 20
The upper portions of the mantle are believed to be
basaltic in chemical composition. The continuous generation
l * MATERIAL
A q of basalt at divergent plate boundaries and over hot spots (see
discussion in the next section) seems to indicate a direct
pipeline from the basaltic upper mantle to the surface. Basalts
Figure 3.6 Pmceses in crustal intrusion. ark also found on the continents, sometimes in great quanti-
ties. The volcanic flows of the Columbia Plateau are an
example of flood basalts, great outpourings that are found in
Figure 3.7 shows where these processes of spreading, other areas of the globe as well.
formation of new oceanic crust, and subduction of oceanic
plates are currently operating. Oceanic rises, where new If the mantle is basaltic in composition and if it is the
crustal material is fonned, occur in all major oceans. The source of magmas, we may wonder how felsic igneous rocks
East Pacific Rise, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Indian such as granites and rhyolites arise. Several mechanisms can
Ridges are examples. In places, the ridge crest is offset by result in the formation of granites and rhyolites. Felsic
large faults that result from variations in the rate of s p d g magma can be derived by a process known as di@renziafion,
along the ridge. Such faults are called transform faults. progressive segregation of the melt fraction from a basaltic
Figure 3.7 also shows the locations of trenches, where crust magma which is cooling and crystallizing. As crystals settle
is subducted. Notice on Figure 3.7 the close correlation in the magma chamber, the liquid fraction remaining at the top
between both spreading and subducting plate boundaries and of the chamber progressively approaches the composition of
the locations of geothermal occurrences. Maps of world granite because the minerals having higher iron and
seismicity (earthquakes) also outline plate boundaries well- magnesium content crystallize first. However, the chemical
both spreading and subduction result in earthquakes. compositionof granites is also much like the averagecompo&
Seismicity is believed to be helpful, and perhaps necesary, in tion of the continental crust, and some granites appear to
keeping faults and fractures open in the rocks for geothermal result from melting of crustal rocks due to heating by
waters to circulate. upwelling basaltic magmas.
3.3.1.2 Mamnatic Intrusions and Intrusive Rocks Mafic magmas melt at higher temperatures and are more
fluid than felsic magmas. Whereas basaltic magmas may move
An ascending body of molten material may cease to rise from the mantle to shallow depths along narrow channels,
at any level in the earth’s crust, and may or may not vent to graniticcomposition magmas are too viscous to move in
the surface through erupting volcanos (Figure 3.6). Intrusion narrow channels and rise only as large buoyant bodies.
of magmas into the upper crust has occurred throughout Occurrence of felsic volcanic rocks of very young age (< 1
geologic time. We see evidence for this in the occurrence of million yr and preferably C50,OOO yr) is a good sign of
volcanic rocks and in the bodies of crystalline granitic rock, potential for large geothermal systems in an area because such
28
rocks may indicate a large body of magma, constitutinga large shallow magma being present. Much of the western United
heat source, at depth. On the other hand, occurrence of young States contains areas that have an anomalously high heat flow
basaltic rocks is not as encouraging because the basalt, being (100 milliwatts/mf)and an anomalouslyhigh geothermal grad-
fairly fluid, could simply ascend along narrow conduits from ient (2.5 to 4 OF1100 ft, or 130 to 210 "F/mi). Geologic
great depth directly to the rmrface without need for a shallow evidence suggests that the crust is thinner than normal in the
magma chamber, and without significant thermal impact on West, accounting for upwarping of mantle isotherms and high
crustal rocks (Smith and Shaw, 1975). This is not to say that measured geothermal gradients.
regions dominated by basalt have no geothermal pbtential. In
areas having more or less continuousinput of basaltic magma, 3.3.2 puids
such as the Hawaiian Islands or Iceland, large quantities of
heat are brought to the near-surface over long times, and For geothermal resources to be developed economically,
significant geothermal resources result. an efficient means of bringing large quantities of heat to the
surface is needed. Fortunately, nature provides water,which
We mentioned in the paragraph above that young igneous normally pervades fractures, pores and other open spaces in
rocks are an indication of geothermal potential in an area. rocks below the water table. Water has a high heat capacity
How fast do intrusiveand extrusive bodies cool? As might be and a high latent heat of vaporization. Thus, it is an ideal
expected, the cooling time is a function of the size and shape heat-transfm fluid.
of the body. Large intrusive bodies may take one million
years to cool, whereas thin, tabular basaltic dikes, intruded The density and viscosity of water both decrease as
along a fault, will cool in a few years. Lava flows on the temperature increases. Water heated at depth is lighter than
surface generally cool in a few tens of years for thin flows and cold water in Surrounaing rocks, and is therefore subjected to
a few hundreds of years for thick flows. Thus, there is a very buoyant forces that tend to push it upward. If heating is great
large range in cooling times for igneous bodies. In general, enough for buoyancy to overcome the resistance to flow in the
felsic volcanic rocks less than about one million yeafs old rock, heated water will rise toward the earth's surface. As it
indicate geothermal potential. Mafic volcanic rocks would rises, cooler water moves in to replace it. In this way, natural
have to,be less than, perhaps, 50,000 years old to spark convection is set up in the groundwater around and above a
enthusiasm among geologists looking for subsurface heat source of heat such as an intrusion. Convection brings large
sources. quantities of heat within the reach of wells, and is, therefore,
responsible for the most economically important class of geo-
3.3.1.3 Mantle Plumes thermal resources, the convective hyfrothermal resourw.
Another important source of volcanic rocks is the mantle In some convective hydrothermal resources, the tempem-
plume. It has been hypothesized that the upper mantle hue never reaches the b o i g point, which is governed by the
contains local areas of upwelling, hot material called plumes, pressure, and the system does not generate steam. However,
which have persisted at the same locations for millions of in other systems the local boiling point is reached, and steam
years. As crustal plates move over these hot spots, a h e a r or is produced. The steam ascends and meets cooler rocks where
muate chain of volcanos is developed, with young volcanic it partially condenseswhile heating the rocks, and the pressure
rocks at one end of the chain and older volcanic rocks at the drop due to condensation brings up more steam. In this way,
other end. The Hawaiian Island chain is an example. The steam convection is set up. If venting exceeds recharge, the
youngest volcanic rocks on the island of Kauai on the north- steam zone grows and steam will accumulate in the reservoir.
west end have been dated through radioactive means at about The t e m p e m and pressure in such a steam reservoir vary
4 million yrs, whereas the volcanos Mauna Loa and Mauna slowly with depth. At Larderello, Italy, the reseryoir temper-
Kea on the island of Hawaii at the southeast end of the chain atwe and pressure are 460°F and 500 psi, values that appear
are forming today and are in almost continual eruptive to be typical of other vapordominated systems. Processes of
activity. To the northwest, the Hawaiian chain continues hydrothermal convection are discussed more fully in Section
beyond Kauai for more than 2,000 mi (3,200 km) to Midway 3.4.2.
Island, &ere the last volcanic activity was about 16 million
years ago. The trace of the island chain is consistent with the 3.3.3 Permeability
motions of the Pacific plate over the Hawaiian hot spot (see
Figure 3.7) as postulated by geophysicists from other data. Permeabilityis a measure ofa rock's capacity to transmit
fluid as a result of pressure differences. The flow takes place
3.3.1.4 Thin Crust in pores between mineral grainsand in open spaces createdby
fractures and faults. Porosity is the term given to thefiaction
Not all geothermal resources are caused by near-surface of void space in a volume of rock. Intermnneaed porosity
intrusion of molten rock bodies. Certain areas have a rate of provides flowpaths for the fluids and creates permeabfity,
increase in subsurface temperature with depth that is higher although there is no simple relationship between porosity and
than the continental average of 30 " C h (87 Wmi) without permeability.
29
Figure 3.7. Selected geothermal resource locations relative to plate tectonic features.
Permeability and porosity can be primary or secondary, Table 3.1 Geothermal Resource Types
i.e. formed with the rock or formed subsequently. Primary
permeability in sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone,
limestone or shale, originates from intergranukarporosityand
it usually dec- with depth in the earth because of
Resource T v ~ e -
“c -
“F
compaction and filling of the pore spaces with minerals Convective hydrothermal resources .
(cementation). In volcanic rocks, primary intergranular
porosity and permeability exist, but primary permeability also Vapor dominated 444) 460
exists in open spaces at contacts between individual lava flows Hot-water dominated 20 to 350+ 70 to 660
and within the flows themselves. secondary permeability
often results from structures that were formed long after the Other hydrothermal resources
rock itself formed. Structures that form secondary porosity
and permeability include open fault zones, fractures and Sedimentary basidregional 20 to 150 70 to 300
fracture intersections, intrusive dikes and breccia mnes aquifers (hot fluid in
produced by hydraulic fracturing. sedimentary rocks)
Permeabilities in rocks range over 12 orders of G e o p d

magnitude. Permeabilitiesin pristine, unfractured crystalline (hot fluid under pressure 90to200 19otom
rock are commonly on the order of 1od darcy or less. that is greater than
However, in situ measurements at individual sites may vary by hydrostatic)
as much as 4 to 6 orders of magnitude, and a n e s of > 100
millidarcy are commonly encountered. These higher Hot rock resources
permeabilities are often due to increased fracture density.
Part still molten >600 > 1100
Most geothermalsystemsare structurally controlled, i.e., (magma)
the magmatic heat source has been emplaced along zones of
structural weakness in the crust. Permeability may be Solidified (hot dry rock) 90to650 19Ot01200
increased around an intrusion from fracturing and faulting in
response to stresses involved in the intrusion process itself and
in response to regional stresses. Thus, an understanding of
the geologic structure in a prospect area leads not only to
evidence indicating the location of a subsurface magma
chamber, but also to inferences about areas of higher
permeability at depth. Such areas would be prime geothermal 2192 - 1200
exploration targets. - 1100
I
2012
In exploration, the key problem appears to be more in 1832 - 1000 basalt melts
locating permeable zones than in locating anomalous tempera- 1652 - 900
tures. Fractures sufficient to make a geothermal well a good
producer need be only a few millimeters in width, but they 1472 - 800
must be connected to the general fracture network in the rock
in order to sustain production of large fluid volumes.
l1 l2
1
1292 - 700 granite melts
- m o b c u r i e temp. magnetite
932 - 500
3.4 CLASSIFICATION OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES
i f 752 - moAPuna,HA
-Imperial Valley, CA & MEX ( m e hdes)
Geoiermal resources are usually classified as shown in 572
- 300 1 Roosevelt Hot Springs, UT;
Table 3.1, modeled after White and Williams (1975). Geo- 392 - 200 The Geysers,CA; Valles Caldera, NM
t h d resource temperatures (Figure 3.8) range upward from +Raft River, ID
the mean annual ambient temperature of 50°F to 80°F (10°Cto d 212
i heaf i - 100 +water boils (I am.)
mmali
27T), to over 650°F (340°C). Generally, resources above
300°F (150°C) are used for electrical power generation,
32 ’ - 0 +water freezes
although power can be economically generated from resources
as low as 218°F (1030e),as they are at Susanville, California.
Resources at any temperature can be used for direct-heat Figure 3.8 Geothennal temperatures.
application. Figure 3.8 indicated the reservoir temperatures
for ’a number of known resources.
31
For convenience, geothermal temperaturesare a r b i t d y logical features such as impermeablebeds or faults, or it could
divided into the following ranges: low temperatures (<90°C form by deposition of minerals in the fractures and pores at
or 194"F), moderate or intermediate temperatures (90°C to the sides of the reservoir, making a sealed zone.
150°C or 194°F to 3Q2"F), and high temperatures (> 150°C or
302°F).
To describe resources, we resort to simplified geologic

models, and some of these models are presentedin the sections
below. A given model is ofien not acceptable in all details to
all geologists. In spite of disagreementover details, however,
the models we present are generally acceptable and facilitate
our thinking.
3.4.1 Convective Hvdrothermal Re~~urces
Convective hydrothermal tesoutces are geothermal

resources in which the earth's heat is carried upward by
convective circulation of naturally occurring hot water or
steam. Underlying some high-temperature convective Figure 3.9 Schematicmodel of a vapordominated resource.
hydrothermal fesources is presumably an intrusion of
still-molten or recently solidified rock at a temperature
between 1,100 "F and 2,000 "F (600 "c and 1,100T).Other The formation of a vapordominated system appears to
convective resources result from circulation of water down require venting of steam at a rate in excess of water recharge
fractures to depths where the rock tempera- is elevated even to prevent flooding of the reservoir (White et al., 1971). In
in the absence of an intrusion, with heating and buoyant fact, vapordominated systems may form from pre-existing
transport of the water to the surface. We will discuss several waterdominated systems by boiling down. A hydrothermal
different types of convective hydrothermal resources. system that is basically water dominated can have one or more
natural zones that are two-phase (containing both liquid and
3.4.1.1 Vamr-Dominated Svstems vapor) or are vapor dominated, and local steam zones can even
result from production of water from a well if local water
Figure 3.9 shows a conceptual model of a hydrothermal recharge is insufficient to keep pace with water production.
system where steam pervades the rock and is the pressure-
controlling fluid phase, a so-called vaprdominated The Geysers geothermal area in California, about 80
geothermal system (White et al., 1971). Convection of deep, miles north of San Francisco, is an example of a vapor-
saline water brings heat upward to a level where boiling takes dominated resource. At The Geysers, steam is produced from
place. Boiling removes the latent heat of vaporization, thereby depths of 3,000 to 10,000 feet (1 km to 3 km) and is used to
cooling the rock and water at the boiling water table, and run turbine engines which turn electrical generators. The
allowing more heat to rise from depth. The steam generated Geysers is the largest geothermal electrical producing area in
by boiling moves upward through fractures and may be super- the world, sustaining more than 2,000 megawatts of power.
heated by the hd. surrounding rock. At the top and sides of Other producing vapordominated resources occur at
the system, heat is lost from the vapor and condensation Larderello and Monte Amiata, Italy,-and at Matsukawa, Japan.
results, with the condensed water moving downward to be Vapor-dominated systems are, however, much rarer than
vaporized again. If an open fracture penetrates to the surface, water-dominated systems, which are discussed next.
steam may vent or may heat the shallow ground water to
boiling. Within the vapor-filled part of the reservoir, 3.4.1.2 Water-Dominated Svstems
temperature is nearly uniform due to rapid steam flux.
Pressure within the reservoir is controlled by the vapor phase Figure 3.10 illustrates a high-temperature, hot-water
and increases slowly with depth. Because the rocks dominated geothermal system. Models for such systems have
surroundw the steam reservoir typically contain groundwater been discussed in papers by White et al. (1971), Mahon et al.
under hydrostatic pressure, a large horizontal pressure (1980), Henley and Ellis (1983), and Norton (1984), among
difference exists between the steam in the reservoir and the others. The heat source is typically molten or recently
water in adjacent rocks, with the steam reservoir being solidified rock lying at a depth of perhaps 2 to 6 mi (3 to 10
underpressured with respect to hydrostatic pressure. km). Groundwater circulates downward in open fractures and
Geologists postulate that the permeability at the boundaries of removes heat from these deep, hot rocks as it rises buoyantly
the reservoir must be low. Othexwise, water in the and is replaced by cool recharge water moving in from the
surrounding rocks would inundate the steam reservoir. Low sides. Rapid convection produces uniform temperahues over
peripheral permeability could result from pre-existing geo- large volumes of the reservoir. There is typically an upflow
32
zone at the center of each convection cell, an outflow zone or minerals and the precipitation of secondary minerals. The
plume of heated water moving laterally away from the center entire hydrothermal convection system (rocksand fluids) is, in
of the system, and a downflow zone where recharge is taking fact, a largescale chemical reactor with interactions that are
place. The upflow zone may contain local areas of boiling not completely understood today. The cmvecting waters
and a two-phase region Containing both water and steam may generally become enriched in NaCl and deple€ed in Mg.
exist, but the pressure is controued by the water phase. Salinities of high-temperature geothermal fluids range from
Escape of hot fluids is often minimized by a near-surface less than 10,OOO ppm total dissolved solids in some volcanic
sealed zone or caprock formed by precipitation of minerals in systems to over 2.~0,000 ppm total dissolved solids in basin
fractures and pore spaces. Surface manifestations include hot en-ts such as the Sdton Sea, California (Helgeson,
springs, fumatoles, geysers, travertine deposits, chemkally 1968; Ellis and Mahon, 1977). Table 3.2 shows some typical
altered rocks, or alternatively, no surface manifestation at all. chemical analyses for hydrothermal fluids.
If there are no surface manifestations, discovery is difficult
and requires sophisticatedgeology, geophysics, geochemistry The pressure and temperature in most water-dominated,
and hydrology. high-temperaturehydrothermalconvection systemslie near the
curve of boiling point versus depth for d i e water (Figure
Chemical isotopic studies of hydrothermal fluids show 3.11), and sporadic, local boiling occuts in many systems.
that the bulk of the water and steam is derived from meteoric Because boiling concentrates acidic gases (carbon dioxide,
water (rain or snow), with the exception of those few systems CO,, and hydrogen sulfide, HS)in the steam, the oxygenated
where the fluids are derived from seawater or connate brines meteoric water overlying a boiling reservoir is both heated and
(Craig, 1963). Only a small percentage of the water comes acidified. These acidic waters interact with the n e a r d m
from the intrusive rocks at depth. As the fluids move through rocks to form hydrothermal minerals, typically clays, that can
the reservoir rocks, the compositions of both the fluids and the be used to help locate zoaes of s u b d a c e boiling.
rocks are modified by the dissolution of primary, pre-existing
1 1 Water
Steamheatedacid Two Phase Region

SO4* HCO3 waters Water Liquid + Steam (Gas)
Figure 3.10 Model of a hydrothermal system in volcanic terrane.

33
Monroe, UT 108 7.8 58 264 39 578 58 0.5 394 932 652 2.8 3.0 3.8
Stcamboat.NV 192 7.9 293 5.0 0.8 653 71 0.7 305 100 865 1.8 4.9 2.7
%*dNZ 490 8.5 690 17 a03 1.320 225 14.2 21 36 2,260 8.3 - 4.8
Roosevclt
HotSprings,UT ,500 7.0 563 8 Q 2320 461 25.3 232 72 3,860 6.8 23 4.3
SaltonSuCA 600 4.5 400 28,OOO 54 50,400 17,500 215 7.150 5 155,000 15 390 12
Apertures of producing fractures are sometimes as small as a

1/16 in., but in other cases they reach 1 in. or more. Areas
where different fracture or fault sets intersect or where
fractures intersect permeable rock units may be especially
favorable for production of large volumes of fluid. The lon-
gevity of an individual well depends upon how completely the
producing anes are connected to the local and reservoir-wide
network of porosity. If inter-zane permeability is poor, the
local open spaces are drained qrtickly atld fluid production
drops. However, if the well intersects a thoroughgoing
geologic structure such as a major fault or fracture, the local
producing volume around the well is recharged continuously,
and fluid production can be maintained for many years.
0 100 200 3w 400 Virtually all of the electrical-generation industry's

Temperabre(OC) geothermal exploration effort in the U.S. is presently directed
Figure 3.11 'hiling temperature versus depth in water- at locating vapor- or waterdominated hydrothermal systems
dominated geothermal systems. having temperatures above 300°F (150 "c). Some of the high-
est grade resourcesare capable of commerciaI electrical power
generation today, and the majority of the growth in geothermal
3.4.1.3 Hydrothermal Reservoirs. energy production is expected to come from hydro-thermal
tesources until well into the next century. Direct heat utili-
At this point, it is desirableto discuss the term reservoir. zation of lower-temperature iesoutces has lagged behind de-
Ihe reservoir is the volume containing hydrothennalfluidsat velopment of electrical p6wer in the U.S. because electricity
a useful temperature. The porosity of the reservoir rocks is transportableover high-tension lines whereas economic con-
determines the total amount offluid available, whereas the siderations prevent piping of hot water over large distances.
permeability determines the rate at which fluid can be However, there is great potential in the U.S. for development
produd. One must not envisage a large bathtub of hot water of direct heat-uses at or near the sites where low- and
that can be tapped at any handy location. Both porosity and moderate-temperature hydrothermal resources occur. Of
permeability vary over wide ranges at different points in the course, geothermal heat pumps can be used virtually any-
reservoir. A typical well will encounter tight rocks over much where, for their operationdoes not depend on having e n h a n c e d
of its length, with steam or hot water inflow mainly along a temperature such as is found in the types of geothermal areas
few open fractures or over a restricted stratigraphic interval. we have been discussing.
34
3.4.2 G e o ~ r e s ~ ~Resources.
ted 3.4.3 Hot Drv Rock Resources
Geopressured resoun’~soccur in basin environments. Hot dry rock fesources are defined as heat stored in
They consist of deeply buried fluids contained in permeable rocks within about 6 mi (10 lun) of the surface from which the
sedimentary rocks warmed in a normal or enhancedgeothermal energy cannot be economically extracted by natural hot water
gradient by their great burial depth. The fluids are tightly or steam. These hot rocks have few pore spaces or fractures,
confined by surrounding impermeable rock and bear pressure and therefore, contain little water snd little or no inter-
much greater than hydrostatic; that is, the fluid pressure connected permeability. The feasibility and economics of
supports a portion of the weight of the overlying rock colu~& extraction of heat from hot dry rock has, for more than a
as well as the weight of the water column. Figure 3.12 is a decade, been the subject of a research program at the
graph of water pressure versus depth in a geopressured teser- Department of Energy’s Los Alamos National Laboratory in
voir. The gradient is hydrostatic until the impermeable, con- New Mexico (Hendron, 1987). Batchelor (1982) descrii
fining shale is reached, at which point the pressure gradient similar research in England. Both projects indicate that it is
increases dramatically. The sand aquifer is the target of technologically feasible to induce an artificial fracture system
drilliig because thermal water under high pressure can be in hot, tight rocks at depths of about 2 mi (3 km) through
produced from it. A large tesource of geopressured fluids hydraulic fracturing from a deep well. During formation of
occurs in the Gulf Coast of the U.S. (Figure 3.18), where the the fracture system, its dimensions, location and orientation
geopressured waters generally contain dissolved methane. are mapped using geophysical techniques. A second borehole
Therefore, three sources of energy are actually available from is located and drilled such that it intersects the hydraulic
these resources: (1) heat; (2) mechanical energy caused by the fracture system. Water can then be circulated down one hole,
great pressure with which these waters exit the borehole; and, through the fracture system where it removes heat from the
(3) recoverable methane. rocks, and up the second hole (Figure 3.13).
The U.S. Department of Energy is currently sponsoring The principal aim of the research at Los Alamos is to
research to develop a better understanding of geopressured develop the engineering data needed for industry to evaluate
resources and exploitation technologies. Activities include the the economic viability of candidate resources. The current
testing of geopressured wells to determine the nature and plans m for a long-term (1-year) flow test of the existing
extent of the resource, its production characteristics and the two-well system in order to determine production character-
potential environmend effects of long-term production. ,The istics of the artificiallycreated fracture system and its thermal
research also includes the design and analysis ofa total energy drawdown and rate of water loss. Hot dry rock energy may
recovery system. These tesources will probably contribute contribute to our energy mix late in the 199Os, or in the next
during the late 1990s or the next century. century.
PRESSURE in pounds per square inch

0 5000 /oom
DEPTH
$7iI
I
I \
A Water Pressure
I Normally Prersured
I
Sediments
Confining
Shale bed
5000 IOOOO 15000 20000 FEET

I
HEAD ABOVE LAND SURFACE \L/
Figure 3.12 Ge~pressuredgeothermal resource. Figure 3.13 Dry rock geothermal resource.
35
3.4.4 Molten Rock CMagmal Resources U.S. is unknown because of Iack of exploration. In some
areas, the geothermal systems have been at least partidly
Experiments are underway at &e DOE'S %dia National explored and the fluids have been developed for beneficial use.
Laboratories in Albuquerque, New Mexico, to learn how to
extract heat energy directly from molten rock. Techniques for Some sample models of convective hydrothemd
locating a shallow, crustal magma body, drilling into it and fesources are shown in Figures 3.14 and 3.15, taken from
implanting heat exchangers or possibly direct electrical con- Sorey, et al. (1983a). Figure 3.14(a) shows a resource located
verters are being developed @unn et al., 1987). In Iceland, along a fault zone. The water sinks in one part of the fault
where geothermal energy was first used for space heating in zone to a depth where it is sufficiently heated that it can rise
1928, technology has been demonstrated for economic extrac- along another part of the same fault zone. Of course, recharge
.tion of thermal .energy from surface lava flows (Bjomsson, for the thermal springs could also wme from the rock in either
1980). A h t exchanger constructed on the surface of the wall of the fault. This simple model is believed to represent
1973 lava flow on Heimaey tecovers steam that results from the basic mechanism for many fault-related, low- and
downward percolation of water applied at the surface above derate-temperature resources in the West. In detail, of
hot portions of the flow. A space heating system that uses course, each resource is individual-the model in each of the
this energy has been operating successfully for over 10 years. figures is meant to be illustrative only of general mechanisms.
Drilling to tap the resoutce would have to intersect the .fault
at depth, and a well may or may not produce more or higher
3.5 DIRECT-HEAT GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES temperature water than the springs discharge.
Geothermal resources suitable for direct-heat application

can be of any useable temperature, but reso- whose tem- Table 3.3 Categories of Low Temperature
perature is above 300 O F (150 "e) are usually used to produce Geothermal Resource Areas
electricity. The outflow areas of high-tempemture hydro-
thermal convection systems often produce water oflow and in-
termediate temperature. In this section,we place emphasis on
those resources in the intermediate- and low-temperatureate-
gories, as defined in the opening paragraphs of Section 3.4. C0"IVE HYDROTHERMAL, RESOURCES
Sorey et al. (1983a) divided low-temperature tesources Isolated t h e d wells and springs.. ......Pagosa Springs, CO
into those in hydrothed convection systems and those in .. ...
Delineatedthermalreservoirs.. . .......KlamathFalls, OR
areas where the heat transfer is dominated by conduction.
This classification, shown in Table 3.3, is useful in comid- CONDUCTION-DOMINATED RESOURCES
ering all direct-heat resources, and will be adopted in this
section. The convective hydrothermal resources on this table . . .. .. . .
Sedimentarybasins.. .. . . .. .. . .PowderRiverBasin,WY
are similar to those discussed above. Some result from nearby . . . . . .
Costal Plains.. .... ... .... ... .... .Delmarva Peninsula, VA
intrusive or volcanic rocks whereas others result tiom deep
circulationalong faults. The conduction-dominated resources
are those where ,the thermal waters do not convect, i.e. where
the main mode of%eattransfer is by conduction. It is typical Figure 3.14(b) represents a possible mechanism for
for sedimentarybasins, those that contain petroleum as well as certain convective-hydrothermal resources in areas of fault-
those that do not, to contain porous and permeable rock units block valleys separated by up-faulted mountain ranges. Water
such as sandstones and limestones that hold water. In some sinks along a fault zone on one side of the valley, moves
basis, the water is warm enough for direct-heat uses. The laterally in an aquifer at depth where it is heated, and
warming mechanism may include deep circulation as well as discharges on the other side of the valley by movement up a
blanketing by thermally insulating sedimentary rocks. second fault zone. Studies of geochemistry by Cole (1982)
have demonstrated this as a viable mechanism in the Jordan
3.5.1 Convective Hydrothermal Resources. Valley in Utah. For such a system, the aquifer at depth may
or may not be close enough to the surface to be economically
Convective hydrothermal, direct-heat resources tapped by wells. Figure 3.14(c) shows a situation where
commonly OCCUT in areas of active geologic faulting and water infiltrates into a permeable bed in a mountain block and
folding, and areas where the regional heat flow -is above sinks deeply enough to be heated. Folding of the rock strata
normal, as in much of the western U.S. Many fesourceareas brings the permeable aquifer near the surface at another
are marked by one or more thermal wells or springs, but some location, and the thermal fluid is channeled upward, where it
have no surface manifestation and have been found by luck. can be reached by wells or thermal springs. There is no need
There are hundreds of known occurrences in the West. The for the permeableh o b to outcrop in order to have thermal
full extent of the convective hydrothermal resources in the springs--thermal fluid may migrate up fracture zones from
36
Figure 3.14 Models for low- and intermediate-temperaturehydrothermal resources: (a) Fault-plane model, (b) Deep-basin
model, and (c) Permeable bed in folded strata model.
Figure 3.15 Models for low-and intermediate-temperaturehydrothermal resources: (a) Lateral-leakage model, (b) Basin-
constriction model, and (c) Bedrock-high model.
37
the aquifer at depth. Alternatively, there may be no surface basin (Varet, 1982). Thermal water may also be produced
expression of the underlying thermal aquifer at all. Warm along with crude oil from petroleum basins, as happens in the
wells may be a clue to such an occurrence. Unita Basin in Utah (Goode, 1985).
Figure 3.15 illustrates other models known to occur in Basin fluids range in chemical composition from
nature. Figure 3.15(a) demonstrates the possibility of lateral relatively fresh to highly saline. It is believed that many
leakage from a fault-related zone of upwelling. Thermal water petroleum-basin fluids were originally connate water (trapped
rises along a fault zone and forms springs at the surface, but in the rocks at the time of formation) of sea-water composition
much of the thermal fluid also flows laterally away from the (Hitchon et al., 1971). Chemical interaction of these waters
fault in an underground aquifer. Such lateral flow is known with rocks in the aquifer leads to changes in the chemistry of
from several geothermal systems, including the direct-heat the brine. In addition, basins often contain salt beds,
resource at Boise, Idaho, and the resource at Monroe, Utah, deposited as ancient seas evaporated, that dissolve easily,
discussed in Chapter 4. Many of the resources in the Basin bringing the fluids to high salinities. An understanding of the
and Range province probably have this general flow pattern, chemistry of basin waters can sometimes lead to the
with lateral flow away from a fault zone in the unconsolidated identification of areas of upwelling fluids that may be
alluvium that fills the valleys. In some cases, there may be no thermally anomalous.
surface expression of such a resource, the entire flow going
into an underground aquifer. In other cases, surface
manifestations are at some distance from the fault, where
permeable horizons or contact mnes reach the surface.
Mixing of the geothermal fluid with cold, near-surface
groundwater may cause whatever springs there are to be lower
in temperature than the aquifer itself.
Figure 3.15(b) illustrates the case of water sinking along

a basin-bounding fault and flowing laterally while being
heated, much as in the case of Figure 3.14(b). However, in
this model, the thermal fluid is brought near to the surface by
uplift in the basement rock of the basin, which causes a
constriction in the horizontal water flow. Such basin-
constriction models have been described from several
localities, including the Rio Grande Valley in New Mexico.
Figure 3.15(c) illustrates a case where thermal fluid rises
along faults bounding a subsurface bedrock high and flows Figure 3.16 Sedimentary basin model for a low- or
laterally within fractured rocks at the upper margin of the intermediate-temperature conductiondominated
bedrock high. The thermal fluid may be cooled and sink, as resource.
illustrated, or it may continue to flow laterally in poorly
consolidated valley fill at the right margin of the bedrock
high. Test drilling near Marymille, Montana, has delineated
an intermediate-temperature hydrothermalconvection system
related to such a bedrock high in the Boulder batholith, a large
body of igneous rock (Blackwell and Baag, 1973).
3.5.2 Conduction-Dominated Resources.
Low-temperaturegeothermal resourcesof the conduction-

dominated type are known to occur in sedimentary basins and
beneath coastal sedimentary rocks. Figure 3.16 (from Sorey
et al., 1983a) shows a simple model of recharge in carbonate
rocks in a basin. Identified areas in this category include
aquifers in the Dakotas, eastern Wyoming, and parts of
Montana, Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma and Colorado, where
thick layers of shale having low thermal conductivity and
relatively high temperature gradients overlie the aquifers. In
a different setting, space-heating systems installed in France Figure 3.17 Radiogenic-heat or coastal-plain model of a
use warm fluid contained over an immense area in the Paris conductiondominated resource.
38
cn
m
Figure 3.17 (from Sorey et al., 1983a) illustrates a
radiogenic resource, also called the "coastal plains" reso-
type (Table 3.3). The coastal plain of the eastern U.S. is
blanketed by a layer of thermally insulating sedimentaryrocks.
In places beneath these sediments, rocks occur that have an
anomalously high rate of heat production because of decay of
natural radioactive isotopes of uranium, thorium and
potassium. These naturally radioactive rocks are old granitic
intrusions, long since cooled. The heat generated by radio-
active decay is trapped by the insulating sediments, and
temperatures are much higher in the intrusive rocks than
would ordinarily be the case. Methods for locating thermally
anomalous radiogenic rocks beneath the cover of sedimentary
rocks have been partly developed by Costain et al. (1980), but ( a bRead, 1982)
very little drill testing of such potential r e s o w has been
performed to date. Figure 3.19 Plot of cumulative number of known geothermal
occurrences versus temperature for the U.S.
These simple models are meant to illustrate some of the
many possibilities for subsurface structure that lead to heating
and storage of thermal waters in underground reservoirs. De-
tailed studies conducted during exploration, as discussed in
Chapter 4, are needed in any geothermal area to ascertain the
geologic controls on the resource and the flow of fluid in the
subsurface, and such studies usually yield models similar to
but more complex in detail than the models presented here.
3.6 HYDROTHERMAL RESOURCES IN THE U.S.
Figure 3.18 displays, in summary form, the distribution

of known geothermal resources in the U.S. Information for
this figure was taken mainly from Muffler (1979) and Reed
(1983). Not shown are locations of hot dry rock or magma
resources because essentially nothing is known. In fact, we 600
emphasize that the present knowledge of the geothermal
resource base for all types of geothermal resources, except
earth heat as defined in Figure 3.1, is poor. Earth heat
resources, used as the source andlor sink for the operation of
1
about 4.600
geothermal heat pumps, occur everywhere.

Figure 3.20 Geologic time d e .
It is known With reasonable certainty that there are many
more low-temperature geothermal occurrences than there are
high-temperature ones. Figure 3.19 shows a log-linear plot discussion that follows relies heavily on and quotes extensively
of the cumulative frequency or number of resources versus from Mariner et al. (1983) and Sorey et al. (1983b). Further
temperature. This figure shows that there are many, many information on geothermal occurrences and resourcepotential
occurrences at temperatures below 100°C (212"F), with fewer can be obtained by contacting the various state agencies,
at temperatures above 200°C (392°F). universities and other groups listed by state in the Appendix
to this chapter.
In this section, we will sumerize the known geothermal
occurrences beginning in the western U.S. In the U.S., most 3.6.1 Central Alaska
of the hydrothermal resources and all of the presently known
resources capable of electric power generation occur in the Most of the thermal springs in central Alaska (Figure
west, including Alaska and Hawaii. Because we are concerned 3.21) are situated in an east-west-trending zone between
in this book with direct use, resources being used for electric latitudes 64" and 68" N. They are thought to result from deep
power will not be discussed except for illustration. Since circulation along faults in or associated with Mesozoic and
occasional reference is made to the geologic age of certain Tertiary granitic plutons miller et al., 1975). Fifteen
formations, Figure 3.20 shows the geologic time scale. The intermediate- and high-temperature systems were identified in
40
this province by Brook et al. (1979), and 25 isolated low- production well, the HGPA well, operated until recently as an
temperature hydrothermalconvection systems were identified experiment. One low-temperatureg e o t h e d resourceidenti-
by Mariner et al. (1983). At least seven are utilized for space fied in the Kapoho area of the East Rift Zone is apparently
heating of residences, lodges, swimming pools, and a associated with the underlying high-tempem hydrothermal
greenhouse. convectionsystem. Undiscoveredlow-temperatureg e o t h d
resources may occuf in other rift zones BssocisLfed with the
3.6.2 Southeastern Alaska shield volcanos on Hawaii and Maui. The repeated emplace-
ment of basaltic dikes in the rift zones provides local near-
Thermal springs in southeastern Alaska (Figure 3.21) are surface heat sources. Several potential l o w - t e w r e
associated with faults and thus are believed to result from deep geothermal sites have been studied by Thomas et al. (1982)
circulation. One high- and six intermediate-temperature and Mariner et al. (1983).
geothermal systems were identified in the province by Brook
et al. (1979). Five isolated low-tempera- geothermal
systems are identified by Mariner et al. (1983). Only a few
are utilized for space heating. HAWAIIAN ISLANDS
Figure 3.22 Geothermal resourcesin Hawaii.
Hawaii’s Community Geothermal Program, initiated in

Figure 3.21 Geothermal resources in Alaska. 1986, installed five direct-use projects that utilized the water
fraction from the HGPA well steam separator. The projects
involved kilndrying the local koa wood, cloth dyeing using
3.6.3 Aleutian Island and Peninsula low-pressure steam, growing decorativepalms, dehydration of
tropical fruit to produce papaya powder, and procesSing silica
Although numerous hydrothermal convection system and other local compounds to produce a Hawaiian glass.
would be expected in association with the active Alaskan
volcanos, only six high-temperature systemswere identified by 3.6.5 Pacific Coast Ranees
Brook et al. (1979). More recently, Motyka et al. (1981)
sampled springs associated with 18 additional hydrothermal We have chosen to give an overview of the resources in
convection systems. They reported that 15 of these systems the Lower 48 States by geologic province because resources
have reservoir temperatures of more than 90 “c and that at generally bear similarities in occuffence within a province.
least seven additional thermal springs may exist in the The geologic provinces in the continental U.S. are shown on
province. Mariner et al. (1983) identified only three isolated Figure 3.23.
low-temperature geothermal reservoirs in the province, but
many systems may be masked by near-surface cold water. So The Coast Ranges consist of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sed-
far as we know, the only use of springs is for noncommetcial imentary rocks that have been folded and faulted into moun-
natural bathing. tain ranges that trend northwesterly in central and northern
California and northerly in Oregon and Washington (Page,
3.6.4 Hawaii 1966). South of The Geysers steam field in California there
are numerous isolated springs of low surface temperature,
Intermediate-and high-temperature geothermal resources some of which have chemical geothermometers (see Chapter
in Hawaii (Figure 3.22) have been identified only at the crater 4) indicating intermediate temperaturesat depth. North of The
and along the East Rift Zone of Kilauea Volcano on the Island Geysers, warm springs are widely scattered. Current direct-
of Hawaii (Brooket al., 1979). In the Puna district, East Rift heat applications include aquaculture at Pas0 Robles, scattered
Zone, a 3.0 W e power plant using a very high-temperature space heating, and numerous resorts and spas.
41
I U
Figure 3.23 Geolgic provinces in the contiguous 48 states.
3.6.6 Central Valley of California temperature geothermal systems identified in the province
(Mariner et al., 1983).
The Central Valley of California is a deep sediment-filled
valley. Deep oil wells, particularly near Bakersfield, produce A few of the natural springs have been developed for
warm to hot, highly saline water. A few springs along the resort uses, some using drilled wells. The city of San
western margin produce fluid with total dissolved solids W S ) Bernardmo, California, has a large geothermal district heating
ranging from 10,OOO to 26,800ppm and surface temperatures system that has operated successfully for a decade.
of only 75 OF to 85 OF. The high salinity of the springs may
be the result of deep petroleum-reservoir brines mixing with 3.6.8 Peninsular Ranges of California
cooler near-surface water. If geothermal resources exist at
depth, they are probably too deep for economic direct use The Peninsular Ranges of southern California are domin-
applications unless wells drilled for petroleum can be utilized. ated by granitic and metamorphic terranes. A total of 29
isolated low-temperature geothermal reseNoirs is known,
3.6.7 Transverse Ranges of California mostly confined to faults and fractures in the crystalline rock.
The only large-volume (8 m?) reservoir is in the San Jacinto
The Transverse Ranges of California consist of various Valley and it remains poorly defined because of lack of
rock types that have been thrust faulted and folded into east- exploration (Mariner et al., 1983).
west-trending ranges of mountains. Thermal springs and wells
in the eastern part of the province occut in a granitic and Many of the thermal springs were developed as resorts
metamorphic basement complex, and are apparently restricted years ago, some large and deluxe. A few of these are still
to faults and fractures. In contrast, thermal fluids in the operating or have been refurbished after a period of no use.
western part of the province occur predominately in clastic The city of Lake Elsinore had a fairly extensive district
sedimentary rocks and, for the most part, do not occur along mineral water system supplying motels and spas, and is
faults. There are 23 isolated and 3 larger-area, low- currently developing a new system for district heating.
42
3.6.9 Salton Trough has been located at Newberry Caldera in Oregon through
research drilling sponsored by the U.S. Geological.Survey
The Salton Trough of southern California includes the (Sammel, 1981), but the known portion of the system lies
Imperial and Coachella Valleys in the U.S. and The Mexicali within the caldera and will not be exploited for eavironmental
Valley in Mexico. This province, which marks the transition zeaso11s. Recently, the caldera at Newberry was declared a
from the divergent plate boundary of the San Andreas fault national monument.
system (Fuis et al., 1982), is characterized by active
tectonism, recent volcanism, and high heat flow. A total of Industry's exploration efforts have increased somewhat
10 intermediate- and high-temperature hydrothermal- in the last several years, with emphasis on the known volcanos
convection systems has been identified in the province (Brook and areas of felsic volcanism. An explorationresearchhole on
et al., 1979). A conductiondominated low-temperature the southeast slope of Mt. Mazama, the volcano whose summit
geothermal system, with an estimated reservoir area of 250 consists of the Crater Lake caldera, found interesting tempera-
mi2, occupies the eastern third of the Imperial Valley. In tures at shallow depths (+200 OF at 1,300 ft). Since the
addition, 18 low- to intermediate-temperature hydrothed- bottom of this hole is cooler than the top, the upper portion is
convection systems are identified, three of which have probably in the outflow zone of a h y d r o t h e d systemlocated
reservoir volumes of more than 114mi3(Mariner et al., 1983). somewhere laterally. Explorationby several companies at the
Medicine Lake volcano in northern California has appeaxmtly
Direct use applications include greenhousing, aqua- discovered at least one high-temperature system, from which
culture, spas, pools, and some space and domestic water production is expected in the near hture.
heating. The most concentrated use is at Desert Hot Springs,
where spas and pools are heated, and some domestic hot-water There are only a few direct use applicationsfor space and
and space-heating uses are made. pool heating. The potential for discovery of resources of all
temperature rang= remains high.
3.6.10 Sierra Nevada
3.6.12 Basin and Range Province
The Sierra Nevada is a westward-titled fault block um-
mostly of Mesozoic granitic rocks. Of the 20 identi- The Basin and Range province extends northward from
fied geothermal systems in the province, 19 are isolated and Mexico into southern Arizona, southwesternNew Mexico and
appear to be limited to fractures. Several of the isolated Texas on the south, through parts of California, Nevada and
systems are utilized for space and pool heating at resorts. The Utah, and becomes illdefined beneath the covering volcanic
larger systems at Sierra Valley, near the northern margin of flows of the Columbia Plateau and the Snake River plain on
the province, are currently under investigation for the north. The northern portion of this area contains abundant
greenhousing, quaculture, and agriculture related projects. geothermal resources of all temperatures. A total of 471 low-
temperature hydrothermal convection systemshas been identi-
3.6.11 Cascade Range and Vicinity fied, of which 376 are isolated systems. Resources along the
eastern and western margins of the province appear to be both
The Cascade Range of northern California, Oregon, more abundant and of higher temperature (Mariner et al.,
Washington and British Columbia is comprised of a series of 1983).
volcanos, 12 of which have been active in historic times. The
May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount St. Helens attests to the Electrical power is presently being generated from
youth of volcanic activity here. The Cascade Range lies above Roosevelt Hot Springs and Cove FortlSulphurdale in Utah;
the m e of subduction of the Juan de Fuca plate beneath the from Beowawe, Desert Peak,Wabuska, and SteamboatSprings
North American plate (Figure 3.7), and magma moving into in Nevada; and from Cos0 Hot Springs and Casa Diablo in
the upper crust has transported large amounts of heat upward. California. Exploration for resoufces suitable for electrical
In spite of the widespread, young volcanism, however, known power generation is being or has been conducted at 20 or more
geothermal manifestations are not as plentiful as expected. sites. Direct applications of geothermal energy for industrial
High rainfall and snowfall in the cascades are believed to process heating and space heating are currently operating in
suppress surface geothermal manifestations through downward this province at several sites including: B d y Hot Springs,
percolation of cold surf" waters in the highly permeable NV (vegetable drying); Elko,NV (districtheating); Reno,NV
volcanic rocks. In the absence of d i c e inanifestations, (space heating); Salt Lake City, UT (greenhouse heating);
discovery becomes much more difficult. New Castle, UT (greenhouse heating); Animas, NM (green-
house heating); Gila Bend, AZ (aquaculhm); Susanville, CA
No producing high-temperature hydrothermal systems (district heating and greenhouses) and others.
have yet been located in the Cascades. A vapordominated
system is present at Lassen Peak in California, but it lies Reasons for the abundance of fesoutcesin the Basin and
within a national park, and will not be developed. A Range seem clear. This area, especially at its margins, is an
hydrothermal system having temperatures >390°F (>200°C) active area geologically. Volcanism only a few hundred years
43
old is known from tens of locations. The area is also active 3.6.15 Western Snake River Plain
seismically and faulting that causes the uplift of mountain
ranges 'also serves to keep pathways open for deep fluid The Snake River Plain of southern Idaho is believed to
circulation. be the trace of a hot spot (see Section 3.3.1.3) that is now
found in the Yellowstone area. Volcanism and intrusion at
3.6.13 Orenon Plateaus Yellowstone are responsible for the large area of prominent
geothermal manifestations there. The Snake River Plain con-
The Oregon Plateaus province is structurally transitional sists of thick lava flows and other volcanic deposits. It is
between the Basin and Range on the south, and the Columbia divided into western and eastern provinces on the basis of
Plateaus on the north. Rocks exposed in the province range geologic differences. The western portion consists partly of
from late Paleozoic and Mesozoic marine strata, and Mesozoic late Tertiary silicic volcanic rocks and clastic sedimentary
intrusive rocks to late Tertiary volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks (Malde and Powers, 1962). The province has a heat
rocks (Baldwin, 1981). flow that is higher than normal, and 32 low-temperaturegeo-
thermal systems have been identified. Most of the thermal
Six systems with surface discharges at temperaturesup to fluids apparently rise along steep faults and spread laterally
158"F, but whose geothermometers indicate temperatures into the volcanic basin fill. Thirteen geothermal systems with
above 194°F at depth, were listed by Muffler (1979). Mariner reservoir volumes of more than 1/4 mi3 are mgnized
et al. (1983)listed 40 systems with geothermometer tempera- (Mariner et al., 1983).
tures between 113 and 13l0F,but spring and well temperatures
were generally below 90°F. In addition to the low-temperature systems, Brook et al.
(1979) identified 3 high-temperature systems and 7
The area is sparsely populated and current use is limited intermediate-temperaturesystems. Deep (3,300 ft +) irri-
to resort p l s and minor amounts of space heating. gation wells produce large amounts of water at temperatures
up to 180°F. Several of the systems may represent stacked
3.6.14 Columbia Plateaus aquifers-the hydrology of the area is complex because of
interbedding of basalt flows. Them is probably a great deal
The Columbia Plateaus province of Washington and of mixing among various geothermal and surface waters.
Oregon is constructed of flood basalt of Miocene to Pliocene
age. The basalt flows have a maximum thickness of about Direct uses in the province cover a spectrum from
6,500ft and are mantled by Pleistocene sediment as much as industrial applications to p l heating. There is a mushroom-
1,150ft thick (Swanson et al., 1979). Although the regional growing facility in Vale, Oregon, producing 5 million Iblyr,
heat flow is normal for the Western United States and shallow four district heating systems in Boise, ID, and large green-
groundwatersare cold, deep wells in eastern Washington have houses and aquaculture facilities near Buhl, ID.
penetrated warm water in aquifers at two depth intervals. The
shallower aquifer, which occurs at depths of 1,OOO to 2,300 ft 3.6.16 Eastern Snake River Plain
in basalt, appears to be restricted in area. The subsurface
extent of the deeper aquifer, which occurs between depths of The Eastern Snake River Plain province is a broad
2,600feet and 4,900feet, is unknown. Thermal waters in the northeast-trending downwarp, partly filled with young basalt
Washington part of the province appear to be conductively flows. Heat-flow values measured in shallow ( <700 ft) wells
heated. Besides the 8 conductiondominatedsystems identified in the eastern Snake River Plain are low, <20 mW/m2,
in Washington, 15hydrothermalconvectionsystems are identi- because of cold-water movement in the extensive Snake Plain
fied along the south edge of the province in Oregon. Prelimi- aquifer (Brott et al., 1976). The abundance of young basalt,
nary, unpublished data collected for the DOE indicate that the however, suggests that thermal anomalies may exist in the
Hanford area may host more geothermal resource than was subsurface, at least locally. A total of 20 low-tempera-
estimated in Mariner et al. (1983). geothermal systems was identified in the province; 16 of these
are isolated systems (Mariner et al., 1983). Brook et al.
In general, the temperatures are too low for direct space (1979)reported only two areas where intermediate tempera-
heating but are excellent for heat pump applications. Fairly tures may exist at depth although geothermometersmay be in-
large heat pump systems have been installed at Yakima and accurate. Applications are limited to very minor residential
Ephrata, Washington. The expense of drilling deep wells in space heating, stock watering, and resorts.
basalt places economic burdens on applications such as green-
housing and aquaculture. At a few locations, wells and
springs in Oregon have been utilized for space and resort
heating.
44
3.6.17 Northern Rocky Mountains 3.6.20 Colorado Plateaus
The Idaho batholith in central Idaho and the Boulder The Colorado Plateaus province is an area of relatively
batholith in southwestern Montana together make up most of flat-lying, undeformed Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary
the Northern Rocky Mountains province. The province con- rocks. The province is seismically inactive and has low heat
tains 135 isolated low-temperaturegeothermaloccurrencesthat flow. Low-temperature geothermalsystemsare identifiedonly
are probably controlled by fault and joint patterns in the -
in the part of the province in Utah a total of 30 such
crystalline rocks. In addition, there are six systems of large systems, of which 29 are isolated occurrences, is recognized.
areal extent. Brook et al. (1979) report 20 intermediate- Although young volcanic features in northern Arizona and
temperature systems in Idaho and 8 in Montana, one of which New Mexico are possible geothermal targets, the province has
is at Marymille, Montana. Maximum surfacetemperaturesare little identified geothermal potential.
190°F.
As far as it is known there are no direct-use applications
Relatively few wells have been Wed, with most appli- nor does there appear to be much potential. The Asbley oil
cations using natural flow from springs. The primary direct field in the Unita Basin of Utah, at the north border of the
uses are at resorts for pool and space heating. Fairmont province, produces large quantities of relatively fresh (1800
Resort has a substantial space heating system. There is a large ppm TDS) water at temperaturesof 110°F to 130°F along with
greenhouse complex near Helena, MT (High Country Roses), oil production. In 1981, when oil pumping was quite heavy,
a small district heating system in Ketchum, ID, and space and 3,300 acre-ft of this Fresh thermal water was produced
domestic hot water heating at Warm Springs State Hospital in (Goode, 1985).
Montana.
3.6.21 pi0 Grande Rift
3.6.18 Middle Rockv Mountains
The Rio Grande Rift extends from western Texas to the
The Middle Rocky Mountains are characterized by com- upper Arkansas Valley of Colorado. The province, particu-
plex geology that includes thrusting, normal faulting and larly in New Mexico, has high heat flow and contains several
folding. A total of 25 widely scattered low-temperature thermal anomalies. It is comprised of several interconnected,
geothermalsystems has been identified in the province. These partly filled structural basins. Harder et al. (1980) and
systems are apparently structurally controlled, and all but one Morgan et al. (1981) proposed that these thermal anomalies
are probably of limited extent. Heat flow is normal, and are the result of forced convection driven by groundwater flow
water temperahues are determined by circulation depths. through the interconnected basins. Thermal springs and
Brook et al. (1979) identified only 3 small intermediate- surface heat-flow anomalies are thought to occur where the
temperature systems and no high-temperature systems. The groundwater flow is umstricted at the discharge areas of the
only known direct uses are being made by resorts. basins. Temperatures within individual geothermal systems
are determined by the depths of water circulation and the
3.6.19 Southern Rocky Mountains geothermal gradient. A total of 44 isolated and 4 larger area
low-temperature geothermal reservoirs was recognized in the
The Southern Rocky Mountains of Colorado and New province by Mariner et al. (1983). Brook et al. (1979) report
Mexico consist of a wide variety of rocks ranging from four intermediate-temperaturesystems, two of which may be
Precambrian crystalline basement to Cenozoic volcanic rocks. leakage from Valles Caldera.
The province has a normal heat flow and is not seismically
active. Of the 34 identified geothermal systems, 33 are The Valles Caldera itself sits near the edge of the Rio
isolated occurrences, and the province does not appear to have Grande Rift in the Jemez mountains. An active research
much high-temperature geothermal potential (Mariner et al., drilling program, sponsored by the Department of Energy,
1983). Brook et al. (1979) identified 10 intermediate- Office of Basic Energy Science under the Continental
temperature systems. Scientific Drilling Program (CSDP), has extended greatly the
knowledgepreviously availableabout the geothermaltesoun'~s
Although most of the systems are isolated, some have there. UNOCAL's Geothermal Division had previously
sizeable flows and support fairly large direct uses. Steamboat explored the area and had drilled a number of production
Springs, Glenwood Springs, Poncha Springs, and Pagosa wells. However, their effort failed to find sufficient
Springs, all in Colorado, have large pools and space heating. production to support a planned 50 Mwe electrical generating
The city of Ouray, Colorado has drilled wells for a small plant that was to be a joint venture demonstration project of
district heating system. Other uses are mainly pools and small UNOCAL, Public Power of New Mexico and DOE'S
resort space heating. Geothermal Division. The CSDP drilling has extended the
45
area of potential and found a vapordominated system. The been explored for petroleum and fresh water, which has
Fenton Hill hot dry rock research site of the Los Alamos generated a large amount of data. Depths to water, piem
National Laboratory is located on the rim of the Caldera. The metric heads and water quality can often be predicted with
Valles Caldera area ho€dsgreat potential for future geothermal reasonable accuracy.
development for uses at a range of temperatures.
There are relatively few direct uses in the province.
A few direct uses have been developed to date. There is Most of the natural springs are utilized for resorts and pools
some space heating at the small town of Jemez and a sizeable such as near Cody and at Hot Springs State Park in
domestic hot water system at New Mexico State University. Thennopoiis, WY. There is a district heating system in, and
greenhouse near Phillip, space and domestic hot-water heating
3.6.22 Wvominp Basin in a hospital in Pierre, SD, a large geothermal heat pump
system at St. Joseph Indian School, and smaller applications
In western Wyoming, identified low-temperature in various locations.
geothermal-resourceareas are associated with both hot springs
and sedimentaxy basins. Hot sprhgs occur adjacent to major A major use of geothermal energy in this province is for
uplifts, in many places along small anticlinal folds on the enhanced oil recovery where wells produce hot water and
flanks of the bordering mountain blocks (Breckemidge and hydrocarbons. The hot water is utilized both in surface
Hinckley, 1978). In the Bighorn Basin, vertical flow over separation facilities and is injected to stimulate production.
such anticlinal structures results in measured temperature Enhanced oil recovery in this area alone Bccounts for about
gradients of 2.6 to 3.7"F/100 ft above the Tensleep aquifer. 50% of the annual direct use of geothermal resources in the
In southern Wyoming, geothermal-resource areas are associ- us.
ated with regional uplifts, such as the Rock Springs and
Rawlins uplifts, over most of the adjacent basins, depths to 3.6.24 Balcones Zones, TX
aquifers in Cretaceous and older sedimentary rocks are so
great that the temperature exceeds 200 O F (Sorey et aI., T h e d fluids at temperatures generally below 140°F
1983b). occur in a zone that trends northeasterly across central Texas
in the Great Plains and Coastal Lowland provinces. Many of
Sandstones of the Dakota and Tensleep Formations and the large population centers are in or near this zone, and there
Madison limestones have been identified as teservOir rocks. appears to be significant potential for geothermal development
Surface tempe)atures of waters produced from these rocks in spite of the rather low temperatures.
generally range between 95°F and 135°F. Springs generally
OCCUT at the margins of the basins at anticlines. Except for An initial assessmentof the geothermalpotential has been
access by deep oil wells, the most likely areas for future documented by Woodruff and McBride (1979). The t h e d
direct-use development would also be near the margins where fluids occur in a band broadly delimited by the Balcones fault
drilling is shallower and temperatures a bit cooler but water zone on the west and the Luling-Mexia-Talco fault zone on the
quality better. Where springs or wells produce from the east. In many locations, the thermal fluids are low enough in
Madison, flows are often large. Direct uses are primarily content of dissolved salts to be potable, and indeed many com-
pools at resorts although there is some space and greenhouse munities already tap the warm fluids for their municipal water
heating. supplies.
3.6.23 Great Plains The geothermalaquifers are mostly CretaceousSandstone

units, although thermal fluids are produced locally from
A large area of the northern Great Plains province Cretaceouslimestones and Tertiary sandstones. The thermally
including Montana east of the Rockies, western North and anomalous zone coincides with an ancient zone of structural
South Dakota, western Nebraska, northeast Colorado and weakness dating back more than 200 million years. The m e
much of eastern Wyoming is underlain by almost continuous has been a hinge line with uplift of mountain ranges to the
thermal aquifers in the Dakota sandstones and Madison lime- north and west, and downwaxping to the south and east. Sedi-
stones. Over much of the area, the aquifers are too deep to ments have deposited in the areas of downwarping, and the
economicallyjustify drilling for direct uses, although changes rate of sedimentation has kept pace with sinking, keeping this
in energy costs could change the economics. Near uplifts, area close to sea level. Structural deformation of the sedi-
anticlines and bordering mountains, the aquifers are shallower, ments, including faulting and folding, and interfingering of
cooler and generally contain better quality fluid. Where diverse sedimentary units have resulted in the complex aquifer
springs from the Madim OCCUT, flows are often as large as system of today. The source of the anomalous heat is not
several thousand gal/& but temperatures are too low for any hown with certainty.
uses except aquaculture and heat pumps. Much of the area has
46
3.6.25 Remaining Provinces. Table 3.4 Summary of Energy by State for Identified
Low-TemperatureGeothermalSystemsin the U.S.
Sorey et al. (1983b) identified several low-temperature
resources throughout the remainder of the central and eastern
U.S. based mainly on temperature gradients and depths. Number of Accessible Beneficial
Systems ResourceBase Resource Heat
Although some reservoir temperatures approaching 200 "F State (10'*1) (101*1) (MWt for 30 yr)
were identified, most were considerably lower. Except for a
few isolated systems, depths are too great for economic direct-
use applicationsunless existing wells can be utilized. This is Alaska 33 3.5 0.88 430
not to say direct use applications will not occur. There are Arizona 63 33 3.6 1,640
Arkansas 6 SO .092 36
many unused deep wells, some of which produce useable California 203 54 5.6 2,000
volumes of water at high enough temperatures. There is little Colorado 49 690 3.6 1,800
doubt that in time, as economic conditions change, some of Georgia 1 .050 .012 3.7
these wells will be utilized. Hawaii 1 1.70 .054 24
Idaho 171 55 6.1 2,800
KanSaS 2 1,700 3.3 1,700
Massachusetts 1 .016 .004 .O
3.7 POTENTIAL FOR GEOTHERMAL Montana 52 10,200 17.3 8,800
DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED STATES Nebraska 1 930 3.4 1,550
Nevada 191 28 5.5 2.400
Reed (1983) identified the contribution from low- New Mexico 70 7.4 1.32 580
New York 1 .018 .005 .O
temperature hydrothermalconvection and conduction- North Carolina 3 .98 .0152 80
dominated g e o t h e d systems in each state and his results are North Dakota 2 6.400 9.8 5,000
given in Table 3.4. Although these data are becoming dated, Oklahoma 1 3,600 3.9 2, 100
there has been no further assessment of the geothermal Oregon 99 15 2.7 1,200
resources of the U.S. since they were published. There has South Dakota 5 1,800 5.7 2.600
Texas 17 84 .86 420
been some effort by state geological surveys and universities Utah 118 20 2.1 690
to update the geothermal data base in their individual states, Virginia 14 1.05 .25 100
and the best current source of information are these state Washington 25 77 1.12 450
people. A list of state agencies and universities that can West Virginia 5 .088 .023 . .O
Wyoming 34 1.400 9.5 4.800
provide information on geothermal resources is given in the
Appendix to this chapter.
Total 1,168 27.000 87 41,000
Reservoirs in hydrothermal convection systems make up
the greatest proportion (97%) of identified low-temperature
geothermal-resourceareas, but the smaller average volume of
these systems accounts for their contributionof only 1% to the geothermal systems could amount to 72,000 thermal
accessible resource base. However, the small size of most megawatts for 30 years. This figure does not include the
reservoirs in hydrothermal convection systems also leads to a potential contribution from geothermal heat pumps operatiag
relatively high average recovery factor (0.15), and they on normal-temperature earth. This indicates the substantial
8ccount for 35% of the ident@ed resource. The beneficial potential for low-temperature geothermal resources.
heat calculated for hydrothermal convection systems is 32% of
the total identified beneficial heat, a proportion that reflects Mu€iler (1979) has dealt with the problem of how much
the lower average reservoir temperature of these systems. accessible high- and intermediate-temperatureresource exists
in the US., both at known sites and those that are
ctiondominated system are He concludes that the undiscovered resource
s, some are extremely large, and taken to- base is on the order of three to five times greater than the
gether they constitute 64% of the resources known today. These figures do not include possible
hot dry rock or other more speculative resources. Table 3.5
is a summary of the current estimate of the geothermal
depth to most of these reservoirs and the attendant higher resource base as taken from his work. This table demonstrates
average temperature explains their contribution of 68% of the our present lack of detailed knowledge of the resqurce, given
total beneficial heat for identified geothermal systems. Reed the wide ranges and many missing numbers. It can be
(1983) concluded that the undiscovered low-temperature concluded, however, that the geothermal resource base in the
reserve in the U.S. is about 70 96 of the discovered amount, U.S. is very large.
and that the total beneficial heat from low-temperature
47
Table 3.5 Geothermal Energy Inventory for the U.S. for Resources with Temperatures >9OT (Muffler, 1979)
1
Acaasab Acaualcmdd-BL& AaasSW-B.& Bar.6.A

RgollrocBMe RwauvzBuc n
to 6.86 hn (IOL8 to 3 hn (1018 n Rwauvz Elacricity HaI
to 10 hn (10'8 1) t07)rm(IO'~J) Sa&- shh T d >lw C90%5@C T d (101*1) W e hap) (1018J)
33,000,000 17,000,000
370,Oa) 1S3.000
33,000,000 17,pO,000
700 a 42
3100-5pO
3800.5900
2m
2.a
-
184310
m3w
.
410,000 11.000 %m
- 4E
- 17,000 153.000
REFERENCES CITED Brott, C. A., Blackwell, D.D., and Mitchell, J.C., 1976, Heat
flow study of the Snake River plain region, Idaho - Pt.
Baldwin, E. M., 1981, Geology of Oregon (3rd ed.): 8 of Geothermal Investigations in Idaho: Idaho
Dubuque, Iowa, KendallMunt, 170 p. Department of Water Resources, Water Information
Bulletin 30, 195 p.
Batchelor, A. S., 1982, The stimulation of a hot dry rack
geothermal reservoir in the Comubian Granite, England Brook, C. A., Mariner, R. H., Mabey, D. R., Swanson, J.R.,
-
in P r d i n g s of the Eighth Workshop on Geothermal Guffanti, M. and Muffler, L.J.P., 1979, Hydrothermal
Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, p. 237-248. convection systems with reservoir temperatures > = 90
deg C: Assessment of Geothermal Resources of the
Bjornsson, S., 1980, Natural heat saves millions of barrels of United States - 1978, U.S. Geological Survey Circular
oil: Atlantica and Iceland Review, v. 18, p. 28-37. 790, L.J.P. Muffler, editor, p. 18-85.
Blackwell, D. D. and Baag, C. G., 1973, Heat flow in a Cole, D. R., 1982, Tracing fluid sources in the East Shore
"blind" geothermal area near Marysville, Montana: area, Utah: Ground Water, v. 20, no. 5, p. 586-593.
Geophysics, v. 38, p. 941-956.
Costain, J. K.,Glover, L. 111, and Sinha, A. K., 1980, Low
Bose, J. E., 1990, Information brochures published by the temperature geothermal fesources in the Eastern United
International Ground-Source Heat Pump Association, State: EOS, v. 61, p. 1-13.
Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK.
Craig, H., 1963, The isotopic geochemistry of water and
Bott, M.H.P., 1982, The Interior of the ---Its Structure, carbon in geothermal areas: & Nuclear Geology of
Constitutionand Evolution: Edward Amold (Publishers), Geothermal Areas, Spoleto, Pisa, Consiglio Nazionale
Ltd., London, 403 p. delle Recerche, Laboratorie de Geologia Nucleare.
Breckenridge, R. M., and Hinckley, B. S., 1978, Thermal Dunn, J. C., Ortega, A., Hickox, C. E., Chu, T.Y., and
springs of Wyoming: Geological Survey of Wyoming, Wemple, R.P., 1987, Magma energy extraction:
Bulletin 60, 104 p. Proceedings of the Twelfth Workshop on Geothermal
Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, v. 12, p.
13-20.
48
Ellis, A. J., andMahm, W.A. J., 1977, ChemistryandGeo- Lund, J. W., Lienau, P. J. and Culver, Gene, 1990, The
thermal Systems: Academic Press, New York, 392 p. current status of geothermal direct use development in
the United States: Geothermal Resources Council
Freeston, D. H., 1990, Direct uses of geothermal energy in T m ~ a c t i ~V.n ~14,
, p. 277-291.
1990 Geothermal Resources Council Bulletin, v. 19 p.
188-198. Mahm, W.A.J., Klyen, L.E., and Rhde, M.,1980, Neutral
sodium/bicarbonate/sulfate hot waters in geothermal
Fuis, G. S., Mooney, W.D., Healy, J.H., McMechan, G.A., systems: Chinetsu (Journal of the Japan Geothermal
and Lutter, W.J., 1982, Crustal structureof the Imperial Energy Association), v. 17, p. 11-24.
Valley region, California: & The Imperial Valley
earthquakeof October 15,1979, U.S.Geological Survey Malde, H. E., and Powers, H. A., 1962, Upper Cenozoic
Professional Paper 1254, p. 25-50. stratigraphy of the western Snake River plain, Idaho:
Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 73, no. 10,
Goode, H. D., 1985, Hot water from the Ashley Valley oil p. 1197-1220.
field: & Geology and Energy Resources, Uinta Basin of
Utah, Utah Geological Association Guidebook 12, M.D. Mariner, R. H., Brook, C. A., Reed, M. J., Bliss,J. D.,
Picard, Editor, p. 295-299. Rapport, A.L., and Lieb, R.J., 1983, Low-temperature
geothermal resources in the western United States: &
Gosnold, W.D., 1990, Heat flow in the Great Plains of the Assessment of Low-Temperature Geothermal Resources
United States: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 91, of the United States -1982, U.S. Geological Survey
p. 353-374. Circular 892, M.J. Reed, Editor, 73 p.
Harder, V., Morgan, P., and Swanberg, C.A., 1980, Geother- Miller, T. P., Barnes, I., and Patton W.W.,Jr., 1975, Geo-
mal resources in the Rio Grande rift --
origins and logic setting and chemical characteristics of hot springs
potential: Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, in westcentral Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Journal
v. 4, p. 61-64. of Research, v. 3, no. 2, p. 149-162.
Helgeson, H.C., 1968, Geologic and thermodynamiccharac- Morgan, P., Harder, V., Swanberg, C.A., and Daggett, P.H.,
teristics of the Salton Sea geothermal system: American 1981, A groundwater convection model for the Rio
Journal of Science, v. 266, p. 129-166. Grande rift geothermal resources: Geothermal Resources
Council Transactions, v. 5, p. 193-196.
Henley, R. W.,andEllis, A. J., 1983, Geothermal systems
ancient and modem, a geochemicalreview: Earth Science Motyka, R. J., Moorman, M. A., and Liss, L. A., 1981,
Review, v. 19, p. 1-50. Assessment of thermal spring sites, Aleutian Arc, Atka
Island to Becherof Lake - preliminary results and
Hendron, R. H., 1987, The U.S.hot dry rock project: Pro- evaluation: Alaska Division of Geological and
ceedings of the Twelfth Workshop on Geothermal Geophysical Surveys Open-File Report 144, 173 p.
Reservoir Engineering, Stanford University, v. 12, p. 7-
12. Muffler, L. J. P., editor, 1979, Assessment of geothermal
\ resources of the United States - 1978: W.S. Geological
Hitchon, B., Billings, G., and Klovau, J. E., 1971, Geo- Survey Circular 790, 157 p.
chemistry and origin of formation waters in the western
Canada sedimentary basin - III - Factors controlling Norton, D. L., 1984, Theory of hydrothermal systems:
chemical composition: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Annual Reviews of Earth and Planetary Science, v. 12,
Acta, V. 35, p. 567-598. p. 155-177.
,
-
Huttrer, G. W., 1990, Geothermal electric power A 1990 Page, B. M., 1966, Geology of the Coast Ranges of
world status update: Geothermal Resources Council California: Coast Ranges province, Chapt. 6 of
Bulletin, v. 19 p. 175-187. Bailey, E.R., ed., Geology of Northern California,
California Division of Mines and Geology Bulletin 190,
Lienau, P. J., Culver, Gene 'and Lund, J.W., 1988, Geother- p. 255-276.
mal direct use sites in the United States-interim report:
Geo-Heat Center, Oregon Institute of Technology, Reed, M. J., editor, 1983, Assessment of low-temperature
100 p. -
geothermal resourcesof the United States 1982: U.S.
Geological'Survey Circular 892, 73 p.
49
Sammel, E. A, 1981, R d t s of test drilling at Newberry US. Departmat of Energy, 1987, Energy security - A
volcano, Oregon: Geothermal R-esources Council Report b the President of the United States: DOGIS-
Bulletin, v. 10, no. 11, p. 3-8. 0057, U.S. Government Printing Office240 , p., with
appendices.
Sorey, M.L., Nathemn, M.and Smith, C.,1983a. Methods
for assessing low-temperature geothermal tesources: Varet,J., 1982, Usage direct de Ea ehaleur; Geothermie
Assessment of Low-Temperature Geothetml Resources Basse-Energie, Masson, Paris.
-
of the Unibxi States 1982, U.S. Geological Survey
Circular 892, M.J. Reed, Editor, 73 p. White, D. E., 1965, Geothermal energy: U.S. Geological
Survey Circular 519, 17 p.
Sorey, M.L., Reed, M. J., Foley, D., and Renner, f. L.,
1983b, Low-temperature geothermal resources in the White, D. E., Muffler, L. J. P., and Truesdell, A. H., 1971,
Central and Eastern United States: Assessment of Vapordominated hydrothermal system wmpared with
Low-Temperature Geothermal Resources of the United hot-water system: Economic Geology, v. 66, p. 75-97.
States - 1982, US. Geological Survey Circular 892,
M.J.Reed, Editor, 73 p. White, D.E., and Williams, D.L., W., 1975, Assessment of
Geothermal R e ~ ~ u r coefs the United States-1975: U.S.
Smith, R. L., and Shaw, H.R.,1975, Igneous-related geother- Geological Survey Circular 726, 155 p.
mal systems: & Assessment of Geothermal R e s o u ~ .of
~s
the United States - 1975, D.E. White and D.L. Van Eysinga, F. W. B., 1978, Geological Time Table, 3rd
Williams, eds., U.S. Geological Survey Circular 726, p. Edition, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company.
58-83.
Williams, D.L.,and Von Henen, R.P., 1974, Heat loss from
Swanson, D.A., Wright, T. L., Hoopex, P. R., andBentIey, -
the earth new estimate: Geology, v. 2, p. 327-328.
R. D., 1979, Revisions in stratigraphic nomenclature of
the Columbia River Basalt Group: U.S. Geological Woodruff,C. M.,Jr., and McBride, M. W.,1979, R e g i d
Survey Bulletin 1457-G, p. (31459. assessment of geothermal potential along the Balwnes
and Luling-Mexia-Talc0 fault zones, Central Texas: U.S.
Thomas,D. M., Lienert, B.R., Cox, M.E.,Kauahikaua, J.P., DOE Rqt., DOEIETl28375-1, 145 p. with Appendix.
and Mattice, M., 1982, Hawaii geothermal resource
assessment - 1982: Geothermal Resources Council
Transactions, v. 6, p. 63-66.
50
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 3
SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON GEOTHERMAL, RESOURCES
General Information University of Utah Research Institute 801-524-3422

All Areas Earth Science Laboratory
391 Chipeta Way
Geo-Heat Center 503-885-1750

Oregon Institute of Technology
3201 Campus Dr.
U.S. Department of Energy 202-586-8076

Geothermal Division
lo00 Independence Ave. S.W.
Washington, DC 20585
U.S. Department of Energy 208-526-1432

Idaho Operations Office
785 DOE Place
U.S. Geological Survey 415-329-5239

345 Middlefield Road
Menlo Park, CA 94025
Geothermal Resources Council . 916-758-2360

P.O. Box 1350
Davis, CA 95617
Alabama Geological Survey of Alabama 205-349-2852

420 Hackberry Lane .
P.O. Drawer 0 .
Tusc81oosa, AL 35486
Alaska Geophysical Institute 907-474-7430
University of Alaska
Fairbanks, AK 99775-0800
Department of Natural Resources 907-465-2520

Division of Geological
and Geophysical Surveys
400 Willoughby Bldg. 3rd Floor
Juneau, AK 99801
U.S.Geological Survey 602-670-5510

210 East 7th street
Tucson, A2 85705
Department'of Geosciences 602-621-6024

University of Ari~ona
Gould-Simpson Bldg. Rm 208
Tucson, A2 85721
51
California California Division of Oil &.Gas 916-445-9686
1416 9th St., Rm 1310
Sacramento, CA 95814
California Division of Mines and Gedogy 916-445-5716

PO Box 2890
Sacramento, GA 95812
Colorado Colorado Geological Survey 303-866-2611

715 State Centennial Building
1313 Sherman Street, Rm 715
Denver, CO 80203
Florida University of Florida 904-320-223 1

Depiutment of Geology
1112 Turlington Hall
Gainsville, FL 32611
Hawaii Department of Business, Economic 808-5484080

Development and Tourism
Energy Division '
355 Merchant St., Rm. 110
Honolulu, HI 96813
School of Ocean, Earth sci. & Tech. 808-956-7059

University of Hawaii at Mmox
2525 Correa Road
Honolulu, HI 96822
Idaho Boise State University 208-385- 1308

Department of Geology & Geophysics
Boise, ID 8372S
State of Idaho 208-327-7900

Dept. of Wxter Resources, Energy Section
1301 North Orchard St.
Boise, ID 83720
Kansas Kansas Geological Survey 9 13-864-4991

1930 Campus West Constant Ave
University of Kansas
Lawrence,KA 66047
Mississippi Mississippi Geological Survey 601-354-6228

2525 No. West S b t -
PIO. BOX4915
Jackson, MS 39216
Montana Montana College of Mineral Science and T e c h ~ 1 0 ~ 406-496-4101

Department of Physics and GeuphyskaLFmgineeMg
Butte, MT 59701
Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology 406-4964174

Montana College of Mineral Sciences
and Technology
Butte, MT. 59701
52
I
Nebraska Nebraska Geological Survey 402-472-3471

113 NB Hall
Lincoln, NB 68588
Nevada Desert Research Institute 702-677-3165

I University of Nevada System
P.O. Box 60220
~
Reno, NV 895064220
University of Nevada, Las Vegas 702-739-3262

Division of Earth Sciences
Environmental Research Center
Department of Geoscience
4505 Maryland Parkway
Reno, NV 89154
Nevada Bur. Mines and Geology 702-784-6691

MS 178
University of Nevada
Reno, NV 89557
New Mexico New Mexico Institute of Miuing and Technology 505-835-5306

Campus Station NM Bureau of Mining
Department of Geoscience
Socorro, NM 87801
1
I . Energy Minerals and Natural Resources 505-827-5970’
1 2040 S. Pachew
!
Development Institute * 505-646-1920
1 P.O. Box 3SOL
Las Cruces,Nh4 88003
,
North Dakota North Dakota Geological Survey . 701-224-4109
1
600 East Blvd
Bismark, ND 58505
, University of North Dakota 701-777-5000
Department of Geology and Geolog
P.O. Box 8213, University-S
I Grand Forks, ND 58203
I
II New York New York Energy Research and Development Authority 5 18-465-6251
I Agency Bldg., #2
I Rockerfeller Plaza
I
I Albany, NY 12223
I Ohio Ohio Geological Survey 614-265-6605

Fountain Square
I
I Columbus, OH 43224
Oklahoma Oklahoma Geological Survey 405-325-3031

1 University of~oklahoma
I
100 E. Boyde, Rm. N131
Norman, OK 73019
1
53
i
\
Oregon Oregon Dept. of Geology and Mineral Industries 503-229-5580

910 State Office Bldg
1400 S.W. 5th Avenue
Portland, OR 97201-5528
Texas Southern Methodist University 214-692-2750

Department of Geological Science
Dallas, TX 75275-0395
Texas Bureau of Economic Geology 512-471-7721

University of Texas
P.O. Box x
University Station
Austin, TX 78731
Texas Energy Extension Service 915-747-5494

University of Texas, El Pas0
P.O.Box 645
ElPaso,TX 79968
Utah Utah Geological and Mineral Survey 801-581-6831

606 Blackhawk Way
University of Utah Research Institute 801-524-3422

Earth Science Laboratory
391 Chipeta Way
Virginia Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 703-231-5096

Department of Geology
Blacksburg, VA 24061
Washington State of Washington 206-459-6372

Department of Natural Resources
Div. Geology and Earth resource^
Rowesix, Building 1
4224 S.E. 6th Avenue
Olympia, WA 98504
Washington state Energy office 206-956-2016

809 Legion Way SE, FA-11
Olympia, WA 98504
Wyoming Department of Geology and Geophysics 307-766-3386

University of Wyoming
P.O. Box 3006
M e , W Y 82071-3006
54
CHAPTER 4
EXPLORATION FOR DIRECT
HEAT RESOURCES
By Phillip M. Wright
ty of Utah Research Institute
Salt Lake City, Utah 84108
4.1 INTRODUCTION lower; perhaps only 10 to 20 96. The problem is usually not
so much in finding heat as in finding permeability and fluids
Exploration is the first step in geothermal energy (refer to Sections 3.3.1, 3.3.2 and 3.3.3) that are producible
development--a step which consists of the location of reser- in amounts sufficient to supply a utilization system and repay
voirs and the siting of wells for production of geothermal the costs of well drilling, testing, system installation,
waters. Exploration entails the application of various methods operation and maintenance.
and techniques from the fields of geology, geochemistry and
geophysics, with assistance from hydrology and especially The explorationist must locate wells that cut one or more
from drilling technology. Each of these fields is highly fracturesorpermeablebedswhichareco~ectedtothesource
specialized, and because exploration c8n be quite expensive area for the geothermal fluids. Although large blocks of rock
and risky, it is important for the developer of geothermal in nature are typically broken by fractures and faults, most of
resources to obtain the best help possible in these fields. The these breaks are not continuous enough to be connected with
developer who is not experienced in exploration should retain the source of fluids, and are thus not part of the reservoir per
consultants or contractors who have both extensive training se even though they may be filled with thermal water. Be-
and experience in exploration for geothermal resources. M y cause there is no known way to detect, from the surfm,the
in this way can the risks and costs of exploration be reduced particular permeable zones at depths of hundreds or thousands
to acceptable levels. of feet that are connected to the reservoir, exploration tech-
niques are mostly indirect and provide only circumstantial
evidence of the existence and location of a geothermal
reservoir.
4. I. 2 Intedisci~linarvNature of Geothermal DeveIoDment
Geothermal development projects are, by nature, inter-

iplinary. Figure 4.1 shows the team that must work
together successfully if a fesoutceis to be developed. Because
geothermal resoufces are geological phenomena, earth science
information is needed for almost all the phases of development
shown in Figure 4.1.
Development of petroleum and mineral reserves requires

similar, intensive earth science involvement. However, since
usually expensive and because the present economics of most the geothermal industry is small and relatively new, geother-
direct-heat applications will not support an extensive explora- mal exploration methods are not as mahue as me oil and
tion program, it is important to design and execute explora- mineral exploration methods. Over the years, the petroleum
tion programs in the most efficient way possible. Exploration and minerals industries have spent billions of dollars
tegies, discussed in Section 4.3 of this chapter, are used developing tools and techniques to solve their particular
exploration problems. By contrast, relatively little has been
spent on R&D for tools and techniques especially for geother-
Siting successful geothermal wells is far from &y. Even mal exploration. Even lesser amounts have been spent for
within such well-explored geothermal areas as The Geysers, direct-use applications. Geothermal developers, by necessity,
California, where the experience of locating and drilling have resorted to use of existing tools, which are sometimesnot
hundreds of wells is available, the success rate for production- optimum for geothermal application. In some cases, there ~ t e
well drilling is only about 80%. For wildcat geothermal simply no techniques to answer particular exploration
drilling in relatively unknown areas, the success rate is much questions.
55
Geology 2. The risk that the exploration program will locate and tap
Geochemistry the resource.
Hydrology
Finance
Resetvoir Both of these risk factors can be affected by human
Engineering intervention-by proper knowledge, experience, and
equipment.
Legal -p( )4- Drilling Mother Nature has placed geothermal resources where
and how they are, and not necessarily where and how we
would want them to be. The human factor enters through the
developer either being astute enough or not to conduct the
Environmental I Piant Design exploration program in the right place and in the right way.
Construction This statement is true both on the reconnaissance level, when
one is trying to locate a geothermal system, and on the
detailed-exploration level, when one is trying to locate
Figure 4.1 Geothermal development - an interdisciplinary producing wells within a geothermal system.
endeavor.
The second risk factor, the risk of finding the resource,
is also controlled by several other factors, incIuding the
4.1.3 Obiective and Ormnization of Chapter amount of money available for exploration and the quality of
the exploration team. If the project will not financially
The objective of this chapter is to discuss the principal support much exploration, the tendency is to move directly to
methods used in geothermal exploration, how exploration the attempted drilling of a production well. In some projects,
strategies are devised and programs carried out, and the costs this may be justified and of relatively low risk. But ia the
for typical exploration programs. Techniques for exploration majority of cases,moving directly to production drillingwith-
of resources of all temperatures will be presented, with out first developing solid evidence that the resource is to be
emphasis on low- and moderate-temperature resources because found underneath the drill site increases the exploration risk
these are the ones usually considered for direct applications. needlessly.
We will begin in Section 4.2 with a discussion of risks There has been an unfortunate history in the exploration
in geothermal exploration. In Section 4.3, we present the for direct-heat resources for the developer to do little or no
concept of exploration strategiesand discuss a generic strategy exploration, but simply to drill at the spot where the thermal
along with its application to several hypothetical examples. water is wanted. Weak geologic evidence may or may not be
Section 4.4 comprises a discussion of the geological, geo- available to support the drilling. In most cases, such am
chemical and geophysical exploration techniques. Typical approach is doomed to failure. Geothermal resources, we
exploration costs are included in this section as guidelines. reiterate, are where Mother Nature put them, not necessarily
Costs for exploration are variable from project to project, and where we want to drill. The developer is cautioned to be sure
are highly dependent on techniquesused, amount of data avail- that there is solid scientific evidence for the occurrence of a
able at the outset and field conditions, among other things. resource in the area and that enough exploration data have
The chapter ends, in Section 4.5, with the presentation of an been collected to point definitely to the site finally chosen as
integrated case study, that of the Monrae, UT geothermal the best place to drill. There is only one way to ensure that
area. The Appendix to this chapter contains a glossary of the quality and quantity of exploration data are sufficient to
terms for both Chapter 3 and Chapter 4. select drill sites, and this is by forming an experienced and
educated exploration team and listening to their advice. Even
with the best exploration team, there is no guarantee that the
4.2 RISKS IN GEOTHERMAL EXPLORATION project will succeed, but one will be sure that the risk has
been minimized.
Like all ~ h u a l - r e s o ~exploration,
r~e geothermalexplor-
ation is risky. There is never a guarantee that a test hole or
a production well will intersect the thermal fluids desired. 4.3 EXPLORATION AND RESERVOIR ASSESSMENT
The developer must be mentally and financially prepared to STRATEGIES
accept exploration as a risky venture. The degree of risk can
sometimes be estimated semiquantitativelyby malysis at the Geological, geochemical and geophysical methods are
outset, and-isusually found to be dependent upon two factors: commonly applied in geothermal exploration. Not all of the
available techniques would be used together in a typical
1. The risk that the resource exists in the exploration area; exploration program for direct-heat resources, however. Some
and, of them are normally applied only in exploration for high-
56
temperature resources. Some techniques might be applicable on to detailed studies of a few small areas. During this
in certain geologic environments but not in others, A dis- process, it is prudent to use lower unitcost exploration
cussion of the specific techniques referenced in this section is techniques during the earlier stages of the program and reserve
presented in Section 4.4. highercost techniques for later use when the area of interest
has been reduced.
Successful developers of geothermal energy usually have
a strategy or plan of attack before they begin. Exploration There are decision points at the end of each stage, noted
strategies have the purposes of minimizing risk of failure and on Figure 4.2 by the phrase "is further work warranted?",
optimizing the cost-effectiveness of the exploration. One when management may elect to terminate the project. By
common feature of these strategiesis that they provide one or assessing the odds for success at each decision point and
more decision points where project managers can elect to comparing the project to other similar projects or to other uses
either terminate the program or go on to the next stage. The of the money and manpower, an optimum explor#ion program
less expensive techniques are usually used in the first stages of will result and the risks and costs of exploration will be
exploration, when risk is highest. Each subsequent stage is minimized.
usually more expensive than the previous stage, but each stage
should reduce the risk of failure. Exploration, of course, As reconnaissance exploration progresses in a region,
eventually leads to the drilling of a production-, or injection- several favorable individual prospects will be identified. The
sized well, usually at high cost. relative priorities of these prospects for further exploration
must always be considered. In the following illustrations,we
An optimum exploration strategy will depend on the size speak as though we were considering a single prospect, but it
and purpose of the project, the amount of money and time is necessary always to bear in mind that various prospects may
available, the geologic environment, and the cumulative be in various stages of exploration at any given time. Work
exploration experience in that environment, among other among the prospects should always be prioritized so that
factors. In the remainder of this section, we will examine money and human resources are deployed in the optimum
exploration strategies in more detail. way.
4.3.1 Limitations of Exploration Strategies In the following discussion of the generic exploration
strategy of Figure 4.2, figures in parentheses correspond with
It is important to understand that because geothermal numbers on the figure.
resources are so varied in detail, even within resoufces of the
same general type, it is not possible to specify a certain 4.3.2.1 Available Data Base (1)
sequence of exploration techniques that will be the most cost
effective or that will even work in all circumstances. Stated All available regional and local geological, geochemical,
differently, there is no exploration strategy that can be blindly geophysical, and hydrologicaldata should be assembled for the
applied with the expectation of success every time. The exploration area and its surroundings. Once assembled,
exploration strategy to be followed in any area must be specialistsin each of the earth-sciencedisciplines should assess
designed specifically for application to that area by the the data in a preliminary fashion to determine its quality and
geoscientistswho are performing the work and interpreting the to identify any obvious gaps (2).
data. Nevertheless, we can present the components of
exploration strategies in a generic way. Often basic geologic data will be missing. These data
should be obtained at this point by geologic mapping. It is
4.3.2 Generic Exploration Strateey very important to have a sound geologic database at the outset
of an exploration project because interpretation of all other
Figure 4.2 illustrates a generic exproration strategy. data sets will depend upon availability of good geologic data
Before such a strategy can become useful on a project, specific and must be in agreement with it.
detail must be added to each of the steps. We will discuss the
generic strategy before illustrating how specific detail is 4.3.2.2 Intemted Internretation (31
added.
When the initial database is judged to be sufficient, it
Several overall aspects of Figure 4.2 merit attention. should be interpreted by specialists. By integrated
First, exploration progresses from the consideration of large interpretation,we mean to convey the necessityfor the various
areas, perhaps 10,OOO mi2, during the reconnaissance stage, specialists to work closely together in the data interpretation
to the development of a prioritized list of prospects within the process. The objective of this integrated intexpretation is to
reconnaissance area, and then to testing of each high-ranking formulate a conceptual geologic model of a geothermal
prospect by detailed exploration anddrilling. That is, explor- resource in the subsurface (4) in the exploration area that
ation proceeds from the consideration of a large area, through agrees with all of the available data. The model should
elimination of most of this area as being of little interest, and encompass what is known about the exploration area and a
57
1
Assemble regional and local available data base;
Geology. Geochemktxy, Geophysics,. Hydrology
Are critical items of data Yes
3
.1
Perform integrated interpretation
of data base quantitative inteqretatim aids
- experience
4
JI --------------------I_______
Foxmulate conceptual model of subsurface
J. 6
f i s further exploration w a r r a n t e d ? ) . -N-o-. . Fire
A W
1 - qmtitati
t- .
. Select exploration techniques
t
- expenene
and design survey parameters - practical aspects (costs,
availability. etc.)
J.
I
l1Formulate conceptualmodel of subsurface I
12 19
14
Collect subsurface data.
Drill cuttings, well logs etc.
................................
; - geologicmodels
1 - quantitativeinterpretationaids
total data base
16
J.
Formulate updated conceptualmodel
of subslrated
19
No+File
l7 Yes - Debelopment
18
Figure 4.2 Basic generic exploration strategy.
58
best estimate of the geologic structure of the subsurface. Of This entire planning process helps to ensure that the
course, the model should concentrate on those features that are survey will ind& measure a detectable response from a geo-
pertinent to the potential for occurrence of a geothermal thermal system if the geothermal system exists. Also, if no
resource in the area that can be detected by one or more of the such geophysical response is detected, then the model of the
available exploration techniques. subsurface would be changed accordingly.
In order to perform this interpretation step, a number of 4.3.2.5 Intenrated Internretation (91
ingredients must be available (5). These include: (a) how-
ledge of geologic models of geothermal resources in other After the planned geological, geochemical andlor geo-
areas as a basis for conceptualization about the study area (see physical survey(s) have been successfully completed, an inte-
Chapter 3); (b) data interpretation aids such as computer grated interpretation of the entire database is performed, with
modeling programs for geochemical and geophysical data; emphasis on incorporation of the newly acquired data. In
and, (c) experience in geothermal exploration for the general order to perform this integrated interpretation, the explora-
type of resources being sought. tionist must, again, have access to interpretation aids such as
computer programs, type curves, etc. (10).
4.3.2.3 ConceDtual Model (4)
4.3.2.6 UDdated Model (111
Once a model has been formulated, it is used to answer
a number of questions. The first question is "does the model The result of the integrated interpretation will be an
reveal anything to indicate that a resource may not be updated, upgraded conceptual geologic model of the sub-
present", i.e. is there negative information? If so, its quality surface. The model should represent the actual-suMace
and impact must be assessed, and the decision may be made at with a greater degree of accuracy because of the survey(s).
that point to stop exploration in the area (6). If the decision
is made to proceed, then the model is used in designing the With an updated model, the investigator is in a position
subsequent exploration program. to determine the next step. Were the survey results negative?
Does this establish with reasonable certainty that no resource
4.3.2.4 Exploration Techniques & Survev Desim (7) exists? If so, should the prospect abandoned? Is there another
survey that should be run? Perhaps the survey results were
There are several important aspects regarding the selec- positive--were reasonably quantitative and encouraging. In
tion of exploration techniques. If geophysical surveys are this case, it may be desirable to drill test the area.
being considered, for example, there must be some reason to
believe that certain features of the geothermal system will
cause a change in one or more of the physical or chemical
properties that geophysical surveys measure (see Section be to drill shallow (<500 ft) holes to
4.4.3). The question is asked: "If a geothermal system exists m k r e thermal gradient and heat flow, or it may be decided
in this area, what effect will it most likely have on physical to drill to intercept the geothermal target. Drill-hole
properties of the subsurface that can be measured by geo- parameters, including diameter, casing plan and the need for
physical surveys"? Once expected physical-property changes blow-out prevention equipment must be carefully considered.
have been identified, an estimate should be made of the An experienced drilling company and, perhaps, a separate
geometry of the region over which the physical property may drilling engineer are needed at this stage to plan and execute
vary. This allows a geophysical or geochemical model to be
calculated (8) to help determine whether or not a specific'
survey would detect a geothermal resource if one existed in
e, if an electrical g be made of drill data and results. Drill cuttings should be

expected, forward computer modeling programs (8) are used collected from holes. These can be used to help define
to help decide: (a) whether or not the anomalous body would lithology, petrography and hydrothermal alteration and for
be detectable by a surface resistivity survey; (b) what electrode measurementof physicalproperties. Conventionalgeophysical
array and spacing to use for the survey; (c) what configura- well logs may be run in the hole, with a typical logging suite
tions of survey lines would be optimum, and other pertinent being made up of temperature, caliper, resistivity, gamma-ray
questions. Notice that the same modeling aids that are used and acoustic logs. If the well is flowed or if there is a drill-
in interpreting the survey data are also used at this stage to do stem formation test, samples of the fluids from the well must
predictive modeling during the survey design process. be carefully collected and preserved for chemical analysis.
59
Often a hydrothermal combnent of such 'fluid samples cah be 2. Take a water saniple from the hot spring for chemical
detected through chemical analyses, lendingencouragementfor analyses. Interpret the geothemometercalculations from
further exploration. Chemical geothermometer calculations the chemical analyses to indicate the maximum expected
can be made from the analyses of pristine samples to help water temperitwe.
determine potential resource temperatures.
3. If the maximum expected temperature is lower than the
4.3.2.9 Integrated Interpretation (15) *mum teinperature deeded for economic utilization,
decide whether or not to proceed. The gedthermometer
Again, the new data are interpreted in light of existing data may be incorrect because of breakdown in one of
data and existing models of the resource area, and the con- the assumptionsmade in the geothermometercalculations
ceptual *geologicmodel is upgraded (16). The question of (see Section 4.4.2.2, Chemical Geothermometry).
what to do next is then answered in light of the resulting
model (17). The investigator may elect to perform further 4. If the decision is made to proceed, have a geologist
surface exploration (7), drill a second test well (13), drill a produce a detailed map of the surface trace of the fault
production well (18) or abandon the project (19). and determine its angle and direction of dip into the
subsurface.
4.3.3 Hmthetical Exdoration Strategies
5. Based on (4), select the spot on the ground where the
The application of the above exploration strategy might well will be drilled and specify a drilling depth.
best be illustrated by discussing several hypothetical Adequate margin for- error in predicting drilling depth
exploration program for various projects. should be allowed.
4.3.3.1 Small Proiect 6 . Select a drilling contractor, and have him design the
drilling program and drill the well. During drilling, the
Assume, in this illustration, that a developer is interested geologist should log the drill chips in real time as the
in drilling one well into a fault-controlled resource near a hole deepens in order to look for indications of geother-
known hot spring. Since the location of the hot spring is mal activity at depth and to recognize the fault when it
already known, the main questions to be answered in this case is intersected. It is hoped, of course, that intercept of
are the exact location and drilling depth of the well. the fault will be accompanied by a large flow of thermal
water into the well. If the fault is sealed where it is
The first step is to acquire all available geologic data on penetrated, however, there is the need to recognize this
the area. These data should be posted on a map at a scale of situation in order to avoid wasting money by drilling far
at least 1:24,000 (1 in equals about 0.5 mi) or even more beyond the fault.
detailed. If the intended use of the geothermal fluid is small
in scale, the production well would need to be drilled near the 7. If the first well is successful, the next step would be to
use site in order to minimize piping expense. The main proceed to well testing to determineproduction character-
problem in siting the well becomes one of mapping in detail istics. If the well is not successful, a decision must be
the location and dip angle of the fault in the near vicinity of made about whether to select a site for a second test well
the surface use site. A geologist should perform this job. or to abandon the project.
Although the location of the fault might be quite well 4.3.3.2 Mid-Sized Proiect
known, the angle of dip of the fault may not be easily
established. Determination of dip angle is critical because Imagine a geologic situation similar to the one in the
presumably the drilling should be performed in such a way as small project discussed above, but in this case there is a
to intersect the fault at a depth of, say, a few hundred to one requirement for several production wells. This can add
thousand feet. The angle and direction of dip must be known considerably to the complexity of exploration because the
in order to determine how far away from the surface trace of production wells must be placed far enough apart to avoid
the fault and on which side of the surface trace to drill in mutual interference during production.
order to hit the fault at a specified depth in the well. The
hope would be to produce water of higher temperature than We would begin by seeking encouragement from
the temperature of the hot spring, which may be diluted by chemical geothermometry as in the previous example. Next,
cold surface water. map the geology of the fault and any upwelling thermal water
over a much larger area away from the known hot spring.
The exploration program might be outlined as: Detailed geologic mapping over and surrounding this larger
area would be undertaken to trace the fault, which, of course,
1. Specify the temperature and flow rate needed from a cannot be assumed to be a straight-line projection from the
production well in order for the intended application to known hot spring area. A geophysical resistivity survey (see
be economically successful. Section 4.4.3.2) may be selected after the detailed geologic
60
mapping in order to determine the total extent of the area of The total list at this point would include all known geo-
upwelling thermal water, an area that should correspond to a thermal feawmi. The task is to cull this list to features of
region of measured low-resistivity values. further interest for exploration. Several criteria can be
applied. Springs and wells showing actual measured tempera-
Once the resistivity data are obtained and interpreted, the tures in the range of interest as well as areas of active
prospective geothermal area can be outlined dong with a fumaroles would top the list. Also on the list would be
determination of the depth beneath the surface at which springs and wells whose potential temperatures, as indicated
thermal water may be found. Although the area within which by chemical geothermometers, are above the specified mini-
wells might be successfully drilled would now be specified, mum temperature, as well as areas of sinter deposits. Sinter
the resistivity survey may or may not provide enough informa- is believed to precipitate in quantity only from waters whose
tion to select actual drill sites. If the trace of the fault is not subsurface temperature is 360 O F or more, and thus sinters are
apparent from geologic mapping, as it may not be because of a positive indication of high subsurface temperatures, at least
alluvial cover, the explorationist may elect to do a soil- in the past. Travertine, on the other hand, can deposit from
mercury (see Section 4.2.2.3) survey or a soil-gas radon springs of essentially any temperature, even non-thenmd
survey to help pin-point the fault within the resistivity low. springs. Also listed at this time would be thermal springs for
which there are no chemical geothermometerdata but that lie
Data should be collected until the explorationist feels close enough to a highway or railhead that RU economic
comfortable in being able to select well locations that have a installation could be made given reasonable assumptions of
suitably high chance of intersecting the resource. geothermal production temperature and flow rate.
From here, the exploration proceeds as before. The geo- Note that, in all of these considerations so far, the
logist makes a geologic log of each well from the drill chips chemistry of the produced fluids is primarily important in
and the work proceeds until the specified amount of geother- terms of calculating geothermometers and classifying geo-
mal water is found or until the decision is made to stop. thermal waters. At this stage, it is common to assume that
variations in chemistry of the p r o d u d fluids would pose no
4.3.3.3 Reconnaissance Exdoration environmental, scaling or corrosionproblems that could not be
handled by proper engineering when the fesoufceis discovered
In this hypothetical program, assume the developer is and tapped.
looking for a resource suitable for powering a specific type of
plant, say a vegetabledrying plant. In this case,the developer Continuing the example, the next step would be to visit
has specific criteria for what would constitute a suitable each site for which there are no chemical geothermmeter data
tesource in terms of minimum production temperature and and obtain a suitable sample for analysis. The uninitiated
flow rate, but the resource could be located anywhere near a would go to the spring, wade in with both feet, fill a beer
highway or railhead within a multi-state area. bottle with water and sediment, plug it with a piece of
whittled sage brush and send it to the cheapest lab around for
Designing and executing an exploration program for such analysis. The proper approach is to obtain the services of a
a resource presents different problems from those illustrated in competent geothermal explorationist, who would obtain
previous examples. The initial step is to compile selected suitable bottles for unpreserved and acid-preserved samples,
available data on known geothermal occurrences in the multi- carefully collect and filter the samples while measuring the
state area. Maps and reports on known thermal features may spring temperature, pH, and conductivity, and send the
be available at the offices of many state geological surveys or samples to a laboratory whose reputation for k l y s i s of
at universities (see Appendix to Chapter 3, "Sources of geothermal samples is proven.
Informationon GeothermalResources"). The data compilation
should include the name and location of each thermal spring When all gaps in geothermometerdata are filled, a list of
or well dong with its measured temperature, flow rate and any candidate sites for further exploration c8n be generated.
available chemical data that could be used to calculate geother- Highest on the list would be sites whose known, measufed
mometer temperatures. If geothermometer calculations have temperature exceeds the temperature requirements for the
been made by others, the results of the calculations, the water application. Perhaps the developer has already examined the
chemistry data, and the qualifying assumptions should be land situation at these sites and determined that land is not
reviewed. If there are no chemical data for some thermal available. Next would be sites whose chemical-
springs or wells, they should be added to a list of candidates geothermometer temperatures are in the range of interest and
for sampling and chemical analysis. Also noted in the first which have high flow rates. These sites would be followed by
data compilation would be geothermal features other than sites whose indicated temperatures are high but those flow
springs and wells. These would include known fumaroles and rates are lower. The list will probably be too long for detailed
deposits of siliceous sinter (Si03 or travertine (CaCO,) known exploration to be conducted at all sites. Therefore, the next
to have come from formerly active springs. step would be to cull the list of candidate sites again to
determine which ones will be explored further.
61
At this stage, the decision may be taken, for example, to comprehensive, ahd includes methods used both for high-
do resistivity geophysical &rveying over the five temperature and lower-temperature resources. It is provided
areas and to rank these five areas on the basis of to give the potential geothermal developer a better under-
of the resistivity anomalies. The assuttlption is that the Iarger standing of techniques at the disposal of the explorationist, and
in size the resistivity anomaly is, the larger the capacity of the of the variousjobs done by the geologist, the geochemist, and
reservoir for delivery of thermal wafer to a plant. Ah& the the geophysicist. Most techniques can be applied fo explora-
surveys are co‘mpleted, the areas would be tion for resources of any temperature, but some are more
wouid be the next step, beginning with expensive than the typical direct-heat project can support and
hi priority. are, thus, normally applied only to exploration for high-
temperature resources.
There may be need at this point to obtain addition& data
in some of the areas to assist in siting test wells. Mercury The following discussion is accompahied by tables that
geochemistryor self-potential geophysical surveys are possible give an indication of the costs and rates of progress to be
choices. If the anticipated production interval is fairly deep, expected for the various exploration techniques. These costs
say 2,000 ft or more, one may want to drill several shallow and rates of progress are approximate, to be used as guidelines
(500 ft), smalldiameter holes for measurement of temperature only. Because each fesoufce area differs from others in
gradient and heat flow. The area of highest indicated heat geology, topography and surface access, among other vari-
flow would then be selected for a deep production test. Such ables, it is not possible to specify exact cost or progress
an approach may be effective in reducing the risk of failure of figures. It should also be noted that the tables show cosfs
the expensive production well to produce adequate thermal onlyfor thefield-data gathering portion of qbloration. As a
water. general rule of thumb, an amount of money and time equal to
thoseforfielddata gathering should also be allowedfor data
compilation and interpretation.
4.4 COMMON TECHNIQUES USED IN GEOTHERMAL
EXPLORATION 4.4.1 Geoloeical Techniaues
The previous sections addressed general methods used in Collection of geologic data by surfacegeologic mapping,
evaluating direct-use reservoirs. Specific techniques in the study of drill cuttings and core, and laboratory work on
fields of geology, geochemistry and geophysics are discussed surface and subsurface rock samples provides the basic
in this section. This review of exploration techniques is quite information required for interpretation of geochemical,
Table 4.1 Geological Methods for Direct-Heat Exploration
Personnel Equipment Rate of Unit cost

Method Required Required Progress ($1
Geologic Mapping Geologist (1) Aerial photographs, maps 0.5 to 2 sq. mild 360 to 600/da
Chip Sample Logging Geologist (1) Binocular microscope 200 to 500 ft/db 350 to 600Id’
core Logging Geologist (1) Binocular microscope 200 to 500 ftld 350 to 600/d’
Age Dating
Sample Collecting Geologist (1) I 4 to 6 samples/d 350 to 500/da
Analytical Speciality Laboratory - 2 to 6 molorder 500/sample
a. Costs as follows: Per Day

($1
Geolcsgkt $25 to $50/h 200 400
-
Vehicle @ $35/day $0.35/mi 50 $0
Travel Expenses 80 I00
Supplies -
20 -
20
Total 350 600
b. Assumes 1 chip sample per 10 ft of hole.
62
geophysical and hydrological data. Development of an 3. Are there porous and permeable rock Units or are there
adequate understanding of the regional and local geology active faults or open rock contacts that could together
should be the first step undertaken in any geothermal constitute a plumbing network for a geothermalreservoir
exploration program. (see Sections 3.3.2 and 3.3.3)?
Table 4.1 lists the common geological methods along 4. Does the area have high potential for discovery of a
with personnel and equipment requirements, rates of progress geothermal re.source and, if so, what exploration
to be expected and costs. The following paragraphs present a strategies and techniques should be used next?
discussion of the individual techniques.
Typically, geologic mapping will be performed on high-
4.4.1.1 Geolof!k MaDDinp quality black-and-white or color, stereo aerial photos. The
mapped information will then be transferred to topographic
Often ignored or shortchanged, geologic mapping and maps at an appropriate scale. Figure 4.3 is an example of a
field evaluationof existing geologic maps is the important first geologic map from the Roosevelt Hot Springs geothermal area
.step in a geothermal explorationprogram. The field geologist: in Utah (Sibbett and Nielson, 1980). Roosevelt Hot Springs
is an area of diverse rock types and complex faulting. A
1. Identifies and locates,on an aerial photograph or a map, major high-temperature geothermal system underlies the
the various rock units in the area (e.g. sedimentary centralpartofthemappedarea, andaplumeofhotwaterof
, rocks, plutonic rocks, volcanic rocks). decreasing temperature moves from the center of upwelling, in
I
I the general Vicinity of the Opal Mound and Negro Mag faults,
I 2. Maps the relationships among rock units (e.g. normal toward the northwest through the alluvium of the valley. This
sedimentary contacts, fault contacts). map is only a generalization of the detailed geologic map
I
p r o d u d by the field geologist, but serves to indicate the type
3. Maps the structural elements of the geology (e.g. faults, of mapping that should be performed at the outset of detailed
. fractures, folds). exploration in any geothermal prospect.
1
4.' Studies the relative age relationshipsamong rock units as 4.4.1.2 Studv of D d i Samles and Information
shown by their mutuaI field relationship
Two different types of rock samples may be obtaiued by
' 5. Searches for evidence of geothermal activity, w drilling. In rotary drilling, the drill bit cuts rock chips from
evidence may range from obvious thermal the bottom of the hole, and these are transported to the surface
geysers and fumaroles to very subtle indications such as by drilling mud, which is circulated down the h i d e of the
..
I hydrothermal alteration of rocks or ancient or modem drill strhg and back up the annulus between the drill string
spring deposits of sinter (Si03 or travertine (CaCO,). and the wall of the hole. The purposes of the circulating mud
& to remove cuttings and lubricate and cool the drill bit.
6. Relates the geology of the particular pro area to The drill chips are removed from the mud by pouring the mud
the regional geology. over a shaking scmn called the shaker table. A sample of the
drill chips can be collected at this point for study by the
7. Collects samples of rocks and minerals for microscopic geologist. In core drilling, a cylinder or core of rock is cut
examination, radioactiveage dating, geochemicalanalys by a hollow diamond-studded drill bit, and is collected in a
and/or geophysical characterization. core barrel inside the drill rods. Periodically the core barrel
is brought to the surface and emptied to collect the sample of
8. Collects samples of fluids from wells and springs the rock through which the drill bit has cut. Core drilling is
geochemical studies. often used in "exploration holes, whereas rotary W i n g is
sometimes used for exploration holes and is invariably used
This work helps provide answers to questions about the for largerdiameter production holes.
prospective geothermal area such as:
samplesare available, they are logged by the
1. Is there direct evidence of geothermal activity in the geol of subsurfacerock type made among
area? holes and the surface. This work yields information on the
three-dimensionaldistribution ofpotential reservoir rocks and
2. Are there young volcanic rocks, less than one million . on the geologic structure.
years old, in the area that would indicate an underlying
molten or recently solidified rock mass to provide a
source of heat (see Section 3.3. l)?
i
Legend
(qolalluvium,
] siliceous sinter 1 7 1 hydtte flows --- fault
I a b Ibasalt f i m q granite, quartz, ti syenite L rock contact
1- rtifltte domes, with centers diorite 0 produdnggeothermalwells
1- pyrodasticdeposits metisediments 0 dry geothermal wells
4-1 rhyolite flows banded gneiss
Figure 4.3 Geologic map of Roosevelt Hot Springs geothennal area, Utah.
64
In many geothermal exploration areas, exploration holes 4.4.1.4 Structural Analysis
or wells have already been drilled, and samples of subsurface
core or drill chips as well as driller’s reports and geophysical ~ A thorough knowledge of the geologic structure of an
well logs may be available. Such samples, reports and logs area is important. Moore and Samberg (1979), for example,
may be stored with the state geological survey, the state water- showed that at Cove Fort/Sulphurdale, Utah, much of the
rights division and/or the state oil and gas commission. They surface is covered by large landslide blocks that have moved
become public information soon after collection or after a into place from the east along underlying, nearly horizontal
specified confidential period. Some states require the bottom- faults. Subsequent movement has occurred along later vertical
hole temperature to be measured and reported in all holes, faults, and the area now consists of numerous separate fault
providing information especially important for geothermal blocks. An obvious implication from this discovery is that the
exploration. The competent geologist seeks and obtains all geology underlying the landslideblocks cannot be determined
such available information in the initial stages of an by mapping the surface geology, i.e. the surface geology can
exploration program. not be projected to depth. Realization of this fact has had a
great impact on subsequent exploration in the area.
During the drilling phase of an
many drillers will not take samples of the rotary-drill chips as zones of permeability if they fracture
they are removed from the dril-mud stream at the shaker table rock and create open spaces. Alternatively they can be filled
unless instructed to do so. It is important to collect with gouge, a rock flour generated during fault movement that
representative drillchip samples from any hole, and it is better is quite impermeable. Faults and fractures can also be Wed
’ to collect too many samples than to collect too few. The by precipitation of vein minerals such as calcite (CaCO,) and
driller should be instructed in how to take the samples by the quartz (SiOd. Gouge or mineralizationdeveloped along faults
geologist, who will be cognizant of the sampling requirements can isolate the aquifers in individual fault blocks and decrease
in different geologic environments. Typically, 1 to 2 lb of hydrologic communication across an area. In places where
sample will be collected each 10 to 20 ft of drilling. These faults intersect, permeability may be especially enhanced.
samples will be carefully washed to remove the drill mud and
then placed in geologic sample bags whose labels record It is important to determine the relative ages of faults
information on the drill hole name, location, date, and footage and, especially, to be able to distinguish young faults and
from which the sample was drilled. fractures from older ones and to distinguish faults that have
had recent movement from those that have not. Older faults
4.4.1.3 StratigraDhic Studies are more likely to have been mineralized--to have had their
open spaces filled through deposition of minerals from
A thorough knowledge of the rock types in the pros- circulating fluids. Relative ages of faulting can usually be
pecting area is fundamental, and is obtained through determined through detailed geologic mapping.
stratigraphic studies. The geologist analyzes both surface
outcrops and rock samples from drilling. He strives to Structural analysis is also important in other respects
identify rock types in the area that would make a good reser- besides faulting. Recognition of volcanic structures such as
voir rock at depth, i.e. rocks that have adequate primary calderas and vents is important in understanding the geologic
permeability or in which secondary permeability may be evolution of an area and can suggest where subsurface heat
developed. In a volcanic environment, for example, sequences sources and permeable zones may be found. In basin
of young lava flows often are highly permeable whereas air- environments, knowledge of the shape and size of the basin
fall or water-laid volcanic tuffs are easily altered to clay and the location of faults can be used to predict depth to
minerals and may become quite impermeable. Permeability in permeable horizons containing thermal water in advance of
flow sequences usually exists at the upper and lower drill testing.
boundaries or contacts of individual lava flows--the center
portions of flows tend to be massive, with little primary 4.4.1.5 Radioactive Age Dating of Racks
permeability.
Certain minerals contain the element potassium (K), a
In basin areas, permeabitity is controlled by the type of small percentage of which will be the naturally radioactive
rock (permeable sandstone or impermeable shale) and by its isotope K-40. This isotope decays radioactively to argon40
degree of induration or metamorphism. Metamorphismcauses (ArAO), with a half-life of about 1.2 billion years. By
the rocks to become brittle and to fracture under tectonic measuring the amount of h - 4 0 relative to the amount of K-40
stress. In some environments, permeability is developed in in certain minerals, the time since Ar-40 began to accumulate
carbonate rocks (e.g., limestone, dolomite, marble) through can be determined (Durance, 1986). In this way, the time
dissolution of the carbonateminerals by moving groundwater. interval since formation (i.e., the age) of certain rocks can be
It is obvious that an understanding of effects such as these is determined. There are also other radioactive isotopes that can
important to the success of a g e o t h e d exploration project. be similarly used for dating.
65
Age dating has obvious use in geothermalexploration in the rocks and minerals. For geothermal work, a laboratory
terms of helping to locate young igneous rocks. If volcanic that specializes in the dating of young rocks (less than 1
rocks are found that are less than about one million years old, million years old) should be selected.4.4.2 Geochemical
they may indicate the likelihood of a heat source for Studies
geothermal energy.
A number of important exploration and reservoir-
Care must be exercised in the interpretation of the dates production questions can be answered from studies of the
derived by radioactive methods. In the case of K-Ardating, chemistry of geothermal fluids and reservoir rocks, and so
forexample, ifthe mineralbeing analyzedhas beenheated geochemistry plays an important role in geothermal explora-
sufficiently by a thermal event subsequentto its formation, the tion and development (Henley and Ellis, 1983). Geochemical
gaseous Ar accumulated to that time may have escaped, thus reconnaissance involves sampling and analyzing waters and
resetting the radioactive clock to the date of the thermal event. gasesfrom hot springs and other geothermal manifestationsin
the area under investigation. The data obtained are then used
Laboratory determination of age dates is a highly to help locate geothermal resources,to determine whether a
specialized field. Dating is done both at commercial labora- geothermal system is hot-water or vapordominated, to -ti-
tories and at universities. The geologist should work with mate the minimum temperature expected at depth, to predict
scientists in the dating laboratory in order to obtain advice on the homogeneity of the water supply, to infer the chemical
methods for collecting the most appropriate field samples of character of the waters at depth, and to determine the source
Table 4.2 Geochemical Methods for Direct Heat Exploration
Personnel Equipment Rate of Unit cost

Spring or Well Sampling Geochemist (1) Prepared sample bottles, 5 to 20 springsld . 350 to 6001d'
pH and conductivity meter
Water Analysis Specialty Laboratory - 1 to 3 weekslordetb 10 to 75/sample
Whole Rock Analysis Specialty Laboratory -- 1 to 3 weekslordetb 50 to 8Olsample
Soil Surveys Geochemist (1) prepared sample 20 to 40 samplesld 370 to 8701d'

Technician (1) containers
Mercury Analysis Specialty Laboratory Gold-film 1 to 3 weekslorder" 10 to 15lsample

or Geochemist (1) Hg detector 30 samplesld
Radon Analysis Specialty Laboratory I 1 to 6 WeekslordeP 20 to 30lsample
a. See Note a, Table 4.1

b. Analysis time depends on size of order; 1 to 5 sample orders will not usually be put ahead of other work. Orders of
more than 100 samples take longer to complete. Most labs will do an order on a rush basis at a surcharge.
c. cost as follows:
Per Day
($1
Geochemist $25 to $50h 200 400
Technician $10 to $15h - 120
-
Vehicle Q $35/day $0.35/mi 50 150
Travel Expenses 80 150
Supplies 740 -50
Total 370 870
66
of recharge water. Geochemical principles can also be applied The amount and nature of dissolved chemical species in
to interpretation of chemical data from producing wells and geothermal fluids are functions of temperature and of the local
may yield sinformation on formation of scale in pipes or a geology (seeTable 4.3). Lower-temperatureresourcesusually
gradual chemical change in the geothermal fluids that could have a smaller amount of dissolved solids than do higher
indicate an impending change in production temperature. temperature resources, although there are exceptions to this
Some of the more important geochemical applications will be rule. TDS values range from a few hundred to more than
discussed in this section. They are also listed in Table 4.2, 300,000 mgfl. Many of the high-temperature r e ~ ~ uinr the ~ e ~
along with personnel and equipment needs, expected rates of West contain 6,000 to 10,000 mgfl TDS,whereas 8 portion of
progress, and costs. the Imperial Valley, California, fesources are essentially
saturated with salts at 300,000 mgfl. The pH of geothermal
4.4.2.1 Overview of Geothermal Geochemistrv resources ranges from moderately alkaline @H = 8.5) to
moderately acid @H = 5.5).
In geothermal geochemistry, we must consider the
chemistry of the geothemtal flu& (water and steam), the The dissolved solids are usually composed mainly of
chemistry of the rods in which the geothermal resource exists, sodium ma), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), chlorine (a),
and the interaction between the two. Thus, geothermal geo- silica (SiOJ, sulfate (SO,), and bicarbonate (HCOJ. Minor
chemistry is a complex and highly specialized field of study. constituents include a wide range of elements with mercury
(Hg), fluorine (F), boron (€3) and arsenic (As)being toxic in
Geothermal fluids contain a wide variety and concen- high enough concentrations and therefore of environmental
tration of dissolved constituents. The simplest chemical concern. In general, each state has regulations governing the
parameters often quoted to characterize geothermal fluids are: use and disposal of waters that contain toxic or otherwise
harmful constituents, and local regulations should always be
1. Total dissolved solids (TVS) in parts per million (ppm) consulted in planning the use of any geothermal resource.
or milligrams per liter (mgfl). This gives a measure of Dissolved gases usually include carbon dioxide (COJ, hydro-
the amount of chemical salts dissolved in the waters, also gen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (”,) and methane (CHJ. Hy-
called the salinity. drogen sulfide (H2S) is a safety hazard because of its toxicity
to animals, including humans. Effective means have been and
2. pH. The pH of a fluid is a measure of the acidity or are still being developed to handle the scaling, corrosion, and
alkalinity of the fluid. Neutral fluids have pH = 7.0 at environmental problems caused by dissolved Constituents in
mom temperature. Acid fluids have pH values less than geothermal fluids. Experience has shown that essentially
7.0 and alkaline fluids have pH values greater than 7.0. every type of geothermal fluid can be successfully used.
These two parameters can be measured in the field by use As geothermal fluids move through rocks, they react
of a conductivity meter and a pH meter. The conductivity chemically with the rocks, which themselves are usually
meter measures the TDS of a fluid by measuring its electrical. chemically complex. Hydrothermal alteration is the term
conductivity. The more dissolved salts, the higher the given to mineralogic changes brought about in the rocks by
electrical conductivity. interaction with hydrothermal fluids. Certain minerals in the
Table4.3 Rep eothermal Fluids
Temp. pH Si02 Ca Mg Na K Li HCO so CI F B As

Sample oc @pm) @em) @P@ @pm) @pm) @pm) @pm) (P @pm) @em) @pm) @pm) @pm)
- 13.4 -
6 316 7.150 5 155,000 16 390 12
Sample Descriptions
1. Hot Springs, M o m , UT.
2. Hot Springs, Steamboat, NV.
3. Well 44. Wairakei, New Zealand.
4. Brine discharge from Well 54-3, Roosevclt Hot Springs, UT.
5. Analyses calculated from tlashed brine, Well M-26, C i e m Prieto, NM.
6. Brine discharge from Well I l D , Salton Sea Geothennal Field, CA.
67
reservoir rocks may be selectively dissolved by the fluids the fesource itself. The most important information can
while other minerals may be precipitated from solution or probably be obtained in the following topic areas:
certain chemical elements from the fluid may substitute for
certain other elements within a mineral. These chemical/ 1. Reservoir Fluid Types: Various fluid types evolve from
mineralogic changes in the reservoir rocks may or may not typical geothermal systems, and identification of the fluid
cause volume changes, i.e., may or may not affect the type can have important implications on the presence of
permeability and porosity of the rocks. Obviously, if the other, related fluid types in the vicinity and, thus, on
mineral volume increases, it must be at the expense of open exploration. Figure 3.10 illustrates some of the hydro-
space in the rock, which causes a decrease in porosity and thermal fluid types common in geothermal reservoirs.
permeability.
2. Geothermometry: Chemical data can be used to estimate
In locations where pressure, temperature, or rock the maximum subsurface fluid temperatures to be
chemistry change abruptly, minerals may be precipitated into expected in a given area.
the open spaces, resulting in plugging of the plumbing system.
Silica and calcium carbonate (CaCO,) are the principal 3. Reservoir Processes: The extent of mixing of thermal
minerals deposited in open spaces. The solubility of SiO, and non-thermal waters and boiling in the subsurface can
decreases with a decrease in temperature, with pressure be determined from geochemical analysis.
changes having very little effect. SiO, can be precipitated into
open spaces such as fractures or pores in the rock in regions 4. Production Monitoring: In a producing geothermal
where subsurface cooling takes place and at the surface where resource, monitoring of the concentrations of chemical
hot springs discharge. Quartz, the most common silica species over time can lead to information on the nature
mineral, is found in veins in present-day geothermal systems of the recharge to the system and to prediction of adverse
as well as in ore deposits, some of which are fossil geothermal temperature changes in advance of their manifestation in
systems. the well (cold-water breakthrough).
Calcite (calcium carbonate) is u n d in that it has a Geothermal Fluid Types

retrograde solubility, i.e., it is more soluble in waters at low
temperatures than at high temperatures. Other carbonate As discussed in Chapter 3 and in the paragraphs above,
species such as dolomite (MgC03), as well as sulfate species the chemical composition of geothermal fluids (Table 4.3) is
such as anhydrite (CaSOk), show similar retrograde solubility a product of their mode of formation. Normal ground waters
relationships with temperature. In addition, the solubility of are usually near neutral in pH and slightly bkarbonate in
carbonate minerals decreases rapidly with decrease in the character. When they are heated in a g e o t h e d system, they
partial pressure (amount) of carbon dioxide. Thus, as fluids tend to become more sodium chloride in character, with
that are saturated with dissolved carbonate approach the dissolved salt contents that can range from a few hundred mgA
surface, carbonate minerals such as calcite are deposited as a to more than 300,000 mg/l. If the fluid boils at depth, gases
result of the loss of CO,, which evolves from the solutionwith (e.g., COz, HzS) are preferentially partitioned into the steam
the decrease in hydrostatic pressure. phase and migrate independently toward the surface. The gas-
rich steam phase may encounter cool groundwater, which it
The chemically complex hydrothermal system is dynamic heats. Oxidation of H,S at the surface or through interaction
through time. That is, for any given volume element in the with oxygenatedgroundwaterproduces acid-sulfate waters that
reservoir, the chemical composition of the fluid in that volume react with the host rocks to produce characteristic argillic-
varies slowly with time, bringing about variation in the rock alteration assemblages of clay minerals.
composition, porosity and permeability. However, because
the rate of fluid circulation is perhaps only a few centimeters Biwbonate-rich geothermal waters are produced where
per year, in most hydrothermal systems a state of chemical groundwater dissolves C02, rising with steam from the deeper
equilibrium or near-equilibrium exists between reservoir fluid geothermal system. Any of these water types may be diluted
and reservoir rocks (Capuano and Cole, 1982; Helgeson, with low-salinity groundwater or changed in other ways before
1969). The assumption of chemical equilibrium is made in the being sampled from a thermal spring or a well. By study of
application of several of the geochemical techniquesdiscussed the chemistry of the various waters found in wells and springs
below. Lack of equilibrium could be evidence for rapid in a geothermal area, the nature of the g e o t h d waters at
movement of fluid through the reservoir. depth can sometimes be determined.
4.4.2.2 Chemistrv of Geothermal Fluids In the usual reconnaissanceapplication,water samplesare

taken for analysis from springs and wells in the vicinity of the
By taking appropriate samples of fluids from surface prospect. For detailed reservoir studies, fluid samples can
springs and from well discharges, a great deal can be learned also be taken from producing wells or from wells recently
about presence or absence of a geothermal tesoutce and about drilled but not yet producing. Great care must be taken to
68
ensure that the samples contain only pristine reservoir, well, The cation and anion percentages are combined by projecting
or spring fluid. In the case of a recently drilled well, the well them onto the central rhombohedron, as illustrated with the
must be flowed until all traces of the drilling fluid have been water analysis shown as point A in Figure 4.4. The diagram
removed. Sampling of fluids should be repeated at intervals can be used to plot all the waters from a prospecting area, and
of hours or days until analysis yields constant chemical a classification of water types can then be developed by
composition. At that point, the fluid is assumed to represent comparing the result to the general classification diagram
reservoir fluid. shown in Figure 4.5.
Proper sampling techniques are very important and

should be entrusted only to someone with experience. The
samples must be filtered and properly acidified for preser-
vation until analysis. In designing the sampling program, the
geochemist should work closely with a chemist at the labora-
tory where the analyses will be performed to ensure the best
results. At each sample location, pH, temperature, and
perhaps other quantities should be measured at the time of
collection.
Various systems have been devised to diagram water

chemistry for better visual presentation (Hem, 1970). One of
the most popular in geothermal work is a plotting method
given by Piper (1944). This method is based on the relative
amounts of Na + +
K, Mg, Ca, C1 F, SO,, and HC03 +
C03in a fluid. These components are the major ion types in
thermal and non-thermal waters, and classifications based on
them agree well with obsemationson the formation of various
geothermal water types. To construct a Piper plot, also called
a trilinear plot, the concentrations of cations and anions are Figure 4.5 Trilinear water classification.
transformed from units of ppm or mgfl into the units of milli-
equivalents and the percentages of the cation and anion com-
binations given above are plotted on a diagram similar to that
shown in Figure 4.4. Any water analysis will contain cations
that yield one point on the tower left portion of the diagram
and anions that yield one point of the lower right portion.
Creek, B.C.
Figure 4.6 shows a classification of water types found at

the Meager Creek geothermal area in Southwestern British
Figure 4.4 Illustrative trilinear plot. Columbia (Adam and Moore, 1987). In this study, the
69
authors showed that the several water types were chemically (1981) and by Henley et al. (1984). Silica is an element
independent, Le., that they had not evolved from a common whose concentration in thermal waters varies with temperature
water type nor had one evolved from any other. This result in known ways. It is, therefore, an often-used element in
implies that there is no through-going permeability in the part chemical geothermometry. In general, the silica content of
of the Meager Creek area explored, and that the several waters geothermal fluids appears to be limited above about 350 OF by
originate in unconnected, probably small reservoirs. the solubility of the mineral quartz (Si03 and to be limited
below 350 OF by the solubility of amorphous silica. The
Murray et al. (1985) show a Piper plot of water from the temperature dependence of these phases is shown by Figure
Calistoga geothermal area in the Napa Valley of California 4.8, which also gives the solubility of various other silica
(Figure 4.7). Their results suggest that thermal water rises phases as a function of temperature. Figure 4.9 shows some
along a central fault in the valley. The thermal water is of the silica geothermometerequations as an illustration of the
progressivelydiluted with non-thermal groundwater, gradually type of calculations that are performed.
becoming enriched in iron, sulfate and biearbomte. The
several water types in the valley can all be related chemically
to the thermal water seeping up the central fault, and water
geochemistry can be used to trace and map geothermal waters
in the valley.
SW border of the valley

NE border of the vdley
0 100 200 300

T,”C
- Ca Q- Figure 4.8 Solubility of silica species in water as a function
of temperature.
Figure 4.7 Water types plotted on a trilinear diagram,
Calistoga, California.
Another system of geothemometers is based upon the
equilibrium reached among the elements sodium (Na),
Chemical Geothermometry potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) where
reservoir rocks contain abundant quartz and feldspar minerals
Chemical analyses of geothermal fluids can sometimes be (Fournier and Truesdell, 1973). One common geothermo-
used to estimate subsurface reservoir temperature. This infor- meter of this class is also shown in Figure 4.9.
mation is of obvious interest during exploration, when infor-
mation from measurements in drill holes may be unavailable. Since other silica geothermometers are based upon
It is also very important during drilling because: (a) accurate equilibrium with the minerals chalcedony, alphacristobalite,
temperaturemeasurements cannot be made in a well until after or betacristobalite, it is obviously of importance to know
thermal effects of the drilling process have been dissipated, which silica minerals exist in the reservoir rocks. If drill
weeks to months after drilling is finished; and, (b) chemical information is not available on this point, as is usually the
geothermometry may indicate that temperatures higher than case early in an exploration program, one must rely on
those found in the drill hole may be found elsewhere. geologic mapping and inference to provide this information.
Several major-element geothermometershave been used Different geothermometers frequently yield different
successfully for estimating subsurface temperature, and results when applied to the same thermal water. Use of other
reviews of these geothermometerswere given by Fournier geochemical and geological data may help shed light on the
70
Age Dating of Geothermal Waters
SILICA
Quartz - no steam loss Radioactive isotope chemistry has been used to attempt
to determine the age of the water in geothermal systems, using
1309 techniques similar to those for dating of rocks. The most
(OC) = 5,190 - log si02 - 273.15 successful applications have used tritium, a naturallyoccunring
radioactive isotope of hydrogen (H-3), which has a half life of
Quartz - maximum steam loss 12.26 years. Minor amounts of tritium are ~ t ~ r a lproduced
ly
continually in the stratosphere by the action of cosmic
radiation on hydrogen in the air. However, major 8moullts of
T(OC)= 1522 - 273.15
-
5.75 log Si02 tritium have been put into the atmosphere by thermonuclear
weapons testing.
ALKALI
Tritium concentration is expressed in terms of the Tririum
Unir (Tu), which is equivalent to a ratio of tritium to
Na/K (Fournier) hydrogen-1 of 1 x lo'*. In continental climates io the
temperate zone, cosmic radiation produces about 10 TU or
T(OC)= 121i - 273.15 less. Before 1954, the tritium content of precipitation in
log (NaIK) + 1.483 western Europe was only about 2.5 TU. As many as 10,OOO
TU were measured in the air in 1963 following extensive
Na - K Ca - atmospheric nuclear weapons testing. Ambient tritium levels
thereafter decreased, falling to 60 TU in 1975 (Durrance,
1986), and since then have fallen more slowly. Tritium can
T ( V )=
log ( N u l 0 +
1647
[log (qCulNa)+ 2.06 I+ 2.24
- 273.15 also be produced by some rocks through neutron capture by
lithium-6. Durrance (1986) shows calculationsindicating that
certain granites in England product 0.9 TU.
The followinggeneralizationscan be made con&g the

* p = 4/3 for $Ca/Na > l , T clOO°C; fJ = 1/3for age of geothermal water in the absenci: of mixing. A tritium
- .TCa/Na <I, T> 1 0 0 ~ ~ content of less than 3 TU usually indicates that no water
younger than 25 years is present. Values of 3 to 20 TU
Figure 4.9 Chemical geothermometer equations (all suggest that some amount of thermonucIear tritium is p&t,
concentrations are in mg/lcg]. which indicates that the fluids entered the groundwater
environment in the 1954-1963 time frame. If more than 20
TUs are found, the water entered the system after 1963. An
relative reliability of the various geothermometers in specific aquifer that has been isolated from tritium recharge for 60
geologic situations. For example, silica concentration can be years would have a tritium content of about .1 TU, the limit
affected by the pH of the fluid, and temperatures calculated of detection. Many geothermal reservoir waters are older,
from the Na-K-Ca neothemmeter m a y be in serious error if some much older, than this useful limit to tr;tium dating.
the C02or magnesL concentrations&e too high or if there Typically, convecting hydrothermal fluids move at speeds
has been addition of any of these elements between the reser- measured in feet or tens of feet per year. However, a young
. voir and the surface through interaction of the fluid with tritium date would indicate rapid water flux in a system.
'sedimentary rocks or ion-exchging minerals such as clays or . ,
zeolites. M X i g of the thermal reservoir waters with normal Production Monitoring

groundwater can also change the'concentrations of critical
elements in a geothermometer, and can result in a calculated It is important to ob d analyze samples from
temperitme that is either too high or too low. ~n addition, g e o t h e d production wells on a periodic basis beginning at
some geothermometers do not work well where reservoir the start of production. By collecting a history of production-
temperatures are below about 300 OF. chemistry data, processes and changes in the reservoir can be
more easily understood and predicted. Generally, samples of
Care must obviously be taken in interjmtation of produced fluid are collected at more frequent intervals during
emical geothermometer data, and in this matter there is no the initial months of production, with the sampling interval
good substitute for experience. Anyone can apply the geother- lengthening if samples show constant composition. As a
mometer equations to the chemical analysis, but the interpre- guideline, monthly samples should be taken and analyzed from
I tation of the results can be extremely subtle and involved, and each production well in large, high-production systems or
is best left to the experts. duringthe initial phasesof productionin any system, and
71
I
quarterly samples should be taken in smaller systems and in 0.05 96 are usually tehed minor elements. Elements that
systems whose history indicates that this interval is occur in the parts-per-million range are termed truce elements.
appropriate. The geothermal developer should obtain Chemical analysis for major elements is sometimes performed
competent consulting help in designing and carrying out a for rack identification purposes. Minor and trace elements are
sampling and analysis program. studied for their geothermal exploration implications.
By monitoring the chemistry of produced geothermal Major-Element €hemistry

fluids at the well head or in the plant, cheinical changes that
could indicate scale development in pipes and other equipment The major-element chemistry of rocks can be used to
can be seen before equipment damage occurs. Similarly, identify the rock type. If there are no good samples of the
changes in gas content of geothermal fluids may be important whole rock available, as when drilling produces only thy
for environmental or scaling reasons. If the geothermal fluid chips, or in cases where rock type cannot be pinned down by
is being disposed in an injection well, breakthrough of injected hand-specimen or microscopic observation or from X-ray
fluid to the production wells may sometimes be seen by its identification of minerals, a complete chemical analysis of the
chemical signature before thermal degradation of produced rock may be made for the purpose of rock-type identification.
fluids pkes place. This would allow alternate plans for The major rock-forming elements analyzed include silicon,
injection of fluids before thermal breakthrough. aluminum, iron, magnesium, sodium,and potassium. Analy-
tical results for these elements are generally expressed, by
It is usually desirable to have the injection and pro- convention, as percentages of oxides of the metals. Table 4.4
duction wells in hydrologiccommunication so that the injected shows typical analyses for several rock types.
waters provide recharge to the reservoir. However, if the con-
nection is too direct, the injected waters do not have sufficient Minor- and Trace-Element Zoning
time to reheat, and the production temperature goes down. On
occasion, it may be desirable to test for breakthrough of As hydrothermal fluids circulate in a geothermal system,
injected fluids into production wells using chemical tracers. they pick up, carry and then deposit (i.e., they redistribute)
Tracers are added to the injectate before it is sent to the chemical species. The mobilities of various elements varies,
injection well. Subsequently, production wells are monitored so that some elements are hardly mobilized at all by the geo-
for the presence of the tracers. If tracer appears in the thermal fluids whereas others become highly mobile and are
production well, one can be sure that some injected fluid is carried long distances in the fluids. These mobile elements
carrying it. The time to breakthrough, the amount of tracer may be deposited in a halo or dispersion zone around a geo-
recovered compared to the amount injected and the shape of thermal system. For example, mercury, arsenic, manganese
the tracer-concentrationcurve with time are important data in and zinc are all quite mobile in geothermal fluids, even those
understanding the nature of the connection between injection of low and moderate temperature (Varekamp and Buseck,
and production wells and in determining whether or not 1983). Soil-sample surveys of a prospect area are sometimes
injection or production wells must be moved. used to determine where the geothermal potential is highest
and to locate faults and fractures along which geothermal
4.2.2.3 Geochemistry of Rocks fluids have moved.
Rocks contain a variety of chemical elements that make Figure 4.10 shows the distributions of mercury and
up the minerals. Most minerals are made from only a few arsenic, respectively, in soil samples from the Roosevelt Hot
elements, and these are known as the major eL?mt?ntsin the Springs geothermal system (Christensen et al., 1983). Both
rock. Elements that occur in the approximate range 0.5 to arsenic and mercury are believedto be carriedassulfide
Table 4.4 Typical Chemical Composition of Rocks
Rocks SiO, AZO3 F%03 FeO MgO CaO N%O K,O HgO Others
Basalt 49.1 15.7 5.4 6.4 6.2 9.0 3.1 1.5 1.6 2.0
Granite 71.6 14.5 1.5 1.1 0.9 2.0 3.0 4.1 0.8 0.5
Sandstone 90.7 4.6 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 2.8 0.5 0.4 0.3
Shale 61.2 15.6 1.4 3.0 4.2 3.4 0.4 6.7 2.7 1.4
Limestone 2.0 0.4 I 0.5 7.9 44.4 -- I
0.2 44.6 (co3

........... . \;,. . . .....
...................
. . . . .-. . . . . . . . . . . . . .......
....iJ.
......... . .. .. .. .. .. ..
....
....... .......
..
..
.....
..
.......
...
... . .O"0 . .. .. ..O"O
..
....
. . . . . .\. ! . . . .
....
.. .. .. '. rJ -. . -. .- .. ..
I ......
.....I.. . *
. . . . 1 .. .. .. .
.0?-'.. I
'1
.... f . ...
... . I . .. . . . . ,' . .
I ..... I
..
.. . .. .. .. .
.... AUS€NfC MEUCUW
.. ... MCUGRDUMD 4-
rwRESnOLD 6ppn
COMTWR INTERVALS 6,IZppm
BICKWWINO 29W4
THIESmKD 5 d m l
CGUmUR INTERWLS 50. Iw.
. .f . . . . . .. .
mrw..m.m.3fcQrrr
.<e;\.
,
.
Figure 4.10 Arsenic and mercury distribution at the Roosevelt Hot Springs geothermal area, Utah.
complexes in aqueous solution. Mercury is also transported In conducting soil geochemical surveys, a Certain chosen
as a vapor. These elements, therefore, outline conduits of soil horizon should be carefully and consistently sampled in
fluid transport in the subsurface. The figures show that order to obtain the most meaningful results. Noise in the
anomalies in both metals coincide with the north-northeast survey results can be generated from inconsistent sampling.
trace of the Opal Mound fault, believed to be one of the chief Matlick and Buseck (1976) advocate the consistent use of the
producing faults in Roosevelt Hot Springs. A second direction A soil horizon for mercury surveys. It is advisable to work
suggested by the shapes of the anomalies is northwest. Faults with a geochemist who is experienced in soil sampling m e y s
and fractures are also known with this trend in the area. forcollec interpreting survey results.
Mercury anomalies continue northwest of the Opal Mound
fault, and outline an area of subsurface outflow of the thermal Soil for locating faults, fractures
plume at Roosevelt. or other permeable horizons that are open and carrying geo-
thermal fluids at depth. Radon, carbon dioxide, hydrogen
Trexler et al. (1980) found that a soil survey of sulfide, mercury, and the noble gases all move freely in per-
the Caliente, Nevada area did a teasonable job of outlining meable zones, gradually working their way to the surfke,
areas known to be thermally anomalous from measured well where they are naturally discharged into the atmasphere.
temperatures and shallow-temperature surveys in 6-ft deep Sensitive detectors can be used to m u r e their abundance,
holes (see Section 4.4.3.1 - Thermal Methods). Matlick and which should increase above a fluidcarrying conduit or
Buseck (1976) also outlined uses of mercury geochemistry in aquifer. Exploration and production drill holes can sometimes
geothermal exploration. They showed data for mercury distri- be sited using such survey information.
bution in four geothermal areas-bng Valley and East Mesa,
California, and Summer Lake Basin and Klamath Falls, Soil-gas surveys are made by plunging a stainless steel
Oregon. In each area, the mercury survey outlined known and tube into the soil to a specified depth and extracting a
suspected areas of presentday geothermal activity quite well. measured amount of soil gas by suction. The gas is then
Figure 4.11 is a profile of the mercury anomaly over and ad- analyzed. Radon is a naturally radioactive gas that migrates
jacent to the area of high heat flow and geothermal production to the surface through transport in solution and through
at Klamath Falls.
73
Study of minerals deposited in the subsurface plumbing
of geothermal systems helps to map the boundaries of such
systems, helps determine the temperatures at which the
minerals formed, and helps locate zones of upwelling and
recharge. Both the vein-mineral assemblage and the occur-
rence of individual minerals exhibit zoning, both laterally and
with depth, in geothermal systems. Different vein-mineral
assemblages are formed in response to changing temperatures,
changing rock chemistry (mineralogy), and other factors. The
most common and abundant vein minerals are quartz (SiOJ
and calcite (CaCO,). Usually veins also contain lesser
quantities of other minerals such as K-feldspar and epidote.
Veins in geothermal systems may contain metallic minerals,
some of which are of economic value. Pyrite (FeS,, fools
gold) is common in many geothermal systems, and sulfides of
lead and zinc also occur. Gold is associated with the upper
regions, the so-called epithennal zones, of geothermal systems
in the Basin and Range province. Several of the gold mines
in Nevada are associated with present-day geothermal systems.
Hydrothermal Alteration Minerals
Amorphous sio,
Quartz
NNW Distance (kilometers) SSE K-Feldspar
Albite
Calcite
Figure 4.11 Soil mercury profile of Klamath Falls, Oregon.
Smectite
Smectite
movement as a gas in open spaces. Its presence can be Illite
quantitatively determined using the track-etching method. A Chlorite
strip of cellulose nitrate film is taped inside a plastic cup and Biotite
inverted cups are placed in shallow holes and left for periods Actinolite
up to several weeks. Radon gas reaches the cup and collects, Tremolite
and as it decays radioactively, the nitrate film records the Diopside
passage of subatomic particles as microscopic tracks. Acid Garnet
etching of the film after the cups are retrieved makes the Epidote
tracks visible, and they are counted under a microscope. One Prehnite
advantageof this technique over analysis of a sample obtained Heulandite
by suction is that it provides an integrating effect over the Stilbie
time the cups are in the ground, which tends to reduce the Ptilolite
effects of changes in atmosphericpressure and soil moisture on Laumontite
radon content in the soil. Because radon is so highly mobile Wairakiie
in the geologic environment, such surveys can be used to 1c C
locate faults and zones of upwelling fluids (Nielson, 1978).
200°C 300°C
(from Henley and Ellis, 1983)
Mineral Zoning and Hydrothermal Alteration
Figure 4.12 Temperature ranges for typical hydrothermal
There are two principal effects on rocks when they minerals (after Henley and Ellis, 1983).
interact with hydrothermal fluids. The first is deposition of
minerals in the fluid pathways, forming veins and cementing
pores, a process called mineralization. The second is modifi- The vein-mineral assemblage provides an indication of
cation of minerals in the rock through chemical interaction the temperature of the rocks and fluids at the time of mineral
with the fluids, a process called hydrothermal alteration. deposition and of the chemical composition of the water.
74
Minerals such as epidote and wairakite form only at high tem- residue containing native sulfur, cinnabar (mercury sulfide),
peratures (see Figure 4.12). Their occurrence indicates the sulfate minerals, yellow, red and brown iron oxide minerals
high-temperature, or former high-temperature, portions of the and clay minerals. Such acid-altered areas would be
geothermal system. By contrast, the mineral chlorite can form recognized by the geologist as an indication of past or present
over a wide temperature range. The mineral anhydrite geothermalactivity. Similar acid alterationcan also be formed
(CaSO,, calcium sulfate) can form only where the fluids at depths where steam heating of ground waters occur.
umtain oxygen. Primary hydrothermal fluids do not usually
contain oxygen. Thus, anhydrite is often interpreted as a sign The interpretation of the mineral assemblages found in
that the vein is in a recharge zone, where oxygenated surface many thermal systems is complicated by the presence of
water is flowing into the geothermal system. minerals formed during earlier, frequently unrelated, hydro-
thermal events. At least two distinct hydrothermal events have
Rocks undergo hydrothermal alteration through chemical been recognized in the Roosevelt Hot Springs geothermalarea:
reaction between the minerals and the circulatinghydrothermal an earlier event related to intrusion of the Tertiary Mineral
fluids. Some minerals are taken into solution and others de- Mountains pluton, and the present hydrothermal system
posited in their place. In other cases, a mineral is changed (Nielson et al., 1978). Crosscutting veins, identified in drill
through substitutionof one chemical species for another in the chips, suggest that the depositional histories of these events
mineral. Certainminerals are much more reactive than others. was quite complex.
For example, feldspar minerals alter readily to clay minerals,
whereas quartz is almost always unaltered, even when most Two primary methods are available for identificationof
other minerals are altered. Typical reservoir rocks in a geo- minerals. First is use of the petrographic microsmp. Thin
thermal system, therefore, show signs of hydrothermal altera- slices of the rock are Cut with a diamond saw and subsequently
tion and are also shot through with veins whose minerals have polished on a special lapidary disk until they are very thin and
be deposited from the hydrothermal fluids. transparent. They are then known as thin sections, and are
examinedunder the microscope. The petrographic microscope
The distributions of the clay and silicate minerals, both is equipped for transmission either of ordinary light or
in veins and in the hydrothermally altered rock mass, are polarized light. The thin section is examined in both kinds of
strongly temperaturedependent. At the lowest temperatures, light. In the polarized mode, light of one polarization is
below about 300 OF, the stable assemblage consists of transmitted through the thin section from below. There is a
dolomite, kaolinite, smectite and inter-layered illite/smectite. second polarizing filter above the thin section in the tube of
With increasing temperature and depth, smectite, dolomite, the microscopewhose orientationis perpendicular to the polar-
kaolinite, and inter-layered illite/smectite disappear, and at izer below. Such an arrangement blocks passage of light up
temperatures above 300 to 350 OF, the typical assemblage is the microscope tube except for light whose polarization is
illite, chlorite, potassium-feldspar and quartz. The calcium- changed by the mineral grains in the thin section. Various
aluminosilicates wairakite and epidote appear only in rocks minerals rotate the plane of polarization of light moving
above 400 to 450 OF. through them in characteristic ways, so that the rotated light
passes through the upper polarizer. By noting appearanceand
One very important result of mineral zoning is that the properties of minerals in both ordinary light and polarized
higher-temperature mineral assemblages cause the rocks to light, the vast majority of minerals can be positively identi-
become brittle, and they fracture easily under the influence of fied. At the same time, the mutual age relations among the
tectonic movement and stress. Faulting of brittle rock creates minerals, and the structure and texture of the rock can be de-
and renews fracture permeability in the higher-temperature termined. All of this information, taken together, enables the
parts of some geothermal systems. In the geothermal systems experienced geologist to determine the rock type, the degree
of the Imperial Valley of California, embrittlement through of alteration and veining and the M ~ U Iof- ~vein minerals.
hydrothermal alteration and vein-mineral deposition is a very
important process. It is typically the brittle, more highly The second important method of mineral identificationis
altered portions of these systems that have permeability and by use of an X-ray machine. Samples of a rock or mineral are
constitute the reservoir. Overlying rocks, altered at lower ground to powder size and mounted in a thin film on a glass
temperatures, have mineral assemblagesthat make them softer slide. X-rays are then directed at the slide. The crystal
and unable to sustain an open fracture. These rocks have very structure of minerals diffracts the X-rays in characteristic
low permeability. ways, producing a pattem on a chart-paper readout that can be
used to identify individual minerals in a sample. X-ray dif-
Acid-sulphate springs are typically a surlicid feature fraction mineral identification is more certain than is petro-
produced by the oxidation of hydrogen sulfide to sulfuric acid graphicidentification. However, the petrographicm -i
in the near-surface zone. Altered ground surroundingthe acid has the advantage of being able to see the relationshipsamong
springs and fumaroles provides a striking example of the re- minerals in a rock, whereas this informationis not obtained by
activity of rocks with some geothermal waters. The altered X-ray diffraction because the rock is ground up in preparing
areas are typically bleached and converted to asiliceous the X-ray slide.
75
Fluid Inclusion Studies Table 4.5 Oxygen and Hydrogen Isotopes
In the process of the formation of minerals from

hydrothermal fluids circulating in the fracturesand pore spaces Element ISOtOLU?
of geothermal systems, tiny amounts of the fluids themselves Oxygen '60 = 99.756%
become trapped when the mineral grows around them. These
fluids thenceforth exist as microscopicbubbles in the minerals "0 = 0.039%
known asfluid inclusions. Study of fluid inclusions is useful
in geothermal explorationbecause they contain a sample of the '*O = 0.205%
fluids that formed the mineral in which they are found, and
the information derived can tell much about the formation and Hydrogen 'H = 99.985%
evolution of the geothermal system.
% D = 0.015%
=I
Typical measurements in the study of fluid inclusions
involve heating and cooling of the mineral specimen. The 'H = T, = 12.26~
mineral grain is first hand-selected from a sample of drill
chips or core and mounted on a microscope slide. It is then
polished to an appropriate thickness. Under the microscope,
fluid inclusions appear as flaws in the mineral that are The average percentages of each isotope as distributed in
bounded by an outline that may be regular or irregular, and nature are well-known from many measurements. However,
that generally contain a vapor bubble resulting from fluid geochemical and geological processes can cause the relative
contraction as the mineral cooled from its temperature of percentages to change. Among these processes are boiling in
formation. By heating the mineral under the microscope and a geothermal system, chemical reactions between water and
measuring the temperature at which the bubble disappears rock, mixing of different fluids, filtration through shales, and
(i.e., the fluid inclusion becomes completely filled), the changes in the state of oxidation. Figure 4.13 illustrates, on
temperature of formation of the mineral is determined. Also, a plot of change in oxygen-18 versus deuterium, the expected
by cooling the mineral under the microscope until the fluid direction of change for the hydrogen and oxygen in water
freezes, the salinity of the fluid can be determined. Dissolved because of these processes.
salts lower the freezing point of a solution by known amounts.
Temperatures of formation yield information on, among

other things, whether the system has cooled down or warmed
up since the mineral formed (Mooreet al., 1989). Freezing- Natural Predpitation
point determination of fluid salinities provides information on Evaporation
variations of salinities at various locations in the system, thus Shale
helping to map fluidchemistry variations. Differences be- Filtration
tween fluid-inclusion salinitiesand the salinitiesof present-day
fluids can also help unravel system evolution and chemical
t Boiling
structure. 6D Exchange With

x 10
0
R0
,
' Rock
Freezing-point measurements can also be used to ' /
'A /
determine the carbondioxide content of the hydrothermal
fluids. Variations in C02 content indicate the positions of
,,Vaporphase
/
#
mnes of upwelling and zones of boiling. It has been found
that a C02 blanket often overlies the area of upwelling in
geothermal systems (Moore et al., 1990)
Isotope Studies
Several stable isotopes are used in chemical studies of Figure 4.13 Common isotopic fractionation mechanisms for
geothermal systems. Isotopes of a chemical element are water.
separate species of the same element that have different
numbers of neutrons in the nucleus. Stable isotopes are those
that do not decay radioactively. The stable isotopes most It can be seen from this plot that the effects of chemical
often of help in geothermal studies are hydrogen-2 or interaction between geothermal waters and reservoir rocks are
deuterium @) and oxygen-18 (0-18). Table 4.5 shows how expected to lead to enrichment in 0-18 in the water, with little
these species relate to the other isotopes of these elements. orno changeinD. The explanation is that there are few
76
hydrogencontainingminerals in reservoir rocks, and thus, the Isotopic studies can also help answer questions on bulk
deuterium in the water has few minerals with which to inter- reservoir permeability. If the ratio of water to rock in the
act. It, thus, remains constant. However, there are many system is large, (i.e the system is highly porous and perme-
oxygencontaining minerals in reservoir rocks, and these able), the isotopes in the water will not be changed much
minerals are typically enriched in 0-18. because of the relatively large amount of water, whereas the
isotopes in the rock will show large shift. However, if the
Figure 4.14 illustrates observed 0-18 enrichment in ratio of water to rock is small, (i.e., the system is of low
waters from some typical geothermal systems having a variety porosity and permeability), the isotopic composition of the
of temperatures. The data-points for 0-18 extend to the right water will be shifted markedly while that of the rock will not
of the meteoric-water line. The meteoric-water line shows the be appreciably changed. Thus,by characterizing the 0-18 and
average composition in D and 0-18 for rainwater in the area. D compositions of both the water and the reservoir rock, a
Now, it has previously been observed that the deuterium crude estimate of the bulk permeability of the system can be
content of rainwater is dependent on the altitude at which the obtained.
rain falls. It has also been observed that the fluids in
hydrothermal convection systems are predominately meteoric 4.4.3 Geophwical Studies
in origin (Craig, 1963). These observations, couded with
measurements of the deuterium content of hot springs and Geophysical exploration is the use of physical
reservoir waters discharged from wells, can sometimes be used measurements either to (a) detect a resource directly, (b) to
to help determine the altitude at which the reservoir waters provide indirect evidence of its existence and location, or (c)
originated, and thus, the source area for the recharge waters. to determine and map its physical and chemical characteristics.
0-
-
-
-
-
-50 -
n
Y3 - MAGMATIC
Hveragerdi, Iceland WATER
n -
10
-
-
-100 -
Newcaatle. Utah
Steamboat Gp.. Nev.
Modoc Plat ,Cali.
Gunnyride,Colo.
1
5
1
10
6”O (%o)
Figure 4.14 Observed oxygen isotopic shifts for geothermal systems.
77
Table 4.6 Geophysical Methods for Direct Heat Exploration
Personnel Equipment Rate of unit Cost

Temperature-
GradientIHeat Flow
Drilling Driller Drill rig 100 to 500 fi/day 1000 to 4000/d’
Losging Geophysicist (1) Temp. logging gear 500 to 2000 ftlday 350 to 600/dayb
Thermal Cond. Specialty Laboratory -- 4 to 8 weekslorder 100/sample
Shallow Temperature Geophysicist (1) Hand-held drill 4 to 8 stalday 450 to 870/day

Technician (1) Thermistor probes
Dipole-Dipole Resistivity Geophysicist (1) Specialty equipment 3000 to 6000 &/day 900 to 1200/day’
Technician (2)
EM
Shallow Geophysicist (1) Specialty equipment 3000 to 6000 ft/&f 500 to 900/day
Technician (1)
Geophysicist (1) Specialty equipment 6 to 10 soundings/day 500 to 900/day
Technician (1)
Self-potential Geophysicist (1) Digital voltmeter, 8000 to 15000 ft/day 500 to 900/day
Technician (1) Wire
Magnetics
Air 400 to 600 milday 15 to 40/mi
Ground Geophysicist 1 to 3 mi/day 370 to 600/dayb
Gravity Geophysicist 0.2 to 1 milday 500 to 900/day

Technician
a. Drilling costs and rates vary widely depending upon the rock type, degree of fracturhg, the type and size of rig and
other factors. Bids should be obtained for any planned drilling program.
b. See Note a, Table 4.1.
c. costs as follows:
Per Day
($)
Geophysicist $25 to $50h 200 400
Technician $10 to $t5h 160 240
Vehicle @ $35/day + $0.35/mi 50 150
Travel Expenses 140 230
Equipment & Supplies --
150 200
Total 700 1220
d. Assumes a lowcost EM system suitable for locating shallow faults.

e. Assumes soundings to detect a resource at depth.
78
Such physical parameters as the distribution of temperature by application of these methods. lhermal m e t W mm-e
over the surface of the earth and at depth, the electrical, the only geophysical m e t W for direct detection of
magnetic or density properties of the ground, and the manner geothermal resources -- the other geophysicalmethods provide
in which mechanical (seismic) waves are propagated in the only indirect evidence for an underlying g e o t h e d reservoir.
earth all respond in their own way to the presence of a
geothermal resource (Ward, 1983; Wright et al., 1985) or to Thermal Gradient and Heat Flow Studies
an ore body, a coal deposit or a petroleum reservoir.
Geophysical surveys are used in geothermal exploration and Apparatus to measure subsurface temperature consists of
reservoir mapping to (a) help locate resources that have no (a) a sensitive thermometer probe capable of llEeasuring
evident surface expression, (b) to help site production and temperature differences of about 0.005 OF,(b) several hundred
injection wells, and (c) to monitor production from and to several thousand feet of logging cable for lowering the
injection into a reservoir. probe down a borehole, and (c) a winch to handle the cable.
Small units for shallow holes can be highly portable, whereas
Reliableinterpretationof geophysicalsurveydata requires more sophisticated, deep-hole units must be truck munkd.
an understanding of the geology of the prospecting area. One commercially available unit with 4,000 ft of cable has a
Interpretation is always a two-step process: total weight under 50 lb and can easily be used by one person.
1. The geophysical field data are interpreted in terms of Making a temperature log of a borehole consists of
subsurfacevariations in the physical or chemicalproperty lowering the probe down the hole and making temperature
to which the particular geophysical method responds. measurements at certain positions. Holes are generally logged
from the top downward to avoid perturbations caused by
2. The subsurface physical or chemical property variations mixing of the water as the probe and cable descend. A typical
determined in the first step are interpreted in terms of the interval between measurements is 10 to 30 ft. At each
geology. measllfing depth, the probe is left motionless for a few
seconds to several minutes to allow the thermometer to come
The first step requires an experienced geophysi to thermal equilibrium with the surroundings at that depth.
has access to computer-based interpretation aids. Conceptual The operator can determine when equilibrium is reached
geophysical models of the subsurface are formed and the because the measured temperature will cease to change with
expected geophysical response of the model is calculated. The time. Some units measure temperature continuously as the
model response is c o m p d with the actual field data, and the probe descends. For these types of surveys, the logging speed
model is refined until model calculations compare well with must be slow enough to allow the probe to reach thermal
the field data. The second step is one to be taken by the equilibrium at each point.
geophysicist working closely with the geologist.
Drill holes themselves require a certain amount of time
Often, interpretativeprocedures must be repeated several to come to thermal equilibrium after drilling. The circulation
times until the subsurface model both explains the field geo- of drilling muds and other drilling processes cause severe
physical data and agrees with the known geologic data. Reli- temperature disturbances in the borehole environment. Tem-
able interpretation is as much an art as it is a science. perature logs taken before the hole has reached equilibrium are
Understanding of the method, care, and experience are all useful in locating mnes of inflow and outflow of water, but
ingredients to successful interpretation. Geophysical data one must remember that the absolute values of the temperature
interpretation is always frau th a certain amount of and the temperature gradients will not be correct. Generally,
ambiguity. Some components ity can be reduced circulating drill mud causes the rock' temperature to be
by collecting more geological, geochemical or geophysical lowered at the bottom of the hole because the mud temperature
data. ' However, other components of the ambiguity are is lower than the ambient rock temperature. Because the mud
irreducible because they are inherent is heated at the bottom of the hole, it tends to heat the rocks
geophysical method itself. in the upper portions of the hole as it rises toward the surface.
Thus, directly after drilling, the upper parts of the hole will
Table 4.6 lists geophysical methods used in be warmer than their equilibrium temperature while the lower
thermal exploration and resource assessment along with parts of the hole will be cooler. The amount of temperature
average costs and rates of progress. disturbancedepends on the length of time required to drill the
hole, among other parameters. These relationships are
3.1 Thermal Methods complex, and it is not always possible to predict exactly the
length of time required for a hole to reach equilibrium.
Thermal methods involve the measu Repeated logging at intervals of a week to several months
temperature and heat flow in drill holes. Under suitable allows an equilibrium, temperature profile to be obtained.
circumstances, geothermal resources can be detected directly
79
Figure 4.15 shows temperature profiles taken by logging The vertical heat flow in a vertical drill-hole interval is
in two holes in the Newberry volcano area and one hole in the determined by multiplying the measured value of the tempera-
Clackamas area, Oregon. Several aspects of these profiles are ture gradient in that interval, (T2-T1)/@2-D1), by the thermal
of note. The uppermost part of each hole is disturbed by conductivity, K, of the rocks in the interval. Here, T1 refers
seas~naltemperature changes. Below depths of about 100 ft, to the measured temperature at depth D1 and T2 refers to the
these seasonal effects are damped out and cause no further measured temperature at depth D2. The t h d conductivity
problem. is measured in the laboratory on rock samples from the hole.
Since thermal conductivity is a function of the mineralogy and
porosity of the rock, measurements should always be made on
TEhf PERATUREDEPTH actual rocks from the borehole.
CASCADES COREHOLES
IEMpgpAYWl&.c
25 M n 100
In the absence of hydrologic effects and heat sources,
I I I
which tend to distort the pattern of heat flow, the calculated
heat flow should be the same for different depth intervals in
LOGCED-
DATA BY8 DAVE BLACKWELL
S M
- looo the hole, even though the temperature gradient and the thermal
conductivity both vary. From the heat-flow equation, Q =
son-
K x (T2-T1)/ @2-D1), if a constant heat flow is assumed, and
--2ooo
w
if the thermal conductivity in an interval is high, the tempera-
i m-
ture gradient in that interval will be low. If the thermal
conductivity is low, the temperature gradient will be high.
loa - -urn
Since thermal conductivitiesfor rocks range over more than a
factor of two, temperature gradients can have a range of more
- - 4m than a factor of two in a borehole due only to the &eas of
-.
1250
varying thermal conductivity. It is, thus, unwise to extrapolate
I I 1
*.
.e
.
".- measured temperaturegradients to depth without knowledge of
thermal conductivity, although this is often done in practioe.
Figure 4.15 Temperature vs depth profiles of Cascade area An often applied, but dangerous, shortcut to heat flow
core holes, Oregon. surveys is to forgo measurement of thermal conductivity, per-
haps to save the cost of good sample collection and laboratory
measurement, and to obtain only the thermal gradient data.
Geo-Newberry N-1 shows a nearly constant temperature Lateral as well as vertical variation of the temperature gradient
to a depth of 3,300 ft. Lack of the normal increase in could be due either to genuine changes in the heat-flow field
temperature with depth in this hole is attributed to the or simply to changes in rock type that affect the thermal
downward flow of meteoric water, which sweeps away the conductivity and are unrelated to any geothermal resouIce.
heat coming from depth. At a depth of about 3,300 ft, the Temperature-gradient surveys by themselves are never as
rocks become impervious to further downward water flow, and usell as taking the extra step of determining thermal conduc-
a steep temperature gradient is observed, which decreases tivity and calculating heat-flow values. Furthermore, tempera-
somewhat near the bottom of the hole. Geo-Newberry N-3 ture data extrapolated below the bottom of the hole as a
shows similar features. However, in this hole, warm water prediction of how deep one must drill to achieve a specified
enters at a depth of about 3,800 ft, moves up the hole and temperature are not generally reliable, as we have seen,
exits near 2,000 ft, causing an isothermal zone in the interval. because one will not generally know or be able to account for
Above 2,000 ft, the temperature profile is dominated by the variations in thermal conductivity beneath the hole.
downward flow of cold water. Hole CTGH-1 shows a zone
about 1,000 ft thick at the top where cold water flows down. Drilling can be expensive, and so the natural tendency is
Below that depth, the gradient represents conductiveheat flow to use thermal-gradient or heat-flow holes that are as shallow
with apparently no hydrologic disturbance. as possible. It is desirable to make the temperature measure
ments below the level affected by seasonal air-temperature
One basic parameter of interest in geothermal exploration variations. As mentioned above, holes that are deeper than
is the heat flow-the rate at which heat flows upward toward about 100 ft are usually safe on this account. Perhaps the
the surface. As discussed in Section 3.2 of Chapter 3, out- biggest problem with shallow gradient holes, and deep holes
ward flow of heat from the earth's interior is a worldwide in certain geologic environments, is movement of ground-
phenomenon. In geothermal lueas, the heat flow is higher water. In some areas of sufficient topographic relief and
than the worldwide average, and anomalously high heat-flow abnormal precipitation, aquifers tens to hundreds or thousands
values may be clues to underlying geothermal resources. of feet deep 'gay carry large quantities of non-thermal water
80
that sweep away any anomalous amount of heat coming from believed to rise along the Antelope Range fault and to flow
depth and obliterate a high heat-flow or temperature pattern northward at shallow depth in alluvial valley-fill material.
over a geothermal resource. It is imperative to understand the Blackett et al. (1990) estimate the anomalous heat loss from
hydrology of the proqkzting area in order to predict and cope the geothermal system to be 12.4 thermal megawatts (MWt).
the complications likely to be intrduced As the figure shows, the areal extent of the heat-flow anomaly
or thermal-gradient survey by the local exceeds three square miles.
hydrology. .
Shallow Temperature Surveys
An illustration of a heat-flow survey is provided in
Figure 4.16 for the Newcastle area in southwestern Utah Very shallow holes for measurement of temperaturehave
(Blackett et al., 1989). The Newcastle system is a so-called been shown to be useful in a few geothermal axeas. Such
blind or cryptic geothermal resource in that there is no surface surveys at the Coso Hot Springs area in California show an
manifestation of the thermal waters that occur at depth. anomaly over the reservoir in holes 6 ft deep (Leschack and
Water-well drillers discovered this resource by accident while Lewis, 1983). Trexler et al. (1980) used shallow-temperature
drilling an irrigation well. Presently, three commercial surveys to outline areas where thermal water flows close to the
greenhouses, a church building and various residences use hot d a c e at Caliente, Nevada. Careful corrections must be
water from the resource for heating. applied for slope of the land, surface soil or rock type and
vegetation (which affect the way the surface reflects solar
radiation), and for surface hydrology, topography, and other
factors.
Infrared Surveys
Existence of shallow-temperatureanomalies implies that

airborne or even satellite imagery in the thermal infrared
region of the spectrum may be helpful. In practice, these
methods have not been widely successful to date. Soil-
temperaturefluctuations induced by sun-anglevariations, vege
tation, ground slope and water-table variations, to name a few
variables, cause a high level of background noise against
which one must try to resolve the rare geothermal anomaly.
Of course, in specific areas, depending upon the geologic situ-
ation, infrared airborne surveying may be helpful, but it would
Prob t constitutea first step in any explorationprogram.
Snow-Melt Surveys
In some areas, photographs have been made after a

snowfall, and the portions of first snow-melt mapped. This
can be a quick and inexpensive way of doing a tecoI1Il;lissance
the dy of an area. Only shallow geothermal resources
can be located this way-deeper resources would be missed.
4.4.3.2 Electrical Methods
Electrical geophysical surveys are used to measure the

Figure 4.16 Heat-flow survey near Newcastle, Utah. electrical properties of the earth and help determine the rock
Contours are milliwatts/m*. type, nature of pore fluids, and the temperature in the sub-
surface. Most electrical geophysical methods are based on
measurement of the electrical wnductivity or its reciprocal,the
Figure 4.16 shows heat-flow contours in milliwatts per resistivity, of the earth. Conductivity and resistivity are
square meter. The heat-flow data were obtained by logging in measures of how well the earth conducts electrical current. In
the wells and exploration holes indicated by black dots on the areas of high conductivity (low resistivity), the earth conducts
figure. The source of upwelling of the thermal water is electricity well, and in areas of low conductivity (high
believed to be near the highest heat-flow contours, in the resistivity) the earth is a poor conductor. Geophysiciststend
southeastern portion of the anomaly. Thermal water is to use both terms in discussions of electrical geophysics.
81
With the exception of a few metallic minerals,'dry m k - "'here are many ways in which the resistivity of the
forming minerals do not conduct electricity well. However, subsurface can be measured using surface electrical geo-
electricity is conducted in the earth by chemical species dis- physical surveys. Two basic divisions of the electrical
solved within ground waters that m u p y the poe spaces h t h e m e t h d cah be recognized, (a) the g&anic methods, and (b)
rock. Ground waters and geothermal waters invariably contain the electromapetic methods. In the galvanic methds, cwrent
dissolved chemical silts, arid the ions hi solution respond to is introduced into the ground throwh electrodes placed in
BII applied voltage gradient by moving through the water, thus shallow pits for surface surveys or placed in drill holes for
sustaining a current. Measurement of the quantity of current logging. In the electromagnetic m e t h d , either naturally
induced by a given voltage drop constitutes a basic parameter occurzing electromagnetic signals are used or current is in-
of some of the several electrical geophysical methods. duced'to flow in the ground by creating an electromagnetic
field with a coil of wire placed on the surface or in an air-
. Several parameters affect the value of resistivity of the plane. These methods and some variations upon them will be
rocks in the subsurface. Among them are: considered. The choice of which method to use in a given
exploration problem is best left to an experiencedgeophysicist.
1. The concentration of dissolved salts in the pore fluids in Each of the methods varies in the type of information it will
the rocks. Since current is camed by the movement of yield in certain geologic situations, in the difficulty of inter-
ions in the ground water, the higher the concentration of pretation of the results, rind in the speed and cost of the
these ions, the more current is carried and the lower the survey.
resistivity of the ground water.
Galvanic Resistivity Surveys
2. The temperature of the subsurface. The higher the
temperature, the faster the ions in solution m able to In galvanic resistivity surveys, two grounded electrodes
move. Thus, the higher the temperature, the lower the made of metal are used to introduce a current ia the earth, and
resistivity of the ground water. the voltage resulting from the current flow is measured be-
tween two separate grounded electrodes. There are several
3. The porosity of the rocks in the subsurface, Le., the ways to deploy the electrodes as indicated in Figure 4.17.
quantity of ground water held in pore spaces and open
fractures. The higher the porosity, the lower the
resistivity of a rock because there is more current- WENNER
carrying ground water contained within it. V
p=2nfa
4. The degree of saturation of the rock in the subsurface.
This factor is coupled with (3). If the rock is only partly
saturated, there will be less fluid to carry current and the
SCHLUMBERGER
resistivity will be higher.
V
p=xp(n+l)a
5. The mineralogy of the rock. Although most minerals do
not conduct electricity, a few metallic minerals do
conduct, and if their proportion is high enough, the rock
will have low resistivity. More important, however, is
THREE-ELECTRODE
a class of minerals whose mechanism of conduction is (POLE-DIPOLE)
different from the metallic minerals. The clay and
zeolite minerals generally have loosely-held ions in and
on the surface of their crystal structure, and these ions
can migrate under the influence of an applied voltage.
Thus, rocks that contain clays or zeolites generally have DIPOLE-DIPOLE
low resistivity.
p = x V n(n+l)(N+2)a
On the basis of the foregoing and what we have already
discussed about the temperature, salinity and hydrothermal
alteration minerals within geothermal systems, geothemal
reservoirs can be expected to display high electrical conduc-
tivity on geophysical surveys. Indeed, low resistivity (high
conductivity) has been discovered by surface surveys over m
many geothermal systems, and geophysical tecbniques that
measure resistivity are in use worldwide in geothermal explor- Figure 4.17 Common electrode arrays in resistivity
ation for resources of all temperatures (Ward and Sill, 1982). surveying.
82
Perhaps the most useful configuration is the dipoledipole on the figure. The resistivity interpretation is for the depth
array. Using this technique, an effective depth of exploration interval 91 m to 152 m (300 ft to 500 ft), and results from a
of approximately two times the electrode separation (a in computer model of the field resistivity data (Ross et al.,
Figure 4.17) can be achieved, and because the maximum prac- 1990). Notice that areas of low resistivity co-d well
tical value for separation is perhaps 1,500 to 2,000 ft, the with a m of high heat flow.
dipoledipole method can detect low-resistivity mnes to depths
of 3,000 to 4,000 ft. Electromagnetic (EM) Methods
Computer-aided interpretation methods are availableand In the electromagnetic methods, the loop of wire used to
are easily applied. The geophysicist first performs a prelimi- create the electromagnetic field can be very large or small
nary interpretation using rules of thumb for the particular enough to fit on an airplane, and it can be carried vertically or
electrode array being used. This first guess is entered as a horizontally. An alternating current is put into the loop, with
model of the subsurface into the computer, and the expected the result that the loop creates aprimry magnetic field that
resistivity expression of the model is calculated. The calcula- alternates with the same frequency as the current. Part of this
tions are compared with the observed resistivity, and the alternating magnetic field penetrates the earth and induces
model is changed based on the differences. This process is re- alternating currents to flow in electrical conductors in the
peated until a satisfactory fit is achi6ved between the calcula- subsurface. The alternatingcurrents flowing in the subsurface
ted resistivity of the subsurfacemodel and the observed values conductors create an alternating magnetic field of their own,
of resistivity. Once an acceptable subsurface electrical model and part of this secondary magnetic field cuts the &ace of
is achieved, it is interpreted in terms of the subsurface the earth, where sensitive receiving equipment is deployed.
geology. The receiver detects the magnitude and phase of secondary
magnetic fields. Since secondary magnetic fields are due to
conductors at depth, measurement of these fields can be related
to the conductivity structure in the subsurface. This is the
basic measurement technique in the electromagnetic method.
Factors that can be varied include the amount and frequency
of current in the transmitter loop and the geometry of the
transmitter and receiver.
In the electromagnetic methods, geophysicists tend to

speak of conductivity rather than resistivity. Figure 4.19
shows a map of subsurface conductivity variation from the
Newberry volcano area near Bend, Oregon (Fitterman, 1983;
Fitterman et al., 1985). The shaded contours show the depth
to the top of a conductive zone in meters. The solid contours
show the resistivity of the conductive zone in ohm-meters.
Figure 4.18 Dipoledipole resistivity survey, Newcastle,

Utah.
results of a dipo le
resistivity survey in the Newcastle area in Utah and continues
the example of this area discussed in Thermal Methods abve. f Reslstlvlty of conductive horizon (ohm-m)
The resistivity lines are shown in a dark tone and the heat- Depth to conductive horizon (m)
flow contours, originally shown on Figure 4.16, are shown as (Fitterma 1983; Rttemwrnetd 1985)
shaded lines on this figure. Resistivity variations along the Figure 4.19 Timedomain electromagneticsurvey, Newberry
lines are shown as patterns with a legend to the patterns given Volcano, Oregon.
83
The lowest resistivity (highest conductivity) and shallowest Audiomagnetotelluric (AMT) and controlled-
depth to the conductor OCCUT on the west side of the Newberry Source Audiomagnetotelluric(CSAMT) Surveys
caldera. Several exploration core holes have been drilled in
the area, and encouraging results are rumored in the western The principle of this method is exactly the same as the
portion. Some data are still proprietary, however, and explor- MT method discussed above. MT equipment can be consider-
ation is continuing in the area. Corehole Newberry-2, shown ably simplified if its range of operation is restricted to
on the figure, was drilled by the U.S. Geological Survey. It frequenciesbetween about 10 to 10,OOOHz,loosely called the
intersecteda high-temperatureconvectivehydrothermalsystem audio range. This frequency range covers the depth range of
(Sammel, 1981), and constitutes a major geothermal dis- usual interest in geothermal exploration. Therefore, the AMT
covery. However, environmental sensitivities in this recre- or audiomagnetotelluric method, has seen some use in
ational and scenic area prohibit development of the resource. geothermal exploration. Most reported AMT surveys are
scalar AMT, that is, only one component of electric field and
Electromagneticmethods and galvanic resistivity methods one perpendicular component of magnetic field are measurered
each have certain advantages. Resistivity methods usually use during the survey. It can be demonstrated that, in purely
simpler equipment and the results are perhaps easier to inter- layered geologic terran~,this scheme is adequate for obtain-
pret because a wider variety of computer aids is available than ing resistivity structure. However, if resistivity also varies in
for the electromagneticmethods. Electromagneticmethods do either or both of the horizontal directions, as it does in the
not require the long lengths of wire to be placed on the vast majority of geothermal areas, scalar AMT is inadequate
ground that galvanic methods do, which is an advantage in and is not recommended for explor$ion.
mountainous or heavily vegetated terrain.
Equipment has recently become available to perform
Magnetotelluric (MT) Surveys controlled-source audiomagnetotelluric surveys. In this
method, an artificial source.of electromagnetic waves is used
In this method, natural magnetic and electric signals are as the signal instead of using natural signals. Use of an
used, i.e., it is a passive electromagnetic method (Ward and artificial source gives the geophysicist much more control over
Wannamaker, 1983). The natural signals originate in the the survey. CSAMT surveys in which all three components
ionosphere high above the earth. It c811 be shown that a of the magnetic field (two horizontal and one vertical wm-
measure of resistivity of the subsurface is given by the ratio of ponent) and both components of the electric field (there is no
the electric field to the perpendicular magnetic field on the vertical component across the earth-air interface) are measured
surface. Now, an electromagnetic field, natural or man-made, are called tensor CSAMTsutveys. They yield much more in-
will penetrate into the earth to a depth dependent on the formation than scalar AMT surveys. Although tensor CSAMT
frequency of the signal and the conductivity of the structure. surveys are not thoroughly tested for geothermal application,
The skin depth can be deiined as that depth at which the indications are that they will yield good results and may
electromagnetic field is attenuated in strengthby the factor I/e displace the use of the galvanic resistivity method in certain
from its value at the surface, where e is the base of the natural applications.
logarithms, and equals about 2.72. Lower-frequency waves
penetrate to deeper depths than do higher-frequency waves, The Self-Potential (SP) Method
and by making simultaneous measurements of Ex and Hy for
a range of frequencies, a depth sounding may be effected, the Self-potential or spontaneous-polarization surveys (SP
lower frequencies yielding information from deeper depths. surveys) are one of the electrical geophysical survey rypeS
wherein the resistivity or conductivity of the earth is not
The MT method has been used a great deal in geothermal measured. Instead, natural voltages are measured over the
exploration, often with disappointing results (Ward, 1983). surface of the earth, and these natural voltages are related to
By far the biggest problems appear to be misapplication and chemical or physical processes in the subsurface.
inadequate interpretation. Most MT data have been interpre-
ted using onedimensional inversion to a layeredearth resis- There is a process called the elechokinetic&ea whereby
tivity structure. Such interpretation is totally inadequate in water flowing in the subsurface can generate a voltage grad-
most geothermal applications and usually produces misleading ient. Another process called the thernwekctric f l e a
results. Careful two-dimensional or full three-dimensional expresses the coupling between temperature variations in the
computer modeling is needed for good interpretation. The subsurface and development of a voltage gradient. SP
MT method has many subtleties, and must be applied with a anomalies over convective hydrothermal systems arise from
great deal of care by geophysicists who are well experienced. both the electrokinetic and thermoelectric effects, and are due
It would genedly not be hpplied in exploration for direct-heat to the generation of natural voltages by the flow of fluids and
~ e s o u n ' ~although
s, MT data may be available for a prospect the flow of heat, respectively (Corwin and Hoover, 1979; Sill,
and should be reviewed by the geophysicist. 1983). On the basis of the physical mechanisms by which SP
84
effects arise, it would be expected that SP anomalies should be Highly successful use of the SP method for low- and
found over zones of upwelling of geothermal waters and per- moderate-temperature geothermal exploration has been
haps over zones of recharge to geothermal systems as well. reported by Ross et al. (1990) for the Newcastle area in Utah
(see also Thermal Methods and Galvanic Resistivity above).
SP surveys are simple, quick and inexpensive, although Figures 4.20 and 4.21 show details of an SP survey that has
they may not be completely diagnostic of a geothermal apparently defined the specific area of upwelling thermal fluids
resource at depth. They are also sometimes difficult to along the Antelope Range fault. These figures show both a
interpret. However, SP surveys have been used successfully contour map of SP measurements and profile plots. The
in certain areas. In the island of Hawaii, Zablocki (1976) closed contour low in the right center of Figure 4.20 shows an
found 8 large SP effect over the East Rift Zone of Kilauea anomaly of -108 millivolts, and this voltage low is believed to
volcano, which is a known geothermal area of continuing overlie the area of most intense upwelling of thermal water.
exploration.
-
@“?500 Heat flow contour, ml$ mr
.
Figure 4.20 Self-potential survey map, Newcastle, Utah.
Figure 4.22 Geophysical Data Summary, Newcastle, Utah.
+N 36. W-
Figure 4.22 is provided to bring together the data shown
0
in Figures 4.16, 4.18, 4.20 and 4.21 for the NewcastIe area
-20 (Ross et al., 1990). The area of high heat flow is seen to
-40
northeast-trending
60 contours toward the
-80 flow of thermal water
e outflow plume is also
area. Resistivity also detected two restricted areas of very low

values which are believed to correspond to areas of upwelling
. The most important area of upwelling is
the 108 millivolt SP low. This example
provides an illustration of fferent geophysical data sets
tual corroboration, thereby
reducing the risk of drilling an unsuccessful geothermal well
in this area.
Figure 4.21 Self-potential survey profiles, Newcastle, Utah.
85
4.4.3.3 The Seismic Methods Seismic Refraction Surveys
Elastic m&&auical waves, called seikmic waves are tion surveys, waves are 'used that are refkcted
transmitted through rocks and their measkment can be used along subsurface bhdariks and then re the surface.
to help determine the s t r u c k and m&hanical properties of Refraction m e j s can be helpful in det the gcol&c
rock bodies. Two tjpeS of waves are most useful: cture in the shallow are perhaps more easi-
thg than arii reflection
1. The compressional or primary (P) wave, bi which the w e y s . The thickness of uncohsolidated alluvium over bed-
particle motion in the rock is back and forth along the rock can usually be mapped with refraction. Such information
direction of travel of the wave. Of , each rock ful in planning drilling and other exploration activities.
particle only moves a fraction of a millimeter, but the egate et al. (1981) disciwed applications of both
rock particle is in contact with surrounding rock particles reflection and refraction to geothermal work.
and transmits its motion to its neighbors. In this way,
the wave moves outward in all directions from .the Earth Noise Surveys
source. P-waves are ordinary sound waves in rocks.
They travel at velocities that vary between about 3,000 There is limited evidence that h y d r o t h e d pn>cesses,
and 20,000 fils. including boiling and the m i d movement of water in geother-
mal resources, can generate seismic waves in the frequency
2. The shear or secondary (S) wave, in which the particle band 1 to 10 Hz (Liaw and Suyenaga, 1982). Noise also
motion is perpendicular to the direction of travel of the arises in such sources as traffic, trains, rivers, canals, and
wave. S-waves have no analog in air because fluids wind. Liaw and McEvilly (1979) have demonstratedthat field
(liquids and gases) do not support shear. In rock, S- and interpretative techniques for earth-noise surveys require a
waves travel at velocities about 7096 of the velocities of great deal of understanding and care. These surveys can pro-
P-waves. vide a guide to hydrothermal pmcesses if the data quality is
good and interpretation is thorough.
There is a variety of seismic methods, and they can be
applied to different exploration and mapping problems. The Microearthquake Surveys
selection of which seismic method might be heIpful is best left
to an experiend geophysicist. Seismic techniques can be Microearthquakesfrequently are related spatially to major
classified into active techniques and passive techniques. In the g e o t h e d systems. These microearthquakesappear to origi-
active seismic techniques, dynamite detonated in a shallow nate in faulting and fracturing at depth, processes that are
borehole or some other source of mechanical energy is used as needed to keep the plumbsg system of hydrothermal resources
a source for the signals that are received and interpreted. The
active techniques can be further subdivided into reflection and
refraction surveys. The passive techniques use Mtudly
occurring signals which arise from earthquakes and from the
movement of water or molten magma in the subsurface. We
will consider some of the common seismic methods below.
Seismic Reflection Surveys
In this method, an artificial source is used to create

seismic waves, which travel downward into the earth,are re-
flected from a boundary at which the mechanical properties of
the rock change (a discontinuity in seismicvelocity) and return
to the surface. At the d a c e , their arrival is detected by
sensitive geophones spaced along lines at known distances
apart. This method has proven to be very effective in explor- 0
ing for petroleum, and is used extensively by oil cckipanies.
However, it has been as successlid in the
A * 25-15
environment. Geothermal areas seldom have ihe 0 0
geological structure or layering that the method detects best.
0 O0
Swift (1979) discussed the d t s of a trial reflection survey
at Beowawe, Nevada.
Figure 4.23 Microearthquakes near Rookwelt Hot Springs,

Utah.
86
open. Accurate locations of earthquakes can provide data on earth's crust. The magnetism in rocks adds or subtracts from
the locations of active faults that may channel hot water the earth's main magnetic field, and by detecting spacial
toward the surface. Microseismic activity in most geothermal variations in the earth's total field, the variations in
areas has been observed to be episodic rather than continuous. distribution of magnetic minerals may be deduced. This
This characteristic limits the technique in its geothermal information, in turn, can be related to geology.
exploration applicationsbecause the surveys are expensive and
may need to be run for months or years to get useful The earth's magnetic field can be mapped on the ground
information. by use of sensitive instruments known as magnetometers.
Magnetometers can also be installed in aircraft, and magnetic
Figure 4.23 shows the locations of micmearthquakes at maps are created much faster and more cheaply from the air.
the Roosevelt Hot Springs geothermal area in Utah (Zandt et Aeromagnetic surveys are widely used by industry in petrol-
al., 1982). The microearthquakes are believed to be associ- eum and mineral exploration in attempting to map subsurface
ated with movement on the Negro Mag fault, one of the main geologic structure and changes in rock type. The use in
zones of upflow of geothermal fluids in the district. Signifi- geothermal exploration closely follows that in mineral
cantly, a six-station seismic net was run at Roosevelt for more exploration, for most geothermal resources are located in
than two years. It detected only a few events until the last 2 geologic environments that are similar to or the same as those
months of survey, when more than 1,OOO microearthquakes in which mineral deposits are found.
were observed to provide the data in Figure 4.23. This
demonstrates the episodic nature of seismic activity in this The physical property of the rock that quantifies its
ama. response to the earth's magnetic field is called the magnetic
susceptibiliry. Susceptibility varies over several orders of
P-Wave Delay and S-Wave Shadowing magnitude, but most rocks have magnetic susceptibilitiesin the
range 500 to 5,000 x lo4 cgs units. Igneous and volcanic
Seismic methods have been proposed for use in detecting rocks are usually highly magnetic (high susceptibility),
molten magma in the subsurface to depths of 10 miles or whereas sedimentary rocks are usually only weakly magnetic.
more. Magma has a lower P-wave seismic velocity than con- The process of hydrothermal alteration, discussed in Section
solidated rock and, being a liquid, it will not pass shear
waves. Thus, if seismic waves are observed from distant
earthquakes after passing through a magma body, the P-waves
should be slowed down and the S-waves should be removed.
Surveys that compare these parameters with those from
adjacent seismic rays that have not passed through the magma
have been attempted with apparent success at Long Valley
Caldera in California (see Rundle et al., 1986 and Goldstein,
1988, for reviews of geophysical data in Long Valley). The
success is apparent, of course, because there is no proof
through drilling that the magma predicted to occur on the basis
of the survey actually exists. Such work has indirect bearing
on exploration for direct-heat resourcesin that surveys of this
type would normally not be carried out specifically for direct-
heat exploration. Such data might have been collected in the
prospect area for other purposes, and it should be reviewed
and made part of the direct-heat exploration picture.
4.4.3.4 Mametic Methods
e earth has a main magnetic field whose shape is

similar to that which would be produced by a large bar magnet
near the center of the earth. This magnetic field is believed to
arise from electrical currents flowing deep within the earth, in
the electrically conducting, fluid core.
The earth's magnetic field induces a magnetic response

in certain minerals at and near the earth's surface. Principal
amQng the magnetic minerals are magnetite (iron oxide) and
pyrrhotite (iron sulfide). Although pyrrhotite is not common, Figure 4.24 Aeromagnetic survey of the Cove Fort/
magnetiteis found insmall amountsin many rocksofthe Sulphurdale geothermal area, Utah.
87
4.2.2.3, tends to destroy the magnetite in a rock, and to notable exploration successes of the gravity method stand out.
render it nonmagnetic or only weakly magnetic. Thus, some In the Imperial Valley, California, gravity m e y s have
geothermal systems enclosed in magnetic rocks are expressed proven useful in locating areas where hydrothermal alteration
as magnetic lows. However, there are many other causes of and metamorphismhave caused the rocks to become densified
magnetic lows, so care must be exercised in interpreting (Elders and Cohen, 1983). Deposition of minerals in the pore
magnetic data. spaces in rocks above convecting hydrothermal systems has
increased the density of the rocks enough to be detectable with
Regional aeromagneticdata are often available as part of the gravity meter. Geothermal systems stand out from the
state or federally sponsored surveys. These data often show background as gravity high areas. Gravity surveys have been
major structural features and aid in geologic mapping in areas used in conjunction with temperature-gradient and heat-flow
where the surface is covered by alluvium. Regional data are surveys to locate subsurface geothermal systems that have
generally too widely spaced and too high in altitude, however, absolutely no surface manifestation.
to constitute a database appropriate for detailed interpretation
on the scale of a geothermal prospect. In certain geologic A second application of gravity surveying has particular
environments, therefore, the geophysicist may want to collect importance to exploration for low- and moderate-temperature
detailed airborne or ground magnetic data on a geothermal geothermal resources. Such resources are often found on the
Prospect. active faults that bound many of the mountain ranges in the
western United States. Range-front faults are particularly
The locations of geologic structures (faults, fracture common in the Basin and Range province. Gravity surveys
zones), intrusions, volcanic rocks, and other features of can generally be used to map the locations of these range-front
interest in forming a geologic model of a geothermalprospect faults (Wright et al., 1985). The faults have thrust the
may be evident on magnetic maps. Figure 4.24 is an aero- mountain blocks up while dropping the valley blocks down.
magnetic map of the Cove Fort geothermal area in Utah. The valleys become filled with unconsolidated erosionaldebris
Contours are in nanotesh or gammas, the common unit of from the mountains. There is a marked contrast between the
measure for magnetic surveys. Magneticfield contour maps density of rocks on the mountain side of the fault (density
typically show complex patterns whose interpretationrequires 2,550 to 2,700 Kg/m3)compared to those on the valley side
careful work by a geophysicist. Heavy lines on Figure 4.24 of the fault (density 2,100 to 2,400 Kg/m3). The value of
indicate faults interpreted from the magnetic data and from gravity, therefore, is higher in the mountain block than it is in
other geophysical data available for this area. The magnetic the valley block. Sharp, high-gradient gravity changesnear to
high shown by the closed contours in the lower right-hand and parallel to a mountain front often mark the positions of
quarter of the map is believed to be caused by a subsurface faults hidden beneath the valley fill.
intrusion that has long since cooled, and is probably not the
present heat s o m at Cove Fort. Complex magnetic patterns
west of the highway are caused by basaltic volcanic rocks. 4.5 CASE STUDY - MONROE HOT SPRINGS, UTAH
4.4.3.5 Gravitv Methods Between 1976 and 1979, an exploration program was
carried out in the Monroe-Red Hill area in central Utah that
The earth’s gravity field is caused by the mass of the culminated in the drilling of a production-size well. The
earth itself. Since the &miry of a material is determined by purpose of this work was to try to develop enough production
its mass per unit volume, variations in the density of sub- to provide heating for several buildings in the town of
surface rocks cause minute variations in the earth‘s gravity Monroe. Although some production of water at higher tem-
field. In order to detect these gravity variations, very delicate perature than that of the surface springs was found, the
instruments are required. The modern gravity meter measures application was judged to be uneconomic, and the project was
one part in l,OOO,OOO,OOO of the earth’s gravity field, and is not completed. The exploration program, however, makes an
one of the most sensitivemechanical instrumentsever made by instructional case study, primarily because of the variety of
man. explorationdata availablefor this welldocumented case study.
Gravity data are often acquired or complied in the early The Monroe and Red Hill hot springs are located along
stages of an exploration program. Regional data, with station the transition zone between the Basin and Range and the
densities of one station per square mile, may be available as Colorado Plateaus geologic provinces, on the east side of the
the result of surveys by governments or universities. Avail- Sevier Valley near Monroe, in central Utah. They lie along
able data are generally the starting point for detailed surveys the range-bounding Sevier fault (Mundorff, 1970) and appear
suitable for geothermal prospecting. to be localized where the fault changes strike dimtion. There
are two main areas of thermal springs. The Monroe hot
The contribution from gravity m e y i n g to geothermal springs issue from a single tufa (travertine) mound that
exploration is much the same as from aeromagnetics, that is, extends for about 0.5 mile along the mountain front. The
structural, lithologic and other geologic information. Two water temperature varies from 120 to 150 OF, and the rate of
88
discharge is about 180 gpm. The Red Hill hot spring, about Figure 4.27 shows the heat-flow data as determined from
0.5 miles north, issues from a tufa mound 600 ft long. It the temperature gradients and measurements of the thermal
discharges about 150 gpm of water at a temperature of conductivities of rocks encountered in the gradient drilling.
approximately 170 OF. The Springs have TDS values ranging This data set shows a correlation of high heat flow with the
from 2,600 to 2,900 ppm. Rocks in the near vicinities of each known position of the Sevier fault, and also indicates the zone
of the mounds are hydrothermally altered with iron-oxide of outflow to the northwest also shown on the resistivity data.
minerals, producing bright red and yellow colo
Monroe Hot Springs
The geologic structure of the mountain block and Distance (m)
w TufaMound E
adjacent valley is complex. The Sevier Plateau east of the 100 0 100 200 300 400
valley and the Pavant Range to the west are covered with up
to 2.5 miles of Oligocene and Pliocene volcanic rocks con-
sisting of pyroclastic rocks and flows. These volcanic rocks
generally have very low permeabilities except for some
basaltic-andesite flows that are locally permeable. The
volcanic rocks overlie sedimentary rocks that range in age
from Oligocene to Jurassic (seeFigure 3.20, Chapter 3 for the
geological time scale) and are composed of silty and shaly
sequences, sandstones and limestones. Some of these
sedimentary rocks are good aquifers. The structure of the
sedimentary rocks beneath the volcanic rocks is unknown.
Figure 4.26 Temperature contours along EW cross section
Detailed geochemical studies of the Monroe and Red Hill across Sevier fault, Monroe, Utah.
hot springs were performed by Parry et al. (1976) and Miller
(1976). They concluded on the basis of chemical geother-
mometry that the most likely maximum subsurfacetemperature
to be found would be about 180 OF. Geophysical surveys in
the area included precision gravity to help locate the Sevier
fault in areas where it is covered by alluvium, ground
magnetics and dipoledipole resistivity. In addition, shallow’
holes were drilled for measurement of thermal gradients and
determination of heat flow. .
M1
SCALB
Heat Flow Holes (mWm2)

Figure 4.25 Temperature profiles for typical exploration
holes, Monroe,Utah. TufaMamds
-
7 Heat flow anomaly at Monroe Red Hill, Utah.
s u b d a c e temperature data in 11
boreholes in the area. Figure 4.25 shows some of the
observed temperature profiles and Figure 4.26 is igure 4.28 shows a contour map of the dipoledipole
section with temperature contours in “c. Note that the closest resistivity data (Mase, 1978). The resistivity survey found a
approach to the surface of high temperatures on Figure 4.26 highly conductive area that coincides with the Sevier fault and
coincides with the position of the Sevier fault, providing good shows the highest.conductivitiesnear the Monroe and Red Hill
evidence that this fault carries the thermal fluid. tufa mounds. Also shown by low resistivities is a zone of
89
storage and heating within a possible reservoir in sedimentary
rock at depth and discharge to the surface along with Sevier
fault (Figure 4.29). The heating probably takes place in the
deep aquifers before the waters flow up the Sevier fault.
The production test well was spotted at a position west

of the M o m travertine mound and on the west si& of the
Sevier fault such that it would intersect the fault about 1,OOO
ft deep. The hope was that the water at that depth would be
less diluted by near-surface, cooler water, and would therefore
be at a higher temperature than that of the springs. The 9-98
in. diameter well was drilled to a depth of 1.47’1 ft, and was
completed with 7-5/8 in. slotted liner between 945 and 1,313
ft. Pump testing indicated that the well was capable of pro-
ducing water at about 180 OF and that the natural, artesian
flow rate would be about 250 gpm, compared to the natural
flow from Monroe spring of 180 gpm at 120 to 150 OF. Al-
though the temperature was improved, the flow rate was too
low to support the planned direct use, and no further develop
ment has taken place to this time. Nevertheless, the Monroe
fesource still exists, and will probably be used at some time
in the future.
GLOSSARY
Active Geophysical Techniques - Geophysicaltechniques in

which a man-made source of energy is used. Examples
are dynamite in a seismic survey or electrical current in
a resistivity survey. See Passive Geophysical
Techniques.
Argillic Alteration - Alteration of existing rock minerals to

clay minerals through the action of circulating waters.
Anomaly - A deviation from uniformity. A local feature dis-

tinguishable in geological, geochemical or geophysical
data over a larger area.
0 Thermal Gradient Holes
Anticline - Theconvexupward bowingor foldingof rock
layers.
Aquifer - A subsurface rock unit from which water can be

Figure 4.28 Resistivity anomaly over the Monroe - Red Hill prudud.
geothermal system, Utah.
Basalt -
A fine-grained, darkalored extrusive volcanic rock
of mafic composition.
outflow in the alluvium that trends northwest from the Red
Hill mound. Low-resistivity values persist both north and Basin (sedimentary) - A segment of the crust that has been
south of the known hot springs and are believed to show the downwarped. Sediments in the basin increase in
total area prospective for drilling. With the exception of one thichess toward the center.
hole drilled near the Monroe Hot Spring, however, no further
drilling along this resistivity anomaly has taken place. Batholith - A large body of intrusive rock (e.g. granite) at
least 40 mi2in areal extent.
A simple geologic model of the system was discussed by
Kilty et al. (1979). The model includes deep circulation of
meteoric water with recharge in the northern Sevier Plateau,
90
GEOLOGIC INTERPRETATION
MONROE - R E D H I L L HOT SPRINGS
100
-
E
v
I too
!i
W
n
200
300
I
t I I I I I I I I
I
I I I I I I
I
1000 8 00 600 400 200 0 200 400
DISTANCE ( m )
VERTICAL EXAGGERATION 2: I
Figure 4.29 Fluid flow model for Monroe - Red Hill, Utah.
Blind Geothermal Resource - A geothermal resourcehaving Centigrade - A common temperature scale in scientific work
no surface manifestation of its presence. Blind resources and throughout most of the world apart from the U.S.
must be found by geological, geochemical and To convert temperatures in degrees centigrade to
geophysical methods. Also sometimes termed cryptic, temperatures in degrees fahrenheit, use the following
meaning hidden. formula: F = 9C/5 + 32.
Breccia - Rock made up of highly angular, coarse fragments. CoastalPlain - Aplainhavingits marginonthesea o r a
Can form from grinding along faults, from subsurface large lake.
hydrothermal explosions and &her mechanisms.
-
Conductivity see Electrical Conductivity
Buoyancy - A body submerged in a fluid will experience an
upward force, called its buoyancy, that is equal to the Connate Water - Water i n a sedimentary rock that was
difference between its weight and the weight of the fluid trapped at the time the sediments we& deposited.
it displaces,
Convection - Motion in a fluid or plastic material due to some
CarbonateRocks - Rocks composed of calcium carbonate parts being buoyant because of their higher temperature.
(limestone, marble) or magnesium carbonate (dolomite). Convection is a means of transferring heat through mass
flow rather than through simple thermal conduction.
91
Core - (1) The central region of the earth, having a radius of ElectromagneticGeophysical Methods - The class of geo-
about 2,155 mi (3,470 km). Outside the core lie the physical methods wherein current flow is induced in the
mantle and the crust. The radius of the earth is 3,955 mi subsurface by means of an alternating magnetic field,
(6,370 km). (2) A cylinder of rock cut by a coring drill either naturally occurring or man-made by driving a
bit. current through a coil of wire.
Cryptic Geothermal Resource - see Blind Geothermal Fahrenheit - The common measurement of temperaturein the
Resource. United States. To convert temperatures in degrees
fahrenheit to tempera- in degrees centigrade, use the
Crystalline Rock - Rock consisting of crystalline minerals. following formula: C = 5(F - 32)/9.
Often used with igneous and metamoqhic rocks.
Granite is an example of a crystalline rock. FelsicRock - An igneous rockwith relativelyhigh silica
content. Rhyolite is the volcanic variety, and granite is
Darcy - The unit of measure of permeability. The perme- the plutonic variety.
ability of a material is 1 darcy if 1 cm3/secof fluid of 1
centipoise viscosity will flow through a cube of the - Large accumula-
Flood Basalt (also called plateau basalt)
material 1 cm2in cross section and 1 cm in length under tions of horizontal basalt flows that erupt in rapid
a pressure difference of 1 atmosphere. succession over vast regions.
Density - The mass per unit volume of a material, a funda- -

Fluid Inclusion During crystallization of minerals, small
mental physical property of the,material. portions of the fluids from which they crystallize become
trapped within the crystal. These fluid inclusions are
Deuterium - The isotope of hydrogen that contains one proton usually microscopic in size.
and one neutron in the atomic nucleus, written H-2 in
this text and often written ?Hin scientific literature. Forward Modeling - Interpretation of geophysical or other
data in which the interpreter (1) forms a starting model
Dissolution - Dissolving or taking into solution. of the subsurface, (2)uses the computer to calculate the
expected response of the model, (3) compares the
Divergent Plate Boundary - The boundary between two calculated results with field data, and (4) changes the
crustal plates which are moving apart at a spreading model in accordancewith the comparison. Several model
center, usually at a mid- ridge, with new basaltic changes and recalculations are made until the calculated
crust welling up in the seam. model agrees well with the field results.
Drilling Fluid - Fluid, usually a special water- or oil-based Fumarole - A vent from which steam or gases issue; a geyser
mud, that is circulated in the hole during drilling to or spring that emits gases.
remove rock cuttings, and to lubricate and cool the drill
bit. Galvanic Resistivity Geophysical Method - An electrical geo-
physical method in which two grounded electrodes are
e.g.- Latin, exempli gratia, meaning for example. used to inject current into the ground while a resulting
voltage difference is measured between two separate
Electrical Conductivity - A fundamental physical pmperty of grounded electrodes. By knowing the disposition of the
material measuring how well the material conducts four electrodes, the magnitude of the current and that of
electricity. Better conductors have higher conductivity. the measured voltage, an "averaged" resistivity of the
Electrical current per unit area divided by voltage drop subsurface c8n be computed.
per unit length. Units are siemens per meter.
Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity. -
Geophysics Application of methods and techniques of
physics to geology.
Electrical Resistivity - A measure of the resistance to flow of
electricity in a material. The higher the resistivity, the Geopressured - A type of geothermal resource occurring in
greater the resistance to flow and the lower the deep basins in which the fluid is under very high
conductivity. Units are ohm-meters. Resistivity is the preSSUre.
reciprocal of conductivity.
Geothermal Energy - Heat energy from inside the earth.
-
Electrokinetic Effect A process for generation of natural
voltage gradients in the earth due to the flow of fluids Geothermal Gradient - The rate of increase of temperature
through pores and fractures in rock. with depth in the earth, given in C k m or F/100fi.
O O
92
Gouge - Finely abraded material between the sides of a fault, Igneous Rocks - Rocks whose origin is the cooling and solidi-
the result of grinding of rock during fault movement. fication of magma, molten rock material.
,gpm- Gallons per minute. -

Induration The process of hardening of sediments through
pressure, heat, or cementation.
Granite - A light-colored crystalline rock of felsic composi-
tion. Infrared - That portion of the electromagneticspectnunwhose
wavelengths are 0.7 to 1.0 micrometers, beyond the red
Gravity Geophysical Methods - The class ofgeophysical end of the visible spectrum.
methods based on”-measurementof minute variations in
the earth’s gravity field and interpretation of these in In Situ - Latin, meaning in place.
terms of subsurface geologic variations.
Intrusion - A body of rock that has invaded the earth‘s crust
Half Life - For a radioactive isotope, the time after which half from deeper depths in a molten state. Also the process
of the original amount has decayed radioactively. of this invasion.
Heat Capacity - The amountofheat requiredto raisethe Inversion - A method of interpretationof geophysicalor other
temperature of a material by 1 degree. data in which the computer is used to calculate a model
of the subsurface directly from field geophysical data.
Heat Flow - The rate at which heat is rising from depth to the Compare to Forward Modeling.
surface of the earth,given in milliwatts per square meter,
mW/m2. Ion - An atom which has a negative electric charge due to
possession of one or more extra electrons or a positive
Heat of Vaporization - See Latent Heat of Vaporization. electric charge due to loss of one or more electrons.
Host Rock - The rock that encloses a geothermal system or Jsotope - Isotopes of a chemical element are separate species
mineral deposit. of the same element that have different numbers of
neutrons in the nucleus. Stable isotopes are those that do
Hot Rock Geothermal Energy - Heat energy residing in rock. not decay radioactively. The notation used in this text
If the rock has no permeability, hydraulic fracturing may consists of the symbol for the chemical element followed
be used to create permeability to enable circulation of by a number representing the total number of protons and
water and removal of the heat. neutrons in the nucleus of the element, i.e. the mass
number. For example, Ar-40 is used for the isotope of
Hydraulic Fracturing - Fracturing of rock at depth from fluid argon that has mass number 40.
pressure. Hydraulic fracturing at depth may be induced
by pumping water into a well at very high pressures. Latent Heat of Vaporization - The heat required to change
Under natural conditions, vapor pressure may rise high a liquid to a vapor or gas. Vaporization takes place at
enough to cause fracturing in a process known as constant temperature, but with the addition of energy.
hydrothermal brecciation. Upon condensation, the heat of vaporization is given up
again. For water, the heat of vaporization decreases with
-
tatic Pressure The pressure exerted by water at any increasing temperature, falling to zero at the critical
depth in a body of water or in the earth in cases where point.
the water forms a continuous medium in pore spaces,
fractures and faults. Layered-Earth Model - A model used in geophysical data
interpretation in which the subsurface is divided into two
Hydrqthermal - Literally, hot water. or more horizontal layers each having infinite horizontal
extent. Same as a one4mensional or 1-D model.
-
Hydrothermal Alteration Mineral changes in a rock resul-
ting from chemical interaction of the rock with -
Limestone A sedimentary rock formed of crystallinecalcium
circulating hydrothermal fluids. carbonate, usually in the ocean by direct precipitation or
from coral reef fortnation.
Hz - cycles per second.
-
Lithosphere The upper, solid part of the earth,floating on
-
Le. Latin id est, meaning that is tu say. plastic rocks of the mantle below. Composed of the
crust and the uppermost mantle.
93
-
Mafii Rock An igneous rock with relatively low silica Mineral - A naturally formed chemicalelement or compound
content. Basalt is the extrusive volcanic variety, and that usually has a definite crystal structure. Some
gabbro is the crystalline, plutonic variety. minerals are amorphous, without crystal structure.
.
Minerals are the building blocks of rocks.
Magma - Molten rock.
Mineralization - The process of deposition of minerals in
Magma Chamber - A subsurface volume containing magma. open spaces in rocks, such as in faults, Fractures or
pores. Some such minerals have economic value whereas
-
Magnetic Geophysical Methods A class of geophysical others do not.
methods based on measurement of spatial variations in
the earth's magnetic field and interpretation of these One-Dimensional Model - See Layered-Ekth Model.
variations in terms of subsurface geologic variations.
Order of Magnitude - Factor of 10.
-
Magnetic Susceptibility A basic physical parameter of a
rock measuring the extent to which the rock becomes Passive Geophysical Techniques - Geophysicaltechniquesin
magnetized as a result of induction due to the earth's which natural fields or signals are used as energy
magnetic field. The higher the susceptibility, the more sources. Gravity, magnetic, self-potential,
magnetic the rock is when placed in a magnetic field magnetotelluric and microseismic surveys are examples.
such as that of the earth.
Permeability - The capacity of a rock for transmitting fluid.
Magnetometer - An instrument for measuring the magnetic See Darcy.
field strength of the earth.
pH - A measure of the acidity of water. Neutral water has pH
Magnetotelluric Geophysical Methods - The class of geo- = 7.0. Waters with pH values less than 7.0 are acid,
physical methods based on measurement of the ratio of whereas those with pH values greater than 7.0 are
electric field in one horizontal direction to magnetic field alkaline.
in a perpendicular direction at various frequencies, and
interpretation of the resulting data in terms of variations Piezometric Surface (also Potentiometric Surface) - The
in subsurface geologic variations. level to which water in an aquifer will rise under its own
pressure, due to its hydraulic head.
Mantle - The layer of the earth lying between the crust above
and the core below. The mantle extends between depths Plume (mantle) - A subcircular, isolated area of upwelling of
of about 19 mi (30 km) in continental areas and 1,790 mi hot material in the mantle. One manifestation of mantle
(2880 km), where the core begins. convection.
Megawatts (Electrical, MWe) - 1 million watts of electricity. Pluton - A subsurface body of intrusive rock.
Due to conversion inefficiencies, it takes about 3 million
tbermal watts to generate 1 million watts of electricity. ppm - Parts per million.
Megawatts (Thermal, MWt) - The watt is a unit of power, Porosity - The percentage of the volume of interstices or open
equal to 1Joule/sec, where 1 Joule equals 0.239 calories. space in a rock or soil compared to its total volume.
The megawatt is 1 million watts.
P-Wave - A compressional seismic wave. A seismic wave in
MetamorphicRQck - Rockthathas beenformed fromthe which the particle motion is back and forth along the line
actions of heat, pressure and chemical reactions on pre- of propagation of the wave. Analogous to sound waves
existing igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic rock. in air.
MeteoricWater - Water falling from the sky as rain or snow. Pyroclastic rocks - Volcanic rocks comprised of material that
has been explosively ejected from the volcanic vent.
Microearthquake -
Anearthquake orseismic eventhaving
energy release much too low to be felt at the surface, and RadioactiveDecay - Natural and spontaneous change of
therefore requiring detection by sensitive seismometers. certain chemical elemental species into other elemental
species by emission of one or more of various particles
Milliequivalent - A measure of chemical Concentration. The from their nuclei.
molar conceutration of a +ies times the ionic charge of
. the species.
94
Radioactive Isotope - A species of a chemical element that -
Skin Depth The depth in the earth at which the amplitude of
decays radioactively. a propagating electromagnetic wave is reduced to l/e of
its original amplitude, where e is the base of the M W
Reflection SeismicSurveys - The class of seismic geophysical ' logarithms, having a value of about 2.72. The skin
m e y s in which reflections of seismic wzves from depth is a function of the frequency of the wave and the
subsurface geologic interfaces are detected at the surface electrical conductivity of the rocks.
and interpreted in terms of subsurface geologic
variations. Soil Horizon - A layer of soil that is distinguished from layers
above and below by characteristic properties such as
Refraction Seismic Surveys - The class ofseismicgeo- color, texture or chemistry.
physical surveys in which refractions of seismic waves
from subsurface geologic interfaces are detected at the Spontaneous Polarization - Same as Self Potential.
surface and interpreted in terms of subsurface geologic
variations. SpreadingCenters - Divergent boundaries betweenmajor
plates of the earth's crust at which motion of the plates
RenewaMelSustainable Energy - Energy forms whose pro- on opposite sides of the center is a separation, with
duction can be sustained for hundreds of years. magma rising in the crack to consolidate and form new
Geothermal, solar and wind energy are examples. crust.
Reservoir - A natural underground container of fluids such as Stratigraphic - Havingto dowiththe layeringof rocks.
geothermal waters or steam. Normally applied to sedimentary rocks.
Rhyolite - An extrusive volcanic rock of felsite composition. Subduction - Descent of one plate of the lithosphere lmder
The extrusive equivalent of granite. another plate.
Rift Zone - A system of crustal fractures and faults. Rifts at Superheat - Steam in a geothermal systemis saidtobe
the crest of mid-ocean ridges result from separation of superheated if extra heat has been added above the
the plates. minimum heat necessary to simply change water to steam
for a given pressure.
-
Salinity The quantity of total dissolved solids in water.
-
S-Wave A shear seismic wave. A seismic wave in which the
-
Sedimentary Rock A rock formed by consolidation of sedi- particle motion is perpendicular to the line of
ments that have accumulatedunder water (subaqueous) or propagation. There is no counterpart of shear waves in
under the air (subaerial). '
air, water or magma, since fluids will not sustain shear
(they flow rather than propagate the wave).
-
Seismic Methods The class of geophysical methods based on
propagation, reflection and refractioq of mechanical -
Temperature Gradient See Geothermal Gradient.
waves in rocks and interpretation of the resulting data in
terms of subsurface geologic variations. Thermal Conductivity - The ability of a material to conduct
heat, given in wattdmeter-" Kelvin in SI units.
Seismic Velocity - The speed of propagation of seismic, or
elastomechanical, waves in rocks. Three-Dimensional Model - A model used in geophysical
data interpretation in which the subsurface is divided into
SelfPohtiaI - Naturalvol regions of varying physical properties and the regions are
subsurface by the flow of fluids (electrokinetic effect), bounded in all three dimensions (as a cube).
the flow of heat (thermoelectric effect) or chemical
reactions such as those around an oxidizing ore body. -
ThermoelectricEffect The mechanismwhereby flow of heat
in the subsurface results in measurable electric voltage
SI Units - StandardInternationalunits of measure of physical gradients at the surface. One of the mechanisms for the
and chemical quantities. The system of units accepted by self-potential geophysical method.
the scientific community worldwide.
Total Dissolved Solids - The content, usually in parts per
Sinter - Chemical sediment deposited by a mineral spring. In million by weight, of all dissolved salts in a groundwater
geothermaluse, often reserved for silica deposits. In this or geothermal fluid.
use, also called siliceous sinter. Can also be used as
calcareous sinter (see tufa and travertine).
95
Transform Fault -
A fault in which the blocks of rock on Applegate, J. K.; Goebel, V, S.; Kallenkrger, P. and
opposite sides move horizontally with respect to one Rossow, J., 1981, "The use of seismic reflection
another, and which is caused by variations in the rate of techniques in geothermal areas throughout the U.S.",
spreading along a spreading miter. Slst Annual International Meeting. and Exwsition,
Society of ExplorationGeophysicists, Los Angels, CA.
Travertine - Calcium carbonate deposits resulting from pre-
cipitation at the surface at a spring. Some varieties are Blackett, R. E.; Shubat, M. A.; Chapman, D.S.; Forster, G.
called tufa or calcareous sinter. B. and Schlinger, C. M., 1989, "An Bssessment of
geothermal resoutces at Newcastle, Utah",Geothermal
Trench (Oceanic) - An long, linear ocean deep, parallel to a Resources Council Transactions, v. 13, 109-116.
subduction zone, resulting from the oceanbottom being
dragged down by the subduction proces's. Blackett, R. E.; Shubat, M.A.; Chapman, D. S.; Fmter, C.
B.; Schlinger, C. M. and Bishop, C. E., 1990, "The
Tufa - Chemical sediment deposited by a spring or a lake. Newcastle geothermal system-geology, hydrology, and
See also sinter and travertine. conceptual model", Utah Geoloeical and Mineral Survey
Reoort, U;S. Department of Energy Research Grant No.
Two-DimensionalModel - A model used in geophysical data DE-FG07-88ID12756, 8 5 ~ .
interpretation in which the subsurface is divided into
regions of varying physical properties and the regions are Capuano, R. M. and Cole, D. R., 1982, "Fluid-mineral
bounded in two dimensions but not in the third equilibria in a hydrothermal system, Roosevelt Hot
dimension. In the typical 2-D model, regions have Springs, Utah",Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v.
- boundaries in the vertical and one horizontal dimension, 46, p ~ 1353-1364.
.
but are assumed to extend to infinity in the other
horizontal dimension. Christensen, 0. D.; Capuano, R. M.and Moore, J. N., 1983,
"Trace-element distribution in an active hydrothermal
Two-Phase - In geothermal, used to mean both water and system, Roosevelt Hot Springs thermal area, Utah",
steam coexisting in the rack, borehole or surface Journal of Volcanolow and Geothermal Research, v. 16,
equipment. p ~ 99-129.
.
Vapor Dominated - A hydrothermal convectionsystem which Corwin, R. F. and Hoover, D. B., 1979, "The self-potential
contains sufficient steam that the steam is the umtinuous method in geothermal exploration", GeoDhvsics, v. 44,
fluid phase, and the pressure gradient in the reservoir is pp. 226-245.
vaporstatic rather than hydrostatic.
Craig, H., 1963, "The isotopic geochemistry of water and
Vein - A fracture or fault that has been filled with minerals. carbon in geothermal areas", in Nuclear Geology on
If the minerals are of economic value, the vein is said to Geothermal Areas, Spoleto, Pisa, Consiglio N a z i d e
be an ore vein or lode. In geothermal systems, veins delle Recerche, Laboratorie de Geologia Nucleare.
often consist of quarfz or calcite filling of a fracture.
J,
Durrance, E. M., 1986, "Radioactivity in Geology-Principles
viscoSity - The internal properties of a fluid that offer and Applications: Ellis Horwood Ud., 441 p.
resistance to flow. Fluids usually become less viscous
with increasing temperature. Elders, W.A. andahen, L. H., 1983, "TheSaltonSeageo-
thermal field, California, as a near-field ~ t u r aanalog
l of
-
Volcanic Rock An igneous rock that has been poured out or a radioactive waste repository in salt", Office of Nuclear
ejected at or near the earth's surface. Waste Isolation ReDort BMIIONWI-513, 138 p.
Waterhminated - A hydrothermal convectimsystem in Fitterman, D. V., 1983, "Timedomain electromagnetic

which water form the continuous phase in the rock, and soundings at Newberry volcano, Oregon", American
the pressure in the pore spaces changes as the hydraulic GeoDhv&al Union T&~sactions,EOS,v. 64,p. 899.
gradient.
Fitterman, D. V.; Neev, D.K.;Bradley, J. A. and Grose, C.
T., 1985, "More timedomain electromagneticsoundings
REFERENCES of Newberry volcano, Deshutes County, Oregon", U.S.
Geological Survev Ouen-File Reoort 85451, 77 p.
Adams, M. C. and Moore, J. N., 1987, 'Hydrothermal
alteration, and fluid geochemistry of the Meager
Mountain geothermal system, British Columbia",
American Journal of Science, v. 287, pp. 720-755.
96
Fournier, R. O., 1981, "Application of water geochemistry to Matlick, J. S. and Buseck, P. R., 1976, "Exploration for
geothermal exploration and reservoir engineering", in geothermal areas using mercury - a new geochemical
Geothermal Systems-Principles and Case Histories, L. technique", Proceedings of the Second U.N. Svmsium
Ryback and L. J. P. Muffler, Eds., Wiley, NY, pp. 109- on the Development and Use of Geothermal Resources,
143. San Francisco, CA, May 1975, v. 1, pp. 785-792.
Fournier, R. 0. and Truesdell, A. M., 1973, "Anempirical Miller, C. D., 1976, "Alteration and geochemistry of the
Na-K-Ca geothermometer for natural waters", Monroe Known Geothermal Resoum Area", M.S.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 37, pp. 1255- Thesis, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT.
1275.
Moore, J. N. and Samberg,,S. M., 1979, "Geologyofthe
Goldstein, N. G., 1988, "Predrilling data review and Cove Fort-Sulphurdale KGRA (with bibliographic
synthesis for the Long Valley caldera, California", annotations and petrographic descriptions by Bruce
American Geophysical Union Transactions, EOS, v. 69, Sibbett)", University of Utah Research Institute, DOE
pp. 43-45. Remrt No. DOEIETl28392-27, 44 p.
Helgeson, H. C., 1969, "Thermodynamicproperties of the co- Moore, J. N.; H u h , J. B.; Lemieux, M. M.; Stemfeld, J.
existing phases and thermochemical properties of the N. and Walters, M. A., 1989, "Petrographic and fluid
NaCl component in boiling NaCl solutions", U.S. inclusion evidence for past boiling, brecciation and
Geological Survev Bulletin, v. 1421-B, pp. 71. associatedhydrothermal alterationabove the NW Geysers
steam field, California", Geothermal Resources Council
Hem, J. D., 1970, "Study and interpretation of the chemical Transactions, vol 13, pp 467-472.
characteristicsof natural water", U.S. Geological Survey
Water-Supply Paper 1473, 363 p. Moore, J. N.; Lemieux, M. M. and Adam, M. C., 1990,
"The occurrence of C0,enriched fluids in active
Henley, R. W. and Ellis, A. J., 1983, "Geothermal systems geothermal systems-data from fluid inclusions", 15th
ancient and modern, a geochemical review", &&I Annual Stanford Geothermal Reservoir Engineering
Science Review, v. 19, pp. 1-50. WorkshoD, in press.
Henley, R. W.; Truesdell, A. H. and Barton, P. B., Jr., Mundorff, J. C., 1970, "Major thermal springs of Utah",
1984, "Fluid-mineral equilibria in hydrothermal Utah Geological and Mineral Survey Water Resources
systems", Reviews in Economic Geology, v. I, 267 p. Bulletin 13, 60 p.
Kilty, K.; Chapman, D. S. and Mase, C. W., 1979, "Forced Murray, K. S.;JOW, M. L. and Lopez, C. A., 1985, "Geo-
convective heat transfer in the Monroe Hot Springs chemical exploration of the Calistoga geothermal
geothermal system", Journal of Volcanology and resource area, Napa Valley, California", Geothermal
Geothermal Research, v. 6, pp. 257-277. Resources Council Transactions, v. 9 - Part I, pp. 339-
344.
LeSchack, L. A. and Lewis, J. E., 1983, "Geothermal pros-
pecting with shallow-temperature surveys", Geophysics, Nielson, D. L., 1978, "Radonemanometry as a geothermal
V. 48, pp. 975-996. exploration technique--theory and an example from
Roosevelt Hot Springs KGRA, Utah", University of
Liaw, A. L. and McEvilly, T. V., 1979, "Microseisms in Utah Research Institute, Earth Science Laboratorv R m r t
geothermalexploration-studiesin Grass Valley, Nevada", -
14, DOEhD128392-18, 31 p.
Geophvsics, v. 44, pp. 1097-1115.
Nielson, D. L.; Sibbett, B. S.;- McKinney, D. E.;H u h , J.
Liaw, A. L. and Suyenaga, W., 1982, "Detection of geother- B.; Moore, J. N. and Samberg, S. M, 1978, "Geology
mal microtremors using seismic arrays", Paper presented of Roosevelt Hot Springs KGRA, Beaver Co., Utah",
at 52nd Annual International Meeting and Exmsition, University Utah Research Institute, Earth Science
Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Dallas, TX, Laboratorv Remrt No. 12, DOE/ID/28392+19, 121 p.
October 17-21.
Parry, W. T.; Benson, N. L. and Miller, C. D., 1976, "Geo-
Mase, C. W., 1978, "Geophysicalsurvey of the Monroe - Red chemistry and hydrothermal alteration at selected Utah
Hill geothermal system", M.S. Thesis, University of hot springs", National Science Foundation Contract
Utah, Salt Lake City, UT. Remrt, University of Utah.
97
Piper, A. M., 1944, "A graphic procedure in the geochemical Varekamp, J. C. and Buseck, P. R., 1983, "Hg anomalies in
interpretationof water analysis", Transactions American soils-a geochemical exploration method for geothermal
Geophvsical Union, pp. 914-923. areas", Geothermics, v. 12, n. 1, pp. 29-47.
Ross, H. P.; Blackett, R. E.; Shubat, M. A. and Ward, S. H., 1983, "Geophysicalstudiesof active geothermal
Mackelprang, C. E., 1990, "Delineation of fluid upflow systems in the northern Basin and Range", in The Role
and outflow plume with electrical resistivity and self- of Heat in the Development of Energy and Mineral
potential data, Newcastle geothermal area, Utah", Resources in the Northern Basin and Range Province,
Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, v. 14, pp. Geothermal Resources Council Smial R m r t No. 13,
1531 - 1536. pp. 121-157.
Rundle, J. B.; Carrigan, C. R.; Hardee,H. C. and Luth, W. Ward, S. H. and Sill, W. R., 1982, "Resistivity, induced
C., 1986, "Deep drilling to the magmatic environmentin polarization, and self-potential methods in geothermal
Long Valley caldera", American Geobhvsical Union exploration"University ofUtah Research Institute, Earth
Transactions, EOS, v. 67, pp. 490-491. Science Laboratorv R m r t No. 108, DOE/ID/12079-90,
100 p.
Sammel, E. A., 1981, "Results of test drilling at Newberry
volcano, Oregon", Geothermal Resources Council Ward, S. H. and Wannamaker, P. E., 1983, "TheMT/AMT
Bulletin, v. 10, n. 11, pp. 3-8. electromagneticmethod in geothermal exploration"U.N.
.
University Geothermal Training Programme. Iceland,
Sibbett, B. S. and Nielson, D. L., 1980, "Geology of the R ~ r t 1983-5,
. 107 p.
central Mineral Mountains, Beaver County, Utah",
University of Utah Research Institute, Earth Science Wright, P. M.; Ward, S. H.; Ross, H. P. and West R. C.,
Laboratow R m r t No. 33, DOE/ID/28392-40,42 p. 1985, "State-of-the-art geophysical exploration for
geothermal resources", GeoDhvsics, v. 50, pp. 2666-
Sill, W. R., 1983, "Self-potential modeling from primary 26%.
flows", Geophvsics, v. 48, pp. 76-86.
Zablocki, C. J., 1976, "Mapping thermal anomalies on an
Swift, C. M., Jr., 1979, "Geophysical data, Beowawegeo- active volcano by the self-potential method, Kilauea,
thermal area, Nevada", Geothermal Resources Council Hawaii", Pn>ceedinasof the Second U.N. Svmsium on
Transa~ti~ns, V. 3, p ~ 701-702.
. the Develobment and Use of Geothermal Resources, San
Francisco, CA, May 1975, v. 2, pp. 1299-1309.
Trexler, D. T.; Flynn, T.; Koenig, B. A. and Bruce, J.,
1980, "Assessment of geothermal resourcesof Caliente, Zandt, G.; McPhemn, L; Schaff, S. and Olson,S., 1982,
Nevada", U.S. DOE R m r t DOE/NV/10039-1, available Seismic baseline and induction studies-Roosevelt",
from NTIS, 23 p. University of Utah Research Institute, Earth Science
Laboratow Rewrt No. 100, DOE/ID/1821,60 p.
98
CHAPTER 5
GEOTHEMAL FLUID
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
By Cecil H. Kindle
Pacific Northwest Laboratories
Richland, Washington 99352
5.1 INTRODUCTION 1. Spectroscopy - for cations
The purpose of sampling and analysis of a geothermal 2. Ion chromatography - for anions
fluid is to determine the chemical and isotopic constituents.
Because most geothermal direct use projects operatewith fluid 3. Colorimetry - for silica and ammonia
temperatures less than boiling, this chapter only applies to
sampling these lower temperature fluids. Data on fluid 4. Selective ion electrode - for ammonia
characteristics can be applied to: (a) process design, (b)
materials selection, (c) plant operation and maintenance, and 5. Titrations - for sulfide, alkalinity
(d) reservoir evaluation. Chemical analysis of production and . hardness, C02and chloride
injection well fluids may be required by state agencies to
determine if injection is to a compatible aquifer. 6. Turbidimetric - for sulfate
Some constituents in the geothermal fluids are unstable 7. Gravimetric - for suspended and dissolved
and change with time. The changes result from the difference solids
in conditions within the geothermal aquifer before sampling,
compared to those within the sample container in storage. Data quality checks should be used, when results are
Changes in temperature and partial pressures of gases, returned from the laboratory, to ensure that the analytical
especially oxygen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, are results are consistent. Charge balance (anion-tu-cation ratio)
particularly likely to occur. Plastic bottles are permeable to and ma~s balance (total dissolved solids-to-analyzed
oxygen as shown by continued oxidation of iron from ferrous constituents ratio) should be calculated.
to ferric in tightly closed sample bottles. Plastic sample
bottles are also permeable to hydrogen sulfide, as shown by In order to reduce the possibility of sampling stagnant or
the odor in storage cabinets containing tightly capped plastic non-representative flows from wells, the following actions
bottles of samples of water containing hydrogen sulfide. Some could be taken:
constituents, such as sodium, potassium, and chloride are
usually stable and show no changes upon storage. 1. Sampling after the well has been flowed at a high
rate to deliver a good aquifer water sample
Depending upon the purpose and ~ t u r eof the study, (uncontaminatedwith residues from well drilling in
changes in samples, upon collection and storage, may or may recently drilled wells).
not be a problem. The information needed for a particular
study and the desired accuracy should be established first; 2. Recording recent flow history of the well
then, the appropriate sampling techniques can be selected.
This chapter suggestssample treatment (stabilization)and field 3. Recording pressure, temperature and flow rate at
analysis techniques appropriate for minimizing errors (that time of sampling.
may result from changes in water samples between time of
collection and time of analysis). Methods for analysis of the Preservation of a sample is 0th a problem; constituents
samples in the laboratory are given in standard reference may precipitate out, undergo chemical change, or evolve as a
publications(APHA 1979; ASTM 1980; EPA, 1979; Watson, gas. Most sample constituents can be stabilized in the field
1979; Kindle 1981) and will not be covered in this chapter. for analysis in the laboratory. Analysis should take place as
A combination of standard techniques and commercially scum as possible.
available instruments generally used by laboratories are:
99
.
1. Carbon dioxide (CO3 is determined from a sample cases, can be compared with analytical results from a
stabilized with d u m hydroxide (NaOH). laboratory. Analytical techniques are used to determine the
remaining constituents, as shown in Figure 5.1.
2. Hydrogen sulfide (Hs)and oxygen (03 are measured in
the field using a test kit. A problem could exist with analyticaldifferencesbetween
laboratories'utilizing the same method, resulting in typical
3. Cations and ammonia (NH,) are stabilized by variations of 15 to 40% and worse with cations and anions
acidification. -
below 1 mgk. Supervisorychemists should be knowledge-
able about analytical procedures for geothermal fluids and
4. Silica dioxide (Si03 is diluted IO-fold to preserve it in utilize data quality checks indicated in Figure 5.1.
solution.
!
5. Mercury (Hg) samples are collected in glass bottles 5.3 SAMPLE STABILIZATION
containing an acid-oxidizer mixture.
Specialpreparations for stabilizingsome samplesfor later
6. pH is measured in the field. analysis are necessary precautions. These preparations are
made most conveniently and accurately in the laboratory
beforedepture to the field. As Presser, et& (1974)states:
5.2 UNIFORM PROCEDURES FOR SAMPLING AND
ANALYSIS "The most commonly observed changes in untreated
samples are in pH, iron, manganese, bicarbonate,
At least five different factors affect the accuracy of ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, calcium, and sulfate.
analytical determinations in geothermal fluids. nesi so- Silica concentrations in excess of 100 m g k
of variations include: (milligramsfiter) may lead to difficulties owing to
precipitation and polymerkition. Polymeric silica
1. Flow composition shift with time from the well. is not reactive in the ammonium molybdic method
that is often used for laboratory determination of
2. Differences in sampling methods. silica.
3. Sample stabilization procewx. The changes in sample composition result from loss
of carbon dioxide to the air space, oxidation and
4. Different analytical methods. precipitation of iron and manganese, oxidation of
hydrogen sulfide to sulfate, oxidation of ammonia,
5. Differencesbetween laboratoriesusing the same methods. loss of calcium ion as calcium carbonate
precipitates, and precipitation of silica. Waters
The concern about flow conditions has to be resolved on inoculated with diatoms may also lose silica. Once
a site specific basis. To avoid composition shifts that may a precipitate forms, there is no accurate way to
occur during well start-up (or because of temperature restore the initial composition of the solution.
gradients) the well should be flowed at a high rate to deliver Constituents that will probably be unaffected by
a good uncontaminated aquifer sample before collecting storage include sulfate (if no hydrogen sulfide was
samples. Sampling methods presented here are for use in originally present), lithium, sodium, potassium,
single-phase systems; most cases will be below the boiling magnesium, fluoride, chloride, bromide, iodide, and
temperature. boron. "
A uniform approach to sampling, sample stabilization and A stabilization sequence is described below. The specific
analytical methods is schematicallyrelated to Figure 5.1. The contained volumes used depend on the needs of the laboratory
use of a samplinglanalysismethod based on this flow chart except that the sparge tube (glass tube witb frit on end)
will improve comparability and reliability of geothermal fluid stabilization efficiency will likely depend on the height of the
composition data. stabilizing solution above the glass frit.
Field analysisis used only for those measurementswhere 5.3.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO.,)
preservation is not practical. Meters are used to determine
temperature, pressure, flow, pH, and conductivity. Colori- For C02preservation, the sample flow is directed into 1L
metric analysiskits may be used for field analysis of hydrogen bottles that are previously half-filled (exactly) with 2N NaOH
sulfide (H9) and dissolved oxygen (03, which, insome stabilizing solution (Figure 5.2). The flow is passed to the
100
I
Y
rb
c,
Id
a
t
rl
k
0
vc
I
I
I
I
IE I
I 1
I
I
13 I
I
I
I
I
101
Limited testing indicatesno differencebetween the two acids,
at least down to routine analytical limits in stabilizing cations
Vable 5.1). "0,seems to be used more commonly than
HCL. Where there is particular interest in cations that form
marginally soluble chlorides (e.g., Ag), "0, would be
prefdle.
Table 5.1 Comparisonof HNO, and HCL as Acid Stabilizem
\
QASS Fell
concentrationsin CrndLI
Figure 5.2 Gas stabilization device.
Raft River Samles East Mesa Samle
bottom through a glass tube with a glass frit sparger to ensure "o,HcL"o,HcL "0% HCL
that any gaseous CO, contacts the NaOH before exhausting.
Pacific Northwest Laboratory's (PNL) collection efficiency B 0.47 0.45 0.57 0.57 8.53 8.69
using the single sparge bottle, as shown in Figure 5.3. Ba 0.08 0.07 0.52 0.52 0.863 0.876
ca 159 150 187 187 29.2 29.3
Fe 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 1.28 1.38
- c Li 3.01 2.74 3.46 3.46 6.70 7.17
Mg .0.40 0.36 0.29 0.28 2.05 2.18
Na 1470 1400 2040 2040 2417 2535
\ Si 32.3 32.0 29.3 29.8 105.6 1W.4
\ Sr O.% 0.94 6.80 6.78 6.77 6.83
\
\
\
\ 5.3.3 Mercurv (Hfi
I
For mercury analysis the sample is stabilized by 1%
(volume) of a 5% KMnO, solution, 1% (volume) of
concentrated HN03, and 2% (volume) of a 5% K&08
solution. Glass bottles (labeled FAHg) are used to collect and
0 SO00 10,000 15.000 store the samples to prevent possible biases from a plastic
TOTM C02 (mg/r BRINE) container. A bias caused by mercury diffusing through the
wall into the sample is shown in Figure 5.4. The mercury
Figure 5.3 Single sparge bottle efficiency (Shannon, 1980). sample is analyzed as 60011 as possible.
5.3.4 Silica Dioxide CSiO,)

This efficiency would vary with the gas flow rate. The
PNL flow rate is an empirically judged, moderate bubbling Dilution is used to stabilize a filtered sample for SiO,
rate. For persons new to the technique, a couple of trial analysis. The 10-fold or greater dilution into &-ionized water
determinations using two bottles in series is recornmeended if is performed in the field using a pipette and a volumetric
the sample flow has a lot of gas bubbles in it. A single sparge thk. The analysis of this sample is usually comparableto the
bottle will probably be d c i e n t for m 9 t geothermal flows Si analysis from the filtered,acidified (FA) sample, an indica-
involved with direct use projects. Umtabilized solutions will tion that acidification is also effective in xetainhg silica with
rapidly lose CO, to the atmosphere before the analysis can be the lower Si%.
performed.
5.3.5 Ammonia (NHa
5.3.2 Cations
Acidification is used to stabilize NH, as NH,+ and
Cations are stabilized by acidification and the container measure it in the filtered, acidified (FA) sample. Flowing the
is labeled FA (filtered, acidified). Of concentrated "0,or cooled liquid sampledirectly into the FA container is adequate
HCI l o d a r e p u t i n t h e 1 Lsamplebottle(t0 1% ofits to mix and sta-, a sparge tube is u n n v . Limited
volume) and this bottle is sealed mtilused in the field. conqxisolls ofammonia preservation options indicated a
102
solutions. It is not advocated that HCI be added directly to
the undiluted sample (making it a FA sample) as a means of
improving the solubility.
SQUllON IONIC s mm
0.01
59 I
mu i
- i I
I P a M T H Y i f N E BOTILES. ACID RINSED.
i I EXPOSED TOVARIOUS ATMOSPHERES
RANGING FRW UEORATORY BENCHTOP
! 2 To ONE s A m u m wini txRcuRY
VAPOR
Figure 5.5 BaSO, Solubility versus ionic strength; 25°C

NaCl solutions (Davis & Collins, 1971).
The acid seems to accelerate the kinetics of precipitation

to reach the solubility limit: four FA-HCl samples (East Mesa
8000 ppm TDS) lost 15 to 2096 of the SOi’ after 8 months
compared to identical FU samples; Harrar (1981) reports
slight acidification to cause rapid BaSO, precipitation in a
Salton Sea brine.
Once they are filled, the sample bottles are placed into a
Figure 5.4 Comparison of polyethylene to glass as a storage large cardboard container and covered with the box lid. This
container for saline solutions when mercury con- serves to keep the samples out of the light as well as being
centrations are quantified. Initial concentrations convenient for organizing the field operation.
were 2 to 25 x lG3ppb (Bother & Robertson,
1975). There are other stabilization approaches, or variations
(for example; EPA, 1979; Presser, 1974; Hankins, 1980;
deterioration rate of 0 to 3 %/week when using HCI stabili- Kroneman, 1981). Some specify certain acids for preserVing
zation (1 A by volume) without refrigeration. Tbis rate may certain constituents, cooling samples to 39F, acidifyhg
vary with different waters. While there was some deterior- samples to a precise pH, or delaying no more than one day
ation indicated in comparing results to synthetic composition before completing certain analyses (e.g. NH&
values for one sample, the difference was less than a standard
deviation. The experience, to date, indicates that if the sampling is
conducted and the samples stabilized as described, subsequent
5.3.6 Sulfate (SO;? compositionchanges will be gradual enough to allow adequate
opportunity for accurate measurements (with a possible
For SOi2the filtered, unacidified (FU)sample is used. qualification for H2S). However, despite the stabilization
No preservation technique (except filtering) is applied on this steps indicated in this discussion, the samles still should be
sample. In some.fluids, sparingly soluble sulfates such as analyzed as soon as mctical in order to minimizedegradation
BaSO,, may be above their equilibrium solubility limit. in the particular water being analyzed because the range of
However, the kinetics of precipitation are apparently sluggish geothermal water types is broad. A prudent initial test would
under IIXUIY Situations. TO check for loss in the SOi2 be to perform a second, delayed analysis (either duplicate
concentration, the field diluted SiO, sample c8n be compared samples or later re-analysis depending on the constituent) to
to the undiluted FU value. A differencewould indicate a bias check whether there is any deterioration involved in the
that can be remedied, if it is of concern, by taking a diluted particular resource and analytical sequence. This is
and highly HCl acidified sample either in the SiO, split. or particularly true for those constituents that may have legal
separately. Figure 5.5 shows BaSO, solubility in NaCl (environmental) implications such as H$ or NH,. Depending
103
on the resource, the constituents of interest, the analytical Figure 5.6. The sample train illustratedrequires a pressurized
factor, and the purpoSeof the testing, there may be some cases flow and, for sampling points two to four, a field model
where statdimtion is not necessary. peristaltic pump needs to be included in the list of aocessary
equipment items.
5.4 SAMPLING EQUIPMENT The major components illustrated in Figure 5.6 follow.
(Use of manufacturer or trade name does not imply endorse-
Geothermal direct use projects generally require sampling ment.)
single-phase fluids with temperatmas less than boiling
(<212OF), which is dependent on temperature, altitude, and 5.4.1 Svstem Access
barometric pressure. The equipment described here is for the I
lower temperatmas. For sampling geothermal fluids greater System access is frequentlyan existing side-mounted gate
than boiling temperatures, refer to Kindle, 1981. valve. If the sample point is not pressutized, a portable
sampling Pumg may be required (M-ex SamPbg pump,
For reliable pH values, the measurements must be made Horizon Ecology Corp., 7435 N. Oak Park Ave, Chicago, IL
in the field. The flow should be cooled to a temperature of 60648).
- 77°F for pH measurement, because pH is a function of
dissolved CO, and the solubility of CO, is strongly 5.4.2 A m ored Flex Hose
temperature dependent. Geothermal fluids containing
dissolved gases [hydrogen sulfide (HS), ammonia ("a, Resistoflex R562 hoses, 6 ft long and 0.25 in. ID (Part
oxygen (0,) and carbon dioxide (CO,)] require sample No. R22105-5-72) are lined with teflon. A ball valve is
telnperature control to minimize gas composition shifts. attached to the ekit end of the flex hose to serve as the master
Substantial gas-liquid solubility changes with temperahre shutoff valve for the sampling.
exist.
5.4.3 Temerature Probe
Sampling points should be as close to the wellhead as
possible to obtain representative samples. These could In-line temperatures are determined with stainless steel
include: (a) a valve (side mounted), (b) an open discharge sheathed thermocouples inserted into matching tees and
pipe from a flowing well, (c) a non-flowing well, or (d) a hot compression fittings designed for this purpose. Meters for
springs. Components for sampling these points are shown in direct reading oftemperatures areavailableinmany forms.
6AS STABILIZING
SYSTEM
Figure 5.6 Geothermal fluid sample train.
104
For some applications, a manus2ly-held thermometer m y be 5.4.10 Miscellaneous Euuimnent
acceptable; the important point is to cool the geothermal fluid
before sampling (to -77°F) and tecotd that temperature. Other items supporting sampling operations that can be
considered a minimum tool kit include:
5.4.4 U-Bend Connectors
-
1. Safety safety glasses, heat resistant gloves (3-ply
U-bend connector tubes and all other tubing components leather), coveralls (burn protection for bare arms and
are fabricated from 0.25 in., 316 SS tubing, with a 0.035 in. legs), work gloves (leather or canvas), hard hats.
wall thickness. In connecting U-bends to the coils and
assembling other components, care must be taken to avoid 2. Field analysis -
kits (CHEMkcs, Inc., Rt. 28,
leaks. Back diffusion at the fitting, even in pressurized Calverton, VA 22016) for H2S, NH,, 4, pH meter,
systems, apparently d o w s sufficient oxygen to enter the temperature meter and probes.
sample stream for detectionby dissolved oxygen field analysis
kits. -
3. Housekeeping plastic bags (can be used ice bags), DI
water (coil and utensil flush), plastic pail and one quart
5.4.5 Cooling Coil plastic pitcher (for bailing excess melt water).
Cooling coils are t y p i d y formed from 10 ft lengths of 4. Hard- - assorted reducers,c o ~ ~ t o couplers,
m, nuts
1/4 in. SS tubing wound around an 8 in. wipe. The flow is and ferrules for adapting to field requirements, small
directed to the bottom of the coil and then spirals upward to wrenches for tube fittings, two large crescent wrenches
assist in flushing entrained gas through the system. For for probe and gland, pliers, tape for securing bottle tops,
systems producing fluid at 212°F or less, a single coil in an tubing qygon, 114in. stainless steel), tube clamps, spare
iced bucket provides sufficient cooling capacity. filter housing and O-rings, duct tape, cord, bailing wire
(for tiedowns), felt tip pen, knife, measuring tape (to '
5.4.6 Redating Valve measure insertion distances).
The regulating valve reduces pressure after cooling. A 5.4.11 Alternative Samline Svstems
Whitey SS-RS4 regulating valve or others could be used.
Exit shutoff valves divert flow from filtered to unfiltered Other sampling systems in use range from dip bottles to
samples. These valves may be stemmed valves (a typical evacuated flasks to selective absorption tubes. Watson (1979)
example is the Whitey SS-14DKS4) or small ball or plug includes a compilation of many sampling approaches.
valves.
5.4.7 Filter and Filter Holder 5.5 SAMPLING METHODS

The filter pore size recommended for geothermal 5.5.1
sampling is 0.45 m. A filter holder found convenient for
assembling and disassembling in the field is the Millipore The sampling mefhod discussed in this section covers
Swianex. extraction of representative samples from pressurized
single-phase geothermal flows and stabilization of inorganic
5.4.8 -
constituents.for subsequent analysis.
Tygon tubing (- 18 in.) is attached to the filter outlet for This method covers the cbllection of discrete samples; it
convenience in filling sample containers. does not cover Continuous sampling.
5.4.9 Samde Bottles 5.5.2 Sbecific Exclusions
Collection and shipment is made in rectangular or square This sampling method does not cover total non-
polyethylene bottles for efficient packing. Lids are also condemible gases (NCG) for use in simulating how NCG will
polyethylene because other plastics often break during partition between dissolved and gaseous states under particular
shipment. Closure designs with an extended lip on the bottle plant operating conditions (flashcycle geothermal power
fitting into a matching groove in the cap survive shipment plant). Specifically,it does not address quantifyinggases such
with fewer leaks than other designs. Kartell makes a wide as N,, CH,, and certain other trace gases that are soluble in *
.mouth line of square bottles with this type of closure cold, de-pressurized geothermal fluid.
(Markson Cat. No. R14443, lo00 A).
5.5.3 Ecrubment Swifications separate sample containers. These are designed, or contain
Chemicals, to s t a b i i specific chemical-physical parameters
The reference to specific sizesof equipment is iIlustmtive for later measurement.
and is not meant to be binding.
This procedure is applicable to sampling pressurized
5.5.4 Pumse geothermal fluid from sources such as wellheads, pipe,
processing streams, discharge pipes, and hot springs.
The goal of sampling is to obtain a portion of the main
body of fluid that is truly representative of the geothermal The use of this procedure is intended to permit the
resource. Critical factors necessary to achieve this are: (a) practiced operator to sample single-phase flows to obtain
adequategeothermalflow, (b) points of sampling, (c) sampling chemical and physical characteristicsof the fluid. The use of
.
techniques, (d) fluid homogeneity, and (e) maintenance of
chemical integrity before analysis.
this method and appropriate supporting analytical techniqnes
will provide the following data:
A totally representative sample should not be an absolute 1. Liquids - elemental composition, pH, and dissolved
prerequisite to the selection of a sampling point. With solids.
adequateinterpretation, a non-representative sample can yield
valuable data about trends and can indicate areas where more 2. Gases - dissolved, quantity, and chemical composition
representative data would be available. Samples collected @artial).
from a single-point in a system must be tecognized as being
potentially non-representative to some degree. Therefore, it -
3. Suspended solids quantity.
becomes importantto recognizethe degree of representation in
the sample and to make it a part of the permanent record. 5.5.7 Abbreviations
Otherwise, an artificial degree of precision is assigned to data
when it is recorded. FU - Filtered, unacidified fluid
FA - Filtered, acidified fluid
The samples must be collected, stabilized, packed, FAHg - Filtered, acidified for mercury analysis
shipped, and manipulated before analysis in a manner that RU -
Raw, d d i f i e d fluid ( d t e d )
safeguards against change in the particular constituents or DI -Deionized
properties to be examined. '
5.5.8 Euubment
5.5.5 . Puritv of Reagents
The equipment size specifics mentioned are meant to be
It is recommended that the highest purity reagents ("4 illustrative. The sampling-lineequipment, in addition to that
or HCl, KhhO,, and K,,S20s) available shall be used for listed in Subsection 5.4, should consist of:
stabilizing metallic constituents to minimize the introduction
of additional elements and, therefore, improve the end data by 1. Sparge tube and fitting to use in sample umtainer (two-
minimizing the blank (and the detection limit) and maximizing hole rubber stopper and glass tube with medium glass frit
theprecision. is adequate).
All chemicals shall be of reagent grade purity or better. 2. Pail and bailing cup to remove excesses from cooling
Unless 0th- indicated, it is intended that all reagents shall buckets and sample line.
meet or exceed the purity specificationsof the Committee on
Mytical Reagents of the American Chemical Society, where 3. Ice.
such specificationsare available.
4. Water.
Note: It is advantageous to use NaOH, that is, CO, free in
order to improve the piecision of the CO, d y s i s . The sample containers shall collsist of:
5.5.6 Method Summary 1. One, 100 mL plastic bottle (for SiO, sample dilution).
Fluid is extracted directly from a pysurized geothermal 2. One, 1 L bottle, for total CO, determination, containing
flow or by using a field pump. The fluid is cooled under full 500 ml(2N) NaOH, (for CO, stabilization).
flow pressure. The system is dropped to atmosphexic
pressure, andthefullsample stream i s m intoasenes of 3. One, 1 L bottle containing 500 mL (0.5 N)zinc acetate
solution (for Hg).
106
4. Three, 1 L bottles for FU, FA, and RU samples (FA 4. Slowly open inlet ball valve until fully opened.
bottle to contain 10 mL concentrated HCl or HNOJ
5. Check visually for leaks-system is pressurized to the
5. One, 250 mL glass bottle (FAHg for mercury analysis) outlet regulating valve-correct any leaks.
containing 3 mL of 5% KMnO, solution, 3 mL of
concentrated "4, and 5 mt of 5% K&O, solution. 6. Fill water bucket and insert coil in bucket.
The measurement tools shall include: 7. Ice the ice bucket and add water to establish coil contact.
1. pH meter, probe, and buffer solutions (if in-line probe is 8. Open outlet regulating valve slowly and regulate flow to
used, verify that probe and housing will withstand full obtain an outlet temperature between 68 and 86°F (the
system pressure or mount downstream of regulating proposed standard temperature for recording pH values
valve). is 77°F).
2. One, 5 mL pipette and 50 mL volumetric flask (for at 9. Flush system with at least 3 L of brine while recording
least 10-fold SiOi dilution). the initial sampling data.
3. DI water in squeeze bottle (with supply for refill). 5.5.11 Unfiltered Fluid Samule (RUI
4. Graduated cylinder, lo00 mL. Use the following steps for an unfiltered fluid sample:
5. Conductivity meter. 1. Continue the sample flow as started above.
6. Clipboard with data sheet. 2. Determine and record pH at stabilized exit temperature.
7. Thermometer for water and air temperature. 3. Determine and record conductivity at stabilized exit
temperature (optional).
8. Pre-weighed 0.45 pfilter in protective holder-tared to
104g for suspended solids. 4. Fill the RU bottle.
5.5.9 Geothermal Flow Conditions 5. Seal and label RU bottle.
Geothermal wells frequently experience chemical 5.5.12 Gas Analvsis bv Field Test Kit
composition shifts during shutdown and start-up operations.
Before sampling, examine and record the recent flow history Use the following steps for gas analysis by field test kit:
of the well to minimize the possibility that the fluid
composition is A-typical. A rule of thumb is to flow the well 1. Continue the sample flow started above and umtrol
at a high rate before sampling so that fresh water is drawn temperature as precisely as possible (77 f 2°F
from the aquifer or reservoir. recommended)to minimizegas compositionshift [use test
kits made by, for example, CHEMetrics, Inc., Rt. 28,
The short-term chemical consistencyduring sampling can Calverton, VA 22016 (others are available)].
be monitored on a macro scale using the conductivity of the
flowing sample stream. 2. Dissolvd oxygen test kit procedure:
a. Purge the sampling tube free of air bubbles with
5.5.10 Samule Train Set-uu flowing water sample.
b. Insert an ampoule and press to snap the tip.
The following steps should be u'sed for sample train c. Remove ampoule, cover the tip and mix.
set-up: d. Compare with color standards.
1. Assemble equipment and connect sample train 3. Sulfide test kit procedure:
components. a. Fill the sample cup to the 25 mL mark.
b. Add three drops of activator solution A-9500 and
2. Check all valves to assure they are closed. stir quickly with the tip of the ampoule.
c. Snap the tip of the ampoule immediately.
3. Connect cooling coil to the flex hose. d. Mix the contents of the ampoule.
e. Compare with color standards after 5 minutes.
107
5.5.13 Filtered Flow Samvles 2. Record all well and sample train parameters at end of
sampling.
Filtered samples are advantageous for improved
storagdintegrity where stabilization is used. Without Note: This provides an indication of the chemical
filtration, suspended solids may dissolve in the stabilized consistency of the flow during sampling.
solution and bias the chemical composition.
3. Close sample valve on the system.
A filtered sample may be taken using the following steps:
4. Disconnect flex hose from access point and flush with DI
1. Close the ball valve and insert the weighed filter and water. Blow the sampling train dry using Tygon tube as
holder into line. Restart flow. muth piece.
Note: While the filter is in the line it is necessary to 5.5.15 Data Sheet
measure flow (use of the graduated cylinder and the fill
volume of the sample bottles is a convenient way to A sample data sheet is provided.
accomplish this).
2. From this filtered flow, fill the following sample 5.6 DATA QUALITY CHECK PROCEDURE
containers, seal and label:
a. FU bottle. The data quality check is a measure of the internal
b. Make SiO, dilutions by withdrawing brine using consistency of the analytical data and assures that results are
the pipette from the FU bottle while it is filling. consistent. Basically, the data quality check consists of two
Add the brine to volumetric flask half filled with Parts:
DI water. Fill to mark with DI water and empty
diluted sample into SiO, plastic sample bottle and 1. Charge balance (anion to cation ratio).
label.
c. FA bottle. 2. Mass balance [total dissolved solids (TDS) to analyzed
d. FAHg bottle (a glass bottle with oxidizer in it for constituents ratio].
Hgstabilization). .
For both of these parts, the ratios would be 1.00 for a
3. Collect total CO, sample as follows: complete and accurate analysis, but in practice, they vary. A
a. Attach sparge tube and fitting to sampling train value between 0.95 to 1.05 appears to be satisfactory.
outlet. Laboratories that routinely analyze the same types of samples
b. Checktemperature. may do better. Reservoir engineering programs, where small
c. Sparge gas + liquid into CO, bottle (half filled changes in concentrationsare interpreted, may require a better
with NaOH) until full to one liter mark. balance.
d. Rinse off sparge tube into the sample bottle.
Both the mass and charge balances are primarily sensitive
Note: If sampling at a high rate, or if the CO, content to the major components, and a small error here will affect the
is high or unknown, two stabilizationbottles with sparge quality check even though the majority of the results are
tubes should be used in series instead of the single one. accurate and consistent. Conversely, accurate results on the
major components can cover up poor results on other
4. To quantify the suspended solids hi the cooled flow: constituents. In the calculationof the charge balance, some of
a. Stop the flow and m r d the flow volume that the Species will change as the pH varies h m one sample to
passed through the filter. another. When analyzing the liquids for only a few specific
b. Remove filter holder and pass DI water through it components, these quality checks may not be usable for lack
in the same direction as the geothermal fluid. This of required daia. If the sample is high in volatile salts, the
serves to remove traces of the fluid that would mass balance may be adversely affected by mass losses during
otherwise deposit solids as it dried. It may be the drying step of the gravimetric TDS determination.
necessltry to apply pressure or vacuum to move the Experienceshowsthat these quality checksm r d their poorest
DI water through a fine or plugged filter. values on samples having <loo0 ppm TDS and a HC0,-
value that is a large fraction of the TDS value. The mass
5.5.14 Shutdown balance and charge balance, calculated as described here, seem
to move in parallel, and to a similar degree, when indicating
Shutdown steps are as follows: a large inconsistency or incomplete analysis. The charge
balance is the more definitive and widely used of the two
1. Measure sample stream conductivity at the same quality checks described here.
temperature as when sampling started.
108
5.6.1 Smue 1. Charge Balance: a ratio of the sums of the negative
.c.
(anion) and positive (don) ionic charges, quantified as
This specification describes control checks in reporting milli-equivalents (meq) per liter, detected in the fluid.
the analytical work on a geothermal liquid sample. Specifically, the charge balance is detined as the ratio:
This adapts and extends ASTM Standard D-596-69 (74) CHARGE BALANCE
to geothermal samples.
- Anion Concentrations (meq/L)
cation Concentrations (meq/L)
5.6.2 Auulication
This specification covers only the quality control check 2. Mass Balance: a ratio of the observed mass of dissolved
on the reporting of analytical data. It does not cover the solids and the total calculated mass based on the results
quality assurance program within the actual working labora- of the individual analyses. Specifically, the mass balance
tory or field sampling activities. is detined as the ratio:
It is recommended that a photocopy of the sample MASSBALANCE ,
worksheet ”Massand Charge Balance”(provided at the end of

this chapter), for calculating the quality checks, be included
- Individual
Total Dfssolved Solids (mg/L)
Solid Concentrations (mg/L)
with the sample for the laboratory personnel to fill out.
5.6.3 Summary 3. Total Dissolved Solids: that matter, dispersed in the

geothermal fluid to give a homogeneous single-phase,
This specification covers the quality control check to be which is non-volatile when dried to a residue.
made on the results of the completed chemical analysis to
assess the degree of internal consistency. The following 4. Solid concentration: the concentration of non-volatile
checks apply: ionic and molecular species present in the fluid.
1. The internal consistency of the analytical results will be 5.6.5 Standard Sbecification
determined by:
a. Charge balance (ideal value: 1.00). The following shall be included @I specifications:
b. Mass balance (ideal value: 1.00).
1. All reports of analytical determinations on geothermal
2. Discussion - the attainment of the ideal value of 1.OO for fluids shall include a statement, for that individual
either the mass or charge balance serves as a quality . sample, specifying:
check on the overall analysis. A 1.00 value says simply a. Chargebalance.
that either the analysis is correct or a large error in an b. Massbalance.
individualvalue is precisely compensated for by errors in
other individual values. 2. Both charge and mass balance shall be reported to the
hundredth column (x.xx).
3. Rationale - this quality check compares the results of
individual determinations for consistency with macro 5.6.6 Charge Balance
values. It checks to see if the sum of the parts add up to
the whole. -
1. Anions all quantified anions are to be included in the
charge balance. Below is a partial listing of anions found
-
4. Sensitivity this quality check is particularly sensitive to in geothermal fluids, along with the multiplicative factor
major components. The pH or oxidation potential will to convert from (mgL) to milli-equivalents/liter)
affect which species are present for inclusion in the
charge, mass balances. Hydrogen and hydroxyl ions Chloride, Cl(0.0282)
(H+, OH) are negligible for geothermal waters. Sulfate, SOi2(0.0208)
Experience with particular waters will indicate other Bicarbonate, HCO,’ (0.0164)
ions that are negligible for that water type. carbonate, C0i2 (0.0333)
Fluoride, F (0.0526)
5.6.4 Definitions Nitrate, NO,’ (0.0161)
Biphosphate, P o i 2(0.0208)
The following definitions apply: Bisulfide, HS (0.0302).
109
2. Cations - all quantified cations are to be included in the ASTM, "AnnualBook of ASTM Standards, Part 31, Water,"
charge balance. Below is a partial *listingof cations Philadelphia, PA, 1980.
found in g e o t h e d fluids, along with the multiplicative
factor to convert from (mgk) to (milli-equivalentlliter) Bothner, M.H. and D. E. Robertson, "Anal. Chem."
47(3):592-5, 1975.
sodium, Na+ (0.0435)
Potassium, K+ (0.0256) Davis, J. W. and A. G. Collins, "Solubility of Barium and
calcium, (0.0499) Strontium Sulfates in Strong Electrolyte Solutions,"
Strontium, S P 2 (0.0228) Environmental Science Technolo~y,5: 1039-43, 1971.
Lithium, Li+ (0.144)
I Magnesium, Mg+2(0.0823) Dean, R. B. and W. I. Dixon, "Anal. Chemical" 23:636. See
. Iron, Fe+2(0.0358) also R. A. Day and A. L. Underwood, 1967.
Ammonium, NH,+ (0.0556). Ouantitative Analvsis. 58-9, Prentice-Hall, 1951.
3. Charge balance shall be reported as the ratio of the sum Ellis, A. J., "Geoch. et Cosmo. Acta," 40:1359-74, 1976.
of the anionic charges to thq sum of the cationic charges.
EPA, "Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes,"
Mass Balance EPA-62!5/6-74-003a, E n W t a l Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, OH,1976.
The mass balance shall be the ratio of the directly
determined TDS to the sum of the individually detenuiued EPA, "Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes, "
solids present. PB-297 686, E n W t a l Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, OH. An expansion of EPA 1976, 1979.
The individually determined solids shall be those species
tabulated for the charge balance plus non-volatile molecular Freeston, D. H. and K. C.Lee, "TwoPhasePressureDrop
components such as silica. Measurements on a Geothermal Pipeline," Geothemal
Resources Council Transactions. 3:233-7, 1978.
5.6.6 Partial Analvsis
Hach Chemical Company, "Hach Water Analysis Handbook,"
In the event of only a partial analysis being performed on p ~ 2-191,
. 2-192, 1976.
the major components of a sample, the following items shall
be noted to comply with this quality control standad Hankins, B. E., (ed), "Standard Sampling and Analytical
Methods for Geopressured Fluids," Contract No.
1. Chargebalance. 5080-321-0301, Gas Research Institute, Chicago, IL,
2. Massbalance. 1980.
3. Note that the analysis is incomplete.
4. Note identifying the incomplete portion of the analysis. Harrar, J. E., "Studies of Brine Chemistry and Scaling at the
Salton Sea Geothermal Field, 1977-1979," UCID-18917,
5.6.7 Worksheet 1981.
A sample worksheet for calculating the charge and mass Hill, J. H. and C. J. Moms, "Sampling a Two-Phase
balances is provided. Geothermal Brine Flow for Chemical Analysis,"
UCRL-77544, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory,
Livermore, CA, 1975.
REFERENCES
Kindle, C. H., "Institutional Standardhtion of Geothermal
Allen, C. A., et. al., "StatusReport. RaftRiver Project. Fluid characterizatian Techniques," Geothermal
Sampling Analysis and Environmental Effects Studies." Resources Council Transactions. 4:795-7, 1980.
Allied Chemical Corp., Idaho National Engineering
Laboratory, Idaho Falls, Idaho. JVoceedings. 2nd Knauss, K. G. and T. L. Stemborn, "Review of Geochemical
Workshob on S a m l h e and Analvses of Geothermal MeasurementTechniquesfor a Nuclear Waste Repository
Effluents. Las Verras. EPA-600M-78-121. Las Vegas, in Bedded Salt," UCIC-18664, 1980.
NV, 1977.
Kroneman, "Guide to Water Sampling," open file report,
"A, American Public Health Association, '"Standard Earth Science Laboratory, University of Utah Research
Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water, Institute, Salt Lake City, UT, 1981.
14th Edition (1976)," 1979 revision.
110
Needham, P.B., et. al., "Chemical Analysis of Brines from Shannon, D. W., et. al., "Field Evaluation of Sampling
Four Imperial Valley, CA, Geothermal Wells," Journal Methods for Pressurized Geothermal Liquids, Gases, and
Wietv Pet. Eneineering, pp. 105-112, 1980. Suspended Solids," PNL-3412, Pacific Northwest
Laboratory, Richland, WA, 1980.
Riley, W. D., et. al., "Well Engineering and Sampling
Variables in the Evaluation of Geo-brines," Bureau of Watson, J. C., "Sampling and Analysis Methods for
Mines Report of Investigation No. 8465, 1980. Geothermal Fluids and Gases," PNL-MA-572, Pacific
Northwest Laboratory, Richland, WA, 1979.
Riley, W. D., et. al., "Isokinetic Technique for Sampling
Geothermal Fluids in Two-Phase Flow," SPI 7885, Watson, J. C., "Round-Robin Evaluation of Methods for
Avondale Metallurgy Research center, Bureau of Mines, Analysis of Geothermal Brine," Geothermal Scaline and
US. Department of the Interior, Avondale, MD, 1978. Corrosion. ASTM Special Technical Publidon 717,
p ~ 236-58,
. 1980.
Shannon, D. W., "Appendixes Sampling and Analysis
Methods for Geothermal Fluids and Gases,"
PNL-MA-572 APP, Pacific Northwest Laboratory,
Richland, WA, 1980.
GEOTHERMAL SAMPLING DATA SHEET t :
Date: Location:
Geothermal Flow: Sample Point:
Access (Probe or ?): Well or procesS:
Temp (“For “c) pressure Psi
Start Time:
conductivity: at (temp) at (time)
Raw-unfiltered Ut),Unacidified Samdes
ID Code Samle Tern comments
RU
Gas Analvsis by Field Test Kit

ID Code S m l e Tern comments
H8
Filtered E ) Samles. Some Acidified (A1
Tared Filter ID: ; Timeon:
ID Code SamDle Tern> -

Time comments
FA
SiO,
CO2
Filter; Time Off ,Total Volume Through

Sample; Conductivity at (temp at (time)
Shut Down: Flow; Pressure 9 Temp ,Flow Rate

Time completed: Recorded by:
Remarks/Other Measurements:
112
SAMPLE WORKSHEET
MASS AND CHARGE BALANCES
Name
Report Date:
I CHARGE BALANCE = (neq/L anions):(meq/L cations) = I I
Project: MASS BALANCE = (mg/L) =
(mg/L) Total Solids
Sample ID:
CHARGE BALANCE
Total Total
MASS BALANCE
t TDS (mg/L) experimental

1
1 I
I Total Solids
I
113
Chapter 6
DRILLING AND WELL
CONSTRUCTION
By Gene Culver
Geo-Heat center
6.1 INTRODUCTION 6.2.1 Cable Tool
Drilling and well construction (probably one of the most This is not a drill in the common sense, because it is not
expensive features of a geothermal direct use project) is often power rotated. This drilling method uses a heavy bit that is
the least understood. This chapter provides the basics of repeatedly lifted and dropped that crushes and breaks the
equipment and methods used for drilling and completion of formation. Figure 6.1 shows the basic elements of a cable
geothermal wells. It provides data needed by architects, tool rig. With a cable tool rig, an experienced driller can drill
engineers, and consultants to assist them in specification through any formation, including large crevices and caverns
writing, selection of contractors, and drilling and completion that can cause problems with other drilling methods. This
inspection. method's main disadvantage is that it is slow.
Most direct use geothermal wells can be drilled using Drilling is accomplished with a tight drill line, as shown
conventional water well tech~~ology and equipment. Most of in Figure 6.1. The pitman arm and spudder beam impact an
the'wells will produce water at temperatures less than boiling up-anddown motion to the cable and drill bit. The length of
and without artesian flow at the surf'; however, some will cable is adjusted so that on the down stroke the tools stretch
be hotter or will flow. Blowout preventers and other the line as the bit hits the bottom of the hole, striking with a
sophisticated safety equipment are not usually required, sharp blow and immediately retracting. The twist,or lay, of
however, this does not mean that there are not significant the cable imparts a slight turning motion to the toolsso the bit
safety considerations that should be addressed. Many of the hits a new face with each stroke. Left lay cable is used so that
wells have water above 140°F and this will scald. Public and the twisting action tightens the tools screwed connections on
drilling crew safety must be ensured. each upstroke. If the borehole is dry, water is added to form
a slurry that is bailed out. Usually about 5 ft of well hole is
The cementing portion may appear to be overly detailed drilled between bailing.
and long. However, the author's view is that, all too often,
cementing is considered simply as a means of plugging up the In consolidated formations, no casing is required for
annulusbetween the casing and boreholewall. Little attention drilling. If the formation caves, 5 to 10 ft of hole is drilled;
is paid to methods and materials, and a poor cementjob is the then casing with a drive shoe is driven to the bottom with
result. This can result in lost production zones, cold water driving clamps attached to the tools. With this casing in
leaking into production mnq, geothermal water leaking into place, another 5 to 10 ft is drilled, and the operation is
freshwater zones, and reduced useful well life. Also,in view repeated again. Because the bit must be lowered through the
of the increasing awareness and concern about interzonal casing, the diameter of the casing must be larger than the
migration and possible fresh water aquifer contamination, diameter of the bit. Driving the casing enlarges the hole and
proper cementing is of increasing importance. eventually friction prevents further advancement of the casing.
Under these conditions, smaller casing is telescoped inside and
A glossary of drilling terms is drilling continues with a smaller bit.
chapter. For some readers, it inay be wise to read this section
first in order to fully understand the text. A method used to increase driving depth is to utilize an
oversized drive shoe, slightly opening the hole. A bentonite
slurry, placed kryund the casing, helps hold unconsolidated
6.2 DRILLING EQUIPMENT material in place aqd lubricates the casing. The bentonite also
serves to seal leaks around the casing because of artesian
Two basic types of drilling rigs are used for drilling pressure or differences in pressure in different aquifers.
wells: cable tool and rotary. There is just one basic cable tool
rig, but there are several variations of rotary rigs. The
following is a brief description of these rigs.
115
always so& chance &e cable, tools, or bailer wilI wipe
the side walls, carrying material down to be sampled
later.
4. Qualitative and quantitative data can be obtained during

drilling, including good flow estimates,and tempemhue,
static water level, and water chemistry -measurements.
The disadvantages are:
1. Depth and penetration rates limited.
2. Blowout preventem are not easily adapted.
3. In unc4msolidated formations, casing must be driven as

the hole progresses.
4. There is a lack of experienced personnel. Cable tool

drilling is somewhat of an art and the prepanderance of
rotary drilling means a cable tool d r i k with wide
experience may be hard to find.
Figure 6.1 Basic elements of B cable tool dfilling rig.
5. The method is limited to vertical holes.
Most states require cementing water well casings to the Accurate sampling, the ability to assess downhole con-
borehole wall down to some competent formation. In a geo- ditions, and suspicion that drilling mud can adversely affect
thermal well, it is usually cemented down to the geothermal low- and modexatetemperature geothermal wells, am the
m e to prevent mixing of geothermal fluids with shallower reasons that some engineers are specifying the use of cable
fresh d a c e waters. This also prevents mixing that reduces tool rigs in geothermal production zones. Holes are drilled to
the water temperature. Any pipe driven down to that level a specified formation, temperature, or simply the first lost
must be considered a temporary casing and must be removed circulation zone at elevated temperature, by u m v e n t i d mud
before or during cementing of the well. This places serious rotary methd,then, the hole is completed using a cable tool
restrictions on any drill and drive technique. rig. Temperaturescan be measured at the d a c e , a h water
is brought up in the bailer. If the hole is deep and the static
Although drilling is very time d g at depths over water level shallow, the measurements will only be approxi-
1,500 to 2,000 ft, because of the time it takes to trip bailers mate. Flows can be estimated from bailing rates. There is
and tools, deep holes can be drilled. The depth record is very little chance of mud and debris filling cracks and crevices
11,145 ft, completed in New York in 1953 (Campbell, 1973). in the producing zone.
Large rigs can drill 18 to 24 in. holes to several hundred Although relatively high temperature bores have been
feet. successfully completed by cqatinuouS flooding with cold
water, the method is not applicable: (1) where expected
Cable tool rigs have several advantages over certain temperatures are higher than 25o"F, (b) where significant
rotary methods: artesian flows at the d a c e are expected, or (c) where depths
are so great the cable tool rig is simply uneconomical.
1. There is no potential for plugging producing formations Unfortuhately, it is not always easy to determine what is the
with drilling muds. best level in the borehole to change drilling methods. This
problem will be discussed further under drilling fluids.
2. Rigs cost less, are simpler to maintain, and C B I ~be
operated by one or two m&. Transportation and setup 6.2.2 Rotarv IXIlhg
are easy and lesskater is reqnired.
Rotary drilling i's the most common drilling method in
3. Sampling and formation logging are simple and =rly both water and geothermal well drilling. There am we*&
accurate. There is little chance for contamination by variations, each having their advantages anddisadvantages.
previously drilled zones, especially in consolidated- Figure 6.2 shows the basic elements of a umventional rotary
formations. In unconsolidated formations, there is mud rig.
116
tion means that the fluid goes down the drill pipe and up the
annulus. When drilling with mists or air, the mud tank or pit
is replaced by a cyclone-type separator. Air or mist drilling
provides good formation sampling and can give reasonable
estimates of production.
6.2.3 Other T m of Rotary Drillinp:
Downhole Hammer
One of the more popular methods for drilling g e o t h e d

wells is the air hammer method. It is especially suited to
drilling hard igneous and metamorphic formations. It is not
a true rotary method, but a percussion method adapted to a
rotary rig.
A pneumatic hammer, similar in action to a large jack-

hammer, operates at the downhole end of the drill pipe on 100
psi or higher compressed air. The hammer face has tungsten
, ---
system-
carbide inserts to provide chipping capabilities. Air hammers
are available in 3 in. to at least 17 in. diameter and will
Figure 6.2 Schematicdiagram of a direct rotary rig illustrates
the important operational components of this
-
provide between 800 to 2,000 strokes/&. The drill pipe
and hammer are rotated slowly so the inserts continually strike
truck-mounted drilling machine. This machine, a new surface to provide even penetration and drill a straight
operating with either an air-based or water-based hole. Hammer exhaust or excess air or both is directed to
drilling fluid, can drill more rapidly than ‘a cable clean the chips away as they are formed, providing a clean
tool rig (Gardner-Denver Co.) surface and increasing drilling rates from 50 to 100% faster
than tricone rollers. The exhaust air carries cuttings up the
annular space and out the hole.
The drill bit, usually a tricone roller, is rotated by the
hollow drill collar and drill pipe. Torque is applied through When drilling below static water level, pressure differ-
the rotary table and kelly. Drilling fluid is circulated down ences across the hammer must be maintained so air pressure is
the drill pipe and out openings in the bit where it cleans increased to accomplish this. Foams can be utilized to reduce
cuttings from beneath the bit, cools the bit and carries cuttings the pressure in the borehole. Large hammers require large
to the surfacewhere they are separated from the fluid. Weight volumes of air at high pressures. Compressors and their
on the bit is applied by the heavy drill collar assembly. The operation significantly increase costs.
drill pipe is held in tension by the traveling block. Too much
weight on the bit tends to drill crooked holes and, in some Reverse Circulation
formations, slows down drilling because of insufficient
cleaning action at the drilling face. In reverse circulation, drilling fluid (usually water or
very thin mud) flows down the annulus, up the drill pipe to
Rigs with to^ head drive do not use a rotary table and the suction side of a pump, and into the tank or pit. Cuttings
kelly. Instead, a hydraulic motor that travels up and down the are lifted inside the drill pipe that has a smaller cross section
mast supplies torque directly to the drill pipe. Often a much than the annulus. Suction lift of the pumps limits this method
shorter and lighter coll& is used, and the rigs have pull-down
chains to utilize part of the rig’s weight at shallow depths.
-
to 450 ft depth at sea level (Driscoll, 1987). The method
that is preferred for geothermalwells utilizes an air pipe inside
the drill pipe to provide the lift, and a cyclone or similar
Although smaller in size than a large conventional rotary separator to separate air from the water and cuttings mixture.
table rig, top head drives are capable of drilling most direct The air lift greatly increases depth capacity. Fluid level in the
use wells. Rigs with masts and draw works capable of lifting annulus is maintained at or very near the surface. The drill
150,000 lb and with drives producing 140,000 in. Ib of torque pipe is similar to conventional air drilling pipe (Figum 6.3).
are available.
The advantages of reverse circulation are:
Drilling fluids can be water, mud (water with additives
such as bentonite, polymer, etc.), air and water (mists), air, 1. The reduction of velocity in the annulus reduces the
or air and water with foaming agents. Conventionalcircula- possibility of wall erosion.
117
serious problems in cementing the casing. Because of the
Drop pipe
Aerated fluid large diameters, the method is not applicable to most
discharge with geothermal wells, except possibly large water source heat
drill cuttings pump wells.
Swivel
Rotary
drive
This method is most suited to drilling softer and
-
uncoasolidated formations and usually use drag bits, which
cannot drill cobbles and boulders. Large roller bits are
--- available, but expensive. Circulation rates of 500 gpm are not
Fluid returns uncommon. Because of the large volume of water, special
sampling boxes are recommended.
Some newer revem circulation pipe is threaded. This

permits drilling smaller diameter holes with t r i m e bits,
increases depth capabilityand speeds drilling because the time
required to add or remove drill pipe sections is greatly
reduced.
A third reverse circulation system utilizes a dualducted

swivel and special drill pipe to convert a mventiional top
head drive to a reverse circulation top head drive. Compress-
Figure6.3 ,.everse circulation drilling (Johnson Divis,.m, ed air flows down through the swivel and special top coupling
1966). into pipes outside the drill pipe, then back to the main part of
the drill pipe where it provides the lift for circulated fluid and
cuttings. Fluid and cuttings flow up the drill pipe and out the
2. The increase in velocity up the drill pipe provides less second duct in the swivel. Cunventional drill pipe is used
time lag to the surface and less mixing of cuttings, between the point of air injection, which may be several
which enhances sampling. hundred feet below ground surface, and the bit or collar.
3. Because water or very thin light mud is used, there is Drill Through Casing Driver
less possibility for formation damage by mud invasion.
Top head drive, direct circulation air rotary rigs can
The disadvantages are: have casing drivers attached to ?he mast. The driver is similar
to an airdriven pile driver. Using the driver, casing can be
1. Large amounts of water can be requiredbecause there is driven during drilling, similar to the drill and drive method
very little or no filter cake to prevent losses to used by cable tookrigs. Since sections of casing must be the
permeable zones. Fluid loss can be minimized by a same length as the drill pipe, they are usually pre-assembled.
good fluids program. The bottom of the casing is equipped with a drive shoe.
2. Since annulus fluid level is at the surface, it effectively When drilling unconsolidated formations, the bit fits
prevents under-pressured geothermal fluid from entering inside the casing and the drive shoe shaves the formation
the hole for detection by -et or chemistry during driving. Casing can be driven ahead of the bit which
change. drills out the plug; or the bit can drill ahead of the casing,
then be pulled back into the casing and casing driven; or the
3. If geothermal fluid does enter, the chemistry can be casing is driven just behind the bit'at the same rate as bit
changed by the large amount of air that effectively penetration. Friction h e e n the casing,and borehole limits
scrubs out carbon dioxide (maand hydrogen sulfide the amount of casing, of a given size, that can be driven.
(HS),and may remove minor amounts of other species.
When it is necessary to set casing through ahard or well
A second teverse circulation method uses 6 in. or larger consolidated formation, an rmder-reaming bit, usually a
drill pipe and centrifugal or ejector pumps. Until recently, downhole hammer, can be used.
pipe joints were flanged, 10 in. or more in:&ameter, and
holes were limited to about 16 in. or larger .in order to Because the casing seals off all but the near bottom
maintain low fluid velocities a r o d the flanges. Fragile, formation cuttings, sampling is excellent, lost circulation
unconsolidated formations tended to wash out, sometimes problems are e l i i t e d , and accurate estimates of water
creating small cavern around the flanges. This created production can be obtained.
118
The requirement for pulling the casing before cementing
(similar to drill and drive cable tool) and the additional noise
of the casing driver are the main disadvantages.
Dual Tube Reverse Circulation
This method is probably not applicable for most

production wells because the largest outside tube diameter
available is 9 518 in. It is, however, an excellent test well or
pilot hole drilling method because it provides excellent cutting
sampling and flow estimates.
The drill pipe is double wall, usually flush jointed.

Drilling fluid can be air, foam or light bentonite, or polymer
muds. Fluid is circulated down between the pipe walls,
through B bit sub, inward across the bit, picking up cuttings,
and up through the inner pipe. The bit is normally one
nominal size large than the outer pipe; therefore, a good seal
between the pipe and well wall is obtained (Figure 6.4).
air dt;;arge
,
drill cuttinos-
SWlVSl
Figure6.5 Use of an interchange sub (Drilling Service
drive Company).
Double-wall
drill pipe
6.2.5 Core Drilling
Core drilling is basically an exploration method. This

technique is widely used in mineral exploration, civil works
foundationinvestigation, and wells for scientificinvestigation;
also used for geothermal test and/or temperatum gradient well
drilling where accurate and complete lithology are required.
It would rarely be used for production wells since the largest
standard hole diameter is 4.828 in. and the method is very
expensive.
Figure6.4 Dual tube reverse circulation drilling (Johnson
Division). Core drilling equipment is designated by a letter size.
Table 6.1 shows dimensions of core, hole, and drill rods for
commonly used letter sizes (B, N, H,and P).
When using a t r i k e bit, the distance between the bit
and the bottom of the outer pipe is only a few inches, so
samplesare very representativeof the formation actually being Table 6.1 Common Core Sizes Normally
drilled. When using a downhole hammer, air flows through Use for Geothermal Drilling
a hammer sub and the hammer, out the bottom of the hammer
and up around the hammer to the sub where it is channeled to
the inner pipe. The formation sample wih be primarily from Drilling Euuiurnent
the hammer face, but the water sample could come from
gth of the hammer (Figure 6.5). pesimation -
B -
N H L
cross-over channel in the intekhange sub mounted Core size 1.432 1.875 2.500 3.345
on top of the hammer permits cuttings to enter the inner Hole size 2.360 3.040 3.850 4.828
casing. Drill rod ID 1.813 2.375 3.063 4.063
Drill rod OD 2.188 2.750 3.500 4.625
Drilling depth, limited by friction between the well wall
and outer casing, can be
formations.
-
2,000 ft in consolidated
119
There are several core drilling methods, but the usual m r e economical. Directional drilling is often used in geo-
method used in geothennal work is known as the wire line thermal electrical generation reseNoirs where there axe
method. In this procedure, hollow drag-type bits with an ID economics realized by drilling several wells fromone drill pad
of the core sizes and OD of the hole sizes, as shown in Table and steam gathering systems are simplified. To date, the only
6.1, are rotated by the drill rod. A core barrel (a pipe with directionaldrilling for direct use projects has been to sidetrack
grips to hold the core) is lowered inside the rod by means of junk to a hole, i.e., twisted off drill pipe that cannot be fished
a cable, and over the core being cut. When the barrel (usually out. Directional drilling could be used to intersect a fault for
10 ft long) is full, it is pulled out and replaced with another. increased production, or to parallel in close proximity to a
The core is removed from the barrel, laid out in core boxes, fault to reduce the possibility of fault movement shearing off
labeled, and the barrel is readied for the next trip. The result a casing. However, the economics of direct use projects
is a more or less continuous sample of the material drilled in usually will not permit the additional expense.
nearly the same form as it existed at depth.
Modem controlleddirectionaldrilling is accomplishedby
Usual practice is to drill 200 to 500 ft using a tricone using a downholemotor driven by drilling fluid pumped down
roller bit, set and cement casing, (and install blowout the drill string. The motor is attached to the string by a bent
prevktion equipment if required), before starting the coring sub and non-magnetic sub. The drill string and subs do not
operation. The core bits (Figure 6.6) are usually faced with rotate. The bent sub is angled one to three degrees and is
a powder metallurgy diamond grit material. Water or thin oriented to guide the drill motor and bit in the desired direc-
bentonite drilling fluid is circulated for bit cooling and drill tion. Periodic surveys using plumb bobs and magnetic com-
rod lubrication. Surface returns of drilling fluid are desirable, passes with cameras to recorded their readings allow the direc-
but drilling without returns is practical, because the cuttings tional drilling engineer to plot the course of the well and make
arevery fine and not as likely to stick the downhole string as changes to direct the hole in the desired direction. New
in conventionalrotary drilling. Fluid circulationrates are low downhole electronics provide continuous monitoring of
because the annulus is small and drilling fluid is not a major magnetic signals and the high side, providing the drilling
expense. engineer with real time tool orientation and steering
capabilities.
In order to get around junk in the hole in direct use

projects, the old fashioned whipstock or a knuckle joint are
more appropriate, if the proper tools can be lbcated. The use
of downhole motors has become so common that whipstocks
are sometimes in short supply.
A whipstock is a long steel wedge-shaped tool that is

concave on one side to hold and guide a whipstock drilling
assembly. If the hole is not cased, a removable whipstock can
be set and a small diameter rat hole drilled 10 to 20 ft beyond
the whipstock toe. The whipstock is then removed, the hole
reamed, and drilling continued with a full gauge bit and
stabilizers to get around the junk.
Figure 6.6 Core bits (Tonto Group of Companies).
If the hole is cased (usually a permanent whipstock is
set, sometimes in a cement plug), diamond or carbide mill bits
The drilling rigs are small, can be mounted on a single are used to drill out the side of the casing. +Severalfeet of
truck, and can be readily moved. Depths to 7,500 ft are open hole is required before the standard drill bit is again
possible, usually starting with a large size drill and reducing used. Full size stabilizers maintain hole direction until the
the size as drilling progresses. A drill rod string and bit c.an junk is by-passed. .
be left in place and a smaller size started through it. When
the hole is completed, the drill rod strings are removed and A knucklejoint is a spring-loaded universaljoint located
casing installed, or the hole is cemented and abandoned, between the drill string and the bit, allowing the bit to drill at
depending on its purpose. an angle with the drill string. The direction m o t be con-
trolled as it can with the whipstock or drilbg motor, but this
6.2.6 Directional Drilling is usually not important when side tracking around junk.
ordinarily, a well is drilled as straight and plumb as Once the initial hole deflection has been established by
reasonably possible, particularly for direct use projects. This one of the above methods, the angle can be controlled by the
makes well completioIland pump installation much easier and proper selection of stabilizers and subs.
120
To increase the drift angle, a full-size stabilizer is
inserted into the string just above the
subassembly used. As weight is applied to
sub deflects and the stabilizer has a crowbar effect, increasing
the drift (Figure 6.7).
Figure6.9 Bringing drillhead to vertical (Eastman

Whipstock).
6.3 DRILLINGFLUIDS
Figure 6.7
Most low- and moderate-temperaturegeothemalaquifers
will be confined, but wells will usually not flow. Staticwater
To maintaiu hole direction, a full-size stabilizer is used levels generally vary from a few tens to a few hundreds of
just above the bit, a stiff drill collar, and another full-size feet. Many are fault controlled, and very often drilling will
stabilizer. The stiffness of the assembly and close fit with the be in areas of uplifted or down-thrown subsurface blocks.
hole F i s t curving and the bit moves forward along a straight Depth to the aquifer and production rates can vary subsfant-
but inclined line (Figure 6.8). The longer the stabilizers and ially over short distances, and temperatures sometimes change
stiffer the collar, the better the hole direction is maintained. rather dramatically with small changes in depth. Temperature
reversals are often experienced with increasing depth after
drilling through an aquifer (seeFigure 7.10). In the western
U.S. and many other locations throughout the world, drilling
is often in fractured and faulted metamorphic and igneous
rocks, and production is from weathered or inter-bedded lavas
and contacts between lithologic units. Production zones may
be only a few feet thick. Because most direct use projects
CIulIlof afford extensive geological and geophysical work or
test drilling, it is important that all production m e s be
recognized.
The above conditions require careful selection and

maintenance of drilling fluids. In many areas, air or foam are
the preferred fluids. However, it is recognized that other
fluids will be used because of caving hole conditions, for
Figure 6.8 Use of a stabilizer (Eastman Whipstock). control of downhole pressures, availability and capability of
rigs, or pre€erence. Both the engineer and the driller must be
d selection and
To decrease the angle, the stabilizer at the bottom is
removed and a more limber collar is used. The upper
stabiliirs hold the top of the collar away from the low side of
the hole and gravity acts on the limber collar and bit to bring
1. Cooling of the drill bit.
By selecting the size and location of the stabilizers, 2. Removal of cuttings as they are produced a! the drilling
stiffness of the collars and carefully controlling drilling face.
weight, the rate of hole drift, either increasing or decreasing,
can be controlled. 3. Transporting euttings up the hole.
121
Depending on local umditions, most drilling fluids If the formation has large cracks or crevices, the fluid
(usually mud) may also: may carry the cuttings into the formation and away whm they
cannot pack around the drill string, but there is no way of
1. Stabilize the hole to prevent cave-ins. being assured that this is the case. Drilling without circulation
is known as drilling blind. Complete loss of circulation
2. Minimize formation fluid migration into the hole. usually results in the fluid level dropping to COIlsidefaby
below the surface with the resultant complete or partial loss of
3. Minimize fluid losses to the formation. fluid pressure stabilizing the hole walls. This can result in
cave-ins, another cause of stuck pipe.
4. Lubricate mud pump, bit and the anudus between the
drill string and the hole. Lost circulation is probably the most importantproblem
encountered in drilliug. It results in: (a) loss of expensive
5. Reduce drill string corrosion. fluid components, (b) loss of drilling time, (c) use of
potentially expensive lost circulation materials to keep the
6. Suspend cuttings during periods of non-circulation. losses from plugging possible production zones, and (d) leads
to cementing problems, in addition to possible loss of
7. Assist in collection and interpretation of samples and equipment in the hole, as noted above.
borehole geophysical logs.
Despite the severity of the problems, most experts agree
8. Release cuttings in the mud tank or pit. that probably one-half the lost circulation problems can be
avoided and many are driller induced. Proper planning and
Ideally, fluids used in most direct use drilling should rig operation are important. Some of the techniqw involved
also permit immediate and accurate detection of geothermal in proper planning and operation are listed below:
fluids, temperature changes, and production zone lithology.
Unfortunately, fluid characteristics allowing these to be 1. Insofar as possible, use nearby well logs and geologic
accomplished are in almost ditect contradiction to character- information, and carefully plan the hole and the casing
istics required to accomplish most of the other requifements Progiam-
listed above.
2. Treat the well bore gently. Raise and lower drill strings
Drilling fluids fall into one of three g m d classes: and casing slowly. Do not spud or swab. Start fluid
water based, air based, or oil based. Oil-based fluids may be pumps at slow rates and increaseslowly. Maintain fluid
used in petroleum drilling, but are not appmpriate for Iow-to- velocity in the annulus at the lowest nrte to 8ssure
moderate temperature geotherma! drilling because of the cuttings removal. Do no drill so fast as to overload the
danger of Contamination of aquifers. Mists fall into the air aDnulus with cuttings.
classification because most of the characteristics are similar,
and water into the mud class because recirculated water is very 3. Make frequent measurements of mud Properties to
thin mud umtainiug suspended particles of drilled formations. maintain minimum weight, v i d t y , and filtration.
Mud is probably the most common drilling fluid and, while
useful for the purposes listed above, presents many of the 6.3.2 Drillina Muds
problems encountered in geothexmal drilling.
Modem drilling muds are primarily mixtures of wesfern
6.3.1 Lost Circulation bentonite (sodium montmocillonite) and water. Organic
polymers, dispersants, wetting agents, weighting materials,
Lost circulation is the loss of drilling fluid fiom the thinners and lubricants are added to modify Propertiesto meet
borehole through cracks, crevices, or porous formations. It changing hole conditions or counteract changes previously
can be partial or complete,depending on the conditions. Lost made by the driller.
circulation is sometimes referred to as lost returns, either
partial or complete, because part or all of the fluid fails to When bentonite is added to water, several changes in
retun to the surface. When cidation is lost, the drilling physical properties take place. Some of the more important
fluid is not performing one of its major functions, that of are increases in density and h i t y ; and gelation, lubricity,
transporting the cuttings up the hole where they can be and filtration Properties are added. As the mud is used, t h m
released in the mud tank or pit. If the cuttings are not are changes in suspended solids and sometimes chemical
removed from the hole, they will pack around the drill string changes that affect physical properties. Some of the mud
above the bit, resulting in stuck pipe and possible loss of the properties can be relatively easily measured and related to
bit, collars, part of the string and perhaps, the hole. performance.
..
122
Density Although drilling with pure water eliminates the
possibility of mud damage to the formation, the pressure
Mud density or mud weight is measured by a simple
balance beam or mud balance and is usually kxpressed in
difference is still - 148 psi, which effectively reduces the
possibility of iletecting geothermal water.
pounds per gallon (lb/gal). As density is increased, the
buoyant effect increases carrying capacity for cuttings but Viscosity
decreases settling rate in the mud pit. Increased density
increases borehole pressure and the ability to prevent caving Mud Viscosity is primarily a measure of its ability to
and flow into the hole. Conversely, it increases the tendency carry cuttings up the hole, drop them in the mud pit, and to
to flow out of the hole and into the formation, and therefore, form a gel. It is changed by varying the amounts of bentonite
may result in increased loss of circulation. In fact, lost and water or by adding polymers to thicken or phosphates to
circulationcan sometimes be regained by the simple expedient thin. There is no simple, accurate and ecoIlomic81 method of
of reducing density. The generally recommended maximum field measurement, but apparent or funnel viscosity is obtained
density is 9 Ib/gal; less is high desirable. by measuring the time it takes a measured amount of mud,
usually one quart, to flow through a standard Marsh funnel.
Density can be increased by the addition of barite with-
out unduly altering other mud properties. Solids such as sand, Water has a funnel viscosity of 26 s/qt at 70°F. A good
fine cuttings, silt, etc., increase density and are undesirable drilling mud has a funnel viscosity of 32 to 38 dqt. Funnel
because they increase pump and other components’ wear rate, viscosity is affected by density and the type of suspended
retard drilling rate, form a thick filter cake, and increase solids. Well rounded sand can decrease funnel viscosity by 10
power requirements of the mud pump. Hydrostatic pressure s or more but the true viscosity changes very tittle. Funnel
can be calculated by: viscosity means very little by itself, but in d i n a t i o n with
other mud measurements can be useful to the experienced
P = 0.052 ed driller.
where Sand Content
P = hydrostatic pressure (psi) Sand content affects mud density and apparent viscosity,
e = fluid density (lb/gal) equipment wear (especially mud pumps), bit life, drilling rate
d = depth (ft). and formation damage. Sand content is measured by c a d d y
washing a measured volume of mud on a 200 mesh screen.
Example: if geothermal water at 200°F (density = The material held on the screen is poured into a cone shaped
8.049 Ib/gal), which if unrestricted would rise to 300 ft below graduated container. The desired maximum limit is 2% by
the surface, is encountered at 1,500 ft using 9 Ib mud, the volume.
pressure keeping geothermal water out of the hole and tending
to force mud into the formation is the pressure caused by mud Sand content can be controlled by using low viscosity
minus the pressure caused by water giving: mud, multiple pits and tanks of adequate volume designed to
eliminate short circuit flows and the use of de-sandm. Mud
P = (0.052 x 9.OOO lb/gal x 1,500 Et) pits or tanks should have a volume of at least three or four
40.052 x 8.049 Ib/gal x 1,200 ft) times the finished hole volume and the pump intalce should be
suspended near the surface.
P = 200 psi.
high sand content increases
This applies only when mud is not circulating. When decreases the likelihood of detecting an u n d e r - p d
circulating, the pressure would be higher, depending on geothermal resource. For the driller, the investment in
viscosity, borehole and drill string diameters, filter cake materials and time to regularly measure sand content will soon
thichess, etc. Rapidly raising or lowering the drill string repay itself h reduced wear of mud
during tripping or spudding significantly changes downhole
pressures. Pressure will be increased in the direction of Filter Cake
movement, possibly causing mud invasion into the formation
and lost circulation or both. Rapidly raising the string creates When the mud is in the borehole, pressure in the annulus
a swabbing effect and lower pressure below the string. In tends to force it into any porous formation. Clay platelets
high temperature and/or pressure situations, this can induce a build up on the formation and reduce fluid loss. This buildup
well to flow or flash, resulting in a possible blowout. of clay is called the filter cake. Some water filters
123
through the cake and is water loss while loss of both clay (and There is always some element of risk in acidizing because the
o t k constituents) and water is mud loss. It is desirable to acid doesn’t always go where it is needed.
maintain a thin,easily removed filter cake while miaimizing
water loss and maintaining circulation. Lost Circulation Materials
Water loss and filter cake thickness are measured Using Lost circulation materials (LCM) are materials that
a standard API filter press. Filter paper is supported in a mud bridge across openings hi the formation, providing a
filled standard cell and 100 psi is applied and maintained by foundation for the buildup of filter cake. Almost every
a pressurized gas cylinder. The amount of water passing conceivable material has been used including sawdust, alfalfa
through the filter paper in 30 minutes is measured and the pellets, chicken fathers, ground walnut shells, cotton seed
buildup of filter cake on the paper measured to 1/32 in. hulls, hog hair, and many others. There are also a variety of
Desirable properties are 15 cm3/30min and 2/32 in. thichess. gelling agents or mixtures that form stiff gels when mixed
with water or salt water. A bentonite and diesel oil slurry,
Gelling when mixed with water, forms B thick putty-like mass. In the
trade, this is often referred to as punk. Flo-Chek (Hailiburton
One of the properties of a bentonite and water mixture services, undated) forms a similar thick gel when mixed with
is its ability to gel. The mixture is fluid while being stirred, salt water.
but stiff- after standing. When stirred again, it becomes a
fluid. This property helps suspend drill cuttings during non- Many of the LCMs are organic and may have the
circulationperiods. Gel strength yield point and timeare very potential to promote undesired organic growth or degrade
seldom measured by small rig operators but are related to water quality or both. Because in many areas, low-to-
funnel viscosity readings taking other factors into moderatetemperature geothermaI fluid has the potential to mix
consideration. with underground fresh water supplies, the use of these
material is prohibited. In areas where the g e o t h d fluid is
The ability to gel is the property that makes mud highly bottled as mineral water, the bottlers would very emphatically
undesirable while drilling in many geothermal production oppose their use.
zones. When circulation is lost or reduced, mud flows into
the fractured or unconsolidated formation. As long as flow is Inorganic materials, such as mica flakes and gilsonite, or
maintained, the mud acts like a viscous fluid and will mtiuue inert materials such as some of the plastics can be used,
to flow until the frictional resistance equals the pressure although they are not always as effective. The best materials
difference between the anuulus and the formation. In will be a mixture of flake and fiber of various sizes in order
conventional drilling, the mud also carries m a l l cuttings into to effectively bridge openings in the formation.
the formation. Cuttings may @ally fill the voids, increasing
resistance to flow, and circulation may be regained. or lost Rec~eniZin~
Geothermal Zones
circulation materials may be added and circulation regained.
If circulation is regained, mud flow in the formation stops Geophysical logging and interpretation can detect zones
and, unless sufficiently diluted by formation water, the mud that may be l~~-temperature production zone^. A
gels. Gelling is progressive; that is, gel strength increases good estimate of the geology and hydrology conditions by a
with time and, in the more commonly used bentonite muds, qualified geologist is always helpful for log interpretation in
inc- with temperature. an unknown or exploration area. However, logging is
expensive and most direct use applications cannot afford
Gelling is one method of stopping lost circulation. frequent logging and interpretation.
Viscosity is increased by adding bentonite, sometimes to the
point where the pump will hardly pump it. Some of the thick Monitoring mud entering and return temperatures can
mud is pumped, filling the formation, then the bit pulled back sometimes indicate higher temperature zones. This can
a safe distance and the hole allowed to set for several hours to indicate approachinga production zone. When the production
a day. Continued drilling with very light mud, slow rotation zone is enunmted, circulation will probably be lost or
and slow mud pump speed will sometimes permit finishing the reduced. However, increases in temperature are frequently
hole or drilling to where casing can be set. In either case, if masked by cold strata above the drilling level, cooling the
the zone was a potential geothermal producer, it may be lost mud as it rise up the annulus. The effectiveness of the
forever. technique depends on the formation temperatures, drilling rate
versus downhole temperature, temperature measurement
Once the gel forms at some distance from the bore it is frequency, and weather conditions (more difficult in hot
difficult, if not impossible, to remove by otdinary develop- weather with low formation temperatures). continwus
ment methods. Mixtures of hydrochloric and hydrofluoric monitoring and recording is best, but few water well drillers
acids, and phosphate thinners, with vigorous swabbiig at have the recording equipment. At the minimum, temperahues
about 4 hr intervals are sometimes effective but expensive. should be recorded each 30 minutes or 20 feet of drilling.
124
Temperature logging between trips has not been very is no longer dry and must be converted to mist or foam. In
indicativeof downholeconditions. Recently circulated drilling general, the lifting capacity of air is proportionalto its density
fluid produces a neatly isothermal temperature log. If drilling and to the square of its annular velocity. Velocities of 3,000
is stopped regularly overnight, temperature logging before to 5,000 ftlmin are usually required (Driscoll, 1987). For a
circulation each day has been indicative of rock temperature given hole and drill pipe size, air volume requirements are
trends but is usually several degrees lower than if the hole sits directly related to depth. As the hole depth increases, expan-
several days to a week. sion at the bit is less (therefore, velocity is less) because of the
increased weight of cuttings supported and pressure buildup
In summary, recognizing and because of friction. Excessive air velocity can lead to &on
ture, under-pressured geothermal aquifer while drilling with of softer formations which, in tum, requires more air to
mud is next to impossible. About the best that can be done is maintain adequate velocities in the enlarged annular space.
to drill to a lost circulation zone that should be hot, stop Excessiveair pressure can cause air loss to the formation. Air
circulating mud immediately, clean the hole and air lift or test loss, like lost circulation when drilling with waterhsed
pump. If a geothermal aquifer is confirmed, drilling can be fluids, results in cuttings not being lifted and the danger of
continued with air, pure water or cable tool. An over- sticking tools.
presflved aquifer, in flowing resources,is more easily detected
by increased mud pit level and higher tempera-. Unconsolidated formations and, to a large extent,
excessive cold water invasion in overlying aquifers can be
6.3.3 Polymer Fluids controlled with drill and drive methods. Small amounts of
formation water, when mixed with cuttings dust, particularly
There is a wide variety of polymers used in water well shales, can cause mud rings to form on the drill pipe and hole
and petroleum drilling, both natural and synthetic. Synthetic wall. Below t h w rings, pressure buildup reduce velocities
polymers may imitate natural polymers or be totally different; and can cause air losses to the formation. Air systems provide
and they may be either organic or inorganic. Many of the little support to unconsolidated formations and there is danger
natural polymers are biodegradable. Others are easily broken from caving, possibly resulting in stuck tools. consolidated
down by oxidizers such as weak acids. Polymers have essent- formations, where air drilling is at its best, do not present that
ially no gel strength but provide high viscosity; therefore, they danger.
carry cuttings up the hole and drop them in the mud pit
quickly. Because they are readily broken down and have no Air mist drilling is the result of adding small amounts of
gel strength, they have been suggested for low-temperature water at the surface. Wetting agents are o h added to help
geothermal wells to eliminate some of remove mud rings and control dust. Air volume requirements
bentonite. are increased because of the increased density of the air
column, resulting in in& pressure at the bottom of the
Some of the polymers are temperature sensitive; they hole. Air mist techniques can be used satisfactorilyas long as
lose viscosity quickly at temperatures of - 100°F and there-
fore, are not suitable. However, others are stable to 300°F.
only small amounts of water (15 to 25 gpm) enter from the
Because of the potential for pollution, some states have pro-

hibited or restricted use of some, if not most, organic material F o m drilling is used when larger amountsof water enter
in domestic water wells. Synthetic duplicates would also be the hole. Usually foam is thought of as a small amount of air
included. Because low-temperaturegeothermal wells are trea- in a large amount of water. Drilling foam, however, is a
ted as groundwater wells in many states, and low-temperature small amount of water with a large amount of air, similar to
geothermal aquifers may be hydrauli the soap on top of a dish pan. Drilling foam is made by
drinking water aquifers, use of polymers injecting water and additive into an air stream. Foam drilling
occurs when the liquid volume fraction (LW)is <-2.5%.
Geothermal fluids contain LVFs >2.5% are usually termed aerated fluids.
that may react with polymers, especially at elevated tempera-
tures. Reactions could either break the long molecules re- Stable foams are produced by adding surfactants.
ducing viscosity, or cross link molecules forming a thick gel. Polymers and clays may be added to increase viscosity and
Before using any polymer, it would be wise to consult the density. The addition of surfxtants provides:
manufacturer giving him the expected temperature and water
chemistry and, if possible, testing the polymer with a sample 1. Ability to lift large volu
of the geothermal fluid from another well or spring.
2. ' Reduced air volume requirements.
6.3.4 Air-Based Fluids
3. Greater solids carrying capacity.
Drilling with dry air is the simplest air drilling tech-
nique. Obviously, when water is encountered in the hole, it 4. Reduced erosion of poorly consolidated formations.
125
Annular velocities as low as 50 to 100 Wmin can be further increased. Expansion occurs until pressure at the bit
ukd with f& foams made with polymers (3 to 6 lbll00 gal) equals pressure caused by resistance to flow, plus any cuttings
or bentonite (30 to 50 lb/100 gal) and 1 to 2% surfactant. and water load. When using stiff foams, d d e r a b l e
Bentonite should not be used with downhole hammer, but expansion occurs all the way up the annulus. Figure 6.10
other types of foam can be used. foams, which may shows how the temperature, pressure and volume change
require annulus velocities up to 1,OOO Wmin, are made with during drilling.
0.25 5% surfactant and no other additives. Surfactant and other
additives are mixed in a large tank and injected into the air Comparedto water-based fluids, air-based fluidshave the
stream by a metering pump. Maximum lift is obtained using following advantages:
2% liquid volume fiaction (2% of the free air volume)
(Driscoll, 1987). 1. Higher penetration rates, especially in hard rock.
Being a compressible fluid, air follows the ideal gas 2. Easy detection of aquifers and estimation of potential
laws. This holds for all air-based drilling, dry air, mists and flow ram.
foams, with appropriate modifications for any additions to the
air. Pressure and temperature are high and the volume is 3. Reduced formation damage.
small in air feed lines and drill pipe. At the bit, expansion
occurs with a drop in temperature and pressure unless 4. . Longer bit life.
downholetemperature is high, inwhichcase expansion is
5. No water (or very little) required for drilling.
6. Usually better formation samples.
The major disadvantages of air are associated with the

advantage that all air systems bring the water to the surface.
Although this enables the detection of production zones, it
presents the problem of disposal of the fluids and the dangers
associated with hot water. If a flow of 500 gpm is encoun-
tered and drilling is continued for 12 hours in an attempt to
get additional flow, the fluid produced will be 1.1 acre-ft. If
the water is hot, near or above boiling downhole for example,
and is high in dissolved solids, disposing of it can be a major
problem in some locations.
Water at 140°F or above will scald. If temperature near

or above this are anticipated, appropriate equipment, i.e.,
rotating head, banjo box, blooie line, safety apparel, fencing,
etc., must be used.
If water is above the boiling point at the drill site

altitude, the air lift may reduce the presfllre above the water
to the point where flashing will occur (Figure 6.11). Flashing
will often continue unaided. This is why blowout prevention
equipment is required when elevated tempetaturesare, or will
possibly be, encountend. The rotating head amstram the
Figure6.10 Pressure and volume relationships during steam and air, steam and cuttings flow out through the banjo
drilling (Driscoll, 1987). box and blooie line. Other disadvantages of air drilling
include:
a. Basic components of an operating air rotary circulation
system showing the pressure and volume conditions in 1. Higher Gost for equipment and fuel costs for driving
the drilling fluid at various sites. Greatest pressure and co~ressors.
volume changes generally occur at the bit, which is the
most critical point in an air drilling-fluid system. 2. Dust.
b. P = Pressure,T = Temperature, V = Volunie. 3. Noise of compressors and blooie exhaust.
126
500
io00
-0
moo
n
4J E500
Y-
Y
so00
I
I-
n SSOO
w
n
lo00
400
5000
5500
8000
Figure 6.11 Boiling-point curves for H,O liquid (0 wt percent) and for brine of constant composition NaCl. The insert
expands the relations between 194"and 300°F. The temperature at 0 ft for each curve is the boiling point for
the liquid at 1.013 bars (1.0atm) load pressure which is equivalent to the atmospheric pressure at sea level.
6.3.5 Plumbness and Aliment Another method is to use a plumb bob and line. The bob c8n
be anything heavy enough to keep the line taut, 114in. d l e r
Any well drilled more than a few tens of feet is probably in diameter than the inside of the casing and longer than its
not perfectly plumb or straight. Some misalignment is diameter. The bob is usually an adjustable spring steel wire
permissible; but, lineshaft pump life can be reduced if the well cage. If the bob is suspended from a pulley above the casing
is overly crooked because it places extra loads on the column top and the line comes off the pulley exactly over the center,
bearings. Straightness is more important than plumbness. the deviation at any depth can be calculated from:
There are many ways of checking geometry with fairly
sophisticated logging tools that check deviation and compass
direction. Few drillers have these instruments and the cost X - D ( H + h)
will be more than many direct-use projects can afford. h
Simpler, more eumomic methods are usually specified.
where
One method of checking well geometry is to use a rigid
pipe dummy two casing lengths (usually 40 ft long), with an X = deviation at given depth (in.)
OD 1/2 in. smaller than the casing in the section to be D = distance the line moves from the center of the
check&, assuming that if the dummy passes, the pump will casing (in.)
pass and operate satisfactorily. A well with a deep pump H = distance from casing top to cage (ft)
setting could have an S curve that would allow the dummy to h = distance from center of pulley to casing top (ft).
pass but bind a pump column and cause early bearing failures.
127
PULLEY - Table 6.2 Relative Drilling Rate in Variotw Formations
a
4
21
x
0
Y
>
4
n
I
W I
- 1
P I
- 1
a i Y
a i
0 1
0
e
1
i
3
- 1 0
Y
0 1
Y
S
l
I
a
.+
0 1 0
r l l
o
1
- 1
.
Y
0 E 0 1
AI
0
0
>-
0 0
H W
n.
Y
m
u a
>
ow
-
- 0
Ii
I
I
I .
U
L.
.
L. L.
.
aI
b,
Y
a
L.
.
QFCAGL 0
Y 2.. "u
a VI
L. > e
w .u
CAGING PROCEDURE
Figure6.12 Plumbnew and alignment (Roscoe Moss Y

a
U
COmpanY). "0
V
e
a. Minimumamount: -I
1
I
I II
8" for 24"ID well casing I I

I
..
I
I I
I Y I Y O
m
7" for 20" ID well casing 1
1 .
-
)
1 a m aa
1 L . l L L . L.
! !
I I
6" for 18" ID well casing P
U
P O
P
0
P
Z Y Z
Y
.
Y
L a o
e - a o
5" for 16"ID well casing 8 32 8
Y m a u
e a a 4
;! i;
0 % 0
3
4" for 14" ID well Caring i; r
I I
I I
.I
3" €or 12"ID well casing I
I ! Y
Y
I I a
I I U u
2"for 10" ID well casing I
1 -
Y
1 1
I
I
:a : .c x
1 . 1
- L . - L . > f
-
0 4
a
.
rl
Y
I
&
6
n rl
U
n
1
128
If the pulley is exactly 10 ft above the casing and erable differences in depth to geothermal aquifers and flow
readings are taken at 10 ft increments, the calculations are rates in adjacent wells. Many direct use wells have
simplified. Both direction and total deviation can be plotted temperature reversals and get cooler with increased depth,
on a scaled deviation plot and an outline of the casing drawn. once the aquifer has been fully penetrated.
After plotting the casing, a straight line is drawn from the
casing top to the depth where alignment is to be maintained. In pumped wells, the final pump setting is determined
The casing should not be closer to the plotted center line than from well testing, usually with a portable pump. These data
the maximum amounts shown in Figure 6.12. should provide water levels for various pumping rates, and
perhaps, estimates of long-term drawdown, depending on the
The usual standard for plumbness allows 6 in. out of degree of sophistication of the test. Deep and/or high pm-
plumb for every 100 ft of well depth. Some engineers feel duction wells for district heating or industrial uses should have
that 6 in./100 ft is excessive and allow only 3 in.1100 ft a g k d testing program unless the reservoir is well known.
(Roscoe Moss Co., 1985). See Chapter 7, Reservoir Engineering, for test program des-
criptions. Space heating for residential or light commercial
The proposed 15th edition of the Hydraulics Institute's applications probably cannot justify extensive testing but, if
Standard for Well Straightness states "shall not deviate vore they are in known areas, expected pump settings can be
than 1in./100 ft and be without double bend" (Cherry, 1987). obtained from nearby wells. Air lift or bailing with the
drilling rig can provide information on the expected flow rates
Table 6.2 gives relative drilling rates of seven drilling and drawdowns. Consideration should also be given to
methods in various formations. Rates were modified possible long-term water level declines, reduction in well
somewhat from Driscoll (1987) after discussions with efficiency over its life because of scaling and possible
experienced geothermal direct use drillers. increased production requirements at some later date. The
pump itself is relatively easy to set deeper; well workover to
lower the surface casing is much more expensive and
6.4 WELLDESIGN sometimes impossible.
Well design involves specifying well depth, casing Surface casing size is set by the pump bowl diameter.
diameters, materials, thickness, lengths and pump setting. Pumping rate from a given pump diameter can vary mnsider-
Once these are determined, other parameters such as wellbore ably and pump suppliers should be consulted before drilling to
diameter, completion methods, procedures, and perhaps, determine the least life-cycle cost for the pump and well.
drilling methods can be decided. An initial design must be Larger diameter, low-speed lineshaft pumps are usually more
prepared in order to write specificationsand obtain a bid; but, efficient and require less maintenance than smaller, high-speed
probably more often than not, the design changes as actual pumps with the same flow and head. However, where settings
hole conditions become known. Some requirements may be are deep and drilling difficult, the cost of a larger diameter
specified by state, federal or local agencies. Other factors well may not justify the savings in maintenance and pumping
may be partially or wholly determined by local practices and power.
equipment availability. In many cases,it is prudent to hire a
qualified geologist to thoroughly review well logs and Surfacecasing diameter should be two nominalpipe sizes
published geologic information before the initial design is larger than the pump bowls. This permits easy installation
made, and to interpret cuttings and logs as the well is drilled. and allows for some well deviations. One nominal pipe size
There are often critical decisions that must be made during larger is permissible, but not recommended. In case of
drilling. Having a geologist on-site to help in decision- necessity, the outside diameter of pump bowls can be trimmed
making can help make drilling proceed smoothly and a small amount. Table 6.3 is based on pump data from
efficiently. several manufacturers, for both lineshaft and submersible, and
provides a general idea of the diameter required for given
Most direct use wells consist of three main parts: pump pumping rates.
housing or surface casing, the inlet portion, and the
production casing between them. Flowing artesian wells do Because many geothermal aquifers are confined, they
not require a pump housing, if flow is sufficient for the will have high static (close to the ground surface) and
intended use. pumping levels. In this situation, casing and/or bore sizes, or
both, below the surface casing pump chamber can be reduced.
Depth is usually determined by that required to obtain Many times, at least a portion of the well, between the pump
sufficient flow or temperature, or both, for the intended use. chamber and well bottom,will be in rock and can be left open
The controlling factors are depth to aquifer, thickness of the hole if state regulations permit. In shallow wells, the surfm
aquifer, transmissivity of the aquifer, and flow requirements. casing is often extended into rock above the aquifer and
As noted earlier, the first three may be estimated from nearby cemented in place with open hole the rest of the way to total
wells; but in fractured and faulted areas, there may be consid- depth. This method of completion simplifies grouting.
129
Table 6.3 Surface Casing Diameters equation, show that productivity is determined to a much
greater extent by permeability than by diameter. For identical
conditions of permeability, drawdown and radius of influence,
NominalpumP Nominalsurface -
doubling the wellbore diameter increasesproduction 10% in
Production Rate Diameter Casing Diameter -
an unconfined aquifer and only 7% in a confined aquifer.
(mm) (in.) (in.)
When a slotted liner or screen is used, the open area of
< 100 the liner or screen may be the limiting factor (Figure 6.13).
1 0 0 6 175
4
5
6
8 Open areas of continuous slot screeas typically range from -
175 to 350
350to 700 .
6
8
10
12
-
1696to5096andslottedpipe 196t01296. Therefore,when
a screen or slotted liner is required and the thickness of the
700 to 1,Ooo 10 14 aquifer limits the length, it may be necessary to increase the
1,OOO to 1,600 12 16 diameter in order to utilize all the water the aquifer will
1,600 to 3,000 14 18 provide. Velocity through the open area of the screen or h e r
should be 0.10 to 0.25 ft/s (Campbell, 1973).
’
Well screen and filter pack are used to prevent sand and
In deeper wells, it may be necessary or economical to fines from entering the well and becoming a sand b u m .
install one or more casing strings of successively smaller Screen Openings are small (0.006 to 0.150 in.) and the filter
diameters such as when drilling and driving when the casing pack is clean graded sand selected to hold back fines from the
cannot be driven further. A similar situation occurs when a aquifer, yet not pass through the screen. Selection of the filter
slotted liner or screen is telescoped through the casing. In pack size and gradation requires sieve analysis of the produc-
water well drilling it is not uncommon to seal the casing/ ing formation and careful selection of filter material size.
screen overlap with a lead packer to facilitate screen removal Because very few geothermal wells are screened, the methods
and replacement. Because many g e o t h e d fluids will leach will not be covered here. Methods and information are
lead (see Chapter 8), the water chemistry should be checked contained in Driscoll, 1987.
if the use of lead is considered. Cement should always be
used at casing overlaps. If removal of the slotted liner or Formation stabilizer is coarser material (118 to 5/16 in.
screen is anticipated, a high-temperatureelastomer seal can be gravel) used to prevent sloughing of borehole walls in the pro-
used. duction zone. Slotted liner with openings ranging from 0.120
to 0.250 in. supports the stabilizer material. Many g e o t h d
Most states regulate the length and annulus space for wells require formation stabilizers. The term gravel back is
casing overlap. In the case of water wells and, in some states, often used for both filter pack and formation stabilizer.
low-temperature geothermal wells, the required overlap may
be < 10 ft. Because sulfate ions present in most geothermal Placement of filter pack is critical because it contains
fluids attack cements, the length of overlap should be several selected sizes of material, which tend to separate if just
increased to a minimum of 20 ft and the use of high sulfate poured down the annulus. Filter pack is carefully placed
resistant cement considered, if the sulfate concentration is through a tremie pipe. Formation stabilizer, on the other
high. Most states require a minimum of 50 ft overlap in geo- hand, is usually screened to obtain uniform size and can be
thermal wells, but those requirements were usually written poured down the annulus. When cementing is required above
with high-temperature geothermal fluid in mind. The length the stabilizer or filter pack, 3 to 5 ft of sand is poured or
of overlap required by regulations may depend on how the tremied in to prevent cement from entering the stabilizer
well is classified, and not necessarily reflect the best design. material.
Most agencies .will permit variances to obtain the best design
for the particular situation.
The minimum diameter of any open hole or casing string

should be selected so that fluid velocities at maximum
pumping rates are <5 fils. For wells that flow at the surface,
velocity (therefore, friction losses that reduce flow) might be
lowered by increasing the diameter to obtain greater flows.
The additional well costs should be balanced against pumping
costs.
The diameter of the inlet portion at the bottom of the

well should be chosen to accept the water available from the Figure 6.13 Slotted liner and screen (Johnson Division,
aquifer. Equations in Chapter 7, based on Darcy’s basic flow 1966).
130
Table 6.4 Comparison of Well Casing Materials
Material
Fiberglass Asbestos Low-Carbon Type 304
-
ABS -
PVC Emxv cement Steel Stainless Steel
Specific gravity 1.04 2.40 1.89 1.85 7.85 8.0
Tensile strength 4,500 8,000 16,750 3,000 35,000 yld' 30,000 yld'
@si) 60,0oO 60.0oO
ultimate ultimate
Tensile modulus .30 .41 2.30 3.00 30.00 29.00

(106 psi)
Impact strength 6.0 1.0 20.0 1.o b a

(ft-lb/in.)
Upper temperature 180 140 2 w 250 800 to 1,000 800 to 1,000

limits ("F)
Thermal expansion 55 30 8.5 4.5 6.6 10.1

(104 in./in. O F )
Heat transfer @tu 1.35 1.10 2.30 3.56 333.0 96.0

in./h fi2 OF)
Water absorption 0.30 0.05 0.20 2.0 Nil Nil
(wt %I24h)
a. Yield strength is the tensile stress required to produce a total elongation of 0.5%of the gauge length as determined
by an extension meter. Expressed in psi.
b. Because testing methods for steel and other materials are not the same and the results are not comparable, the impact
strength values for steel are not shown. In any event, the actual impact strength of steel is so high relative to the
demands of water well work that it can be ignored in design considerations.
c. May be higher with special formulations.
6.5 CASINGMATERIALS 5LX (high strength), and 5A. Pipe is available with either
threaded and coupled or beveled ends for welding. Most low-
Casing materials, minimum thickness for various diame- to-moderate temperature casing is welded because this is the
ters, maximum depth for various diameters and ASTM or API most common practice in water well construction. Welding
standards are specified by some states, but may vary from should be to American Welding Society standards, fully penet-
state to state. Local and state regulations must be checked to rating multiple pass welds. In oil and gas producing areas,
assure that the well design meets the applicable codes. threaded and coupled pipe may be more readily available in
Casing materials for low-to-moderate temperature geo-

-
sizes below 8 in. Welded pipe is usually used, since it is
less costly and welded joints are stronger than threaded and
thermal wells include thermoplastics, fiberglass and steel. coupled joints for the same pipe thickness.
Concrete and asbestos cement casings are also used in water
well construction and may be suitable for groundwater heat Most direct use wells are shallow enough that casing
pump applications. Steel is by far the most common. tensile and compressive strengthsare not a problem. collapse
Properties of casing materials are given in Table 6.4. pressure is p t e s t during cementing and collapse stresseswill
probably be the critical design factor. Table 6.5 gives
Steel casing is pipe manufactured to ASTM standards A- physical characteristics of blank steel casing based on the
53 and A-120, or line pipe manufactured to API standards 5L, following formulas (Roscoe Moss Co., 1985).
131
The values for collapse pressure in Table 6.5 were tance it moves up the casing. Sealing the top of the casing
determined by: and any openings such as for air lines and access ports for
measuring devices will minimize oxygen intrusion and co~zo-
don. Increasing the wall thickpes will increase well life.
Unfortunately, there is no good standard practice or rule of
thumb for increasing thickness, because temperatureand water
chemistry vary so widely. Each application should be judged
where Pcr = theoretical collapse strength of a perfectly round individually. Past experience based on local practice can
tube written as: sometimes help, but often other wells have not been in use
long enough to give a good indication of expected life.
2E [-
3
Pcr --
1-M2
k) t-1
Thermoplastic well casing standards are covered in
ASTM Standard F-480, which includes a method for calcula-
ting collapse strength. Care shouldbe exercised when specify-
where ing thermoplasticcasing for elevated temperaturesbecause col-
lapse strength is reduced drastically. As with any casing, the
E = Youngs modulus = 30 x 106 psi collapse pressure will be greatest during cementing and the
M = Poisson's ratio = 0.3 placement method should be chosen so as to equalize pressures
Do = casing OD inside and out as much as possible. Heat generated during
t = casing wall thickness curing of cement grout further increases the temperature that
e = casing ellipticity = 1% the casing must withstand. Use of thermoplastic pipe is dis-
S = yield strength = 35,000 psi cussed in Chapter 10, which gives strength decreases with rise
P, = collapse pressure with ellipticity psi. in temperature. These factors are also applicable for collapse
strength reductions.
The values for casing tensile strength set forth in Table
6.4 were determined by: Fiberglass-reinforcedepoxy or polyestercasingsand pipe
casing t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h ( t o n ) = St
(?;
-a are p r o d u d with many resin formulations and winding pro-
cedures that affect the temperature and strength characteristics.
At the present time,there is no standards covering all the vari-
ous resins and construction methods for well casings; how-
where ever, pressure piping is covered by several standards (see
Chapter 10). Pressure piping is available for temperaturesup
St = tensile strength = 60,000 psi. to 300°F.
The values for casing axial compressive strength were Fiberglass-reinforced casing has several advantages, in-
determined by: cluding excellent corrosion resistance, light weight and high
trr
stmgth-to-weight ratios. It is available with several thread
casing a x i a l coqpressive strenm (ton) = 2,000 type connections, including threaded and 0-ringed, and bell
and spigot with locking keys that permit speedy installation.
where Resin joining of bell and spigot or tapered joint couplings
requiresaconsiderabletime, experienced workmen and heat
S = yield strength = 35,000 psi. curing for use at elevated temperature.
Collapse strength is reduced by ellipticity, bending and The major disadvantage of fiberglass is cost, which is
axial stress, and i n c d by compressive stress. Ellipticity higher than steel on a per foot basis. Installed cost may be
of 1% is allowed in the ASTM and API standards and taken competitive when using the threaded or keyed couplings. An-
into account in the above equation. Additional ellipticity other disadvantage is that pump housings must be plumb and
caused by rough handling and bending, and axial stresses in- probably larger diameter to ensure that pump parts do not con-
duced during inshlation such as in crooked holes, should be tact the inside of the casing. Pump vibrations will wear a hole
allowed for by an appropriate safety factor. If an accurate plot in the inner lining permitting hot water to wick along the
of the well geometry has been made, the'additional stresses fiberglass filaments and lead to separation of filaments and
can be calculated using standard strength of materials resin.
calculations.
6.5.1 Centralizers
All steel well casing tends to corrode faster in an area
above the water line where water vapor and air mix. This is Casing should be run with centralizers or centering
exaggerated in geothermalwells because the increased temper- guides to assure that all voids are filled and channeling does
ature increases both the amount of water vapor and the dis- not OCCUT during cementing. Centralizer spacing dependson
133
hole straightness and clearance between the casing and bore. grouting material for wells, although clays are permissible (in
Plktic caking quirei closer spacing than steel casing. Some some states) where their location will not permit drying and
states regulate the maximum spacing. shrinkage. Cementing is probably the more common termin-
ology in geothermal work.
~entrhizersfor shatlow, straight wells are typically
fabricated from 1-10 to 2 in. x 114 to 5/16 in. steel flat bar, Grout is placed in the aunulus between the casing and
and welded to steel casing to provide 1/4 to 1 0 in. well walls or between strings of casing of different diameter
with ,the well walls. For thermoplastic casing, to prevent mixing and/or contamination of aquifers by
mri a& strapped to the casing with stainless steel undesirable aquifers or surface water. Because its purpose is
s. Screws should not be used because they are subject to protect aquifers, most states have adopted regulations
to corrosion, leaving holes in the casing. Fiberglass specifyingacceptable materials and methods of placing grout.
centralizersare available for fiberglass casing.
Portland cement is the most common grouting material.
Centralizers used in the petroleum industry (for deep or ASTM Types I, 11, and III are commonly used water wells.
crooked holes or both) float on the casing and are held in The petrol- industry has developed eight classes of cement
vertical spacing by lack collars (Figure 6.14). This permits to meet the @ial conditions of deep oil and gas wells.
the casing to be rotated. Wall scratchers or cleaners attached
to the casing clean filter cake from the bore walls, providing API Classes A, B, and C correspond to Types I, II, and
better cement bonding to the formation and reduce cement 111respectively. The other classifications were developed to
channeling. permit the use of accelerators, retarders and other additives to
meet special requirements. Because the elevated temperatures
of geothermal wells are similar to oil and gas conditions,
many of the materials and techniques used in petroleum
industry are applicable.
he following information on basic cementing material

is provided courtesy of Halliburton Services.
6.6.2 Cement Tvbes and Classifications
A basic cementing mateiial is classified as one that,

without special additives for weight control or setting
properties, when mixed with the proper amount of water, will
have a cementitious properties.
Cements are made of limestone (or other materials high

in calcium carbonate content), clay or shale, and some iron
and aluminum oxides if they are not present in sufficient
quantity in the clay or shale. These dry materials are finely
ground and mixed thoroughly in the correct proportions either
in the dry condition (dry process) or mixed with water (wet
process). This raw mixture is then fed into the upper end of
a sloping, rotary kiln, at a uniform rate, and slowly travels to
the lower end. The kiln is fired with powdered coal, fuel oil,
or gas to temperaturesof 2,600to 2,800"F.
All cements are manufactured in essentially the same way

Figure 6.14 Centralizer. and are composed of the same ingdients, only in different
proportions. The water requirement of each type of cement
varies with the fineness of grind or surface anx. High-early-
6.6 GROUTINGlCEMENTING strength cements have a high surface area (fine grind), the
retarded cements have a low surface anx, and the Portland
6.6.1 General cements have a surface area slightly higher than the retarded
cements. The chemical retarder used in retarded cements may
Grouting and cementing have become synonymous. be added to the clinker during the secondary grinding stage to
Grouting may be more technically correct, because grouting is provide uniform distribution. It may also be added to the
the act of implacing any sealing material. Cement is the usual finished product. -
134
Following is a brief summary of the characteristicsof the API Class G cement is cunrently being used on the West
various types of cement. These data are obtained from two Coast, where it was developed, and in the Northern Rocky
sources: API Specification 10, API SDecification for Materials Mountain area. Class H cement is used predominately along
and Testine for Well Cements, whose well depth limits are the Gulf Coast and in the Mid-Continent area.
based on the conditions imposed by the casingcement specifi-
cation tests (Schedules 1, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 9) and should be API Class D. E. and F Cements (Retarder Cement)
considered as approximate values; and ASTM C 150, Standard
Smification for Portland Cement. Copies of the specificat- Most of these cements are retarded with an organic
ions are available from the American Society of Testing and compound, while some are retarded by chemical composition
Materials, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103. In the and grind. The most common retarders are of the lignin type;
cement industry, symbols for chemical compounds are often the most widely used being calcium ligndfonates similar to
abbreviae C = CaO, S = SO,, A = AZO3,F = F+Op HR-4. These cements are more expensive than Portland
cement and, unless their special properties are needed, should
For example: not be use.
C&= 3 CaOA120y Pozmix Cement
API Class A & B Cement common Portland Cement) This basic cementing composition umsists of Portland
cement, a pozzolanic material (Pozmix), and 2% bentonite
This cement is intended for use in oil wells from surface based on the total weight of cement. By definition,a pozzolan
to 6,000 ft depth when no special properties are required. The is a siliceous material that reacts with lime and water to form
recommended water-cement ratio, according to API, is 0.46 calcium silicates having cementing properties. Advantages of
by weight (5.2 gallsk). It is more economical than premium this reaction are utilized with Popnix Cement, because
cements and should be used when no special properties are Portland cements release 15% free lime when they m t with
desired and well conditions permit. water, and the lime subsequently reacts with the Popnix to
yield a more durable mass of calcium silicates. Because this
,4PI Class C Cement (High Earlv Cement) type of composition is less expensive than the other basic
materials and performs well with most additives, it has almost
This cement is intended for use in oil wells from surface universal application in well cementing(HalliburtonServices).
to 6,000 ft depth. It is ground finer than Portland and has a
high GS content, both of which contribute to the higher Neat Cement
strength. The API water requirement for this cement is 0.56
(6.3 gallsk). The compressive strength of this cement is Neat cement should not be used at tempera- >23O"F,
greater than Portland cement at Curing times up to 30 hours; because it loses strength and increases permeability above that
and the pumping time slightly less under the same test condi- temperature. The process is time and temperature &pendent.
tions. This cement is more expensive than Portland and, In a test of API Class G (the usual high-temperature oil well
unless its special properties are needed, should not be used. cement), it was found that neat cement compressive strength
Generally, Portland with calcium chloride or other accelerators decreased by 77% from 5,050 to 1,150 psi, and permeability
will give better strength than this type of cement without increased from 0.012 to 8.3 millidarcies in 60 days at 3u)"F
accelerators. in geothermal brine. Regression is somewhat dependent on
geotheimal fluid chemistry (Gallus, 1978).
API Classes G or H Cement (Basic Cement)
6.6.3 Silica Flour and Sand Effects
This cement is intended for use as manufactured from
surface to 8,000 ft or it can be modified with accelerators or Mixtures of silica flour and silica sand in ratios of 40 to
retarders to meet a wide range of temperature conditions. It 80% by weight with API Class G cement have been found to
is chemically similar to API Class B cement but is manufac- reduce strength and permeability degradation in hot wells.
tured to more rigorous chemical and physical specifications, API Class A cement (ASTM Type I), with addition of 30 to
which result in a more uniform product. As manufactured, it 50% silica flour has performed satisfactorily for conductorand
contains no accelerators, retarders or viscosity control agents surface casing in steam wells and should be satisfactory for
other than'gypsum normally ground with cement clinker. All most higher temperature direct use wells.
necessary additives are blended by the service company. The
MI water requirements for Class G is 0.44 (5.0 gal/&) and
for Class H is 0.38 (4.3 gal/&).
135
6.6.4 Effects of Sulfates Considerablework has been performedinvestigating CO,
corrosion, both in geothermal wells and for CO, enhand
At temperatures up to 180"F, sulfates attack cements. recovery in oil wells. Unfortunately, most of the work was
Sulfate attack is most pronounced at 80 to 120"F, then declines performed at higher temperatures and/or CO, partial ptessures
as temperature increases, and is negligible above 180°F. than are usually found in direct use wells. However,
Sodium sulfate, common in geothermal fluids, is d d e r e d Bmckdorfer, Using microcylindricalcement samples0.275 in.
to be the most detrimental, with magnesium sulfate and diameter x 0.5 in. long, found there was only a 5 to 10%
magnesium chloride-closeseumds. decrease in strength loss of samples at 125°F wmpared to
samples at 175°F. This indicates that, at least below 230°F.
Sulfates react with the tricalcium aluminate in the set the corrosion is not especially temperature sensitive.
cement, forming large crystals. Because the crystals are larger
than the original materials, they cause expansion, which There is good agreement in the industry literature that
results in cracking spalling, and ultimate disintegration. Loss non-porous, highdensity cements made with low water*
of the solid cement sheath protecting the casing creates voids cement ratios are mote resistant to attack, and the addition of
and weakens the casingcement composite, and can lead to diluents such as lost circulation materials and silica decrease
electrolytic corrosion. resistance. Silica additions above 10 to 2095, even at
temperatures above 230"F, and the addition of bentonite at
Even though bottom-hole temperalum may be above only 3 96 decrease resistance (Milestone, undated).
180"F, sulfate resistant cement should be used if the hole
penetrated zones of sulfated fluid at temperatum <180"F. At the present time, published guidelines regarding the
Halliburton Services recommendationsare provided in Table CO, concentrations that cause various degrees of attack or
6.6. estimated corrosion rates at given CO, concentrations are only
general. Downhole conditions obviously have an important
part in the cortosion rate. If the water is static around the
Table 6.6 Sulfate concentnrtions and Applicable Cement cement, the carbonic acid would soon be essentially
neutralized and the corrosion rate will diminish; however, if
there is a continuing supply of CO, rich fluid, d o n will
continue. Cements high in calcium hydroxide are more
resistant to corrosion by CO, because an impervious layer of
calcite forms on the outside, slowing attack by CO, and other
0 to 150 ordinary basic cement species (Milestone, 1986).
,350 to loo0 Moderate sulfate resistant In the Broadlands, the problem was noted not in the
production zone, but in a C02-rich zone above that is
1000 to 2000 High sulfate resistant -
penetrated and cemented off. Temperatures are 320"F, CO,
-
is 10,000 ppm, fluid is acidic and moves through the me.
2000+ Severe attack, even with high Downhole test samples with 30% silica were completely
sulfate resistant cement carbonated in a few months. While these conditions are not
likely to be encountered in a direct use well, there are
scattered springs and wells with several h u n M ppm of CO,
that are slightly acidic. Because &nation of cement is time
6.6.5 Effects of Carbon Dioxide CC0,j and concentration dependent, and a direct use well should last
at least several decades, well drillers and designers should be
It is a well-known fact that carbon dioxide-laden water aware of the potential problem.
will attack Portland cements. In the simplest terms, the
carbon dioxide and water form carbonic acid, which leaches 6.6.6 Potential Problems in Cementing
out cementitious material and ultimately reduce the cement to
a soft amorphous silica gel. During the process, the cement A 94-lb sack of Portland cement can be completely
becomes more permeable and allows ions such as C1 and HS, hydrolyzed with 2-112 to 3 gals of water. Extra water is
which may also be present in geothermal fluid, to penetrate added to improve mixing and rheology, but limited to prevent
the cement sheath and attack the casing. This has apparently solids from settling out and limit shrinkage (morewater-more
happened in the C0,-rich Broadlands field in New Zealand, shrinkage). Clean, fresh water should be used. The mixture
where rapid corrosion of cement occurred withina few months will weigh between 15.6 and 16.4 lblgal-nearly twice the
(Milestone, 1986). densityof water and muchheavierthan mostdrilling mud.
136
Although the apparent viscosity of 125 Saybolt Universal
Seconds is much higher than water or drilling mud, neat
cement has no filtration properties and the increased density
will probably result in cement losses in lost circulation zones.
It may also result in hydraulic fracturing of wkak formations
and losses to zones that maintained circulation during drilling.
This limits the vertical height of the column, unless weight
reducers are added.
Many shallow cementingjobs are done with a float shoe

or other drillable packer at the bottom of the casing. The high
density of cement increases casing collapse pressure far
above normal hydrostatic pressure unless the casing is filled
with water or drilling mud to reduce the pressure differences.
Also, the packer or plug makes the casing a loose fitting
piston when l o w e d into the hole. If fluids are present, high
lowering rates can create downhole pressure surges to the
point of creating new loss zones and opening up previously
sealed ones. Lowering rates should be 0.5 ft/s or less when
considerable lost circulation or weak formation are
encountered.
Figure 6.16 External packer with float shoe. An external
packer equipped with a float shoe can be
installed in the casing string to facilitateplacing
cement grout (Halliburton Services).
Loss of cement to formation results in:

1. No cement ever reaching the surface.
2. Fall back after cement reaches the d a c e in the gMulus
and pumping is stopped.
3. The top and bottom sealing but there are voids along the
casing.
These require a t m outside iob, placing cement through

I I - -
a tremie pipe in the annulus or a saueeze iob downhole
perforation of the casing, setting a packer or packers and
Figure 6.15 Grouting with cement shoe. A cementipg shoe squeezing cement through the perforations until it fills the
can direct the grout out into the annulus above annulus. Both are very effective solutions but costly and time
one or more cement baskets mounted at any umsuming.
position in the casing string. The grout passes
through holes cut into the casing by a mills Cement top,after a fall back, and voids can be detected
knife or other kind of perforator (Halliburton by temperature logs that detect the heat of hydration or by a
Services). sonic cement bond log. These logs may be required in some
states and will be an additional cost.
When placing cement through a flat shoe or other

methods involving a pumping or pressure at the bottom to
-
At 170°F or higher, cement thickening time is reduced
to the extent that placement times may become critical. In
force cement up the annulus, the increased density and order to prevent premature cement thickening times, chemical
viscosity raise annulus pressures. Eliminating pressure surges retarders are added to the cement system to umtrol the
and maintaining pump pressure as low as possible, consistent pumping time of the cement slurry. Chemical additive
with reasonablepumping time, reduces the possibilityof losses concentrations can be tailored to meet a broad range of well
and an incomplete cement job. Weight reducers and dispers- conditions.
ants can be added to control density and viscosity if required.
137
Hole Preparation before casing and cementing is an
important step. The hole should be cleaned of any drill
cuttings or cave-ins by making a hole cleaning trip. This
assures that the casing can be set to the desired depth and
removes excess filter cake that may have built up if the hole
was drilled with mud. The objective is to have cement in
intimate contact with the formation, yet maintain a thin filter
cake to prevent cement losses.
If lost circulation was experienced and heavy cement is

to be used, it may be wise to spot non-fermentingcelluloseor
polymer gel in the loss zones. This is faster and less
expensivethan repairing a poor cementjob. Other altematives
are to prepare lower density cementing compositions, Le.,
spherelite, perlite, bentonite or nitrogen foam, or add lost
circulation materials to the slurry.
6.6.7 Cement Placement Methods
When cementing surface casing, quite often the hole will

have been drilled deeper than the depth to where Casing is to
be set orcemented. If the casing is to be cemented to its full
depth, a bridge or drillable plug can be set in the open hole,
or the hole can be backfilled with sand such as plaster or
mortar sand.
Figure6.17 Tremie pipe grouting. Grouting can be
If the casing is to extend beyond the cementing depth, a accomplished by means of a tremie pipe sus-
cement basket can be clamped to the outside of the casing or pended in the annulus outside the casing.
an expandable packer and float shoe installed in the Casing During grouting, the bottom of the tremie
string at the required depth. Often the extension will be should always be submerged a few feet h e a t h
slotted casing or screen and formation stabilizer or filter pack the grout level. As the grout rises, the tremie
is placed, with sand above, to prevent cement from entering should be withdrawn at approximately the same
the stabilizer. rate (Johnson Division).
One method of placing cement is to use a tremie pipe

(Figure 6.17). This is often r e f e d to as a ton outside iob For deeper jobs or when the cement pump pressure is
and the tremie pipe as a macaroni string. The borehole must not high enough to place all the cement with one tremie
be sufficiently larger than the Casing, usually 4 to 8 inches in setting, the tremie can be raised, usually one or two pipe
diameter, to permit running the tremie pipe, and centralizers joints, as cement is placed. The end of the tremie should
should be aligned. Tremie pipes as small as 314 in. ID have always be submerged in the slurry. If water or air is trapped
been used when friction reducers are added to cement, pre- in the pipe as joints are removed, the pipe should be pulled
mitting pumping rates of 6 to 8 @lmh at 750 psi. back above the slurry surface and water or air displaced by
cement before submerging again in order to prevent voids in
The casing is seated on the bottom, or baskets or a the annulus.
packer is used, depending on conditions. The casing is
usually Wed with water or drilling fluid. The tremie is Most drillers will limit top outside jobs to several
lowered to the bottom and conditioned mud or other fluid is hundred feet if possible. Placing the tremie, obtaining high
circulated to be sure there are no obstructions. When good pressure pumps, and removing the tremie in sections are all
returns are observed, cement is immediately pumped through troublesome. Tremies have been successfully employed to
the tremie. Because cement is heavier than the mud, it depths of 10,OOO ft (Evanoff, 1987).
displaces the mud as cement is pumped. Depending on the
depth and cement pumps available, the cement can be placed In order to reduce the volume of cement to be displaced
in one continuous operation until good cement is observed at in large diametercasing and holes, cement is sometimesplaced
the surface. Then the tremie can be removed. by the inner string method. Hole diameters areusually2to
4 inches larger than the Casing, depending on the state
regulations and depth.
138
In this method, a cement shoe (float shoe) with a check to come up the annulus. The pumping is stopped when the
valve and stabbing arrangement is installed on the first second plug is 10 to 20 ft above the bottom of the casing.
(bottom) section of casing. The casing is lowered to within a Pressure is held until the cement hardens. The plugs and
few feet of the bottom, suspended and filled with water or cement are drilled out after the cement hardens. This method
drilling fluid. A tremie or the chill string is stabbed into the ensures a good seal at the bottomof the casing because there
shoe and fluid circulated to clean the hole (Figure 6.18). is no dilution of cement by water, which is behind the second
Cement is pumped until clean cement is observed at the sur- plug, and minimizes dilution a he
ad of the first plug. The
face. The tremie is removed from the shoe and water pumped location of the second plug should be monitoredby a wire line
to clean out the inside of the casing string. The check valve through a seal at the surface or by carehlly measuring the
prevents cement from entering the casing. The float shoe, amount of fluid pumped for displacement. Plugs are made of
cement below it, and the bridge or plug in the open hole a drillable material. Cement, plastic, and wood have been
below that is then drilled out after the cement cures. used. Wood is usually a poor choice when drilling with a
tricone bit.
-
Figure 6.19' Casing method of grouting. Grout can be
placed in the casing and then forced out the
bottom and up the annulus. This is called the
casing method of placing grout. Plugs are used
to separate the grout from the drilling fluid and
the water used to drive the grout mto place.
The plugs and float shoe are drilled out after
I the grout b a r k . The casing method of
Figure 6.18 Inner-string method of placing grout. A grouting was origmlly used in the oil well
cementing (float) shoe is attached to the bottom industry (Halliburton Services).
of the casing before the casing is placed in the
borehole. A tremie pipe is lowered until it
engages the shoe (Johnson Division). When bonding becomes critical, holding pressure is not
a good practice. Heat of hydration and resulting expansion of
the annular cement causes pressure buildup outside the casing.
There are several variations of the so called Halliburton Holding any pressure on the casing allows the formation of a
or through-thewing cementing method. All are adapted microannulus between the cement and pipe when pressure is
from the oil and gas industry where the methds were first relieved. Later in the life of the well, this can cause problems
developed. Figure 6.19 shows the basics of the operation. that include migration of fluids and loss of d isolation,
corrosion, etc. Operators commonly use a back pressure valve
The casing is set without a float shoe and suspended a in the lower casing string to prevent having to hold pressure
few feet from the bottom. Water or drilling fluid is circulated on the casing.
to clean out the hole. A plug is insertedto separate the water
or drilling fluid from the cement; a measured amount of One variation uses only one plug, behind the cement, to
cement is pumped in above the plug and a second plug prevent dilution. Any cement diluted by the elimination of the
inserted. More water, pumped in above the second plug, first plug must be wasted at the surface to ensure a good
forces the plugs and contained cement down, causing cement surface seal. Becauseonly one plug is used, a landing collar
139
Table 6.7 Summary of Oil Well Cementing Additives
k#easedpumpinotime
Bener Ibw
Combaning h g h pretsurr APlCiasses0.E.

tnarawog Juny weight 0. ud H
Gtlsonne
WaInuI hulls
cenophane flakes
Gy~summnt
BernoMedMsel dl
Nykm fibers
Sodwmchlwlde
P m r y wmenting Sodium uuoriee Bener bondmg to sab

shales. sands
-
Sbca flour High-temperature cemenbng Silicon dioride Stabihzed strength All API Classes
h e r penneabihty
Mud Kil ParetmaMehyde Bener bondmg API Clsstes A. 8.
Greater strenglh C. 0, and H
Rldioachve Sc 46 UI API Classes
tracers
Pozzolan bne Hlgh-temperature cementing Silica-bme reacIKMs
Calcium sulfate
Hemihydrate
Gypsum w
n resin
h e x cement API Classes A. E.

0. and H
Shryock & S m f t h , Halliburton S e r v i c e s
140
Table 6.8 Factors Affating primary Casing Cementing
Personnel
Well owners responsibility, service company respo
Drilling Rig Operations

Running time of casing, rate of running casing, ,position of collar on landing joint, circulating time
atter running casing
Drilling Fluid
Composition, weight, Viscosity, water loss and filter cake, gel strength, admixes
I Bore Hole
Diameter, depth, straightness, formation characteristics
Casing
0.0.casing versus hole size,depth of casing set versus total depth
Special Tools
~
Guiding and floating equipment (shoes, collar),
(reciprocating v s rotation)
Cementing Materials
Slurry volume required (caliper survey, estimate), type of cement (API classification, admixes), mixing water
(supply, impurities, temperature), slurry A./sack, volume to be mixed)
Mixing and Pumping of Cement Slurry , I
Plugs (bottom, top, location of top plug, compression of fluid),spacers-flushes (water, special fiuid),time (mixing,
displacement), mixing units (number, type, mixer
Cementing Head and Connections
Swage, quick change, plug container, opening in head, valves on head, floor manifold
1
141
Table 6.9 Digest of Cementing J3quipment and Mechanical Aids
cemontlng Equlpmnt
and Types Application Pbcsment
Fkstlng Equlpmn!
1. Guide Shoes . Guides casing into wen Firstpintofcasing
Minimizes de* strain
2. Floatcdlars Prevents cement flow back 1 joint above s m in wens less
Create pressure diflerenbals to than 6.000ti2-3pi- in
improve bond wells greater than 6.000 tt
Catches cementing plugs
Automatic Fili-Up
EQu1pment
1. fb8t ShOeS Same as Float Collars end Shoes Same as Float Collars
except fill-up IS controlled by or Guioe Shoes
hydrostattc pressure m annulus
Fonnstbn Packer
fools
1. Formatton Packer Packer expands lo protea first joint of casing
shoes bwer zones while cemenling
2. Formatm Pac&er As hde requirements dictate
Collars
Cementing Stage
Took
2 Stage When requred to cement IWO or Based on critical Lories and
3 Stage more sections m separate sages tomram fracture Qradlents
Full Opentno Tools
Plug Conta*mn
1. Ouick Opening To hold cemenbng plugs in Top joint of casing at
2. Continuous s!nng until released. surtace of well
Cemenbno Heads
Cementhg Piugs
1. Top and Bottom Mechanical Spacer between Mud and Between well fluids and cement
Wiper Plugs cement (bottom plug) and cement and
2. Ball Plugs displacement fluid (top plug)
3 L a t a Down Pluos
b s i n g Centtalkerr
Vanable Types Cemer casing in hole or provide minimum Straight h o l e 1 per joint thrwgh
standsff to improve distribution of and 200 feet above and below
cement in annulus, prevent pay zones;1 p e r 3 joints in
ditterenbsl slicking open hole to be cemented
Crooked hole-Variable
with deviation
1. Rotanng Remove Mud cake and armlatable Place thrwgh W m n g

mud from well bore. fomabons and 50 to 100 feet h e .
Rotate pipe 15 to 20 RPM
2. Renprocating Aid in creabng turbulence Placement is same Es
Improve cement bond rotat~ngReciprocate pipe
pipe 10 to 15 feet off m o m
Shryock R S m i t h , Halliburton S e r v i c e s
142
can be installed at the desired height (10 to 20 Et above the The cementing design is usually a umstant volume.
casing bottom) to stop the plug inside the casing. This That is, because hydrostaticpressure at the bottom of the hole
eliminates the problem of knowing exactly where the second e
is highest, more standard (free air volume) of nitrogen are
plug is and when to stop it as in the first method. injected into the cement that will be placed near the bottom.
More nitrogen is injected ps cementing proceeds because the
Another version utilizes a float shoe installed at the last cement pumped ends up at the bottom. Foam cementing
bottom of the casing and viscous fluid spacers rather than rigid requires some method of holding back pressure on the annulus
plugs. The fluid spacers must be compatible with both mud to prevent the nitrogen bubbles in the cement from expanding
and cement, and are usually polymem, water, and weighing too much; thus, producing the desired density. A neat cap
materials to achieve a density of 0.5 & 1.5 lb/gal more than slurry is pumped first to provide a good seal at the top, then
the drilling fluid. The viscous spacers are especially effective foamed cement, followed by a neat tail slurry to provide a
in obtaining good mud displacement (Shyrock, 1983). good seal at the bottom.
All of the above methods can incorporate additives to At the present time, foam cementing is only applicable
produce a betteicementjob. Surfactantsand mud thinners can to expensive or difficult holes because the technology is new
be added as hole cleaners (not to be used whek lost ckula- and r e q u k equipment ordinarily Bssociafed with oil field
tion exists). Reactive flushes can be used to clean mud off the practices plus a foam generator. As the technology matures,
outside of the casing to achieve good bonding, and friction simpler and less expensive techniques will probably evolve.
reducers can be used to lower pumping pressures. Accele-
rators and retarders can control hkdening at different tempera-
tures and pressures along the length to be cemented. Lost cir- 6.7 BLOWOUT PREVENTION EQUPMENT
culation materials, density reducers, temperature stabilizers,
and other additives have their uses to promote a better Blowoutprevention equipment(BOPE)collsists of comb-
cementing job. Some of these can be accomplished by inations of valves, rams,packers and rotating heads enabling
injecting additives while pumping batch mixes; other require control of fluids and gases that could flow from the well. The
continuous mixing with additions during placement. Tables equipment is attached to a casing that is securely cemented to
6.7, 6.8 and 6.9 are taken from Halliburton Services and prevent fluids or gases from escaping to the surface mund the
summarize additives, factors to consider, and equipment. casing. All state and federal agencies havingjurisdiction over
Although these are intended primarily for deep high- drilling of geothermalwells will require BOPE when: (a) ex-
temperature wells, they contain useful information for low- pected temperatures are above some limit, usually somewhere
temperature work dso. between 150°F and the boiling point at the altitude of the well-
head, (b) submface presures may cause flow of fluids or
A relatively new technique of foaming cement with gases, (c) combustible gas may be encountered, or (d) the sub-
nitrogen gas appears to have good possibilities for use in low- d a c e conditions are unknown. Often,the first well in an
and moderate-temperaturewells and perhaps, even in standard area will have BOPE installed. If high ,e -t pres-
water-well practice. The technique was developed for use in sures, or combustibles are not encountered, subsequent wells
steam injection wells in oil fields for insulation. It has been will not require BOF'E. Usually, the equipment is rented and
s u ~ f u l l yused in high-temperature geothermal wells with installed to meet the expected conditim or agency
lost circulation where its low density and increased gel requirements.
strength are advantageous. Also, it provides thermal insu-
lation with K factors ranging from 0.15 to 0.4 Btulh fi2 OF. Figure 6.20 schematically shows a typical BOPE, stack
for high-tempemture air and mud drilling. Figures 6.21 and
The cement used in high-temperature work is MI, Class 6.22 show typical low-temperature BOPE for mud and air
G, with 4096 silica flour to prevexU strength regression at high drilling, respectively. Gate valves may be required at the
temperatures. Other mixtures should be satisfactory at lower casing flange if flow to the surface is anticipated or in an
temperatures. The cement is mixed at 15.6 lb/gal d a c e unknown area. Figure 6.23 is a photo of a double ram
density and can be foamed from 4 to 15 lblgal downhole preventer.
density.
Rams and packers are usually hydraulically operated, and
Gel yield point increases with reduced density. The 4 a gas over hydraulic accumulator or manual operation is re-
lb/gal density has a yield point of 80 lb/lOO ft2 compared to quid in order to operate the devices if all power fails.
34 lb/lOO ft2 at 15.6 lb/gal. This means that once the foam BOPE is installed on the surface casing after Casing cement
has stopped flowing in a loss m e , it will stay in place. has hardened. The system is pressure tested before drilling
Strength is somewhat less than standard cement but appears to out the cement and cement shoe in the bottom of the surface
be high enough to support casings during thermal cycling. casing in order to ensure it will ahstand the pressure p i -
fied by the controlling agency, usually with an official of the
agency witnessing the test.
143
CaaEmIl rxn
Figure6.22 Typical low-tgmp&we geofhermal BOPE

stack (California Division of Oil and Gas).
Figure620 Typical high-temperature geothermal BOPE
(Mud) stack (California Division of oil and
GaS).
NIPPLE -
**
FILL U P LINE -
rLon LINE
.
. .
Figure623 Double ram-type preventer. Two ram-type

preventers built into one casing conserve
vertical space, minimize the number of
connections,and simplify installation. Usually,
choke and kill conndons are made to a
drilling spool below the preventers. Such
. cunnections may be made to the side outlets,
visiile on the preventer body, but this is not
Figure621 Typical low-texnperatum geothermal BOPE common practice. A Siange fiilure at one of
(Air)diverter stack (California Division of Oil . the side outlets might necessitate changing the
and Gas). entire preventer (Hydd Company).
144
6.8 INJECTIONWELLS ence and good injection well design, adequate but reasonable
protection of the drinking water will be ensured. One thing
In 1974, Congress enacted the Safe Drinking Water Act, is certain, injection wells will be required in more and more
Public LAW 93-523, to protect the public health and welfare, cases. Water levels have declined in some aquifers supplying
and to protect existing and future underground sources of direct use applications and the public will require increasingly
drinking water. Under this act, the Environmental Protection stringent environmental protection measures.
Agency (EPA) has been developing, and continues to develop,
regulations for protection of the underground sources from The injection well survey noted earlier appears to have
contamination by injection wells. Five classes of wells have included at least the major direct use injection wells. Only 21
been defined and established. Geothermal injection wells are were noted in the U.S. Considering the much larger number
included in Class V. Class V is a kind of catchall that of direct use applications on-line, two conclusions can be
includes all the wells not mentioned in ,the other classes, and made. There is a substantial number of direct use applications
that typically inject non-hazardous fluids into or above that are discharging substantialamounts of heat and chemicals
underground sources of drinking water. to the surface, usually to surface waters, and there is very
little experience with direct use injection wells. Of the 21
In 1980, EPA chose to defer establishing technical wells, only a few have been in service more than 5 years and
requirements for Class V wells, and they were authorized by one was taken out of service at least temporady after only 1
rule. This means that injection into Class V wells is author- year of use.
ized until M h e r requirements under future regulations are
promulgated by EPA. However, Class V wells are prohibited The drilling and completion of an injection well is not
from contaminating any undergniund source of drinking water much different than a production well; the same drilling and
and minimal inventory, and reporting is required of Class V completion methods generally can be used, but more care
well owners/operators. should be taken to ensure that the wellbore is clean and ade-
quately cemented. Because after the initial development, the
An underground drinking water supply is defied as an well accepts fluid rather than producing it, there is no oppor-
aquifer, or a portion of the aquifer, which supplies any public tunity for mud or fines left in the formation to come out. In-
water system, or contains a sufficientquantity of groundwater stead, they tend to form bridges for the almost inevitable silt
to supply a public water system, currently supplies drinking and corrosion products pumped into the well that (over time)
water for human consumption, contains fewer than 10,OOO leads to plugging of the formation. Drilling fluid monitoring
mgL total dissolved solids, and is not an exempted aquifer. and control are even more important in drilling injection wells
than production wells.
As a part of developing technical regulations, an
inventory and assessment of Class V wells was made. Most states will require that casing be set and cemented
Twenty-one direct heat injection wells, Type 5A6, were from the top of the accepting formation to the surface. The
inventoried (additionally, the type was reported, but no accepting formation is generally an aquifer of similar or worse
numbers are available in New York). Eighty-nine electric water quality. A few states may permit the Casing to be
power injection wells, Type 5A5,were inventoried. Contami- adequatelycemented into the confining formation immediately
nation potential for the two types together was rated as mod- above the accepting formation in some cases. California,
erate. (All the above excerpts from Council and Fryberger, Nevada, and perhaps other states, require double wall injec-
1987). tion. At least one wall is a casing string and the other may be
I
an injection tube extending to a permanent packer set just
The EPA underground injection control regulations may above the injection zone. This double wall requirement may
be administeredby federally approved stateprograms (primacy be waived for low pressure injection of non-aggressive fluids
states) or by EPA (direct implementation states). See Chapter in relatively well-known areas.
19, Institutional, Legal and Permitting Requirements, for in-
formation on specific states. Currently, EPA considers geo- In order to reduce the possibility of formation plugging
thermal injection a low priority item and specific regulations when drilling with mud, many drilling consultants recommend
for construction and operation of geothermal injection wells drilling to the accepting formation, then changing to water or
are not likely to be developed for some time (Council, 1987). air. The casing can be set and cemented, if required, to pre-
vent caving. When conditions permit, open-hole completion
Agencies in several states, notably those with active is preferred because it eliminatesthe possibility of encrustation
geothermalprojects, have developedspecificgeothermalinjec- and clogging of screens or the slotted liner. If the injected
tion regulations and are currently seeking primacy status. In water is significantly cooler than the accepting formation,ther-
all l i k e l i i d , the regulationswill be based on waste disposal, mal stresses-mayfracture the rocks. This has been postulated
geothermalelectric power production, and petroleum wells, or as one possible explanation of injection wells in New Zealand
experience, and may seem overly restrictive for many direct increasing acceptanceover time (Armstead, 1978). If spalling
use injection wells. It can only be hoped that with experi- fractures occuf, the well could partially fill with debris.
145
Because injecting fluid creates a cone of recharge remaim constant, acceptance may increase with time because
(similar in shape but the opposite of a cone of depression there may bea tendency to dissolve materials in the formation.
murounding a pumped well), there is a tendency for the injec-
ted fluid to migrate up the outside of the casing, possibly into
fresh ,water aquifers. Proper cementing techniques are re 6.9 WELL SPECIFICATIONS
quired. If drilling mud was used, better bonds between casing
and cement, and cement and formation can be achieved by: Well specificationsare the basis for inviting bids from
drilling contractors. As such, they should be written: (a) so
1. Flushing with clay dispersants such as one of the poly as to make it easy to compare bids on a cost basis, (b) to
phosphates. ensure that the well will be constructed of suitable materials
and in a manner that ensures a reasonable life, (c) so the well
2. Flushing with plenty of water at sufficient flows to will produce the required flows, and (d) to serve as a guide
create turbulence in the annulus. for the final completion. The specifications must also be
teasonably flexible because subsurface conditions are m l y
3. use of wall scratchers. accurately known.
4. Pumping cement fast enough to create turbulence. Many state or other governmentalentities have minimum
standards of construction that must be met. These standards
5. Flushing with paraformaldehyde to neutralize mud may cover such items as depth of surface casing, casing
additives, etc. material and thickness, cementing materials and placement
procedures, safety items such as blowout pventer
- If a fresh water aquifer was penetrated, as is usually the requirementsand even disposal of drilling cuttings, fluids, and
case, additives must be EPNstate approved. If clay forma- mud. In all cases, the intention is to provide for public
tions have been drilled, polyphosphates should be used with safety, protection of fresh water suppliesand the environment
caution, because they could make the clay near the hole un- and co&ation of geothermal resources.
stable. Injection temperatures are likely to be in the range
where sulfate resistance of cement is lowered (100 to 180°F). Unfortunately, there is wide variation in the standards
and regulations depending on how geothennal energy is
The design of the injection portion of the well is open to classified (water, mineral, or petroleum), because the standards
question and each case should be considered on an individual are written from different perspectives by staff with different
basis. For cold water injection wells, a general rule of thumb backgrounds. In some states, the classification changes with
is that the injection area (bore area, slot area, or open area of depth, temperatwe, or intended use. In Oregon, water well
screen, as applicable) should be twice to three times as large regulations apply to a depth of 2,000 ft and/or temperatures
as for a well producing the same amount of fluid. This prob below 250°F. For deeper or hotter wells, Division of Geology
ably holds for injection in relatively tight formationsand water and Mineral Industry's regulations apply. In California, any
source heat pump injection wells. Tight formations tend to well that may tap water with temperatures greater than the
clog with silt and corrosion products. Heat pump injection average ambient temperaave is geothermal and is regulated by
wells often operate in the optimum temperature range for iron the Division of Oil and Gas. In practice, wells 86°F or hotter
bacteria clogging and even twice the area may not be sufficient a Considered geothermal momas, 1987). Nevada has three
if iron bacteria are present. Open formationssuch as fractured divisions of geothermalwells, &pending on proposed use and
and weathered basalts may require only modest increase in flow rata.
area, if any.
There may be overlaps and conflicts in standads and
If CO, and hydrogen sulfide are present, and pressures jurisdiction between different agencies. A good example is in
are reduced, or the system is open to atmosphere, allowing the some homestead parcels whm the nuface is under private
gases to come out of solution, pH changes will occur. This control but the federal government retains the mineral,
upsets the chemical equilibrium of the water resulting in therefore, geothermal rights and umtrols. In many cases,the
precipitation, scaling, and plugging of the injection zone. In overlaps and umflicts have been at least tempered for electric
general, systems should be closed and pressure maintained, power production by agreements between agencies. Little
including the injection well. Water should not be allowed to attention has been paid to lower temperature direct use
free fall into a well even though it accepts the fluid while applications, that logically should have different requirements,
maintaining a water level below the surface. Microscopic but often do not. In some instances,variances will have to be
bubbles form that will block acceptance of the formation. requested with substantiating i n f o d o n , because t h e '
standards were written with electric power production in mind
In some cases, injected water may be at a higher temper- and do not necessarily give the best construction for lower
ature than the receiving aquifer, such as when injecting near temperature wells.
the boundaries of the reservoit. If the system is closed so pH
146
Consultation with appropriate federal, state, and local Although it would seem to be advisable to use a driller
officials is mandatory. Some agencies require proposed well experiend in geothexmal well drilling (and therefore
specificationswith the permit application; others only a record presumably knowledgeableabout the appropriate state agency
of what was performed. Plenty of lead time should be rules and regulations included in the specifications), this may
allowed because it may take longer to determine the not always be €he case. A water well driller may bid on a .
amrotxiate agency than it does to drill the well. geothermaljob or the well may have a different cla&ification
than that in which the driller has experience. Them have been
Most technid specificationsstart with a scope of work. too many instances where a driller has bid and been accepted
There is considerable variation in detail depending in part on for a job without being familiar with the appropriate rules.
knowledge about the site and in part on the engineer’s The result is an underbid job, an unhappy driller trying to
preference for including details in the scope or in the body of make up the difference even though it was his own fault, and
the specifications. At a minimum, the scope should contain general disagreement with the owner and the regulating
the exact location, proposed flow, use, pumping equipment, agency. Sometimes the driller pushes his equipment too fast,
anticipated temperature, depth, casing, and completion resulting in breakdowns or fishing jobs. Depending on how
program, and a drawing that may or may not be dimensioned the contract is written, these may result in extra cost to the
depending on knowledge about the site. owner and, at a minimum, cause delays.
Any known geologic conditions may be included &I the One way to help prevent this problem is to require in the
summary or as an appendix containing this and nearby well bid a statement that the bidder has read and understands the
logs, etc. Providing as much information as possible results current rules and regulations, by their numbers, as stated in
in a more accurate and usually lower bid because there are the specifications. This serves to motivate the bidder to
fewer unknowns in the risk factor. Any adverse conditions understand the rules and provides the owner with additional
such as major lost circulation problems, caving, squeezing protection should a dispute arise. This requires that the owner
clays, etc., should be at least noted in the scope, perhaps with also be familiar with the rules in order to cortectly write the
details in the appendix. specifications and to detect bids that do not meet the
requirements.
Attention should be given to local practices because they
can vary considerably, and drillers usually find and use what Agency rules and regulations include only completion.
works best in their area. If the practices are sound from an and abandonment specifications. Items k c h as drilling fluids,
engineering and hydrological standpoint, inclusion or properties, working hours, cutting samples,noise, etc., should
allowances as alternatives may result in lower costs. be added if applicable.
Drilling a pilot or test hole may or may not be included. Cutting samples at 10 to 20 Et increments andlor changes
Sometimes the additional costs will be prohibitive; but, if the in.lithology should be required. These should be washed,
hole is very large or deep, it often requires drilling and bagged in small plastic sacks and labeled as to depth, date and
reaming because of equipment limitations. When drilling in other pertinent information such as drill rate, loss of
an unknown or highly variable area, a pilot hole provides: (a) circulation, etc. Only a few tablespoons full are required for
lithology, (b) an opportunity to run logs, (c) refines the details a sample. They may or may not ever be inspected, but if
of the well completion, and (d) ordering of required materials. disputes or problems arise, they may be very useful. If
nothing else, they inspire more careful logging by the driller
The drilling method is normally not specified unless if a geologist is not on-site.
there are known or suspected conditions that exclude a
particular method. It is not uncommon to specify one method
to some depth or formation, then specify a non-mud method 6.10 BID SHEETS
in the production zone. Drilling methods for test holes may
be prescribed when there are special sampling requirements.
.
In order to evaluate bidders, a well-written bid sheet
should be included in the technical specificationsand serve as
In many cases, specification writing can be greatly the basis for payment. Fixed costs should be lump sum,
simplified by making the appropriate state agency rules and variable costs should be shown as unit prices, and their
regulations a part of the specifications. Casing and liner wall extension based on the well design.
thickness may be increased to allow for accelerated corrosion
and increased weight of deeper settings in geothermal wells. Fixed costs could include:
Rules and regulations usually also include abandonment
specifications, which should always be included in case of an 1. Mobilization and demobilization of drill rig.
unacceptable well.
2. Development, if for a specific time.
147
3. Mobilization and demobilization of logging and survey standardsappear to have been based on high-temperaturewells
equipment. for electricpower productionand will be overly d c t i v e for
many direct use wells.
. Test pump furnishing, installation and removal.
Sample specificationsand bid schedules are contained in
WZhead equipment. Ground Water and Wells 1987. These were writtenwith large
industrial or municipal wells in mind and contain items such
6. Site preparation and restoration. as screens, filter packs and disinfection that may not be
required, and do not include items such as disposal of cuttings
7. Standby time (as directed by the engineer or owner). and test pump fluid that may be required by some states.
Standby, start-up and non-chargeable time should be The Engineers Manual for Water Well Design (Roscoe
specified; i.e., if a normal workday is 8:00 a.m. to 500 p.m. Moss Co., 1985) contains separate guidelines specifications
and the engineer stops the rig at 3:00 p.m. and resumesagain and bid proposals for cable tool, direct rotary and reverse
at 1000 a.m. the next day, only 4 hours standby are allowed. circulationdrilling and completion. Again, these are for cold
water wells.
Variable costs include:
1. -
Drilling each diameter a separate item LF. 6.11 WELLCOSTS
2. Furnish and install casing - each diameter It is virtually impossible to provide accurate universal
- separate item including cementing as required LE guidelines for estimating well drilling and completion costs
because of too many variables in geology, well design,
3. Logs and hole surveys L.F. location, drilling regulations, etc. In general, drilling costs
depend on depth, diameter, and difficulty.
4. Gravel pack feed pipe LF.
Depending on the locality, there seems to be a cost in-
5. Gravel pack LF. crease for drilling beyond 500 to 600 ft. Beyond that depth,
a 10 to 15% increase can be expected for each additional 200
6. More or less developing time hour t o 2 5 O f t . Arigthatmdrillto -5OOft~anberentedfor-
$15O/h,one to go to 2,000 ft for $200lhincluding a crew and
7. More or less pumping time hour fuel (late 1987 costs).
8. Abandonment LF. The formation to be drilled has a large affect on drilling

costs. Obviously, soft formations can be drilled easier than
Unless the owner or engineer is familiar with all possible hard formations; but, there are also other factors, such as lost
bidders, bidders should be required to submit their qualifica- circulation, caving problems, etc., which are estimated by the
tions, similar work performed with names and addresses of driller and included in his bid. Recent (1987)bid costs, for
contacts for references, complete equipment submittals, drilling only, ranged from $1.00/in. of diameter per ft of
licenses, bonds, etc. If the well is of significant cost or depth for g.& formations and $2.50/in./ft for hard drilling in
complexity and drilling muds will be used, it is common to Klamath Falls, Oregon, to an average of $5.00/in./ft near
require a proposed mud program and to have a qualified mud Meport in Northern California.
expert (usually an employee of a materials' manufacturer)on-
site or available on short notice. -
The drilling costs typically represent 40to 60% of the
total completed cost, depending on the casing program, mud
The ~mericanwater w k s Association standards for costs, cement, and cementing aids (i.e., cementing shoes and
Wells (AWWA 100-84) sets standards for municipal wells, centralizers), wellhead, etc. Depending on local custom or bid
'
many of which will be applicable. sheet design or both, wen drill bits may be excluded from the
cost/ft bid price and included as separate items.
The Manual of Water Well Construction Practices (EPA
1975)contains a matrix diagram listing items to be considered Detailed cost information is difficult to gather and, wen
in well specifications. Included in the list of well uses are then, usually little is provided concerning the formations
heating, cooling and geothermal water. The heating and cool- drilled, problems encountered, etc. Overall costs for 20 wells
ing standards appear to have been based on heat pump and drilled to <600 ft during the last 3 years ranged from $3.00
very low-temperature wells and may not contain some desir- to $6.03/in. of pump housing casing diameter per ft of total
able items, or be overly permissive; while the geothermal depth. Based on this, a 12 in., 600 ft well would cost
148
between $26,350 and $43,400. 'These 20 wells included wells GLOSSARY
drilled in California, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon and Utah.
Wells in the 1,600 to 2,000 ft range cost $4.25 to $8.%/in./ Anchor String - The string of casing to which the BOPE
ft. There seems to have been very little increase in the cost of . stackisflanged.
drilling direct use wells during the past 3 years (1985 to
1987). This is more of a general feeling than a demonstrable AMUIZU F'reventer (bag preventer) - A device that can seal
fact, because each well is different, but drilling cost/in./ft, around almost any object in the wellbore or upon itself.
casing and rig time have held stable or increased very little Compression of a reinforced elastomer packing element
since 1987. by hydraulic pressure effects the seal.
If directional drilling is required, say to get around tools Banjo BOX - A thick-Walled drilling spool used when drilling
stuck in a hole, it may be necessary to set a cement plug with with air. The spool routes returning air and drill
a whipstock, then rent the servicesand equipment to direction- cuttings to a blooie line.
ally drill around the obstruction. If a cement service company
is hired to set the plug and whipstock, and the well site is Bell Nipple (flow nipple, mud riser) - A piece of pipe with an
some distance from their nearest facility, the job can be inside diameter equal to, or greater than, the blowout
expected to cost $3,000 to $5,000, depending on the distance; preventer bore. It is connected to the top of the blowout
if the drill can set the plug, the cost might be about half. preventer or marine riser. A side outlet directs the mud
returns to the shale shaker or pit. It usually has a
Table 6.10 lists approximate costs to drill around the second side outlet for a fill-up line CoMecfiOll.
obstruction.
Blind Rams (blank, CSO, complete shutoff, master) Rams-
that are not intended to seal against any drill pipe or
Table 6.10 Approximate Costs To casing. They seal against each other to effectively close
Drill Around An ObsEruction the hole.
Blind-Shear Rams - Blind ramswith a built-in cutting edge

Item Cost ($1 that will shear pipe in the hole, allowing the blind rams
to seal the hole. Used primarily in subsea systems.
Directional drilling supervisor $ 580ld +
mileage Blooie Line - A large diameter pipe that routs returning air
and drill cuttings to a separator and muffler. The line
Bent subs 400 may be equipped with high-pressure nozzles that both
. spray water to settle dust, and spray sodium hydroxide
Drill motor (10 h minimum) 2,400 + and hydrogen peroxide to eliminate hydrogen sulfide
freight Odors.
/
Additional operating h 240h -
Blowout An uncontrolled flow of well fluids and f m t i o n
fluids, or both, fwm the wellbore to the surface, or into
Standby time 70/h lower pressured subsurface zones (underground
blowout).
Bridge Plug - A device to close off or bridge an Opening such

The job could probably be done in 1 day plus 1 day of as the bore hole or casing.
travel time. The total estimated cost would be between $4,000
and $5,000. Casing Shoe - A heavy-walled steel coupling or band attached
to the lower end of the casing. There axe several types
The rig will be used to set the plug and run the direc- for specific applications. A drive shoe is heavy
tional drill, and will be on standby waiting on services and for hardened steel, usually designed to shave off the inner
cement to set. It will also have been used and be on standby edges of the bore hole during drill and drive operations.
several days for fishing attempts. At $200/h, the estimated rig A guide shoe is slightly tapered to guide casing down
cost could range between $12,000 and $15,000; possibly the bore hole and protects the end of the casing.
more.
I
Considering the additional cost of the lost tools, fishing
tools, and other services, it can be seen why directional
drilling is seldom used in direct use wells, and stuck tools are
to be avoided.
149
Cement Basket - A device attached to the outside of Casing Packer - Adevicetoclose offanannular opening suchas
designed to contact the bore wall to catch and hold between casing and bore hole or umcentric Casings.
cement at that point. Usually, a series of flexible steel
staves with a fleGble liner. Flexibility allows fluid in -
Packoff or Stripper A device with an ehtomer packing
the hole to pass in the upward direction, while setting element that depends on pressure below the packing to
casing, circulating, or cementing, but prevents flow effect a tight seal in the BMUIUS. Used primarily to nm
downward, thereby, supporting thecementcolumn above or pull pipe under low or moderate pressures. Cannot
it. be depended upon under high diffkrential pressures.
Draw Works - The hoisting equipment consisting of power Pip - Drill String.
source, cable drums, brakes, controls, etc., used to
generate the liftiag capability of a drill rig. -
PipeRams Ramswithfaces umtouredtosealaroundpipe
to close the annular space. Unless special rams
Fill-Up Line - A line, usually connected into the bell nipple accommodating various pipe sizes are used, separate
above the blowout preventers, which allows the addition rams are necessary for each pipe size in use.
of mud to the hole while pulling out of the hole, in
order to compensate for the displacement of the drill R~tatingHead- A rotating, PA * g device used
string. when drilling with air, gas, foam, or any other drilling
fluid with hydrostatic pressare less than the formation
Fish - Any object lost in a bore hole. PreSSUre.
Fisking - The act of attempting to remove a fish. Spot - To selectively place material at some location in the
bore. Usually used as in pumping lost circulation
Flow Line - A line connecting the wellbore to the hole fluid materials, cement, etc., through a pipe with the end or
storage or processing area. openings at the desired level. Hydrostatic pressure
forces the material into the formation.
Internal&venter - A device, which acts as a check valve,
that can be installed in the drill string. It allows fluid to Spudding - To move up and down. Derived from the spud-
be circulated down the drill string but prevents back ding arm of a cable-tool drill rig that imparts the up and
flow. down mtion to the cable-tool drill bit.
Kelly Cock, Lower - A full opening valve installed immedi- Sub - A short piece of pipe, usually drill pipe, with p i a l
ately below the kelly, with outside diameter equal to the ends for attaching various tools or bits.
tool joint outside diameter. canbe closed to remove the
kelly under pressure, and can be stripped into the hole Test Joint (testing sub) - A pipe joint or sub designed for use
for snubbing operations. in conjunction with a test plug to simulate pipe in the
hole when pressure testing the pipe rams or annular
Kelly Cock, Upper - A valve immediately above the kelly preventer.
that can be shut to umfiue pressures inside the drill
string. -
Test Plug (boll weevil plug) A tool designed to seal the well
bore immediately h e a t h the BOP stack, which allows
Kick - The intrusion of formation liquids or gas that results in high pressure testing of the stack and auxiliary
an increase in pit volume. Without corrective measures, equipment without the risk of pressure damage to the
this can result in a blowout. casing or to exposed formations.
Kill Lhe - A high pressure line b e e n the pumps and zone Tool Pusher - Foreman in charge of the drilling rig.
point below a blowout preventer that allows fluids to be
pumped into the well or annulus when the preventer is Trip - Movement of drilling tools and equipment into or out
closed. of the hole or both, round trip, trip in, trip out.
Open Hole - Bore hole without casing or other support or Under-Ream - Enlarging or reaming theholeto agreater
protection. diameter below some obstruction, formation or casing.
special tools that can be rotated on eccentrics or
otherwise enlarge are used.
150
REFERENCES Lead. F. M., The Chemistrv of Cement and concrete, 3rd
edition. Chemical Publishing Company, New York,
Armstead, H. C. H., "GeothermalEnergy", Secondedition, NY, 1971.
E. & F . N. Spon. Ltd., London, England, 1978.
Milestone, N. B., et al., Carbonation of GeothermalGrouts,
Biczok, I., Concrete Corrosion -
Concreb Protection, Parts I. II & III, submitted to Cement and concrete
eemical Publishing Company, Inc., New York: pp. Research Journal, work performed under USDOE
281-300, 1967. Contract DE-AC02-76CH00016, undated.
Bruckdorder, R., "Carbon Dioxide Corrosion Resistance in Milestone, N. B., et al., "Effects of Carbon Dioxide Attack
Cements", CIM 85-36-31, presented at 36th Annual on Geothermal Cement and Grouts", Geothermal
Tech. Meeting of Petroleum Societv of CIM, Edmonton, Resources Council Transactions, 10, September 1986.
Canada, June 1985.
Nelson, E. B., et al., "Development of Geothermal Well
campbell, M. 0. and Lehr, J. H., Water Well Technologv, Completion Systems", Geothermal Resources Council
New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1973. Transactions, Vol. 3, 1976.
Cherry, R. C., Vice President of Engineering, Layne & Onan, D. D., "Effects of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide on
Bowler. Personal communication, June 1987. Well Cements", Societv of Professional Engineers P a m
12593, presented at Permian Basin Oil & Gas Recovery
childs, J. D., Group Supervisor, Cement Section, Halliburton Conference, Midland, TX,March 1984.
Services, Duncan, OK. Personal communication,
November 1987. Rickard, W. N., "Foam Cement for GeothermalWells", GRC
Transactions, 9 Part 1, August 1985, pp. 147-152.
Council, L. C., Director of Class V Injection Well Program,
Engineering Enterprises, Norman, OK. Personal Roscoe Moss Company, "The Engineer's Manual for Water
communication, October 28, 1987. Well Design", Roscoe Moss Company, Los Angeles,
CA, 1985.
Council, L. C. and Fryberger, J. B., "AnOverview of Class
V Injection Wells", International Symposium on Class V Shyrock, S. H. and Smith, D. K., Halliburton Services,
Injection Well Technology, Washington, D.C., "Geothermal Cementing - The State-of-theAt",
-
September 22 24, 1987. presented at Basic Geothermal Drilling and Cornletion
School, Albuquerque, NM,March 1980.
Evanoff, J., Halliburton services. Personal communication,
November 1987. Thomas, R., California Division of Oil and Gas. Personal
communication, October 1987.
Driscoll, F. G., Groundwater and Wells, Johnson Division,
second edition, second printing, St. Paul, MN, 1987. U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Ground
Water Manual, U. S. Government Printing Office,
Gallus, 3. P., et al., "Performance of Oil-Well Cementing Denver, CO, 1981.
Compositions in Geothermal Wells." 53rd Annual Fall
Technical Conference. Societv of Petroleum Endneers, "Water Well Specifications", Committee on Water Well
-
Houston,TX,October 1 3, 1978. Standards; National Water Well Association, Premier
Press, Berkeley, CA, 1981.
Halliburton Services, "Technical Information 0 n G e o t h e d
Cementing" notebook, Duncan, OK, Undated.
151
i
.
CHAPTER 7
WELL TESTING AND
RESERVOIR EVALUATION
By Susan G. Stiger and J. L. Remer
(Sections7.1 through 7.7)
EG&G Idaho, Inc.
and
Gene Culver (Section 7.8)
I OIT Geo-Heat Center
7.1 INTRODUCTION The amount ofwell testing and reservoir engineering that
is reasonable for an individual project is a subjective factor.
This chapter presents a summary of the well testing and There are no hard and fast rules, with the exception that the
reservoir engineering techniquesused to estimate the produc- more information available the more reliable will be the
tion potential of a geothermal system. The basic theory analyses and predictions. A guiding factor should be the
behind geothermal reservoir engineering and the influence of financial risk, evaluated against the magnitude of the
simplifying assumptions required to enable solutions to the development compared to the size of the resource. The
basic flow equations are discussed. A summary of well testing following sections present a summary of COIlSiderafioIlS that
methods and data acquisition considerations for geothermal can be used as a g e n d guide in determining how much
systems is also included. testing and analysis to do and to what degreeof sophistication.
Because this chapter provides general information and each
The techniques that are ed here have been application is unique, it is essential that qualified persons be
developed from both groundwater and petroleum engineering utilized to help assure proper approaches and performance.
disciplines. In recent years, the field of geothermal reservoir
engineering has emerged as a separatedisciplinethat addresses It should also be noted that, to be effective, 'reservoir
those factors unique to geothermal systems. Low-temperature analyses canuot be performed in a vacuum, but require careful
g e o t h e d reservoirs more nearly approximate a groundwater integration and correlation of geologic, geochemical,
aquifer than do higher temperature reservoirs and it is geophysical, and drilling data. As advanced as geothermal
tempting to simply apply groundwater methods to analyze reservoir engineering has become, it is not an exact science
them. This approach can 1ead.to significant errors in the and the solutions obtainedare generally not unique. However,
analyses. The following sections highlight those featares of the reservoir information developed is a critical factor in
geothermal reseNoizs that should be considered during any achieving a financially and technically viable resource
evaluation of a geothermal system. development.
Well testing and reservoir analyses provide information

that is necessary to assess a project's technical and ecoflomic 7.5 RESERVOIR ENGINEERING THEORY
feasibility. Individual well characteristics, and fluid and
reservoir properties can be determined, and provide a basis for . To understand the application of reservoir engineering
a reservoir model that can be used to predict the performance techniques, it is important to understand the theoretical basis
of a reservoir under exploitation and to optimize resource for these techniques. There are a number of references that
developmentand profitability. An evaluation of reservoir data discuss this theory and the development of the governing
can also be used to determine the relationship between one equations in detail (see References). Presented here is an
well and other wells that tap the same system. This can be an overview of reservoir theory and the assumptions that must be
impOaaat consideration for direct use developments where satisfied for any analysis to be valid.
more than one developer is involved and questions of resource
ownership and rights are issues.
153
The analytical techniques that form the basis.for from the porous medium, there is a local decrease in pressure,
g e o t h d reservoir engineering have been developed from or drawdown. The magnitude of this drawdown at any point
solutions of the partial differential equations that descrii the in the aquifer and at anytime is a function of the physical
flow of fluids through porous media. The basic equations properties of the qservoir. Observing the drawdown that
evolve ffom the equations of state, conservation of mass,and results from flow under controlled umditions enables us to
Darcy's Law (Mafthews and Russell, 1%7). estimate those physical propexties and to predict what will
happen under different production scenarios. As will be
In a series of tests of flow through sand, Darcy observed explained in more detail in Subsection 7.5, drawdown m a
that the volumetric flow of fluid through porous media is pumped well or surface pressure in an artesian well are
proportional to the hydraulic gradient in the direction of the affected by fluid temperatures in the wellbure. Because of
flow, or: this, drawdown obtakied by measuring pressure at aquifer
depth in the well is more representative of actual reservoir
q - K i A - K LN A conditions, and is used in most equations.
*
where
q = volumetric flow
K = hydraulic conductivity
i - EL - hydraulic gradient
A = flow area.
This relationship is valid for laminar (not turbulent) flow

through a porous media whose physical properties (e.g.,
porosity, permeability, etc.) are uniform throughout.
The proportionalityconstant in Darcy's relationship is the Figure 7.1 Idealized cross-sections of producing well and
hvdraulic conductivitv, K, which expresses the ease with aquifer drawdown.
which a fluid is transported through a porous medium.
Hydraulic conductivity is related to the properties of both the
p u s medium and the fluid flowiug through it. In Using Darcy's Law as the basis, a number of derivations
groundwater hydraulics, the properties of liquid water at have made that relate drawdown to withdrawal from an
standard conditions can be assumed with little error. The aquifer under specific conditions. The pressure in a well
properties of water can change significantlywith temperature; under flowing conditions, p,,, can be expressed as:
thus, for geothermal systems, it is more appropriate to use
permeability, k, which is a property of the porous medium
alone. The hydraulic conductivity and permeability are related
using: where
K - k po = static and po - p,, = d r a ~ d ~ w n

CI q = volumetricproductionrate
where r$ = porosityoftheaquifer
h = thiclcnessoftheaquifer
p = fluiddensity c = compressibility
p = dynamic viscosity r,, = radius of the wellbore
g = gravitational umstant t = timesinceproductionbegan.
k = permeability.
The derivation of this equation assumes that the flow
Informationon the variationof fluid density and viscoSity toward the well is radial in a horizontal, homogeneous aquifer
with tempera- is readily available (for example, see Crane, of uniform thickness (Matthews and Russell, 1967).
1981).
Monitoring the change in ptessure m a well during
Figure 7.1 is an idealized cross-section of a well controlled production from the well can enable determination
petrating an aquifer. Fluid flows toward the well if th'ere is of two groups of physical parameters for the reservoir using
a hydraulic gradient in that direction. As fluid is withdrawn theabove relationship. Onegroup, kh, isthe permeability
154
thickness, or transmissivity in groundwater terms. The other Because data collected during well tests can usually be
group, &h, storativity, which is a measure of the aquifer’s interpreted in several different ways, it is important that as
ability to store fluid is obtained from the last set of terms in many cunstraints as possible be placed on these data by a
the above equation and is written: welldeveloped geologic model. In particular, geologic data
may be useful in determining boundaries placed on the system
because of structure (faults and folded rock) and changes in
rock type (e.g. permeable sandstone, impermeable shales, or
carbonate rocks where fractures often umtml permeability).
These two parameters, storativity and permeability- Geologists and engineers have developed many ways to
thickness, provide the principle measures of a reservoir’s transfer the three-dimensional geologic data to the two-
ability to produce fluids. dimensionallimitations of reports. Block diagrams,similar to
those in Figures 3.11 and 3.12 of Cbapter 3, can be used to
Further refinement of the derivation of the above give a perspective view of the h e e d *m m n‘anal geology.
relationshiphas led to approximatesolutions for more complex However, the areal extent and complexity of data needed in
situations, including reservoirs with boundaries and partially most geologic models is such that various confout maps,
penetrating wells. However, the basic assumptions referred to similar to topographic maps, must be used to describe the
above are still applicable. It is difficult to imagine a real subsurface changes in rock types, temperatures, and fluid
reservoir that satisfies all of these assumptions. For this production needed to adequately model a reservoir.
reason,care should be taken in the analysis of any geothermal Temperature is commonly contoured at several depths in a
reservoir data and it should be recognized that the results only reservoir (Figure 7.2). The same data may also be used to
approximate the actual physical umditions underground. prepare two-dimensionalsections showingtemperaturerelative
to depth along a vertical section through the mewoir, or to
develop a contour map showing the depth from an established
7.3 CONCEPTUAL RESERVOIR MODELS datum such as sea level to a specified temperature in the
subsurface.
Well testing is the mechanism used to provide the data
necessary to evaluate the performance of a reservoir. The umceptual model of a reservoir is important in
However, data recovered through well testing must be establishing expected boundaries of the system and in
considered in the light of the conceptual geologic model of the particular its geometry. Such information is particularly
reservoir. In actual practice, the geologic model and the well important in reservoirs where more than one operator is
test data are used in an iterative fashion to develop a sound developing a reservoir and its volumetric extent may be quite
model from which to plan the production of a geothermal limited even though its lateral extent is great. Such systems
reservoir. are common in the Basin and Range Physiographic Province
of the Western United States and other ~ f e a swhere the
A general discussion of the ~ t u r eof geothermal g e o t h e d tesource may be closely associated with a major
resources is presented in Chapter 3. Several simple models of fault zone. In such areas a detailed geologic model may be
hydrothermal resoutce systems expected in direct use applic- necessary,coupled with extensive well testing to determrnethe
ations are also described in that chapter as well as in Sorey interaction between different zones of the reservoir. In large
(1983). The methods of collecting the geologic data needed sedimentary basins of reasonably Uniform geology, less
to develop a geologic model are described in Chapter 4. detailed geologic information may be acceptable. In general,
the amount of geologic and well test data needed to adequately
Comparing the geologic setting of the reservoir under build a conceptual model of a system is directly related to the
study to other developed geothermal r e s o m areas is useful complexityof the reservoir, the rapidity of change in resetvoir
in developing a conceptual model, particularly in the early properties in space, and the degree to which the reservoir will
stages of exploration and development. However, it is be produced relative to its maximum potential.
strongly emphasized that each reservoir must be treated as a
unique system.
7.4 WELLTESTING
A conceptual model of the reservoir is important at every
stage in the exploration for and development of a geothermal Well testing is the mechanism used to provide the data
resource. Data collected before drilling a well is used to necessary to evaluate the performance of a geothermal
properly locate the well and also to design and interpret the reservoir. Tests can range from a few hours in duration
well test. Geologic and well test data collected during the during drilling to months. As a rule, the longer the test, the
drilling of the well is used to further refine the model. more reliable theanalyses (although, of course, ashorter,
155
well-run test is better than one that is long but poorly executed Perhaps the most critical information from the drillingphase
and instnimented). Factors that can affect test duration is an indication of the depth and nature of the producing
include environmental constraints, fluid disposal consider- intervsl(s) in the well. Lost circulation zones, temperaue
ations, .eq~p&t, money, and pressu~from investors. anomalies, sudden changes in the fluid level in' the well, rapid
. .
drilling rate, and evidence of fracturing in the cuttings all can
It is difficult to physically measure the parameters provide indications of potential inflow zones (DOE,1982).
bntrolling the flow of fluids in a reservoir. It is important, Interpretationof downhole temperature surveys, in particular,
then, to design well tests to control as many variables as can help resolve some of the uncertainty regarding downhole
possible so that a reasonable assessment of the reservoir conditions. Figure 7.3 is an example of a continuous
parameters can be made. In practice, this meam that the flow tempemhe survey in which penneable zones are indicated by
rate from a well must be controlled in some manner to meet temperature reversals resulting from the invasion of cold
the requirements of the test that is being run. In addition, drilling fluids. Measuring downholetemperaturebuildup over
quality measurements of flow rate, temperature and pressure a period of time ranging from 12 to 24 h or more using a
or water level are essential. method derived by Homer (Grant, 1982) can provide an
indication of the static reservoir temperature. Downhole
7.4.1 Drilline Data temperature data are also important input to decisions
regarding the depth to set production casing, particularly in
Much of information can be obtained about a geothermal shallow geothermal systems where there may not be much
reservoir even before the first well test is run. Some of this vertical Separation between cold water inflow m e s and the
information comes from geological exploration as discussed in thermal zones.
Chapter 3, while more can be obtained during drilling.
t-
A'
e-.
C.
Figure 7.2 Example subsurface temperaturecontours at three elevations.
156
7.4.2 Rig Tests increased again. A minimum of three steps is Cansidered
necessary to obtain a reliable productivity c w e for the well
Short tests run while the drilling rig is still on the hole that relates production to drawdown in the well. The highest
are principally conducted to clean out the hole and to provide production rate should be at least equal to the end use require-
initial estimates of the well’s production potential and fluid other steps in about equal increments. This
chemistry. The test data are also important for decisions input to the mechanical design of the
regarding further drilling and completion of the well and utilization system and for specifying the requirementsforpro-
provide the basis for planning additional tests of the well duction pumps, if required. Downhole and pres-
(Campbell, 1986). Produced fluids are generally discharged sure surveys during each step should be umsidered.
to tanks or to the drilling reserve pit, depending on envirw-
mental restrictions, using equipment associated with the The ability to control the flow from the well at a constant
drilling rig. Both the capacity to dispose of the produced rate during each step is important for analyzing data from the
fluids and the cost to leave the drill rig on standby limit the test. Ideally, the fluids produced from the test well are the
length of these tests. only fluids being withdrawn from the reservoirduring the test.
This means that nearby wells that produce from or influence
7.4.3 Single-Well Production Tests the geothermal reservoir should be shut-in. If it is not
possible to shut-in adjacent wells, an attempt to stabilize and
Following completion of the well, it is common to run to measure the flow rate from those wells should be made.
a controlled flow test for a period of several days to a week.
This type of test can provide information regarding the well’s The equipment necessary to umduct such tests is
productivity and enables downhole pressure and temperature relatively simple for lower temperature wells. If the pressure
surveys to be run under stabilized conditions. Pressure or in the surface piping is maintained at a high enough level to
water level drawdown and buildup data allow initial estimates prevent flashing in fluids whose temperature is above about
of reservoir parameters (Campbell, 1986). 2WF, then single-phase flow metering equipment can be
1 used. Installing a throttlevalve downstreamof the flowmeter,
0
for example, can provide the capability to maintain the system
I I I I
I above the saturation pressure and ensure single-phase
conditiolls (Figure 7.4). The enthalpy of single-phase fluids
produced from the well can be readily determined using the
Moo-
properties of the fluids at wellhead conditions.
pump motor
2ooo- Control valva
t
i --
1 1 1
Figure 7.4 Schematic of test equipment for a pumped well

(Stiger, 1986).
Figure 7;3 Temperaturelog showingpermeable zones cooled

by invasion of cold drilling fluids. As with rig tests, the duration of the test is frequently
determined by the ability to dispose of the fluids produced
from the well. Depending on the fluid chemistry, local and
It is possible to conduct these tests as multi-rate tests in state environmental regulations may restrict disposal. Other
which the production is umtrolled at one rate until conditions factors such as noise, locating temporary piping, and the
(pressure and temperature) have stabilized, then the flow is safety of discharging thermal fluids should also be d d e r e d
increased and maintained at that level until stable, then before conducting the test, particularly in urban environments.
157
7.4.4 Long-Term Production Table 7.1 Summary of Well Test Methods
and Interfkrence Tests
Short-term, single-well tests, described above, provide RIG TEST

data principally about the well and the near-well reservoir.
Longer-term production tests-on the order of 30 d in duration Objectives: Initial flow rate data. Clean up well.
-are.generally requiredto determine key reservoir properties,
to detect boundaries or recharge sources, to evaluate the Duration: Few hours to 1 day, or until well is clean.
scaling and corrosion potential of the geothermal fluids, to
assess reservoir capacity, and to identify any factors requiring Flow r a k Determinedby well productivity and available
modification to the design of the utilizationsystem ((hmpbell, equipment. Rate controlled if possible.
1986). Data from these tests are genefally required to Usually single-fate test.
establish the economic viability of the project.
Data: Flow rate, downhole temperature and pressure
Although long-term production tests can be conducted BS and chemistry.
single-well tests, interferencetests provide the best method to
evaluate reservoirproperties. In interference tests, pressure or SHORT-TERM,SINGLE-WELL TEST
water level changes in observation wells are monitod while
producing from the test well @enson, 1986). Analysis of the Objectives: Well productivity data. Initial estimates of
observation well data is the basis for calculating average reservoir parameters. Basis for long-term
permeability-thickness and storativity in the reservoir region testing.
b e e n the test well and the observation wells. These
analyses may also identify heterogeneities in the reservoir Duration: Minimum of 3 to 7 d
parameten and boundaries that influencereservoir recharge or
flow patterns. This information is essential for any reservoir Flow rate: Rate ContToUed.. Multi-rate UP to maximum
modeling studies that are used to predict the performance of practical.
the geothermal reservoir over long periods of time or under
operating conditions that differ from those during the test Data: Flow rate, temperature and pressure ( d a c e and
(campbell, 1986). downhole), and chemistry. Drawdown and
recoVery.
The duration and the flow rate for long-term tests depend
on the well performance, the reservoir and the intended use LONG-TERM TEST
(DOE, 1982). The test should be designed so that no change
in rate is q u i d after the long-term production has been Objectives: Determine reservoir parameters. Establish
established from the well. This is particularly important f ix commercial potential of reservoir. May detect
pumped wells to ensure that the well does not drawdown boundaries. Evaluate operationalproblems (may
below the pump inlet. include or require injection).
Collectionof background data from the observationwells Duration: Normally 30 d

is an important factor in a successful interference test. This
is eqecklly true for shallow wells in lower temperature geo- Flow rate: Rate controlled. Multi-rate; majority of test
thermal teseNoits that are frequently influenced by irrigation at end use rate. (Maximum practical rate
pumping, seasonal fluctuationsin the water table, barometric, recommended for fractured reservoirs or if
and tidal effects. The latter are most commonly observed permeability type unkaown).
when monitoring water levels rather than pressure in the
observation wells (Grant, 1982). As a rule of thumb, back- Data: Background, drawdown, and recovery. Flow
ground pressure or water level monitoring of the observation rate, temperature, and pressure (surface and
wells should be conducted for a period before and after the downhole), chemistry, scale, and corrosion data.
test that is @ least as long as the duration of the test itself. Pressure in observation wells if possible.
A summary of the various pressute transient test methods

is presentedin Table 7.1. It should be noted that the infonna- a. If rate control is not possible, conduct constant head,
tion presented in this table has been generalized to a great variable discharge test for longer duration (DOE, 1982;
extent and should only be used as a guideline. The decision campbell, 1986).
to conduct a particular type of test and the design of that test
should be madeby trained personnel with experiencein testing
geothermal wells.
158
7.4.5 Iniection Tests in an undisturbed condition &d such a state may not be
achievable in a reasonable length of time if the well has been
The purpose of injection tests is the that of pro- flowing for some period of time.
duction tests, that is, to determine well performance, to locate
injection zones, and to determine reservoir parameters. It 7.4.7 Test Planning and Other Considerations
should be noted that reservoir properties determined from pro-
ducticy tests are not necesskily applicable to the same reser- The one single factor that can make the difference
voir undergoing bijection. This is principally caused by the between a successful and an unsuccessful well test is test
thermal dependenceof such parameters as fluid density, form- planning. Planning is complicated by the fact that it is
ation porosity, and fracture aperture. Detailed and careful difficult, before the test, to predict with surety how the well
injection testing, coupledwith analyticaltechniquesconsidered and the reservoir will respond during the test. A progression
experimental at this time,can yield information on fracture from short-term testing to longer-term testing provides the best
frequency, thermaldependent rock properties, and break- basis for anticipating factors that could influence the conduct
through to production wells. A number of references have of a subsequent test. Test planning should include a review of
been published in the geothermal literatureregarding injection kgdations regarding the production and disposal of fluids so
tests and data analysis techniques (for example, see Benson, that necessary permits can be obtained and restrictions in test
1984). Other considerations for injection tests include rate operations factored into the test design. A test plan &odd
measurement and rate control, fluid treatment or filtering or include a written procedure for test operation, a test profile
both, wellhead pressure limitations and the source of water to (Figure 7.9, the design and operation of test equipment,
be injected (Benson, 1986). instrumentation requirements, and should also address safety
issues related to the handling of thermal fluids.
It may be feasible (or necessary) to inject during a long-
term production test. If this is the case, careful test planning
will enable the production test to be conducted concurrently
with an injection test. Some fluid storage capacity should be
available so that the production and injection wells can be
tested individually for a period of time.
Injection tests may also be considered in cases where it

is not feasible or cost-effective to initiate production from a
well. They are commonly substituted for production tests
while the rig is still on the hole to provide some initial indi-
cation of permeable zones. As indicated previously, the reser- I
voir parameters estimated from injection data should be used * I A r l r
, o I T 10 15 a6 “sa y n
with caution when evaluating production conditions. For geo- Nnm
WI
thermal wells in particular, injectivity values rarely coincide
with productivity values for the well because of thermal Figure 7.5 Sample well test profile.
effects.
7.4.6 Recoverv Data Another factor that will contribute to the GIICC~SSof a test
is an emphasis on quality data. It is not unwmmon to see a
Data collected after a production injection well has vast amount of data collected during a well test, very little of
been shut-in are as important as the data collected during the which can be used. The now or never nature of most well
test. These data can be used to verify calculationsof reservoir tests usually provides one chance to obtain good data (Stiger,
parameters using drawdown data. Buildup analyses can also 1986).” Therefore, it is important that the data being collected
be used to verify estimates of skin effect, which is an addi- be reviewed frequently during the test. If problems are
tional change in pressure that results from changes in permea- encountered with the data, a change can be made in test
bility very near the wellbore. These tfrom p d u r e or instrumentation before the funding available for
drilling and completi~-redud of the the test has been exhausted. Experience has shown that the
f drilling mud or insufficient dot or screen area-or use of good instrumentation, calibration of instrumentation
parameter such as turbulent flow in small fractures (and recalibration during long-term tests), making redundant
near the wellbore are examples. measurements, and performing calculations using diverse
methods will improve the quality of the data collected. It is
Recovery data are also useful when evaluating a well that also important that an operationallog be maintained during the
has already been in production, especially at variable rates. test in which is recorded routine information regarding the
Pressure drawdown tests assume that the reservoir is initially operation of the test (equipment status, flow rates, valve
159
settings, pump speeds, etc‘), any information regarding to use computers to collect and reduce data. Even with
operational upsets, and any comments that will aid in the automated data acquisitionsystems, though, proper design and
interpretationof the data collected. Memories tend to be both installationof sensors,calibrationand redundantmeasurements
short and inaccurate, particularly about events that happened are required to ensure high quality data are collected.
at 3 a.m. in the middle of a test.
Pressure, temperature and .flow, in both the surface
Unless the well under consideration is artesian at the piping and downhole are the most important measurements
surf-, test planning must also consider what method will be made during a well test. The primary difference between
used to induce flow from the well. Gas lifting can be used to water well testing and g e o t h d testing is the need for
initially clean out the hole and is effective at inducing downhole pressure data. Because of thermal effects, pressure
two-phase production fromhigh-temperatureg e o t h d wells. measurementstaken at the surface or water level mamements
It is not recommended for testing because of problems with do not necessarily represent pressure changes in the reservoir.
flow measurement and control. Most wells used for direct Therefore, if at all possible, pressure measurements during the
applications do not have high enough temperature to be test should be made downhole at the depth of the reservoir or
self-flowing unless they are artesian, and require a pump to most dominant inflow zone.
sustain production. Swabbing, which is commonly used in
water wells, is not recommended for geothermalwells because Temperatureeffects are important even in lower tempera-
of the added risk when dealing with hot fluids. ture systems. As an illustration,the water level in a 60°F well
would stand 2310 ft above a lo00 psi reservoir datum. In a
Design considerationsfor a pump are important. If little well in which the downhole temperature or bottomhole tem-
information is availableregarding the productivity of thewell, perature is 250°F and the muface is W F , the water level
it is recommended that a test pump beused. The use of an
enginedriven pump during a test will enable the well to be
-
would stand 45 ft higher-because of the increased tempera-
ture of the fluids in the well. Without detailed information
operated over a wide range of discharge rates. T h e ’ h g regarding the temperature distribution with depth under
depth of the pump is a critical factor in ensuring that adequate flowing conditions, it is very difficult to relate surface
head will be maintained above the pump during the test. It is pressure or water level measutements to reservoir pressure
better to set a pump too deep for a test than to have to run the conditions. If it is not possible to obtain downhole pressure
test at too low a rate, or for too short a time (DOE,1982). measurementsduringthetest-particularly duringtransients-an
attempt should be made to run a temperahre survey at each
The duration a test is to be run depends on the test flowing condition so that density corrections can be made to
objectives, cost, and regulatory factors. In general, wellbore models. Temperatureeffects are less of a concern in
geothermal well tests should be run longer than an equivalent observation wells than in flowing wells and surface pressure
water well test to 8ccount for transients caused by thermal or water level measurements can be made in most instances
effects early in the test period (DOE,1982). As a rule of with little impact on the quality of the data.
thumb, background and recovery data should be collected for
periods of time equivalent to the length of the test itself. Downhole instrumentation can be either mechanical
devices run on a slickline, or electronic devices run on con-
The determination of the flow rate@) during the test is ductive cable. Both require special equipment and winch
also dependent upon a number of factors. Table 7.1 presents capability, which are available from a number of service
some guidelines. For reservoirs that are fractured, the test companies. As an alternative to downhole pressure gauges,
should be run at the maximum expected end-use rate because small diameter capillary tubing filled with an inert gas can be
of the lower reliability of standard extrapolation techniques used. The tubing is run into the well and is connected to a
when applied to hctured systems (DOE,1982). It should pressure transducer at the surface (Goransan, 1986). In some
also be noted that flowing at a high rate for a short perid of cases, a small amount of inert gas flow is maintained in the
time is not necessarily equivalent, from a reservoir engineering tube, thus the name “bubbler”(Stiger, 1986).
stand-point, to flowing at a lower rate for a longer period of
time. It is also important to recognize that thereare somerisks
associated with running downhole instrumentation, related to
loss of the tools andor damage to &&ell. These risks are
7.5 DATA ACQUISITION AND INST’RUMENTATION generally lower for surveys than for equipmentleft in the well
for any length of timeand are lower in cased wells that do not
As with testing, the amount of data to be collected and encounter severe corrosion or scaling, high velocity flows in
the degree of sophisticationused in data acquisition are depen- the wellbore, nor prodye a Iot of debris.
dent on the objective of the test and on cost-benefit consider-
ations. Several years ago, manual data collectionwas used for The most critical measuremenfs during a well test are
all but a few tests. The cost of automated data acquisition flow, pressure, and temperature. There are a number of ways
systems is now low enough that it is consideredcost effective tomeasure single-phase flow, including abucket and stop
160
watch, a flow orifice, downhole or surface turbine meter, or rather than an exact science and is best performed by experi-
weir box. Two-phase flow is not generally a consideration for enced personnel. This is particularly true in cases where
direct applications, but if encounteredrequires more costly and financial or legal decisions or both are being made based on
complex equipment to meter flows and to determine downhole the results of the analyses.
enthalpy accurately. Turbine meters or spinners should not be
used in wells that have not been properly cleaned out. Orifice Most analytical techniques are basedon graphic methods
meters generally provide the most accurate measurements of that take advantage of the linear relationship between the
flow. Experience has shown, though, that the Ap meter used pressure drawdown and the log of time (refer to the equation
with an orifice should be checked routinely during a test with in Section 7.2). It should be emphasized again that these
a manometer to ensure good readings. techniques result in estimates of the permeability-thickness
product and the storativity. Individual parameters such as
General rules of thumb kgarding instrumentation and permeability and porosity cannot readily be determined,
data collection are included in a presentation by Benson particularly in geothermal reservoirs.
(1986):
1. Pressure transducers with the lowest possible range will Table 7.2 Suggested Pressure Monitoring Frequency
give the best resolution and minimize thermal sensitivity.
Resolution is important, nominally 0.1 psi or 0.5% of
the drawdown, whichever is smaller. Background Data: Every 10 min
2. Flow rate should be measured to f 5%. Drawdown Data: Every 10 s for first 10 minb
3. Human error can be minimized by choosing the most Every 30 s for next 20 minb
automated system possible within practical and ecoLlomic
constraints. Every 60 s for next 30 minb
4. Careful synchronization of all clocks is important, Every 5 min for the next 22 h
particularly for interference tests.
Once every hour thereafief
5. If thermal transients in the wellbore are significant,
~ ~ r v opressure
ir measurements will provide the most RecoveryData: Use the same frequency as for
unambiguous data. Drawdown Data
Measurement frequency should be highest any time con-
ditions (flow, press~re,temperature) are changhg. Measure- a. Frequencies apply to automatic or manual data
ments as ikquent-as every 10 s are typical very early in the acquisition systems. continuous recording can be
test and may &crease to once every hour or two later in the substituted where appropriate.
test (Table 7.2). b. Early time data collection frequency will require adjust-
ment in cases where only manual data mrding can be
accomplished.
7.6 DATA INTERPRETATION c. Data should be collected more frequently mytime there
is a p h e d or unplanned change in operating
The most important rule in analyzing data from geother- conditions. (Benson,1986)
mal wells is not to let the expected answer lead the analysis
(DOE, 1982). There is uncertainty in any reservoir analysis
because of the inability to make physical measurements of
reservoir parameters in situ. The best analyses involve a
correlation of all available idormation and address the impact 7.6.1 Semi-be Analvses
of uncertainty on the results and recommenWons.
In this analytical approach, the pressure change is plotted
It is not possible, within the context of this guidebook, against the log of time. If the reservoir approximates a
to provide details about the analytical techniques used to homogeneous, isotropic system, a straight line is obtained after
interpret reservoh data from geothermal wells. A summary of the early transient data. Referring to Figure 7.6, the slope of
approaches is presented and more details can be obtained from the line can be related to the permeability-thickness product
those publications included in the references. Reservoir and the drawdown at a given time yields the storativity (Grant,
engineering, particularly for geothermal reservoirs, is 'mart 1982).
161
The Homer method (DOE, 1982; Grant, 1982) is a tech- ables that are independentof flow rate,permeability-thickness
nique developed'in the petroleum industry to analyze pressure or storativity, but do depend on reservoir geometry (Grant,
buildup data. In this technique, the difference between the 1982). A series of jme curves are generated in which dimen-
initial pressure and the pressure a k shut-in is related to the sionless pressure is plotted against dimensionless time on a
log of (t + dt)/dt in which t i s k e amount of time the well log-log scale for different geometries. Data from a well test
was produced and dt is the time since the well was shut-in. are plotted in a similar manner on another sheet of log-log
paper. Using a light table, the curves are -us and
the best fit or match between the test data and a type curve is
determined. The dimensionless pressure and tempemtwe can
then be related to permeab~ty-thicknesand to storativity.
Qo
Type curves are very similar and curve matching is
somewhat subjective; therefore, semi-log analyses are gener-
'i
ally preferable for reservoir analyses. Type curves have been
developed that account for wellbore storage and skin effects
and may be useful when these factors are significant.
6m
0.1 1
I
-1 I
10
7.6.3 Remvoir Simulators
Once basic reservoir paramem have been determined

from well test data, it is possible to incorporate this informa-
tion into any of a number of numerical simulators that can
provide information regarding the behavior of the reservoir
Figure 7.6 Example semi-log plot of pressure drawdown data over long periods of time or under different operating umdi-
(Earlougher, 1977). tions. Thus, the results can be used as input to decisions
regarding further development of the wellfield. Sirnulatots
can also be used to understand the sensitivity of reservoir
Boundaries and other inhomogeneities in a are calculations to the uncertainty in the umceptual model of the
generally manifested in a deviation from the linear trend in a teservoir.
semi-log analysis. Techniques have been developed to eval-
uate some of these factors, at least in a qualitative sense. Because simulation techniques are powerful, it is easy to
assume that the simulator accurately represents the reservoir
7.6.2 TviK Curves and to forget that the quality of the output directly reflects the
quality of the input, including simplifying assumptions neces-
Another graphical technique developed for the petroleum sary to peiform the calculations. Analyses of test data provide
and water well industries can be used to analyze geothermal good indications of reservoir parameters, particularly in the
reservoir performance. In this method, the variables in the near-well or inter-well regions. It is common, though, to
general flow equation are converted into dimensionlessvari- calculate different values for these parameters for different
tests and for different wells in the same test. A factor of four
differencein values of permeability-thicknessdeterminedfrom
an interference test is umsidered a good match, for example
(Grant, 1982). In using these parameters in a simulation and
in making adjustments to match actual reservoir behavior, care
must be taken to ensure that the iinal picture remains
meaningful (Grant, 1982).
7.7 CAVEATS
A coherent program of well testing and reservoird y s e s

is the only way to determine the properties of a geothermal
memoir and to evaluate the productive capability of that
reservoir. very powerful techniques have been developed to
support these analyses. However, it is appropriate to summar-
izexweral caveats as a reminder that geothermal reservoirs
Figure 7.7 Example type curve matching (Earloughek 1977). present unique challenges.
162
Temmrature - The significance of the& effects has been water. Also, there is greater public environmental awareness
discussed several times in this section. Failure to consider and increased government regulation. Undeniably more new
thermal effects is perhaps the single most common and projects will be required to have injection wells and some that
significant mistake made, particularly when groundwater now dispose of effluent to the surface will ultimately be
techniques are applied to geothermal reservoirs.
Fractures - Most reservoir analyses are based on the

required to inject.
-
While injection may solve some problems, it certainly
assumption that reservoirs are homogeneous, while fractures creates others. It removes the effluent from the surface where
play a significant role in most geothermal reservoirs. It is one can readily trace its movement and observe its effects and
common, perhaps because it is easier, to assume a fractured places it underground where its movement and effects are
reservoir behaves as a homogeneous one (Grant, 1982). If more difficult to predict. Care must be taken that the cooled
fractures are extensive, this may be a teasonable approach. injected fluid does not unduly cool off production wells
For a shallow reservoir in which both the downflow of cold (thermal breakthrough) or pollute drinking water aquifers
water and the upflow of thermal fluids occurs along fractures, (chemical breakthrough).
it will be difficult to predict the long-term performance of the
reservoir using standard homogeneous techniques. Injection usually at least doubles the well costs for a
project and may increase the hydrogeology costs because
Interference - It is difficult to analyze a reservoir based on the ideally it requires a better understanding of the reservoir. It
performance of a given well when other wells are producing may require a d d i t i d piping, acquisition of land on which to
from the same reservoir. In liquiddomiuated systems, site an injection well, rights of way for piping, costs for
pressure transients are transmitted rapidly through the injection pumps, pumping, etc. Considering that there are
reservoir and pressure communication can be observed over about 1030 direct use applications, excluding heat pumps, in
distances of miles. It is important, particularly in reservoirs the U.S. and only 23 currently utilize injection wells, we have
tapped by a number of developers, to consider the influence of little direct experience to go on. There is, however,
other wells in the system-both in reservoir engineering and in considerableexperiencein high-temperature systems, oil fields
production and injection operations. and industrial injection wells that may be applicable.
Comlexity - Geothermal reservoirs are complex and caution There is no accurate compilation of the numbers of direct
should be taken in extrapolating from one rock sample or one use production and injectionwells drilled to make comparkms
well to the reservoir as a whole. In addition, available of success ratios. In recent years, at least four injection wells
analytical methods are based on a number of simplifying have been abandoned because of lack of acceptance of fluids,
assuIIIptions. Care should be taken in relating analytical at least two others accept less than the required amount of
results to the real world. fluids and pressure is building up in another. For the known
injection wells, the success ratio is not good.
7.8 DIRECT USE INJECTION WELLS There are at least six reasons often cited for injection.
- These are:
7.8.1 Jntroduction
1.To prevent subsidence
Early geothermaldirect use developmentsutilized natural 2.Conservation of water or heat or both
or improved hot springs. In some cases, the discharge 3.To maintain aquifer level or pressure
released some undesirable, or in 8 few cases,constituents that 4.Heat and effluent disposal
are now considered hazardous, to the surface--usUally into 5.Required by law or statute
streams. Even so, one could reasonably argue that injection 6. Thermal storage.
would not be required because the springs flowed to the sur-
face anyway and only some heat was removed before releasing Numbers 1 though 4 are actually objectives. Prag-
the same flow at some slightly removed location. As further matically number 5 is the real reason in most cases because
develop-ment proceeded, wells were drilled nearby to obtain developers would rather not incur the additional costs.
more hot water. Continued development and pumping some-
times caused the springs to dry up; but, the pumped water was Thermal storage is a special case where heat pumps on
basically the same and disposal was still to the surhce. cooling cycles reject heat that is injected and later withdrawn,
or waste or cheap heat is stored underground for later use.
Today in a few places development has increased flow Aside from noting that one wants an aquifer with small
rates to several orders of magnitude more than the original hydraulic gradient, therefore little water movement so the
springs flowed and wells are drilled considerable distances warm water will still be there when n d e d , this specificappli-
from the original springs. Obviously, there is greater cation will not be considered further. This type of injection
potential for chemical and/or thermal pollution of surface is covered in references such as Driscoll(l986) and others.
163
Subsidence is a consideration when very large volumes ture of precipitation. In all cases,two theories have evolved
of water are removed from sands and other iucompetent for- with no solid evidence to support either. First, recharge is at
mations. It is a consideration in the Imperial Valley where considerably higher elevations and usually at least a few tens
power generation projects remove large volumes and subsi- of miles away or secondly, the water could be at least 10,OOO
dence would cause extensive damage to irrigation canal year old when climates were much cooler. The implication is
systems. Few, if any, direct use projects will require such that in either case attempts to recharge the reservoir at its
large amounts of fluids and so far most existing projects are ultimate source or recvcling water is almost certainly
located in areas with more competent rocks not subject to impossible.
Subsidencecould however, become a problem if
or large numbers of small uses, utilize muface
poorly consolidated formations.
In order to properly site an injection well, one should

know a great deal about the reservoir. Unfortunately, in most
cases precious Iittle is known. Indeed few if any direct use
resources are well understood and although there arebimilari-
ties between resources, there are also impostant differences.
7.8.2 Reservoir Model
Probably the most significant type of direct use reservoir

is the fault controlled hydrothermal convection with lateral
leak-age as illustrated in Figure 7.8.
Of the 1324 low temperatureresources identifiedby Reed

(1983), 1282 were hydrothermal convection. Althoughnot all
of these are lateral leakage type, lateral leakage is the most Figure 7.8 Fault colltroued hydrothermal convection system
predominant currently exploited because it provides a shallow with lateral leakage.
reservoir.
This is the type of system believed to exist at Boise, ED; At least two of the rather highly developed systems,
Klamath Falls, OR; the Moana Area of Reno; San Bernardino Klamath Falls, OR and Boise, ID are apparently showing signs
and Calistoga, CA, and others. Typically these resources are of over utilization-pumping to surface discharge is exceeding
small with aerial extents of less than one to several square natural recharge and water levels are falling. Because recharge
miles and in order to be economical for direct use probably and recycling are at least uneconomical, if not impossible,
less than 2500 ft deep. injection to maintain water levels appears to be the means to
extend the useful life of the IW~NOUand perhaps increase
Figure 7.8 is a very simplified model used primarily to utilization. It is unlikely that moderate over pumping causes
classify resources as stated in Chapter 3. As noted earlier in any irreversible effects; but, lower water levels may permit
this chapter and in Chapter 3, real life re~~urces are not as cool surface water to enter the reservoir. cessation or
simple as these models. Indeed such an idealized rese~oir restriction of pumping would permit water levels to rise.
probably does not actualy exist, certainly none are currently
known. The model implies a nearly uniform layer of perme- In the lateral leakage type system, geothermal water
able strata that is the reservoir. Real reservoirs may have moves upward though the fault zone-which may be a brecci-
subparallel faults and relatively upthrown and downthrown ated zone a few feet to several tens of feet or more wide.
blocks. Faults between blocks may or may not be permeable Although there may be some flow up the fault for a Consider-
resulting in an area not connected to the tesource and that will able linear distance, in many cases there are preferential
neither produce or accept fluids, or may have substantially conduits where much of the water rises. This may be at
differenttemperatureand chemistrybecause of comectionwith places where there are intersections with other faults or at
a different aquifer. contacts with different lithologic units.
Note in Figure 7.8 that there are no arrows indicating At some depth the flow up the fault reaches a permeable
recharge. This is to reinforce the idea that recharge areas are zone where it moves down the hydraulic gradient spreading
largely unknown an& beyond any control of developrs. and cooling. This is the shallow reservoir. The reservoir may
Recharge theories have been developed for several high tem- exist in interbedded pumice and weathered basalt flows as at
perature and direct use geothermal systems. The theories are Klamath Falls, basaltlagglomerate interf’ as at Susanville,
based on using tritium and carbon-14 age dating and oxygen- interfingered sands and gravels of ancient water channels as at
18 and deuterium contents to estimate elevation and tempera- Calistoga and San Bernardino, or sands and altered clays as at
164
Moana. At least in all the better hown reservoirs, there are Figure 7.10 shows a classic example of temperature
considerable variations in the hydraulic characteristics as the r e v e d along with the lithologic log of a well in Klamath
permeable zones change in lithology, dip, or thickness. Falls, OR. In this case, it appears that the well bottom is very
close to another lost circulation zone that probably would pro-
Figure 7.8 shows the fault along one side of a horst and duce water at about the same temperature as encountered at
graben structure as might be found in the Basin and Range 200 ft although it may be slightly cooler. Note that the lower
Province. In this case, the flow would be down hydraulic
gradient away from the uplifted block. In other cases, the
-
temperatureprofile rollover appears to be at 5°F lower tem-
perature. In this well, the strata below the lost circulation
fault may be along the axis of a valley. Flows could be away zone has very low productivity (and injectivity).
from the fault in opposite directions more or less perpen-
dicular to it, or they could follow the somewhat meandering The well was originally cased to 360 ft and during the
more permeable zones of ancient stream channels. Figure 7.9 first pump test the well produced 60 gallmin of 190°F water
shows a schematic diagram of such a system believed to with a drawdown of 170 ft. After perforating at 195 to 240
represent the resource of Calistoga. Temperature reversals ft, the well produced 720 gallmin of 212°F water With a
were noted in Wells 6 and 9, which penetrate below the drawdown of 7.2 ft.
permeable lateral flow m e . The shallow reservoir exists in
alluvial sediments and dacitic sooriaceous ash flows that Similar temperature reversals in impermeable strata have
apparently have been cut by ancient stream flows. been noted in the shallow resources at Calistoga and San
Bernardino and in exploration holes for power production
0 9
0 PI throughout the Basin and Range Province.
0 3 1wo z2J
*E f
3000R
Most injection regulations require that effluent be
ow
injected either below the producing zone or into an aquifer of
similar or poorer quality. If water CoIlSeryBtion or subsidence
is a concern, they will require injection into the production
m e . When dealing with a situation similar to that above, it
can be seen that injection will be into the producing m e
where water quality is similar. Above the zone, permeability
will be low or water quality better or both. Below the shallow
reservoir permeability will be low (else it would also be a part
of the reservoir) requiring pressure injection and its related
costs, or longer injection intervals (deeper or more wells).
'
In many direct use reservoirs, chemical and isotopic
geothermometers indicate temperatures higher than those
actually encountered in the shallow reservoir. This implies a
Figure 7.9 Schematic diagram of the fault-charged zone of mixing with cooler water at some depth below the
hydrothermal system at Calistoga (Youngs, shallow resewoir. That may be the reason for the slightly
1980). lower, deeper temperature rollover appearing in the Klamath
Falls well-or it may be that it is another permeable, but
cooler leakage zone with still cooler zones below. If a mixing
It is important to remember that in a shallow lateral m e exists, injection some distance from the fault could
leakage reservoir the permeable strata along which leakage actually increase temperature at the shallow m e because
occurs is heated by the water flowing though it rather than by injected, but still fairly hot, water would displace cooler
conduction or convection h m below. This permeable strata incoming water. Although the incoming water would be of
and the water it contains are cooled by conduction to less better quality, it is destined to become part of the shallow
permeable rocks both above and below. Thus, at distances reservoir. Actually proving the direction of cool flow is .
further from the fault, the resourceis progressively cooler and toward the fault would be a difficult and expensive task. So
there will be temperature reversals where the permeable strata far as is known, the hypothesized mixing zones have never
is completely penetrated. If the resource is not confined by an been encountered in any direct use well. It is probably not a
impermeable cap rock or clays, there may be mixing with cold good injection target becauseits depth and optimal temperature
meteoric water. for injection location are unknown.
165
CW-1
TEMPERATURE ( O F
.. FT. 160 170 180 190 200
0 no
I
0
No Sample.
. Buff-brown clay.
Light q r e y clay
Brown ash vi th ;hi te tuff fragments.
Grey vitreous claystone with white tuff
_ ~ _ _
fragments.
I
100 - Uassive grey claystone.
Black basic volcanic fragments, vith grey
tuffaceous sediment and grey claystone
I
vith diatoms.
50 Grey to brovn calcitic silty claystone with
basic volcanic fragments.
200 - LOST
Dark grey basic volcanic fragments and grey
silty claystone vith diatoms.
CIRCULATION Grey calcitic silty claystone, with basic
volcanic fragments.
Grey basic volcanic fragmants with clay-
stone and rhyolite tuff fragments.
300 - Salt and pepper basic volcanic fragments.
100
Black basic volcanic fragments.
Grey volcanic silty sediment.

9
LI
Q
JJ
150 m
cc
-
0
E
Volcanic fragments and ash.
0.
W
Q Black aphanitic basic volcanic fragments.
Grey bolcanic ash-silty claystone.

Unconsolidated volcanic sediment with black
basic volcanic fragment and vitreous tuff.
200 Red scoriaceous.tuff.
Grey basic volcanic fragments.
Grey basic volcanic fragments.

i
4 t
‘4
Grey vitreous tuffaceous fragments vith
volcanic ash, silt, and basic volcanic
fragmebts.
ii Light to dark grey volcanic fragments with-
- red tuffaceous fragments.
1
900
m I * I h I
Figure 7.10 Lithologic log and temperature profile for well CW-1 (Sammel, 1984).
! 166
7.8.3 Numerical Modeling water, etc. Several numerical models and analytical methods
have been proposed to utilize tracer return data; but, to date
Injection is not likely to causeproblems with water levels none have been very su-ful at predicting times and
because it can only tend to sustain or increase levels. Even if amounts of enthalpy changes at production wells. One reason
water levels rise above ground level, the production wells can is that it is difficult to exactly define the reservoir envimnment
be sealed and more eumomical surface pumps possibly in situ. Another reason might be that workable models have
substitutedfor doynwell pumps. With data from pump andlor not been available long enough to see the effects they predict.
injection tests and expected pumping rates, computerprograms
can be used to predict water level effects. Fast paths are a phenomenon of fractured reservoitS
where only a portion of the flow is in fractures with the rest
There are several important considerations in using in the porous medium. The relative fractions in the fractures
computer programs. First, many programs are for steady-stak and porous rocks determines the overall t h e d degradation.
analysis. Most direct use developments have varying flow Thermal breakthrough can also occur in porus reservoirs if
requirements. Secondly, all production and injection in the injection and production wells are too closely spaced.
reservoir should considered because each well has some effect
on others. Some programs consider only pairs of wells or can The problem is more serious in power production where
analyze effects of or on only small numbers of wells. Also, the enthalpy change between production and injection is
because the reservoir is usually fault contn>lled, it will usually greater. Temperaturechangebetween production and injection
be anisotropichaving greater permeabilityparallel to the strike in power production may be several hundred degrees
of the faulting. Some programs consider only isotropic Fahenheit, whereas in direct use 5ooF is about the maximum
reservoirs. It is important to get pump test data from wells in in current injection systems and most are much less. Even
all directions and be able to utilize that data in the program. with similar percentages of flow in fractures and porous media
thermal degradation in direct use systems will be less.
Preferential permeability will cause greater drawdowns
and support of water levels in the direction of greater permea- The orientation of the fracture system or major
bility. It will also allow more rapid thermal breakthrough in permeability is important in thermal breakthrough. If the
those directions. Fractures or other relatively small but highly major permeability is horizontal and the system is
permeable a m s often found in geothermal ~ e s o u n ' ~permit
s homogeneous, flow will be generally radial in all directions
high fluid velocities along preferential flow paths. These away from an injection well. The volume swept by the
preferential flow paths can permit a portion of the injected injected fluid will increase approximately with the square of
water to rapidly migrate to production wells and are some- the radius and velocity will decrease at the same rate.
times called fast Daths. Numerical simulation models are However, if the production and injection wells are in a
beginning to be developed to analyze such breakthrough. vertically fractured zone the swept volume and fluid travel
time is directly proportional to the distance W e e n them.
7.8.4 Thermal Breakthrough Thus, it is important to site the injection well down hydraulic
or thermal gradlent away from the vertically fractured
Thermal breakthrough between injection and production upwelling zone and into the horizontal permeability zone.
wells is a serious concezn in electrical power generation
projects thoughout the world. This concern has filtered down Thermal breakthrough has been noted in several direct
to the direct use industry. Tracer studies have shown average use injection systems but they have not been serious-ody a
tracer migration velocities of 4 in. to 400 ft/h over distances few degrees Fahenheit. Since most direct use systems,
of up to - 0.25 mi in power production reservoirs (Pruess,
1983) and about 5 0 W in a direct use doublet in Klamath
especially for space heating, are somewhat conservatively
designed they can tolerate small changes. If temperaturesare
Falls, OR (Gudmundsson, 1984). This is several orders of marginal to begin with, a small amount of thermal
magnhde faster than tracer velocities in porous media-type breakthrough could have seriousconsequences. Breakthroughs
reservoirs and is a good indication of rapid flow along frac- have been noted between injectiodproduction pairs and
tures or fast mths. between one system's injection well and a neighboring
system's production well. A good example is the Klamath
While rapid tracer, therefore inj&d fluid, velocities are Union High School (KUHS) doublet system.
a concern they may not be of such great concern as might first
be imagined, especially in direct use applications. First, rapid In 1983, a tracer test was run at KUHS. "his doublet
tracer returns do not necessarily mean rapid thermal break- system was started in the early 1960s. The production well is
through because the injected fluid is reheated as it travels 257 ft deep, perforated for 25 ft near the bottom and pumps
though the fractures. As with any other heat transfer system,
residence time is only one of several Conttouing factors.
Other factorsare roughness of rmrfaces, Reynoldsnumbers and
-
320 gpm of 1 6 5 9 water at a constant rate from September
thiough early June. Except for 15 gpm,which is diverted
to heat a residence and is surface discharged, the flow (305
ingeothermal reservoirs, possiblemixing with new hotter gpm) is pumped through heat exchangers at the school and
167
. into the 240 ft deep injection well located 250 ft from the relatively few definitive answers. Nevertheless, some general
production well. Injection temperature varies depending on guidelines can be ‘given.
the heat load, but is typically -
152bF. There are several
other pumped wells 450 ft away in all directions having a Developers will often attempt to site injection wells on
total pumping rate about half that of the school. These wells the basis of cost or pressure support for their production well.
were also monitored for tracers. This may lead to thermal breakthrough to their, or neighbor-
ing, wells. Injection wells should be located based on reser-
Initial tracer breakthrough between the KUHS wells was voir characteristics, which usually requires the services of a
- -
noted in 2 h with the peak at 5 h. Average tracer velocity
was thus -50 ft/h. Tracer recovery, estimated from the area
qualified geologist or hydrogeologist.
under the breakthrough curve (Figure 7.11), after 5, 9, and An important considerationis the state of developmentof
110 h was 7 , l l and 54 5% respectively of total tracer injected. the resource. Injection into a highly developed reservoir such
as Moana or Klamath Falls where privately owned wells may
be separated by 100 ft or less is vastly different than injecting
in an area like San Bemardino where there are few wells that
are primarily under one ownership. Effects on nearby wells
such as adversely affecting water levels and temperatures are
important considerations in all areas, but especailly so in
highly developed areas.
Depding on the state, a well owner whose well is

adversly affected by a neighbor’s well may or may not have
certain legal recourse. In some states, a well owner may have
rights to heat from the we,! usually 8ssoci8ted with mineral
rights. In other states, the owner may have rights only to the
permitted amount of water and not necessarily the heat it
cantains.
line from injectim lh) Although there may or may not be legal implications of
cooling a neighboring well by injecting cool fluids, it is
certainly not coI1L1ucive to the proper management of a highly
Figure 7.11 Breakthrough curve in production well, KUHS developed reservoir.
doublet test (Gudmunhn, 1984).
1. In general, injection down hydraulic gradient from the
production well will tend to reduce t h e d breakthrough
Small amounts of tracer were recovered from some of the impacts on the production wells.
other wells, most from a well whose direction is parallel to the
major faults and probably is along a minor fault m e . Much 2. In highly developed areas, it may be desireableor neces-
of the tracer recovered after about 10 h was because of recir- sary to design the system so that the injection
culating tracer in the system. temperature matches the reservoir temperature at the
point of injection.
According to theory (at the time the test was run) this
system should have cooled down years ago to the point where 3. Injection and production wells along a fault or fracture
it was no longer useful for space heating-yet is still in opera- zone are likely to experience fast mth breakthrouahs.
tion. When the system is turned on in the fall, production The severity of the impact will depend on the volume of
well temperature falls 5 to 7°F within 7 to 10 days then pumping versus relative fracture and porosity perme-
remains constant though the heating season. The next fall, the abilities.
production well is back to its original temperature
(Gudmunhn, 1984). 4. If injection up hydraulic gradient is necessary it would be
desireable to inject into a different strata. If this is not
7.8.5 Iniection Guidelines possible because of reservoir conditions, cost, or
environ-mental constraints allowance for fluid
Because the shallow producing reservoir is also the likely temperature degradation may be possible through
target for injection, questionsarise of where to inject and what increased equipment capacity or additional plates in heat
effects are likely. Unfortunately, the current state-of-the-art exchangers or both to achieve closer approach
in injection technology and lack of historicalpracticeprovides lemperatures.
168
Table 7.3 Injection Wells - Status
OREGON
Klamath Union High School operating

Klamath Falls District Heating System operating
Mazama'High School, Klamath Falls operating
Mills School, Klamath Falls operating
Klamath Falls YMCA

Delarose residential (8 homes), Klamath Falls
Klamath County Jail
Oregon Institute of Technology
Oregon Trail Mushrooms, Vale
NEVADA
Sierra Geothermal, Reno operating

Dr. Tang Medical Offices,Reno (125 psi) Operating (High press.)
Virginia Lakes Townhouses, Reno operating
Warren Estates, Reno operating
Round Mountain Gold Corp.- Smoky Valley (2) 1 operating

Salem Plaza, Reno, completed Dec., 1988 will not accept fluids Not operating
Pepper Mill Casino & Hotel, Reno operating
IDAHO
Capital Mall District Heat, Boise opedg

V.A. Hospital, Boise, operating but will not accept all the fluids. Partial acceptance
CALIFORNIA
Lake County Ag Park, Kelsyville, greenhouses not yet

completed (Jan., 1989).
Susanklle District Heat System
The "Richardson"Well, will accept only about 113 the volume required.
New injection well (August 1988) failed. Not operating
NEW MEXICO
New Mexico State University (2) 1 operating

Masson Greenhouses, Radium Springs (2) 2 operating
TEXAS
Navarro College, Corsicana, would never accept enough fluids. Not Operating
UTAH
Utah Roses, Sandy, always required considerable injection Not Operating
pressure, currently have NPDS Surface Discharge Permit.
169
7.8.6 Iniection Well Status Grant, M. A.; Donaldson, I. G., and P. F. Bixley, Geother-
mal Reservoir Engineering, Academic Press, New York,
As noted in Subsection 7.8.1, there is precious little 1982.
experience with direct use injection wells. Table 7.3 lists all
the currently known wells as of early 1990. Of the 23 Gringarten, A. C.; Ramey, H. J., and R. Raghovan, "Applied
injection wells currently operating, three either will not accept Pressure Analysis for Fractured Wells", Journal of
the required amount of fluids or require higher than desireable Petroleum Technolom. 27, pp. 887-892,1975.
injection pressures. .Eight operational and one planned well
are in Klamath Falls, OR, and four operational and two Gudmundsson, J. S., Internell Tracer Testing in Klamath
planned are in Reno, NV. This means that the 17 wells are in m, "Analysis and Intexpetation of Data Obtained in
only seven resource areas, illustrating that experience is more Test of the Geothermal Aquifer at Klamath Falls, OR. in
geographically limited than the total number would indicate. Sammel, E. A., Editor, U.S. Geological Survey, Water
Resources Investigations Report 844216, 1984.
REFERENCES Hanson,J. M., "Reservoir Response to Tidal and Barometric

Effects", Geothermal Resources Council 4,pp. 337-340,
Bean, H. S., editor, "Fluid Meters, Their Theory and 1980.
Application", ASME, New York, 1971.
Mangold, D. C., Tsaug, C. F., Lippmann, M.J., and P. A.
Benson, S.M., "InterferenceTesting and Injection Testing", Witherspoon, "A Study of Thermal Effects in Well Test
Testing of Geothermal Wells, Geothermal Resources Analysis", 54th Annual Fall Technical Conference and
Council Short Course, Palm Springs, CA, 1986. Exhibitions, Las Vegas, NV, 1979.
Benson, S. M., "Analysis of Injection Tests in Liquid- Matthews, C. S. and D. G. Russell, "PressureBuildup and
Dominated Geothermal Reservoirs", LBL-17953, Flow Tests in Wells", Monograph 1, Societv of
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 1984. Petroleum Engiaeers, Dallas, TX, 1967.
Campbell, D. A., "Overview of Well Testing", test in^ of Pruss, K., and G. S. Bodvarsson, "Thermal Effects of Rein-
Geothennal Wells, Geothermal Resources Council Short jection in Geothermal Reservoirs with Major Vertical
Course, Palm Springs, CA, 1986., Fractures", Society of Petroleum Engineers 58th Annual
Technical donference, San Francisco, CA, 1983.
Craft, B. C. and M. F. Hawkins, Amlied Petroleum
Reservoir Engineering, F'rentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, Reed, M. J., Editor, "Assessment of Low-Temperature
NJ, 1959. Geothermal Resources of the United States 1982",U.S.
Geological Survey Circular 892, 1983.
C k e Company, "Flow of Fluids Througb Valves, Fittings
and Pipe", Technical Paper 410,New York, 1981. Stiger, R. R., "Long-Term Reservoir Testing, The purpoSe
and The Method", Testing of Geothermal Wells,
DOE, "Low to ModerateTemperatureHydrothermalReservoir Geothermal Resources Council Short Course, Palm
Engineering Handbook", Volume 1, IDO-10099,U.S. Springs, CA, 1986.
Department of Energy, Idaho Falls, ID, 1982.
Warren, J. E. and P. J. Root, "The Behavior of Naturally
Driscoll, F. G., "Groundwaterand Wells", Johnson Division, Fractured Reservoirs", Societv of Petroleum Engineers
St. Paul, MN. 1986. Journal, pp. 245-255,1963.
Earlougher, R. C., Jr., "Advances in Well Test Analysis", Van Golf-Racht, T. D., Fundamentalsof Fractured Reservoir
Societv of Petroleum Engineers, Monograph 5, 1977. Eneineerinq, Elsevier, NY, 1982.
Goranson, C., "DownholeHigh TemperatureInstrumentation, Youngs, L.; Bacon, C.; Chapman, R.; Higgins, C.;
Availability, Accuracy, Reliability and Calibration", Majmundar, H.,and Taylor, G., "Resource Assessment
Testing of Geothermal Wells, Geothermal Resources of Low and Moderate TemperatureGeothermal Waters in
Council Short Course, Palm Springs, CA, 1986. Calistoga, N a p County, California", OFR 81-13 SAC,
Califomia Division of Mines and Geology, 1980.
170
CHAPTER 8
MATERIALS SELECTION
GUIDELINES
By Peter F. Ellis II
Radian Corporation
Austin, Texas 78720
8.1 INTRODUCTION 1. Oxygen (generally from aeration)

2. Hydrogenion@H)
The economic direct utilization of geothermal resources 3. Chloride ion
with temperatures <220"F, requirescreation of systems with 4. Sulfidespecies
long plant life, and minimum operation and maintenancecosts. 5. Carbon dioxide species
Development of such systems requires careful corrosion 6. Ammdaspecies
engineering if the most cost effective material selections and 7. Sulfateion.
design choices are to be made. This chapter presents
guidelines for materials selection for low-temperature The principal effects of these species are rmmmatlzed
' i n
geothermal systems (120 to 220"F), as well as guidance in Table 8.1. Except as noted, the described effects are for
materials design of heat pump systems for very-low- carbon steel.
temperature geothermal resources (< 120°F).
Two of these species are not reliably detected by standard
This chapter is divided into four sections: water chemistry tests and deserve special note. Dissolved
oxygen does not naturally occur in low-temperature (120 to
1. .Key Corrosive Species 220°F) geothermal fluids that contain traces of hydrogen
2. Types of Geothermal Corrosion sulfide. However, because of slow reaction kinetics, oxygen
3. Geothermal Corrosivity Classification System from air in-leakage may persist for some minutes. l'reventing
4. Corrosion Engineering for Low-Temperature Direct oxygen contamination, once the geothermal fluid is produced,
Utilization Systems. is extremely difficult, especially if pumps other than downhole
submersible or lineshaft turbine pumps are used to move the
This chapter is based on Radian's geothermal materials geothermal fluid. Even though the fluid systems may be
database, containing materials performance data from more maintained at positive pressure, air in-leakage at the pump
than 20 low-temperature geothermal sites worldwide. Also seals is likely, particularly in light of the level of maintenance
included are results of numerous component failure in many installations.
investigations conducted by Radian's Materials Sciences
Laboratory (MSL). Much of the data are. &ummamd * inthe sulfide is ubiquitous at low parts per million
DOE report: per billion @pb) levels in geothermal fluids
above 120°F. This corrosive species also occurs naturally in
Materials Selection Guidelines for Geothermal many cooler groundwaters. For alloys such as cupronickels
Enern Utilization Systems, (Ellis, 1981) and that are strongly affected by it, hydrogen sulfide concent-
the Addendum, (Ellis, 1983). rations in the low ppb range may have a serious detrimental
effect, especially if oxygen is also present. At these levels,
Unless otherwise indicated, the information herein is the characteristic rotten egg odor of hydrogen sulfide may be
taken from this document. absent, and detection requires use of field test methods.
Hydrogen sulfide levels down to 50 ppb can be detected using
a simpIe field kit such as one prepared by CHEMetrics. Even
8.2 KEY CORROSIVE SPECIES the absence of hydrogen sulfide at this low level may not
preclude damage by this species. Field spectrophotometry,
Geothermal fluids commonly contain seven key chemical which req& a spectrometer and different kit (K9503), has
species that produce a significant corrosive effect. The key a detection limit of < 10 ppb.
species are:
171
Table 8.1 Principal Effects of the Key Corrosive Species
Principal Effects
Extremely corrosive to carbon and low alloy steels; 30 ppb’ shown to cause four-fold
increase in carbon steel corrosion rate.
Concentrations above 50 ppb cause serious pitting.
In conjunction with chloride and high temperature, < 100 ppb dissolved oxygen can
cause chloride-stress corrosion cracking (chloride-SCC) of some austenitic stainless
steels.
Hydrogen ion (pH) Primary &odic reaction of steel corrosion in air free brine is hydrogen ion reduction.
Corrosion rate decreases sharply above pH 8.
Low pH (S5) promotes sulfide stress cracking (SSC) ofhigh strength low alloy (HSLA)
steels and some other alloys coupled to steel.
Low pH may cause breakdown of passivity of stainless steels.
Acid attack on cements.
Carbon dioxide p i e s Dissolved carbon dioxide lowers pH, increaSing carbon and HSLA steel corrosion.
(dissolved carbon dioxide,
bicaronate ion, c a r b o ~ kion)
Dissolved carbon dioxide provides alternative proton reduction pathway, further
exacerbating carbon and HSLA steel corrosion.
May exacerbate SSC.
Strong link between totalalkalinity and corrosion of steel in low-temperature geothennal

wells.
Hydrogen sulfide species Potent cathodic poison, promoting SSC of HSLA steels and some other alloys coupled
(hydrogen sulfide, bisulfide ion, to steel.
sulfide ion)
Highly corrosive to alloys containing both cupronickels and monels.
Ammonia species Causes SCC of some copper-based alloys.

(ammonia, ammonium ion)
Chloride ion Strong promoter of localized corrosion of carbon, HSLA,and stainless steels as well as
of other alloys.
Chloride dependent threshold temperatureof pitting and SCC. Different for each alloy.
Little if any effect on SSC.
Steel passivates at high temperature in pH 5,6070 ppm chloride solution with carbon
dioxide. 133,500 ppm chloride destroys passivity above 300°F.
Sulfate ion Primary effect is corrosion of cements.
a. ppb - parts per billion.
172
Two other key species should also be measured in the 8.3.5 E
field pH and carbon dioxide. This is necessary because most
geothermal fluids will rapidly off-gas carbon dioxide, causing Erosionarrosion is the highly accelerated c o d o n of
a rise in pH. DOE has published a manual for complete an alloy exposed to a corrosive solution flowing faster than a
chemical analysis of geothermal well waters, giving critical velocity peculiar to that alloy. characteristcally,
recommended procedrves (Kindle and Woodruff, 1981). corrosion is mild at lower velocities.
8.3.6 Intereranutar Corrosion

8.3 TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL CORROSION
Intergranularcorrosion occurs when the grain boundaries
A number of different corrosive phenomena have been of the metallic microstructure corrode prefkrentially, causing
observed in geothermal systems. In low- and very-low- the grains to fall out. This process can occur in a d t i c
temperature g e o t h e d systems, the following are most likely stainless steels in low-temperature geothermal envhmments,
to be significant. but only if the stainless steel is defstive in heat treatment or
is improperly welded.
8.3.1 Uniform Corrosion
8.3.7 Galvanic Corrosion
Uniform corrosion is the even wastage of metal from the
component. This is the form of corrosion that is expressed as Galvanic corrosion is the uccelerated w m i o n of one
a "corrosion rate,' often mil per y& (mpy), where 1 mil = metal resulting from its electrical contact with a different
0.001 inch. Uniform corrosion is a useful measure of metal. The most common example is steel coupled to copper,
corrosion resistance &o if the other types of corrosion resulting in accelerated corrosion of the steel. Pitting can also
described below do not occur. OCCUT in well casings where nearby power lines or other
electrical systems can cause galvanic cell action.
8.3.2 Pitting
8.3.8 Dealloving
Pitting is localized corrosion forming cavities or holes in
the metal surface. The rate of pit penetration is highly Dealloying is the selective leaching of one Constituent
unpredictable, and it is not practical to design around (or element of an alloy, without change in the gross shape of the
allow for) pitting. Pitting is particularly serious in heat component. Three forms have been observed in low-
exchangers because of the thin walls and large area of the heat temperatureg e o t h e d components: dezincificationof yellow
exchangers, and because a single pinhole perforation may brass, graphitizationof cast iron (the iron is removed leaving
constitute a failure. the carbon matrix), and deplumbification (removal of lead)
from lead-tin solder.
8.3.3 Crevice Corrosion
Crevice corrosion is similar to pitting except that it occurs 8.4 GEOTHERMAL, CORROSNITY CLASSIFICATION
in geometrically contined spaces such as the crevices where SYSTEM
tube and tubesheet join, where the plate ridges of flat plate
heat exchangersoverlap, or under scale deposits. Like pitting, While developing the Materials Selection Guidelines for
the rate of crevice corrosion penetration is unpredictable, and Geothermal Enem Utilization Svstems, Radian developed a
it is not possible to design mound it. Geothermal Comivity ClassificationSystem that divided
the currently developed geothermal resources into six classes
8.3.4 Stress Corrosion Cracking fSCQ based on key corrosive species, wellhead temperahm, and
similaritiesof corrosion behavior (Ellis, 1981). Class V is for
Stress COlTOSioll cracking (SCC) is the cracking of an low-temperature geothermal resources. This classification
alloy as a result of the interaction of stress, applied or residual system does not eliminate the need for site specific evaluation
from forming and fabrication, and a specific environmental of corrosion.problems, but does allow some generalization
factor. For example, some stainless steels are cracked by about materials performance and design requirements.
chlorides under certain conditions (chloride-SSC) and some
copper alloys are attacked by traces of ammonia Subsequent information led to the division of Class V, the
(ammonia-SCC). A special case of SCC can result when class containing low-temperature geothermal resources, into
high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels are exposed under stress two subclasses, Class Va and Class Vb. This division is based
to waters containing hydrogen sulfide. This particular form on statistical evaluation of carbon steel corrosion data from 29
of SCC is commonly called sulfide stress cracking (SSC). separate tests in different tesoutces (Ellis, 1982): Tables 8.2
and 8.3 summafize the characteristicsof these two wrrosivity
system subclasses.
Table 8.2 Geothermal Resource Corrosivity Class Va
Defining Parameters
Resource type Liquiddominated

Total key species (TKS)’ Less than 5,000 ppm
a o r i d e fraction in TKS 3 to 72%
Total alkalinity 207 to 1329 ppm CaC03
pH (unflashed fluid) 6.7 to 7.6
pH (flashed fluid) Not applicable
Volume gas in stream Not applicable
Plant inlet temperature 120 to 205OF
Resource temperature same
Sites Reviewed
Madison Aquifer, SD (three sites)

Pagosa Springs, CO
Marlin, TX
Corrosion of Carbon Steel
In non-aerated produced fluid the median uniform (weight-loss)corrosion rate is 12.5 mpy, with a probable range (95 %
confidence limits) of 4.9 to 20.2 mpy.
One of nine tests showed no pitting, 0th- showed severe pitting as high as 83 mpy.
Aeration may cause a 4- to 15-fold hcrease in weight-loss corrosbn as pitting.
General Performance of Other Alloys
In non-aerated fluid, uniform corrosion of copper m heat transfer service is 1 to 10 mpy with severe crevice corrosion
under corrosion product scale. Brasses and cupronickel are less suitable than copper for heat transfer.
Type 316 stainless steel is resistant to uniform corrosion, pitting and crevice corrosion, and stress corrosion cracking
in many applications.
a. Total chloride + sulfate + carbon dioxide species + sulfate species + ammonia species in produced fluid.
8.5 CORROSION ENGINEERING FOR LOW- 8.5.1 Performance of Materials

TEMPERATURE DIRECT UTILIZATION
SYSTEMS carbon Steel
The design of the geothermal system is as critical in For many years, the Rymar Index has been used to
controlling corrosion as the selection of suitable materials. estimate the corrosivity and scaling tendenciesof potable water
Furthermore, the designhaterial selection process is supplies. However, the statistical study discussed in the
interactive in that certain design decisions force the use of G e o t h e d Corrosivity Classification Systemdiscussed above
certain materials, while selection of materials may dictate found no significantcorrelation (at the 95 96 cmfidmce level)
design. In all cases, the objective should be the me: to between carbon steel corrosion and the Ryznar Index.
produce an adequatelyreliable system with the lowest possible Therefore, the Ryznar Index, and other indices based on
lifetime cost. calcium carbonate saturation, shouldnotbe usedto predict
i74
corrosion in geothermal systems. The Ryplar Index may, Saturation with air often increases the cortosioIl rate at least
however, be predictive of calcium carbonate scaling 15-fold. Oxygen contamination at the 50 ppb level or higher
tendencies. often causes severe pitting. Chronic oxygen contamination
causes rapid failure.
Table 8.2 rmmmarizeS the expectedperformanceof carbon
steel in Class Va geothermal fluids. Under these conditions, These fluids are characteristic of those used by Icehdic
corrosion rates of <5 to 20 mpy can be expected, often with district heating systems. In those systems, steel piping has
severe pitting. been generally successful,but carbon steel shell and tube heat
exchangers have been satisfactory only in systems.where10
Table 8.3 rmmmarizes the expectedperformanceof carbon ppm excess sodium sulfite is added continuously as an oxygen
steel in Class Vb geothermal fluids. Carbon steel piping has scavenger.
given good service in a number of systems, provided the
system design rigorously excludes oxygen. However, In the case of buried steel pipe, it is critical that the
introductionof 30 ppb oxygen under turbulent flow conditions external surfaces be protected from contact with groundwater.
causes a four-fold increase in uniform corrosion. Groundwater is aerated, and has caused pipe failures by
. Table 8.3 Geothermal Resources Corrosivity Class Vb
Defining Parameters
Resource type Liquiddominated

Total key species (TKS)’ Less than 5,000 ppm
Chloride fraction in TKS 3 to 72%
Total alkarinity Less than 210 ppm CaCO,
pH (unflashed fluid) 7.8 to 9.85
pH (flashed fluid) Not applicable
Volume gas in stream Not applicable
Plant inlet t e e m 120 to 205°F
Resourcetemperature Same
Sites Reviewed in the Guidelines
Iceland (15 sites)

-
U.S.A. Klamath Falls, OR (5 wells)
Corrosion of Carbon Steel
In non-aerated produced fluid, the median uniform (weight-loss) corrosion rate is 0.12 mpy with an upper limit (95 %
umfidence) of 1.65 mpy.
Pitting: 28% no detectable pitting. Additional 40% pitted at <5 mpy. Maximum observed pitting rate was 20 mpy.
Aeration may cause a 4- to 15-fold iucrease in weight-loss corrosion with probable heavy pitting.
General Performance of Other Alloys
In non-aerated fluid, uniform corrosion of copper in heat transfer service is 1 to 10 mpy with severe crevice wrrosion
under corrosion product scale. Brasses and cupronickels are less suitable than copper for heat transfer.
Type 316 stainless steel is resistant to uniform corrosion, pitting and crevice corrosion, and stress corrosion cracking
in many applications.
a. Total chloride + sulfite + &n dioxide species + sulfide species + ammonia species in produced fluid.
175
external corrosion in at least two U.S. systems. Required leaded red bronze (SAE 67)appear viable as pump intemals.
external protection can be obtained by use of coatings or pipe- Aluminum b r o m have shown potential for corrosion in
wrap, provided the selected material will resist the system heavy-walled components, based on tests at a few Class Va
operating temperatures and thermal stresses. sites.
At temperatures above 135"F, galvanizing (zinc coating) Another problem area associated with copper equipment
will not reliably protect steel from either geothermal fluid or is solder. Lead-tinsolder (50-Pb, 50-Sn)was observed to fail
groundwater. by dealloying after a few years exposure. Silver solder
(1Ag-7P-Cu) was completely removed fromjoints in less than
Hydrogen sulfide inhibits the reaction of atomic hydrogen 2 y. Radian does not endorse the circulation of geothermal
(to form hydrogen gas) on the steel surface. Atomic hydrogen fluids through copper components. However, if the designer
is a product of the proton reduction step of the corrosion elects to accept this risk, then solders containing at least 70%
processes. The atomic hydrogen enters the steel lattice, and tin should be used.
in the case of carbon (mild) steels, accumulates as molecular
hydrogen in microvoids, causing hydrogen blistering. stainless Steels
Hydrbgen blistering can be prevented by use of void free, or
"killed" steels. Unlike copper and cupronickels, stainless steels are not
affected by traces of hydrogen sulfide. Their most likely
Low alloy steels (steels containing not more than 4% application will be as heat exchange surfaces. For ecollomic
alloying elements) have corrosion resistance similar, in most reasons, most heat exchangers will probably be of the plate-
respects, to carbon steels. As in the case of carbon steels, and-frame type. Again, for economic reasons,most plate-and-
sulfide promotes entry of atomic hydrogen into the metal frame heat exchangers will be fabricated with Type 304 or
lattice. If the steel exceeds Hardness Rockwell C22, &fide Type 316 austenitic stainless steel, because these are the two
stress cracking may occur. standard alloys. In addition, some pump and valve trim may
be fabricated from these or other stainless steels.
Comer and Comer Allovs
These alloys are subject to pitting and crevice corrosion
Copper fan coil units and copper-tubed heat exchangers above a threshold chloride level that depends upon the chrom-
have consistently poor performancebecause of the presence of ium and molybdenum content of the alloy, and upon the temp-
traces of sulfide species found in geothermalfluids in the U.S. erature of the geothermal fluid. Above this temperature, the
passivation film, which gives the stainless steel its corrosion
Copper tubing rapidly becomes fouled with cuprous resistance, is ~ p t u r e ain local areas or in crevices or both.
sulfide films more than 0.04 in. thick. Serious crevice These ~ p t u t e dareas then corrode in the form of pitting and
corrosion occurs at cracks in the film; and uniform corrosion crevice corrosion. Figure 8.1 shows the relationship between
rates of 2 to 6 mpy appear typical, based on failure analyses. temperature, chloride, and occurrence of localized corrosion
These corrosion rates were measured by coupons in low of Type 304 and Type 316. For example, this figure indicates
velocity (1 ft/s) fluid at the same or similar geothermal that localized corrosion of Type 304 may occur in 80°F
reso-. geothermal fluid if the chloride level exceeds - 210 ppm,
while Type 316 is resistant at that temperature until the
Experiencein Iceland also indicates that for heat exchange
service, copper is unsatisfactory and most brasses (Cu-Zn)and
-
chloride level reaches 510 ppm. Type 316, as shown in
Figure 8.1, is always more resistant to chlorides than is Type
bronzes (Cu-Sn)are still less suitable. Cupronickels can be 304, because of its 2 to 3% molybdenum (Mo) content. The
expected to perform more poorly than copper in low- fact that localized corrosion can occur does not predict the
temperature geothermal service because of trace sulfide. rate, but one should expect more severe attack as the chloride
temperature conditions intrude further and further into the
Much less information is available about copper and localized corrosion region. These alloys can be used in this
copper alloys in non-heat-transfer service. Copper pipe shows region, provided that oxygen is rigorously excluded, but there
corrosion behavior similar to copper heat exchiyge tubes would be a risk of rapid failure should even traces of oxygen
under umditions of moderate turbulence (Reynolds numbers iutrude.
of 40,000 to 70,000). The internals of the few yellow brass
valves analyzed by Radian showed no significant corrosion. These alloys can also fail by stress corrosion cracking
However, silicon bronze CA 875 (12-16-Cr, 3-5-Si,
<0.05-Pb, cO.05-P), an alloy normally resistant to
-
above 140°F. In practice, however, no such failures have,
to Radian's knowledge, o c c d in low-temperature (120 to
dealloying, failed by this mode in less than 3 y when used as 220°F) geothermal applications. As a precaution, heat
apumpimpeller. Leaded redbrass (CA836 or 838) and exchanger plates should be stress relieved after forming.
176
TEMPERATURE f F)
200 *BO 110 1170 110 $SO 140 130 120 110 100 BO 10 70 10 SO 40
* , I I I I I
8000
0 .
LOCALIZE0 0°
CORROSION
-
0°
0
1000 0 0 0 ° I
0°
c.
-
-
E 800
n
P
W
0
n
U
0
-I u)
I
0 100 -. PASSIVITY
W
N
W
MAINTAINED W
+ U
80 - - 0
304SS
LL
B
r' . 0
# 0 316SS
I-
U
0
I
I
2.1
I
2.0 1.0
I I
3.1 3.e
I I
3.3 3.4
I I
3.8
I
3.6
,
RECIPROCAL ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE ('K''X 1000)
Figure 8.1 Chloride required to produce localized corrosion of Type 304 and Type 316
as a function of temperature (Efrid & Moller, 1978).
Note: The lines are linear regression best-fits having correlation factors 20.98.
Other austenitic stainless steels with increased chromium Titanium

and molybdenum contents, compared to Type 316, can be
expected to be resistant to pitting, crevice corrosion, and stress This material has extremely good corrosionresistance and
cornsion cracking under virtually any conditions encountered could be used for heat exchangerplates in any low tempetature
with resources.of this fluid class, but are not routinely geothermal fluid, regardless of dissolved oxygen content.
.
available as heat exchanger plates. Great care is requiredif acid cleaning is to be performed. The
vendor's instructions must be followed. Care must be taken
Non-austenitic stainless steels are generally resistant to to avoid scratching the titanium with iron or steel tools
chloride stress corrosion cracking. But many, especially because this can cause pitting.
grades containing about 12% chromium and less than 2%
molybdenum, will probably pit severely, especially in aerated CPVC (Chlorinated Polyvinyl
environments. More highly alloyed "super ferritics" offer Chloride) and FRP (Fiber Reinforced Plastic)
considerable promise but have not been tested in these
environments. Type 444 (18Cr-2Mo) has pitting resistance These materials offer ease of fabrication and are not
similar to Type 316. SeaCure (26Cr-3Mo), Allegheny- adversely affected by oxygen intrusion. External pmtection
Ludlum 29-4 (29Cr-4Mo) and Allegheny-hdlum 29-4-2 against groundwater is not q u i d . Their mechanical
(29Cr-4Mo-2Ni) should resist any environment resulting from properties at higher tempemhues may vary greatly from
use of fluids of this class. ASTM XM27 (26Cr-1Mo) is of ambient temperature properties and care must be exercised not
intermediate resistance. All of these d o y s resist chloride to exceed the mechanical limits of the materials. The usual
I stress cornion cracking. mode of failure is creep rupture and the creep rupture strength
decays with time. Design data are available from
Aluminum manufacturers, based on extrapolation of 10,OOO h test results
to 100,OOO h. The effect on mechanical properties of
General experience, to date, indicates that aluminum exposures longer than 100,OOO h (11.4 yrs) is not known.
alloys will not be acceptable in most cases because of
catastrophic pitting.
177
The manufacturer’s directions for joining should be 3. Transfer the heat by way of an isolation heat exchanger
followed explicitly to avoid premature failure of joints. to a non-corrosive working medium so that the kind and
number of componentscontactingthe geothermalfluid are
Author’s Note: minimized and make those components of corrosion
resistant materials.
Experience subsequent to the First Printing, notably
in the Reno (Nevada) area, has shown that CPVC The first philosophy would produce a very reliable system
pipe can become extremelybrittle in low-temperature requiring little maintenance. However, the cost would be very
geothermal service. The author concludes that this high, and at least in the US.,many of the desired components
material is probably generally not suitable for long- aie not available in the required alloys.
term low-temperature geothermal service.
The second philosophy may be considered for district
The author also notes persistent problems with the sized heating projects with attendant surface storage and
FRP pipe downhole heat exchangers (DHXs) in the potential for oxygen intrusion, because it may be economical
Reno area assembled with machine-cut threaded to inhibit the geothermal fluid by continuous addition of
joints. It appears that the machine-cut threads are excess sulfite as an oxygen scavenger. When this is done,
relatively weak, as would be expected since cutting carbon steel can be used for heat exchange equipment,
severs the reinforcing fibers. The proximate cause provided fluid pH is > 8. This second philosophy is widely
of failure appears to be thread breakage, but no and successfullyused for municipalheating systems in Iceland.
detailed root cause investigation has been, to the If this approach is used, system design should minimize the
author’s knowledge, conducted. introduction of oxygen to reduce sulfite costs. Use of vented
tanks should be minimized.
In contrast, failures of FRP DHXs assembled with
bonded joints have not been reported from this The second philosophy has three major drawbacks. First,
resource. Consequeatly, the author concludes that the sulfite addition plant is relatively complex and requires
machine-cut threaded joints are probably generally careful maintenance and operation. Second, failure of the
not suitable for assembly of FRP piping in low- sulfite addition plant, or insufficient treatment, is likely to
temperature geothermal applications. cause rapid failure of the carbon steel heat exchangers. Third,
-Peter Ellis II sulfite addition will probably not be economical for smaller
July 1990 systems because of the first point above. Without oxygen
scavenging, and even with careful design, some oxygen
Elastomeric Seals contamination will occur and carbon steel heat exchangerswill
probably not be satisfactory.
Tests of O-ring materials by Radian in a low temperature
system in Texas indicate that Viton is the best material, with The third philosophy, transferring the heat by way of
Buna-N also being acceptable. Neoprene, which developed isolation heat exchangers to a non-corrosive secondary heat
extreme compression set, was a failure. Natural rubber and transfer medium and minimizing the kind and number of
Buna-S should also be avoided. components exposed to the geothermal fluids, has several
advantages for systems of all sizes. The resultant system is
8.5.2 Corrosion Engineering and Design much simpler to operate, and therefore, more reliable than
those mentioned above. Only a small number of geothermal-
The design of the geothermal system is as critical in resistant components are required and it is feasible to design
controlling corrosion as the selection of suitable materials. systems in which oxygen exclusion is not critical. Retrofitting
Furthermore, the designhaterial selection process is inter- of existing fossil-fired hot water systems is also simplified
active in that certain design decisions force the use of certain because the isolation heat exchanger may either entirely
materials, while selection of materials may dictate design. In replace the existing heater, or be located in-line with the water
all cases, the objective should be the same: to produce an supply to the existing heater. Finally, even with careful
adequately reliable system with the lowest possible life-time material selection and design, geothermal heating systems
cost. require more maintenance than conventional systems.
Minimizing the n d r and kind of components in contact
Three basic corrosion engineeringdesign philosophies for with geothermal fluid will further reduce maintenance costs.
geothermal systems are apparent:
All geothermalcomponentsshouldbe easily disassembled
1. Use corrosion resistant materials throughout the system for maintenance. Scale deposits from geothemal fluid may
make threaddjoints almost impossible to disassemble, so this
2. Exclude or remove oxygen and use carbon steel through- type of joint should be avoided. Similarly, plate and frame
out the system
178
heat exchangers may be very desirable, both because they have where
much higher heat transfer efficiencies than tube and shell
units, and because they are easy to clean and inspect. pHs = pH abovewhich calciumcarbonate will precipitate
pHi = meamred pH of the fluid.
Tables 8.4 through 8.6 illustrate materials choiceldesign
constraint intektions for piping, valves, and heat exchangers. The interpretation is as follows:
In these tables, materials have been divided into five perfor-
mance grades, based on the available data from 29 direct util- Bvnar Index Scaline Tendency
ization systems. The corrosion and design cautions should be <4.0 extreme
followed to obtain favorableresults. Where specific reference 4.0 to 5.0 heavy
is not made to geothermal corrosivity Class Va or Class Vb, 5.0 to 6.0 moderate
the data presented are equally applicable to either class of 6.0 to 7.0 light
RSOWW. >7.0 none
Worksheet 2 guides calculation of the Rymar Index.

8.6 WORKSHEETS FOR CHEMICAL SCALING
PROPERTIES OF GEOTHERMAL WATERS 8.6.3 GVDsum Calcium Sulfate Dihvdrate)
(LOW TEMPERATURE)
Calcium sulfiie can precipitate as either calcium sulfate
This contains a series of worksheets that guide the user in anhydriteor as calcium sulfatedihydrate (gypsum). The anhy-
calculations relating to the quality of water analysis data (ionic drite is less soluble than the dihydrate, but the anhydritedoes
charge balance) and qualitative estimations of the probability not form at temperatuxes less than about UKPF because of
of scaling by calcium carbonate or gypsum. kinetic factors. Therefore, only the solubility of gypsum need
be considered for most low temperature geothermal resources.
8.6.1 Jonic Game Balance
Gypsum can precipitate whenever the product of calcium
The total amount of positive (cation) and negative (anion) ions and sulfate ions (calcium sulfite ion product) exceeds the
charges in a solution are necessarily equal, because solutions gypsum (calcium sulfate dihydrate) solubility product. This
are electroneutral. Theoretically, the ionic charge balance in solubility product is a complex function with temperature and
-
an analysis should be zero; cations anions = 0. In fact, a ionic strength (itself -a function of 'species in solution) as
10% difference is not uncommon. Worksheet 1 guides the independent variables. It is independent of pH in the range
user in calculation of the ionic balance. normally occurring. in low-temperature geothermal fluids.
Calculation of the gypsum solubility product is complex.
8.6.2 Calcium Carbonate However, Figure 8.2 allows an approximate graphic
determination of the gypsum solubility product.
The solubility of calcium carbonate is a function of
temperature, the concentration of calcium ion, concentration Figure 8.2 shows the logarithm of the gypsum solubility
of carbonate ion and of the other species dissolved in the product (on a mass rather than molal basis) as a function of
fluid. The umcentration of carbonate ion is dependent on temperatu~and dissolved solids. The logarithm of the
fluid pH, which controls the distribution between carbonate gypsum solubility product at a given tempratwe in fluid of a
and bicarbonate ions. In most geothermal fluids, the pH is given TDS,is found at the intersectionof that temperatureand
controlled by the carbon dioxide partial pressure. Evolution the appropriate iso-TDS line. This figure was generated by
of carbon dioxide causes a rise in pH that may cause using a previously published extended Debye-Huckel equation
deposition of calcium carbonate, for activity coefficientsand an equation for the gypsum solu-
bility product at unit activity as a function of temperature
Calcium arbo on ate exhibits &grade solubility (Wilde, 1979).
(solubility increases as temperature decreases). This means
that as long as the fluid pressure within the system is The relative saturation with respect to gypsum at a givm
maintained at a level such that carbon dioxide is not evolved, tempemhue can be calculated by:
deposition of calcium carbonate should not be a problem.
gypsum R.S.
The Ryplar Index gives a qualitative estimate of the
calcium carbonate scaling tendencies of waters. The Rymar
Index is:
- 10 (log ppm Ca 4 log ppa SO, - log Xgypsum)
Ryznar Index = 2 pHs - pHa
179
Table 8.4 MateriallDesign Interaction Matrix for Piping
Material Corrosion Comments Design Comments

Carbon steel Grade 1' in Class Vb resources. Oxygen contamination may cause very serious
localized corrosion.
Caution: Oxygen must be rigorously Minimize oxygen intrusion hto the system.
excluded. Aeration will
cause ten-fold or greater Do not use vented tanks,especially recirculation
increase in corrosion rates. tanks unless oxygen scavengers are also used.
Grade IIIc in class Va resources, but use protect exterior surfaces from groundwater.
Schedule 80.
G a l v d steel Grade IVd zinc not protective at Operating

temperatures and may cause
rapid pitting.
copper Grade IIIc may be acceptable in thick walled If used, design should provide for easy replacement.
applications.
..
Caution: Crevice corrosion at cracks in Limit fluid velocity to < 3 ft/s.
the cuprous sulfide corrosion
product scale has been observed.
Caution: No suitable solders have been Use low-lead, high-tin solders (but results uncertain).
Verified.
Fiber Grade V" oxyga intrusion should have no

Reinfod effect.
Plastic Pipe
Failure by degradation of creep rupture Fabricatejoints exactly asprescribed by manufacturer.
strei~gthwith time. No data are available Do not use threaded joints.
for estimating allowable stress after
100,OOO h (11.4 y).
Caution: Properties deterimte

significantlyat elevated
temperature.
CPVC Pipe Grade IVd may become extremely brittle

in long-term service.
a. Grade I: Can be reliably used in most cases,with little or no testing, provided corrosion and design cautions are
observed.
b. Grade II: Acceptable in many cases,but confirmatory tests are advisable. Corrosion and design cautions must be
observed.
c. Grade III: Acceptable in a limited number of cases. Confirmatory tests strongly advisable. Corrosion and design
cautions must be observed.
d. Grade IV: Probably not acceptable.
e. Grade V Long-term suitablility has not been verified.
180
Table 8.5 MatexiallDesign Interaction Matrix for Valves
Material Corrosion Comments h i m Comments

Carbon steel body Grade IVdtrim life not adequate in many Probable failure mode trim related. Valves should be
with carbon steel cases. easy to remove and maintain. Flange or wafer design
trim favored. Minimize threaded parts.
Localized corrosion at stem/seal/air
interface. Plug (globe) valves not recommended for cycle
duty because of plug/stem corrosion problems and
Caution: Aeration will cause rapid rpciprocatingstemmotionwhichcausessealfail~or
failure. seizing.
Carbon steel body Grade III' pitting of trim significantly risk.

with non-austenitic
stainless steel trim Caution: Aeration will cause rapid Gate valves not tecommended for frequent cycle duty
corrosion of body. because reciprocating stem motion causes seal failure
or seizing.
Carbon steel body Grade P Ball or bsl#erflyvalves recommended for 6requentcycle

with austenitic duty because rotation of stem minimizes stedseal
stainless steel Caution: Aeration will cause rapid problems. Austenitic stainless steel or elastomeric
corrosion of body. (BUMN,Viton, TPE) seat satisfactorily.
Brass body with Grade III'

brass trim and
brass or austenitic Caution: Cathodic to steel, but effect
stainless steel probably not severe in most cases.
stem
Caution: Dezincification may be significant
risk. Use only red brass or red
bronze.
-
a. Grade I: Can be reliably used in most cases, with little or no testing, provided corrosion and design cautions are
observed.
b. Grade II: Acceptable in many cases, but confirmatory tests are advisable. Corrosion and design cautions must be
observed.
c. Grade IIk Acceptable in a limited number of cases. Confirmatory tests strongly advisable. Corrosion and design --
d. Grade Ilk Probably not acceptable.
181
Table 8.6 MaterialDesign Interaction Matrix for Heat Exchangers
Material CodonComments Design comments

carbon steel Grade IVd if oxygenscavenger is not used. Continuous use of oxygen scavenger required.
Grade IF' if the resource is Class Yb and the

water is continuously treated
with excess dfite.
i
Grade IVd if the resouce is Class Va.
Grade Nd If used, should design for easy replacement.
Caution: Heat exchange corrosion rates Limit fluid velocities to*C3 fils.
typically order of magnitude
greater than coupon rates. Use low-lead, high-tin solders (but results uncertain).
Serious degradation by ppb H$.
Suitable solders not identified.
Aluminum Grade N
c
Extremely severe corrosion rates with

catastrophic pitting.
Austenitic Grade fib

stainless steels
Caution: SSC of T304 possible above Plate-type heat exchangers recommended for ease of
140°F. Resistance to SSC cleaning and economic reasons.
increases with molybdenum
additions.
Caution: pitting and crevice corrosion Stress relief after forming is recommended.
of T304 possible at high
temperature, high chloride Fibrous gaskets should be avoided. Viton gaskets
conditions, with oxygen.
Pitting and crevice Minimum aeration recommended.
corrosion resistance increases
with molybdenum additions. See
Figure 8.1. T316L recommended as
minimum grade.
Can be acid cleaned.
Titanium Grade I' in absence of fluoride ion.

Caution: Care required when acid Phe-type heat exchanger recommended over tube-and-
cleaned. Avoid scratching shell for economic reasons and ease of cleaning.
with steel tools.
a. Grade I: Can be reliably used in most cases,with little or no testing, provided corrosion and design cautions are
observed.
b. Grade II: A m t a b l e in many cases,but confirmatory tests are advisable. Corrosion and design cautions must be
observed.
c. Grade III: Acceptable in a limited number of cases. Confirmatory tests strongly advisable. Corrosion and design
d. Grade IV: Probably not acceptable.
e. Grade V: Long term suitablility has not been verified.
182
Values of less than unity indicate subsaturation and no Ellis, P.F.; "A Geothermal Corrosivity Classifidon
scaling by gypsum, while values greater than unity indicate System", Geothermal Resources Council Transactions,
mrpersaturation and possible scaling. The relative saturation Vol. 5, GRC, Davis, CA, 1981.
does not indicate the rate of deposition. Because a number of
simplifyingassumptionswere required in genera-tionof Figure Kindle, C. H. and Woodruff, E.M.; 'Techniques for
8.2, interpretation of relative saturations between 0.8 and 1.2 Geothermal Liquid sampling and Analysis", Pacific
is problematic. Northwest Laboratory, Richland, WA, 1981.
Lund, J. W., et al.; "corrosian of Downhole Heat

REFERENCES Exchangers, Appendix A', DOE Contract E(10-1)- 1548,
Oregon Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls, OR,
Conover, M. F.; Green,T. F..; Keeney,R. C.; Ellis,P. F.; October, 1976.
Davis, R. J.; Wallace, R. C. and Blood, F. B.; "Final
Report: Direct Utilization of Geothermal Energy for Ostroff, A. G.; "Introductionto Oil Field Water Technology,
Space and Water Heating at Marlin, Texas", Radian Appendix la, National Association of Corrosion
Corporation, Austin, TX, 1983. Engineers, Houston, TX, 1979.
Ellis,P. F. and Conover, M. F.; 'Materials Selection Wilde, K. A.; "Radian Technical Note210-344-02, EPRI
Guidelines for Geothermal Energy Utilization Systems", Research Project RP 1261-1. Steams-Roger Project
Radian Corporation, Austin, TX, 1981. C-21385: Equilibrium Model Documentation", DCN 79-
210-344-06, Radian Copration, Austin, TX, January,
Ellis, P. F. and Smith, C. S.; "Addendum to Material 1979.
Selection Guidelines for G e o t h d Energy Utilization
Systems", Radian Corporation, Austin, TX, 1983.
183
-E
TOF
Figure 8.2 The solubility product of Gypsum (Calcium Sulfate Dihydrate) in low-temperature geothermal waters (Radian
Corporation, 1979).
Note: The solubility product is expressed 011 a ppm mass basis, rather than a mol& basis, and is corrected for ionic strength
and temperature.
184
WORKSHEET 1 - IONIC BALANCE
TDS = ppm or mgn

Cations moles/l sl!i
PH 1
w = xl=
ppm/D=mg/L /Fw(mg) =
Na+ - 122989.2 = x1-
K+ -
- 139102.0 = xl=
Ca+* - /40080.0= . x2=
Mg+' -- 124312.0 = x2=

Total Cations (qL)
/Inions
SOi' - /96061.6 = x2=
HCO; - /61017.3 = xl=

CO;' - 160009.4 = x2=
Cl. - /35453.0= xl=

Total Anions (eqk)
The total cations should equal the total anions. A 10%difference is acceptable.
Note:
1. For solutions containing less than 14,000ppm Total Dissolved Solids O S ) , ppm = mg& with less than 1% error.
2. D = density in kg& = [l + 6.95.1C7TDS (mg/L)] = 11[(1 - 6.95.1C7TDS ppm)] =

3. If carbon dioxide species are expressed as Total Alkalinity (TA) as mg& CaC03, equate the TA to HC03 x 0.8196 =
HCOi.
185
WORKSHEET 2 - RYZNAR INDEX
1. Calculate pHs
pHs = pCa + pALK 4- KC i

:
pCA = - log [Ca] where [Ca] is the molar concentration of calcium from Worksheet 1. .
pCA =
pALK = - log [ALK]
If total alkalinity is given as mg/L CaC03, then [ALK] = mgL CaCO3/1OO089.4 =
If analysis gives HCO; and C0i2,then use the molar concentrations and pH from Worksheet 1 to solve:
[ALK] = mCO;] + 2 [COi2] + lWI4- lo* =
pALK = -log [ALK] =
"Kc" is a complex term involving two equlibria constants and activity coefficients; all temperature dependent term.
Its calculation is quite complex and is beyond the scope of this method. Fortunately, however, graphical methods for
estimating "Kc" are available. Furthermore, Kc is relatively insensitive to minor errors introducted by the assumptions
required for the two graphical methods.
If TDS is <6OOO ppm, refer to Figure 8.3 and determine the value for Kc.
If TDS is >6OOO ppm, complete Worksheet 2A and use the calculated ionic strength to derive Kc from Figure 8.4.
KC =
pHs =
2. Calculate the Ryplar Index.
Ryplar Index = 2 pHs pHa -

- -
-
186
WORKSHEET 2A - FLUID PROPERTIES - IONIC STRENGTH
Perform only for calcium carbonate scaling calculations when TDS exceeds 6O00 ppm.
-
ion molesll' / Kg H20/Lb= mles/Kn H,O
PH - xl=
Na+ - xl=
K+ - xl=
ca+2 = x4=
Mg+2 = x 4.=
SOi2 - x4=
HCO; - x4=
co;2 - x4=
C1" - x4=
X 0.5
molal ionic strength =
a. From mole& column of Worksheet 1.
b. Kg H,O/L brine - (D - mf3mg/L )

106
where D is deiined on Worksheet 1.
187
6000
4000
3000
2000
Io00
aoo
v)
a 600
I-
c
0 400
-r-
c
F- 300
E
L 206
QI
a
ln
c,
Figure 8.3 Determination of Kc for geofluids containing C6OOo ppm or mg/L total dissolved solids (TDS)(Lund, 1976).
Note: Using a straighedge, connect the ppm TDS on the "Partsper million"(ppm) scale with the fluid temperature 011 the
"TempOF" scale. Read the value of Kc m the Pseu-tant Kc scale (Lund, 1976).
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2
U
C
a
Y
v)
g 2.0
0
0
'c1
J
a3
a" 1.5
1.o
0.5
n
"
0 0.5 1.o 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Ionic Strength
Figure 8.4 Determinatian of Kc for gmfluids containing >6000 ppm total dissolved solids (TDS)(Ostroff, 1979).
Note: Calculate the ionic strength using Worksheet 2A.
189
CHAPTER 9
WELL PUlMPS
By Gene Culver
and Kevin D. Rafferty, P.E.
OIT Geo-Heat Center
9.1 PUMPING GEOTHERMAL FLUIDS costs, rig cost for pulling, availability of parts, and downtime
costs. Power CoIlSumption costs and wire-to-water efficiency,
9.1.1 Jntroduction although certainly worth evaluating, may not be nearly as
important as others factors, such as those above. For most
Pumping is often necessary in order to get geothermal direct heat applications, the lineshaft pump has been the
fluid to the surface. Pumping is sometimes required to preferred selection.
increase pressures or move fluids from place-to-place once
they are on the surface. In certain geothermal fluids, such as There are many factors that cau affect the relative
those with high carbon dioxide content, corrosion and scaling efficiencies of linehfi versus submersible pumps: i.e.
can be reduced by maintaining the water under pressure. temperature, power cable length, specific design of impeller
Because production well pumps are usually of greatest concern and bowl, column length and friction losses. The
and, on the surface, pumping is not recurrently a problem, wire-to-water efficiency in the particular application is the
well pumps will be considered first. important factor. The bowl efficiency of a pump with extra
lateral will be less than for standard lateral (discussed in
Basically, there are two types of production well pumps; Subsection 9.3) and clearances. The bowl efficiency of a
(a) lineshaft turbine pumps and (b) submersible pumps the- submersible will be higher than a lineshafi of similar design
difference being the location of the driver. In a lineshaft because extra lateral is not required in the submersible.
pump, the driver, usually a vertical shaft electric motor, is
mounted above the wellhead and drives the pump, which may Pump efficiencies(Effp) are usually determined by testing
be located as much as 2000 ft below the ground surface, by
means of a lineshaft. In a submersible pump, the driver (a
-
at 60°F. Efficiencies for both lineshaft and submersibles
will be higher at higher temperatures and is shown as:
long, small diameter electric motor) is usually located below
the pump itself and drives the pump through a relatively short ,Effp=l-(l-t)No)"
shaft with a seal section to protect the motor from the well vt
fluid. General characteristics of the lineshaft and the where .
submersible pumps are shown in Table 9.1.
E& = efficiency at operating temperature
Jet and centrifugal suction pumps have seen limited t = efficiency at test temperature
service, but few are in use. Jets are limited by the tendency Vo = kinematic viscosity at opemting
to scale and corrode or both in the down well jet assembly, temperature
and centrifugal suctionpumps are limited by low lift capability Vt = kinematic viscosity at test
at elevated temperatures. Lineshaft pumps have two definite temperature
limitations: (a) they must be installed in relatively straight n = exponent based on experimental data,
wells and (b) they are economically limited to settings of usually between 0.05 and 0.1.
s2000 fi. For direct heat applications, the economic setting
depth limit is probably closer to 800 ft. (Refer to Chapter 6, For example, if a test had been run at 60°F (1.1
Plumbnets and Alignment; American Water Works; and centistokes) with 78% efficiency, and the pump is to operate
Hydraulics Institute standards.) A general comparison of at 200°F (0.31 centistokes), the efficiency will be:
lineshaft and submersible pumps appears below. As in any
generality, there are exceptions and each applicationshould be - -
Effp = 1 (1 0 . 7 8 ) W o M = 0.793
considered individually. 1.1
In some installations, selection of a pump type will be and, if n = 0.1, then

d i c W by setting depth, well size, well deviation, or
temperature. If not restricted by th&,'the engineer or Effp - -
1 (1 0.78)- = 0.806
developer should selecta pumpbased on lowest lifecycle 1.1
costs, includingimportant factorssuch as expected life, repair
191
Table 9.1 Comparison of Lineshaft and Submersible Pumps
Submersible
hunp stage efficiencies about the same, 68 to 78%. Pump stage efficiencies about the same 68 'to 78%.
Generally, lower headlstage and less flowlunit diameter. Generally, higher flowlunit diameter. Lower motor
Higher motor efficiency because it operates in air. Little efficiency-operatesin oil at elevated temperature.
loss in power cable. Higher losses in power cable. Cable at least partially
submerged and attached to hot tubing.
Motor, thrust bearing and seal accessible at surface. Motor, thrust bearings, seal, and power cable in well-less
accessible.
Usually lower speed (1,750 rpm or less) although may Usually higher speeds (3,600rpm)although may be equal.
. be
equal. Usually lower wear rate. Usually higher wear rate.
+
Higher temperature capability, up to 400°F ,although Lower temperaturecapabilitybut sufficientfor most direct
not used up to temperature limit in direct heat and heat and some binary power applications.
some binary power applications.
Shallower settings, 2,000 ft maximum. Deeper settings. Up to 12,000 ft in oil wells.
Longer installation and pump pull time. Less installation and pump pull time.
Well must be relatively straight or oversized to Can be installed in crooked wells up to 4 degrees deviation
accommmodate stiff pump and column. per 100ft. Up to 75 degrees offvertical. If it can be cased,
it can be pumped.
Impeller position must be adjusted at initial startup. Impeller position set.
Generally lower purchase price at direct use Generally higher purchase price at direct use temperatures
temperatures and depths. and depths.
A pump with extra lateral will probably have an n value column. Theenclosing tube isconnected to the discharge
closer to 0.05 than 0.1. bowl where it has oil outlet ports and also is connected to the
discharge head with a tube tensioning assembly. The
1.9.1.2 Lineshaft Turbine Pum enclosing tube is tensioned after installation to help maintain
bearing alignment. The enclosing tube provides a waterproof
To understand the potential problems and solutions in enclosure for the shaft and a path for gravity feed or pressure
lineshaft pumping, it is necessary to understand how the lubrication.
pumps are constructed. Figure 9.1 shows a typical lineshaft
turbine pump with an enclosed oil-lubricated shaft. Enclosed In an enclosed lineshaft oil lubricated pump, only the shaft
shaft water lubricated pumps are also manufactured. Note that bearings are oil lubricated. The bearings in the bowls,
there is a discharge head mounted either on the well casing or between each impeller, are water lubricated. The oil is
a cmcrete pad. The discharge head supports the discharge discharged into the well fluid outside the pump through the
column and shafi enclosing tube which, in turn, supports the pump discharge case so that the shaft enclosing tube is not
multi-stage pump bowls and intake arrangement. The column pressurized by the water at the last pump stage.
is usually in 20 ft sections with either screwed or flanged
connections. A shaft enclosing tube support spider is usually Some csm-type and very shallow setting pumps have
provided at every other column joint. The enclosing tube is pressurized grease pipes providing grease to the pump
usually in 5 ft sections with a shaft bearing at each joint, bearings, and others are provided with freshwater lubrication
although high speed pumps may have closer spacing. The through rifle drilled bowl shafts, but this has not been
lineshaft sections are thesame length as thecorresponding extended to deep well pumps.
192
Open lineshaft pumps have seen limited success in with initially low heads at startup, this force can be greater
geothermal applications. Because the bearings are lubricated than the others and results in a net upthrust until other
by geothermal hot water, bearings tend to heat and wear forces and dead weight loads overcome it.
faster. Many of the more common bearing materials are
subject to corrosion or de-alloying by geothermal water and The resultant downward force at operating conditions is
p i a l bearing materials increase costs. If open lineshaft is known as the'hydraulic downthrust and is obtained by
used, it should be of stainless steel to resist corrosion, but multiplying the total head by the thrust factor K and by the
again at a higher 'cost. As a result of the added costs for specific gravity of the fluid pumped. The thrust factor
p i a l materials and, even then shorter expected life, the depends primarily on the impeller design and diametet and is
enclosed shaft design is preferred except for very clean, determined by the pump manufactuter. Note that the deeper
relatively &l (> 140°F) fluid. the setting and the greater the loads, resulting shaft stretch is
greater. The thrust factor K is stated in pounds of down
The column assembly can represent the major cost thrust per foot of head.
component of a pump. In the long run, it is usually more
econamical to purchase an enclosed shaft column with long The bowls and column also have a deadweight load
life expectancy (one that may outlast several bowl assemblies) resulting in column stretch. The relative deadweight stretch
than to purchase a column that may not have a long life. is compensated for by lifting the impellers free of the bowls
befine initial startup, as noted above.
The pump impellers are connected to the shaft by a collet
or collet and key with locking screws. The shaft and all
rotating parts are supported by the thrust bearings of the The bowls change the direction of water flow passing
hollow shaft motor or a separate thrust bearing assembly. through them, resulting in dynamic forces and a downward'
There is an impeller adjusting nut at the top in hollow shaft load related to hydraulic thrust. The column and shaft
motor assemblies, or a three or four piece coupling with enclosing tube, however, have a much larger cross-sectional
adjusting nut for solid shaft driver arrangements. area than the shaft, so they stretch less. The difference is
relative elongation.
Relative Elongation and
h i a l End Play or Lateral Relative elongation can be calculated if the setting depth,
specific gravity, total dynamic head, volume of water
When a lineshaft pump is initially installed,the impellers supported, lineshaft diameter, column and tube diameter and
am resting on the bowls. In order to free the impellers and wall thickness, and impeller Wust coefficient are all known.
allow for forces generated during pumping, the adjusting nut Axial end play or lateral, which is the total axial movement of
is tightened to raise the impellers. The dead weight of the the impellers within the bowl from towing out to bottominq
rotating parts elongates the shaft to some extent, but the dead -
out, must be greater than relative elongation plus allowances
weight remains constant during operation and has no effect on for safety.
relative elongation. Dead weight must be considered in sizing
the thrust bearings. Another consideration is thermal expansion. Because of
their differencesin thickness, matetial and mass, the column,
It is important to recognize that the shaft and impellers act shaft enclosing tu+, and shaft will all expand at diffixentrates
independently of the column and bowls. Consider the and reach thermal equilibrium at different times after initial
following forces and loads in an operating pump: startup. Additionally, the shaft in an enclosed lineshaft pump
is somewhat t h e d y isolated from the water in the column
1. Each stage of the pump increases the pressure; therefore, by the space between the shaft and the inside diameter of the
@ere are unbalanced hydraulic pressures above and below tube. Once thermal equilibriumis reached, t h d expansion
each impeller, resulting in a downward force. has no direct affect on relative shaft elongation, but it must be
compensated for as it occu~s,either by adjusting the impellers
2. Vanes and waterways through a multi-stage turbine pump or by allowing extra lateral. Obviously, in a system that
are at some angle >go" with the shaft, resulting in cycles on and off, it must be allowed for in extra lateral.
downward dynamic forces. In a true centrifugalsituation,
these forces are minimaland increase to a maximum for an Axial end play or lateral is Bccommodated through the
axial flow impeller. vertical seal between the impeller and the bowl (shown in
Figure 9.2). This is a kind of extended skirt on the bottom of
3. The vanes and waterways of the impeller also change the the impeller and matching bore in the upper end of each bowl.
flow from vertical or nearly vertical to some angle closer These areas may have wear rings on the bowls, impeuer or
to horizontal as the flow proceeds to the bowls. This both. Standard &ld water axial end play typically varies from
d t s in an upward force on the impeller. In vertical 3/16 in. in a 4 in. diameter pump,to 1-3/8 in. in a 30 in.
turbines at shallow settings and submersibles operating diameter high headlstage pump. Chqnmdm 'gmaximum
193
Figure 9.1 Typical lineshail turbine pump with an enclosed oil-lubricated shaft.
194
axial end play using standard castings is 114 to 1-314 in. This designer, it is important for the purchaser or engineer to
is obtained by additional machining of the bowls. T h e 4 understand the problems so the pump designercanbe provided
expansion alone for a 400 ft static water level, 200°F well with the correct design parameters.
could be 4-3/4 in., which far rmrpasses the maximum axial end
play for standard pumps. This explains why a standard pump Assume a space and domestic water heating application
cannot be placed in geothermal service, especially in a cycling requires 700 gal/& (gprn) peak flow. Surfacesystempiping,
situation. Failure to consider this has led to premature wear valves, heat exchangers, and disposal lines require 60 lb1in.'
of impellers, bowls and bearings, broken lin&fts, and (psi) at the wellhead at 700 gpm flow. The static wakr level
burned out electric motors. Proper end play and lineshaft is 350 ft. Test pumping indicates drawdown will be 50 A at
sizing q u i r e s experience and understanding of relative shaft 700 gpm and the discharge temperature is 20CPF. For the
stretch, and knowledge of the range of operation on the head most part, flows will vary between 400 and 600 gpm during
versus flow curves. winter and, with domestic hot water storage the pump can be
shut off from time to time during spring and fall, and for
extended periods during summers. Minimum flows will be
100 gpm, controlled by a throttle valve and, at that rate,
wellhead pressure required will be 15 psi. The system is at an
elevation of 5000 ft above sea level.
Figure 9.3 Standard and extra lateral bowls and impellers

(Johnston Pump Company).
Figure 9.2 Cross-sectional of a pump bowl
(Johnston Pump Company). The special design of the geothermal bowls and impellers is hown
in the illustration. ?be taller bowl and impeller are for the
The dynamic elongation of the shaft is independent of the dynamic geothermal pump in contrast with the shocter bowl and impeller used
elongation of the column pipe. Relative &ail stretch. denoting the in a standad industrial pump of comparable a h . The
position of the impellen in the bowls, is the shaft elongation minus geothermal bowls and hnpllers are designed to acmnmodatc the
the column elongation. The axial end play must be safely greater extra impeller lateral adjustment made necessaryby different rates of
than the relative rhaA stretch. expansion and relative shaA stretch.
Extra seal length is accomplishedby modifyingthe patterns The pump curves for a pump that might satisfy the
from which the impeller and bowl castings are made and requirements axe shown in Figure 9.4. The m e is a little
appropriately machining the increased length, as shown in steeper than is desired, but the efficiency (77 to 83 96) is good
Figure 9.3. This entails extra cost and some manufacturers over the usual operating range of 400 to 600 gpm.
may not want to make the required changes.
The pump curves provide the capacity (all of which goes
At this point, it may be instructive to illustrate the through each stage) and the total dynamic head per stage for
calculation of relative shaft stretch and thermal expansion. In three impeller diameters. Also shown are power requirements
order to do this, it is necessary to go through a preliminary per stage, information about the bowls and impeller including
pump selection. Although this is best leftto the pump the thrust factor K mentioned earlier, efficiencychanges for
\
195
io a.
z
0
1770
R ..P. M .
4 1
0 1 2
I I I I I I I I
O 100 200 300 400 SO0 600 700 BOO
I
Figure 9.4 Pump curves (Aurora Pump).
Ha atmom.
press.
I
. available press.
a t impeller
NPSH L a l o c i t y head
a t a t l c water
lavr‘l
h p vapor press.
pumplng water
lave1
I aubmrrgancl
minimum hard
aubsrrgcncr
Figure 9.5 Relationship of pressures for vertical turbine pump.
196
number of bowls and net positive suction head (NPSH). Some Tables 9.2 and 9.3 give atmospheric pressures at various
manufacturers also provide weight of impellers on the pump altitudes, and vapor pressure and specific gravity at various
curves. In this case, this is found elsewhere. The first-stage tempemhms. Figure 9.5 shows the relationship of pressures
weighs 38 lb and each additional stage is 19 lb. for a vertical turbine pump.
Before relative elongation can be calculated,it is necessary The friction head loss is normally very small in geothermal
to determine the setting depth which, in turn, requires pumps because the tail pipe is short and screens or strainers
consideration of the NPSH. The net positive suction head might not even be installed. Reasonable values range from
available (NPSHA)is the total suction head in feet of liquid 0.3 to 3 ft of water, but could be more if a long tail pipe and
absolute at the first stage impeller eye less the vapor pressure fine screen was installed.
of the liquid in feet absolute. Net positive suction head
required (NPSHR) is a function of pump design and From the pump curves chosen for the example, the NPSH
determines the minimumdistance the first stage impeller must required at 700 gpm is 13.8 ft. Assuming that friction loss in
be above or below the pumping level to prevent cavitation. the intake is 1 ft, the minimum submergence below the
The NPSHA must equal or exceed NPSHR as shown on the pumuinq level is:
pump curve.
Hl = 13.8 ft - 28.2 ft + 1 + 35.6 ft
Because mosppump curves are based on tests at 58"F, the 0.963 0.963
engineer should calculate the NPSH available under operating
conditions or, in this case, select a setting to provide the Hl = 12.1 ft.
required NPSH considering water temperature, local altitude
and intake piping losses. Atmospheric pressure changes Additional submergence should be allowed for: (a) long
caused by weather conditions, viscosity changes and other term drawdown (see Chapter 7), (b) non-cmdensable gases
minor factors when pumping water are usually allowed for by such as carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, which may
some more or less arbitrary increase in setting depth. These increase the vapor pressure, and (c) a safety factor that
should be calculated if they might be significant, such as when depend on how much is known about the well (i.e. gases,
pumping other fluids. The available NPSH is given by: drawdown).
NPSH = Ha + M - Hf - H v ~ The total dynamic head required is equal to the lift head
plus surface head requirementplus velocity friction head losses
where in the column and surface dischargehead assembly. Discharge
head assembly losses are normally small, 0.3 to 3 ft, and will
Ha = absolute pressure on surface of liquid, be neglected here. Column friction head losses are usually
usually atmospheric pressure, in feet of water relatively small and depend on the size of the annulus between
Hl = level of liquid above or below the first stage the inside of the c o l m and the outside of the oil tube
impeller eye in feet (positive if above impeller, (which, in turn, somewhat depends on the shaftsize), and the
negative if below) number and design of the tube support spiders.
Hf = friction loss in intake piping and screen in feet
Hvp = absolute vapor pressure of liquid at pumping . The lift head is equal to the total lift, static level plus
temperature in feet of water. drawdown. For example:
Corrections for density difference at elevated tempemtures Lift head = (350 ft + 50 ft) = 400.0 ft
gives: Surface head = 60 psi x 2.307 ft/psi = 138.;4ft
Total head required 538.4 ft
NPSH=& + M-Hf-Hn,
SG SG From the pump curve, it is seen that at 700 gpm, using the
7.750 in. diameter impeller, the pump will produce 29 ft of
where SG is the specific gravity. dynamic head and require 6.5 hplstage. To satisfy the
requirement of 538.4 ft, this will r e q k
Rearranging to determine the minimum depth below
puminq level gives: NO.stages = 538.4 ft = 18.6 stages.
29 Wstage
M = NPSHR-@ + Hf +
SG SG The horsepower requirement is calculated based on the
curves and correcteh for specific gravity, and is show as:
hp = 19 stages x 6.5 hplstage x 0.963

hp = 118.9 hp (approximate).
197
Table 9.2 Atmospheric Pressure at VarioUS Altitudes
Altitude Barometer Rkadinn AtIhOSDhWI'c 'Pressure

(Et'l inHz mHe. A fi ofiwater
- 1,Ooo . 3LO 787 ~. 15-2 352'
0 29.9 759 14.7 33.9
1,000. 28.9 734 14.2 32.8
2,000 27.8 706 13.7 31.5
3,000 26.8 681 13.2 30.4
4,m 25.8' 655 1.2.7 29.2
5,Ooo 8 24.9 632 12:2 28;2
6,000 24.0 6 10 11-8 27.2
7,000 23.1 587 11.3 26.2
8,OOO 22.2 564 10.9 25.2
9,000 21.4 544. 10.5 24.3
10,m 20.6 523 10.1 23.4.
Table 9.3 Vapor Pressure and Specific Gravity of Water !
Temperature Absolute Vamr Pressure Specific

(OF) Dsia f& of water Giavitv
32 0.089 0.205 1.00

40 0.122 0.281 1.00
50 0.178 0.41 1 0.999
60 0.256 0.591 0.999
70 0.363 0.837 0.998'
80 0.507 1.170 0.997
90 0.698 1.610 0395
100 0.949 2.189 0,993
110 1.275 2.941 0.990
120 1.693 3.906 0.989
130 2.223 5.128 0.986
140 2.889 6.665 0.983
150 3.718 8.577 0.980
160 4.741 10.937 0.977
170 5.993 13.826 0.974
180 7.51 1. 17.328 0.971
190 9.340 21.55 0.967
200 11.526 25.59 0.963
210 14.132 32.60 0.958
220 17.186 39.65 0.955
23D 20.791 47.% 0.950
240 24.968 57.60 0.946
250 29.834 68.83 0-942
198
The lineshaft size is based on combined torsion and axial where
stresses. Because most pump manufacturers provide shaft
sizing tables [or charts based on revolutions per minute (rpm), e = elongation in inches (in.)
horsepower required at the pump and axial load] it is only L = length in inches (in.)
necessary to calculate axid load to enter their tables. These W = total load or down thrust in pounds (lb)
tables or charts are based on A W A standards. E = modufusof elasticity = 29 x 106psi
A = gross cross-seCticmal area of shaft or column in
Axial shaft ldad or total downthrust is equal to the in2(including oil tube if applicable).
hydraulic downthrust, plus the weight of the shaft and rotating
pump parts. Each impeller pattern has a specific hydraulic Relative shaft elongation is the d t of shaft elongation
thrust factor (usually designated as K), expressed in pounds of minus column elongation:
thrust per foot of total dynamic head. The K factor varies
with specific gravity. The K factor for the impeller selected Relative shaft elongation
is 6.7 lb/ft. With some experience, it is possible to estimate -
0.380 in. 0.071 in. = 0.309 in.
tlie size of shafting, calculate the weight and enter the tables
to check the size estimated. Based on the total head and K An additional allowance must be made for machining and
factor, it can be estimated that a 1-1/2 in. shaft weighing 6.01 assembly tolerances. Pump manufacturersusually recommend
lb/ft will be required. 0.010 in./stage, 60 the total bteral allowance, not including
.thermal expansion, is:
Total downthrust equals:
0.309 in. + (19 stages x 0.010 in.) = 0.499 in.
Head ft x 6.7 Ib/ft x SG = 538.4 x 6.7
x 0.963 = 3,474lb That portion of the column and oil tube above the static
Wt/ft x 460 ft = 6.01 x 460 = 2,764 Ib water level will thermally expand much faster than the shaft
Impellers & rotating parts that is enclosed in, and somewhat insulated by, the oil tube.
1st stage = 381b Thermal expansion of steel is 6.3 x lob in./in. “F. If the
Add’l stages @ 19 lb ea = 18 x 19 = 342 Ib average temperature of the air above static water level is 8PF,
TOTAL, 6,618Ib the At is 120°F.
Entering the table (Figure 9.6)at 6700 lb and 125 hp, the The thermal expansion is:
value is above the allowable limit for 1-3/16in. shaft and
below 1-112in., 60 the estimate was correct. (6.3 x 106 in./in.PF) (350ft x 12 in./ft)
(120°F)= 3.175 in.
Using additionaltables and charts from the manufacturer’s
engineering data, it can be determined thak This means our latera! must be i n m a d to:
1. 1-112in. shaft requires 2-112in. oil tube. 0.499 in. + 3.175 in. = 3.674 in.
2. Col~mnf i i c t i ~
~O~S~SWith 2-1/2 in. tube and 8 in. column To this point, all major items have been umsidered, except
= 2 Wl00 ft or 9.2 ft. one that was left until last for emphasis. Figure 9.7 shows the
sequenceof (1) installing, (2)raising the impeller’s, (3) initial
3. Thrust bearing losses = (0.0075hpll00 rpndlOO0 lb) start, (4)column hot and (5) thermal equilibrium.
(1770rpm x 670 lb) = 8.9 hp.
Consider the comquences of closing the throttle valve to
4. Shaft elongation.under the calculated load = (0.0825 reduce the flow to 100 gpm at low load conditim. As stated
in.1100 ft) (460ft) = 0.380 in. earlier, the surface head required is 15 psi at 100 gpm.
5. column elangation under the calculated load = (0.0155 Referring to the pump curve (Figure 9.4), as the throttle
in.1100 ft) (460 ft) = 0.071 in. valve closes, the pump moves up its head versus capacity
curve until, at 100 gpm, the total dynamic head is 59 Ws?age.
If tables are not provided, shaft and column elongationcan At that point,total down thrust is:
be calculated by:
59 ftlstage x 19 stages x 6.7 lb/ft = 7,511 lb
shaft wt = 2,764 Ib
e== rotating parts wt = 3991b
EA TOTAL, 10,674 lb
199
THRUST IN THOUSAND POUNDS
aximum.recommendedbbp versus thrust (Aurora Pump).
Checkingthe shaftsize (FigureP;6), we find 1-112in. is Column elongation:

large enough to carry theincreased load.
(0.033 m./lOO ft)(460 ft) = 0.152 in.
Going back to the tables to check the-&& and colunm
elongation -atthe i n c d load we have shaft elongation: Relative elongation: I
''(0.176h.1100 ft)(460 ft) = Q.810 in. (0.810'in.- 0.152 in.) = 0.658 in.
200
. .
.-
i. INSTALL- XMPELLeR R E S T I N G ON BOWL
2. R A I S E IHPELLER TO ALLOW faR R E L A T I V E STRETCH
3. OPERATING COLO
4. OPERATING COLUMN HOT
1. OPERATING COLUMN AND SHAFT HOT
Figure 9.7 Pump installation sequence.
600-
TOTAL SYSTEM
HEAD CURVE
500-
WELL DRAWDOWN
n
400 -
4J
Y-
Y
300 -
0
a
w
I 200-
FRICTION LOSSES
I N PIPING
LOO -
LIFT I N PIPING
I I I I I I I 1
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 000
Figure 9.8 Well operating conditions.
201
This means that 0.349 in. (0.658 - 0.309 in.) must be Pump manufachxers c a r d l y suggest a t reasonable
added tostheprevious lateral to allow for increased relative inspection frequency. It is usually more economic to puli a
shaft elongation under m i n i m load conditions. The total pump, inspect it and repair or replace parts as needed m the
lateral then becomes: off season than to wait until it fails when it is needed.
3.674 in. + 0.349 in. = 4.023 in. When a vertical &he pump stops, water flowing back
down the column causes the pump to back spin. Because the
the fact that the system engineer must pump is acting as the driver, there is very little dhger of
provide the pump manufacturer with the whole range of unscrewing shafig, buE if the pump is started during back
operating conditions (preferably a flow versus total dynamic spin, it is likely to break shafting, loosen collets, or damage
head curve for the system) including well conditions similar to the motor. This could happen during momentary power
that shown in Figure 9.8. If this is accomplished before well failureor when a control switch signals a pump to start before
completion, the pump mawfacturer is not restricted by casing the column drains and back spin is completed. Foot valves,
size and can suggest the most cost effective and efficientpump non-reversing ratchets, time delay switches, and rotation
for the system. Savings in ffie pump and pnmping costs can sensing switches can prevent this.
then be compared to possible increased well costs.
Most geothermal pumps are equipped with time delay or
In addition to the affects on the pump design, operation at rotation Sensing switches or both. Both are recommended in
throttled flow also affects the motor or other driver (such as case of failure of either one.
variable speed unit) thrust bearing design. In the above
example, the thrust load was increased to 161% of the There are someadvantagesin allowing back spin. The free
thrust at full flow. If the bearing design does not allow for back spin indicates that nothing is dragging or binding and
operation at throttled flow, premature failures will occur. gives an indication of bearing conditions. It aiso permits the
pump to be started with low load, reducing shack loads on
For the application cited, a larger pump with a flatter curve shafting and bearings. A non-reversing ratchet also permits
and higher head per stage would be a more economical the column to drain, but it takes more time because the water
selection. For the same flow rate, the larger diameter impeller flows backward through the bowls and impellers that are not
would have a lower K factor and lower specific speed. This rotating.
combined with a larger shaft would reduce relative shaft
elongation and result in more efficient operation over the Foot valves prevent back spin and keep the column fuli of
required flow fange. water, reducing the entrance of air and associared d o n
and scaling. They are, however, difficult to maintain in good
There is no real temperature break point for lineshaft condition because of scaling and corrosion properties of many
pumps. For many applications up to lWF, standard pumps, geothermal fluids and usually tend to leak in a relatively short
perhaps with machining up to maximum axial end play, will time. Also, the pump always starts under a high load
operate satisfactorily, particularly where the pump is operated condition. Foot valves are recommended only for pumping
continuously. For intermittent operation, thermal expansion levels <50 ft and when exclusion of air is mandatory.
and relative shaft elongation should be carefully checked.
Materials
Lineshaft .pumps are available in bowl diameters from
3-54 in. to over 36 in. with flows ranging from 25 gpm to Sincemost geothermalsystems for which accurate materials
over 25,OOO gpm. information is available have been operating for less than 10
years, the "history" of materials selection is quite short. One
A regular maintemnce schedule is highly recommended. system (operating since 1963) which has experienced
This includes lubricationof motor bearings (and thrust bearing extensively with pump types and materials has settled on the
if separate) and pump packing glands at specified intervals. materials outlined in Table 9.4. Pumps of this collstfllction
Oil for shaft lubrication is usually gravity flow with a valve have operated in the system for as long as 17 years without
and sight glass to check the required number of drops per major overhaul. With three production wells, the system has
minute. This should be checked daily. Turbine oil 68 is the accumulated over 75 pump years of experience.
normally recommended lubricant.
202
Table 9.4 production Well Pump Materials Successfully Used at Oregon Institute of Technology
Shaft stainless steel AISI 416

column Carbon steel ASTM A53 Grade A
shaft enclosure Carbon steel ASTM A53 Grade A
Bearings Leaded red bronze 83%Cu, 5%Sn, 7%Pb,5%Zn
Bowls castiron ASTM A48 Class 35
Impellers Leaded red bronze 83%Cu, 5%Sn, 7%Pb, 5%Zn
Keys stainless steel AISI 416
FaSteners stainless steel AISI 303
collet Carbon steel ASTM A108 Grade B113
~~~
Table 9.5 presents the fluid chemistry for the system on Surface electrical equipment for the lineshaft pump is
which these materials have been successful. very similar to that for the submersible motor. The cost pro-
cedure below assumes the installation of two safety switches,
a magnetic starter, motor connection, and interconnecting
Table 9.5 Fluid Chemistry wiring for 460 V service.
Wellhead equipment includes the items listed above. The

Kev SDecies mgn discharge head serves as a fluid discharge connection and
PH 8.60 pedestal for the driver. The base plate, located just below the
Chloride, Cl 51.00 discharge head and bolted to it, supports the weight of the
Sulfate, SO, 330.00 bowl assembly and column. For purposes of this estimate, it
Bicarbonate, HCO, 20.00 has been assumed that these items would be of basic cast iron
Carbonate, CO, 15.00 construction.
Hydrogen Sulfide, H$ 1.50
Ammonium ion, IW, 1.30 The tension nut assembly houses the upper shaft bearing
oxygen, 0 2 -
0 0.02 and provides a means of adjusting the tension on the shaft
TDS 795.00 enclosing tube for bearingalignment. In addition, it contains
Silica, Si 48.00 the umnwtions for the external lubricating oil supply for the
Sodium, Na 1 205.00 shaft bearings.
Calcium, Ca 26.00
Nitrate, NO3 4.90 The pump column is frequently the single largest cost of
Potassium, K 4.30 the entire pumping system, particularly for settings greater
Fluorine, F 1.50 than about 300 ft. This portion of the system includes the
Iron, Fe 0.30 column pipe through which the water flows, the pump driving
Tempera- 190°F shaft and bearings, and the shaft enclosing tube. Different
size columns are available to accommodatevarious flow rates.
Pricing below is based on the use of threaded enclosed line-
shaft column with 5 ft bearing spacing. This bearing spacing
Lineshaft Pum Pricine Factors is acceptable for 1,750 rpm operation.
The major items that should be addressed in the The bowl assembly includes the pump bowls, impellers,
preliminary pricing for lineshaft pumps include (a) motor and shaft, intake/strainer, and discharge sections. A number of
starter, (b) wellhead equipment (discharge head, base plate,. constmction alternativesare available for pump construction.
tension nut assembly), (c) column, and (d) bowl assembly. The option employed for this cost estimation, and the one
most frequently specified for geothermal systemsis the all iron
Motors used for lineshaft pump drives are "Laframe, construction, with the following exceptions: stainless steel
vertical, hollow shaft, induction motors, in either TEFC or fasteners, bowl shaft and impeller keys, and special bowl
weather protected configurations. As with most new motor bearings selected for compatiiility with the water that is to be
installations, the incremental cost of a high efficiency type Pumped-
motor is generally justified. Costs shown in the procedure
below assume the use of high thrust, high efficiency 1800
rpm, hollow shaft motors.
203
A major cost consideration for lineshaft pumps is the Table 9.7 Adjustments for Geothermal Service
allowance for larger than normal lateral in the pump section.
A moderate adjustment for increased lateral can be m m - CostlStage
plished for standard bowls by machining. This machining Material 0
involves a 1096 cost increase over the standard bowl assembly Bowl fasteners (316 ss) 20
price. For lateral beyond that described above, extra-lateral Keyed impellers 180
-
bowls must be used. These optional bowls often involve a Special bearings -
200
cost penalty of 50% over standard bowl assemblies. TOTAL 400
Estimating Lineshaft Pumu Prim
This method is iutended to provide a preliminary budget d. Adjust for lateral

estimate of a lineshaft pump system. For unusual applications
or for a more specific cost estimate, manufacturers should be For relatively shallow settings or moderate temperature
consulted. Costs are based on prim from December, 1986. or both, increase basic bowl assembly cost by 10%.
1. Bowl Assembly (Pump) For higher temperatures or deep settings, or both

a. Select pump from table (Table 9.6) that most closely increase basic bowl assembly cost by 5096.
matches flow requirement.
2. Wellhead (discharge head, base plate, tension nut
assembly)
Table 9.6 Bowl Assembly (Pump) Costs
Add $2,270.
Flow Head/ cost 3. column with Enclosed Lineshaft

laDm) Model stage A
Select column based on flow rate requirement. Length
60 A 12 (1,150 + (210X)) x 1.1 required is pump setting depth. Table 9.8 provides cost
80 B 12 (1,150 + (210X)) x 1.1 data.
120 C 12 (1,150 + (210X)) x 1.1
160 D 12 (1,150 + (210X)) x 1.1
200 E 15 (1,250 + (310X)) x 1.1 Table 9.8 Enclosed Lineshaft Costs
250 F 16 (1,550 + (300X)) x 1.1
300 G 17 (1,550 + (300X)) x 1.1 Size Max. Flow cost/20 ft
400 H 18 (1,570 + (310X)) x 1.1 (in.) (mml 0
500 I 20 (1,570 + (310X)) x 1.1 4 125 688
700 J 20 (1,620 + (450X)) x 1.1 5 300 758
800 K 20 (2,080 + (480X)) x 1.1 6 500 - 838
1,000 L 21 (2,080 + (480X)) x 1.1 8 1,300 970
1,200 M 22 (2,290 + (510X)) x 1.1 10 2,450 1,278
1,500 N 22 (2,290 + (510X)) x 1.1
4. Motor
b. Divide the total dynamic head O H )required by Calculate the required driver horsepower (hp) as:
h d s t a g e from the table. Subtract one and round m x 8.33 x TDH
off to the nearest whole number. Substitute the h p - ?3,QQQ x E f f p
resulting value for, X,in the cost formula from the
table to determine basic bowl assembly cost.
where
c. Adjustments for geothermal service are given in
Table 9.7. This is an average value based on an 8 gpm = gal/min
in. bowl assembly and a 1-3/16 in. shaft. 8.33 = Ib of waterlgal
TDH =totaldynamichead
Multiply by number of stages + 1. 33,000 = ftlb/mininonehp
Effp = pump efficiency
204
Select the closest larger size motor from Table 9.9. b. Wellhead
o Add unit cost = 2,270

Table 9.9 Motor Costs
c. Enclosed lineshaft
cost cost
' A 0 A L L o Cost from Table 9.6 for 6 in. is
10 1,471 50 3,261 ($838/20 ft)(300 fi) = 12,570
15 1,659 60 3,759
20 1,879 75 4,859 d. Motor
25 1,963 100 6,193
30 2,268 125 7,990 o Determine motor hp by
40 2,796 150 9,392
''- (350 gpm) (8.33 I b / g a l ) (320 ft)
( 3 3 , 0 0 0 ft Ib/min) ( o . 0 7 5 )
hP
5. Motor Electrical Equipment
hp = 37.7, say 40 hp 9
Based on the hp calculated above, select c a t of

electrical equipment from Table 9.10. o Select cost h m Table 9.9
Select 40 hp = 2,796
Table 9.10 Electrical Equipment costs e. Electrical
cost Cost o Select cost from Table 9.10 -

=840
L O L A
10 330 50 920 o Subtotal = 34,086
15 460 60 1,475
20 480 75 1,650 f. Totalcost
25 520 100 1,800
30 685 125 3,125 o Assume a 25% discount from the list price
40 840 150 3,750
o Total Cost (0.75)($34,086) = 25,565
6. Example Cost Calculation 9.1.3 Submersible PumS
Required flow is 350 gpm,the fluid is 120"F, there is A submersiblepump is one in which the &ver,or electric
a 300 ft setting depth, and 320 ft TDH. motor, is located in the well below the sutface of the fluid
being pumped and is usually below the pump itself. Submers-
a. Bowl Assembly Cost ible pumps, therefore, do not have the problems related to
relative shaft elongation that lineshaft pumps do. Submersible
o Select G from Table 9.6 with 17 ft stage pumps can be separated into low temperature or $andad
pumps and high temperaturepumps. The temperature limit is
o Determine bowl cost set primarily by the allowable temperature of the motor.
[$1,550 + ($300 x 18 stages)] x 1.1 = $7,645
Low Temuerature Submersibles
o Add materials adjustment from Table 9.5
(18 stages x $400/stage) = 7330 Almost without exception, standard submersible pump
motors are warranted to 90°F or below. The allowable tem-
perature is limited by the motor winding insulation and the
o Add for lateral machining (10%)($7,645)= 765 heat dissipation available. Many standard submersible pump
motors can be operated at 120 to 13OT if proper allowances
o Total bowl assembly cost = 15,610 nre made.
205
There are three basic types of submersiblepump motors: The manufacturer should also be consulted. Because the flaw
wet winding, oil filled, and hermetically sealed. inducer mtricts the inlet flow path, it is necessary to check to
be sure the net positive suction head, NPSH, for the pump is
In the wet winding motor, the motor is filled with water. maintained.
Water proofing is achieved by special insulation on the stator
winding wire, usually plastic, and because the wire and its
insulation are bulkier, the motors are larger for a given rating.
The motor is carefully filled at the surface to ensure there are
no air bubbles and a filter installed in the fill port to ensure
that the motor operates in water. Some brands are pre-
filled and have an expansion diaphragm to allow for expansion
and contraction of the filling solution and motor. Rotating
seals and a sand slinger at the upper end prevent free circu-
lation of well fluid in and out of the motor and reduce seal
and spline wear by abrasive particles. Bearings are water
lubricated.
Oil filled motors are prefilled with a high dielectric oil.

A rotating shaft seal (with sand slinger) is utilized to keep the
oil in and water out. k u s e water has a higher density than
oil, the motors have an oil reservoir with expansionbladder at
thebottom. Any water that leaks through the seal in time
migrates to the bottom of the reservoir. However, if the seal
leaks there is probably always a small amount of water mixed
with the oil surrounding the windings. Bearings are oil
lubricated giving them higher capacity. Figure 9.9 Flow inducer sleeve (Franklin Electric).
Hermetically sealed motors have the winding encased in A flow inducer sleeve is a tube over the motor, closed off above the
a welded can usually stainless steel. The windings may be pump intake and extended to the bottom of the motor or,bwer. The
sleeve material is c d o n Fesistant metal or heavy plastic.
similar to a surface motor with air inside the can but usually
are embedded in a thermo-setting resin to provide better heat
dissipation and reduce the possibility of water leaking in. The
rest of the motor is similar to the wet type described above
and the bearings are water lubricated.
All small submersiblemotors have a thrust bearing at the

lower end, usually self-aligning and self-equalizing Kingsbury
type, to carry pump downthrust and a small thrust bearing at
the upper end to carry the momentary upthrust during pump
startup. Some larger motors intended primarily for deep
settings have a separate seal section providing for sealing and
expansion. The seal section is located between the motor and
the pump and contains the main thrust bearings.
All submersible pump motors depend on the flow of

fluid past the motor for cooling. This is usually in the range
of 0.25 to 0.5 ftls velocity. If the motor is installed in a large
casing or well bore, or if the production zone is above the
motor, this velocity may not be realized. In that case, the
pump must be fitted with a flow inducer sleeve (Figure 9.9)
Figure 9.10 Flow inducer discharge tube (Franklin Electric).
or other method of increasing fluid velocity to provide cooling
(Figure 9.10). The flow inducer sleeve also provides a means If the casing is too small for a flow sleeve, a tube may be installed as
of increasing the ambient operating temperature. If the follows:
velocity past the motor is increased up to 5 to 6 ftls, the
allowable ambient water temperature may be increased from 1. Tap a 1/4 in. tube (ID) into the pump outlet (below check valve).
the standard 85 to W F , to 120°F. The actual-amount of 2. Clamp it to the pump and motor.
3. Aim tube upward 80 flow is introduced one A below the motor.
allowable increase depends on the motor type and insulation. 4. Protect tube with spacers and angle h n .
206
Another method of increasing allowable ambient fluid Many small submersible motor manufacturers install
temperature is to decrease the service factor, requiring an thermostatic protection in the motor windings rather than, or
increase in motor capacity. For instance, if the ambient in addition to, having the overload protection at the surface.
temperaturerequires a decreasein service factor from standard These thermostats are d y set at, or just above, the stated
1.2 down to 0.6, a pump that normally would require a 3 hp warranted teGrature limit. This effectivelyblocks use of the
motor now requires a 5 hp motor. The 5 hp motor would be motor in higher ambient temperatures even if a flow inducer
the same diameter but longer. is installed and the service factor reduced. In some cases, it
may be possible to bypass the thermostat, but this would void
By using a combination of high flow velocity and any warranty.
reduced service factor, some motor manufacturerswill author-
ize,but not necessarily warrant, operation at 130°F. So far as At the temperaturesand depths standard submersiblesare
is known at this writing, there are no standard submersible likely to be employed, it is unlikely that electrical cable volt-
motor manufacturer’s that will authorize operation at ambient age drop would be a significant factor. At temperaturesabove
temperatures above 130”F, although several pump installers lWF, the manufacturer should be consulted Concerning the
have reported 3- to 5-year life at 135 to 140°F. These allowable current at the pumped fluid temperature.
installations were neither authorid nor warranted.
Most pump and motor manufacturersconform to NEMA
At least one motor manufacturer builds an oil s t r i m standards for shafts and bolt patterns. It is possible, therefm,
motor in 2 through 15 hp in a 4 in. frame. These motors are to match one manufacturer’s pump to another muf&urer’s
rated for continuousduty in 160°F ambient temperatures. The motor. Many off the shelf pumping system utilize one
motor is basically an oil-filled type with an improved seal manufacturer’s pump and another’s motor.
arrangement, with increased oil reservoir capacity and larger
diaphragm to accommodate greater thermal expansion. When connecting one manufacturer’s motor to another’s
Because the bearings are oil lubricated, the allowable thrust pump, the pump should have sufficient lateral to allow for
load is increased from 900 lb in a similar water lube motor to shaft deflection. As the load increases, the shaft will shorten
1500 lb. elastically. Pump manufacturersusually state the thrust factor
BARRELS PEA DAY (42 U.S. EALLONS]
Figure 9.11 One stage performance curve (Centrilift Hughes, Inc.)
207
i
turd motor m a u h t u e r s can provide elastic deformation data The pump section of a submersible is similar to a line-
or, if shaft size and lengths are known, it can be calcukted. shaft in that it is a multi-stage centrifugal. Pump rpm is
usually 3,475, which is higher than most lineshafts. Impellers
High TemDerature Submersibles are usually of the balanced or floating type to offset hydraulic
thrust, because space for thrust bearings is limited. Figure
High temperaturesubmersiblepumps were developed for 9.13 showsa typical pump section with its balancing ring and
deep settings in oil fields. They are almost universally rated balancing holes.
in barrels per day (bpd) rather than gallons per minute (gpm
= bpdl34.3). Pump curves (Figure 9.11) are set up
differently but show the same information as lineshaft pump
curves. For elevated temperaturesin both geothermal and oil
fields, better elastomers for seals, higher temperature
insulating materials for cable, and improved oils and bearings
have been developed. Satisfactory operation has been attained
in oil wells up to 290°F. Figure 9.12 shows a submersible
installation. The gas separator shown is primarily used in oil
field production.
Figure 9.13 Submersible pump typical stage nonmenclahue

I (Centrilift Hughes, Inc.).
I WJ I \
Submersible pumps are multi-ataged centrihgal pumps. Each
stage of a submersible pump consists of a rotating impeller and
Stationary diffuser.
Qux V * L n - The preswrre-energy change is accomplished as the liquid being

MIm - pumped surrounds the knpeller, and as the impeller rotates, the
rotating motion of the impeller imparts a rotating motion to the
liquid. Actually, there are two components to the motion
imparted to the liquid by the impeller. One motion is in a radial
direction outward from the center of the impeller.
At the time of this writing, there are no known

installationswhere gas separatorsare being used in geothermal
applications, but they have been proposed for use in some
Colorado and Wyoming geothermal wells where the free
methane content is 14% or more. Its function is to remove
free gas from the fluid before it enters the pump where it
would expand in the low-pressure suction area, possibly cause
cavitation, and prevent proper pump operation.
The seal section between the pump and motor provides

for equalization of wen fluid and internal motor pressure,
allows for expansion and umtraction of dielectric motor oil,
provides a seal between the well fluid and mdor oil and
houses the thrust bearings. Separation of the well fluid and
motor oil is accomplished by two or more mechanical shaft
seals, elastomer expansion chamber and backup labyrinth,
Figure 9.12 Submersible pump installation usually a series of U-tubes. The multipIe seals and labyrinth
(Centrilift Hughes, Inc.). provide extra sealing protection.
208
Impellers are designed for balancing at peak efficiency. Check and drain valves, if used, should be located close
operation at higher than design capacity results in upthrust, to the pump. Check valves prevent backward rotation of the
and lower than design capacity results in downthrust. pump and motor when the pump shuts off. Rev- rotation
Bearings are usually of the multiple tilting pad type;there are can cause excessive thrust bearing wear. If the check valve is
two, one for upthrust and one for downthrust. some distance above static water level, the weight of the
falling water creates a low pressure and v a p o h water
Motors used in high-temperature submersibles are oil- resulting in a partially empty tube. On the next pump start,
filled, two-pole, 'thephase squirrel cage induction type. water moving at high velocity will hit the check valve and the
Design voltages range from 230 to SO00 V with currents from column of water above, causing hydraulic shock. This can
12 to 150 A. split tubing or damage the pump and motor.
Motors are run at high voltages in order to reduce When no check valve is used, the pump starts under low
current flow. Voltages often are not the common values used head; and upthrust during startup can cause excessive pump
in aboveground motors and may appear strange, such as 710 wear. propetly located check valves are mmmended for
V or 2205 V. In deep settings, there can be significant intendtent operation. Because bearing designs differ, no
voltage drops in the downhole power cable. Submersibles, general guidelines can be given. Pump manufacturers should
therefore, require special above ground equipment, be consulted.
transformers and ccmtrollers, which are supplied by the
manufacturers to match existing conditidns. Drain valves are used to eliminate pulling tubing
strings and are recommended only for deep Settings where the
Motors are built in 3-1/2 in. to 7-1/2 in. outside extra weight is a problem. The plug in the drain valve is
diameters to fit inside standard American Petroleum Institute s h d by using a sinker bar on a wire line before pulling the
(API)casing sizes. Rotors are generally 12 to 24 in. long and pump.
hp is increased by adding rotors. Single-motor lengths may
reach 30 ft producing 400 hp and tandem motors 90 ft Because all the submersible equipment is in the well,
producing 750 hp.. Motors have bearings designed to carry there is no maintenance that can be performed except
the rotor loads but not any additional pump loads. scheduled pulling and inspection. Large submersiblesmay be
equipped with recording ammeters that can help determine
Motor cooling is critical, and at least 1 ftls flow past the causes of failures and give an indication of pump and well
motor is t.ecommended. Flow inducer sleeves can increase performance. Pump wear, for instance, is indicated by
flow velocity as described above for #andard submersibles, decreasing motor output and current draw. Excessivecurrent
and centralizersare often used to ensureeven flows completely in one or more legs might indicate motor or cable problems.
around the motors. Centralizers are required in deviated If recording ammeters are installed, they should be checked
wells. regularly and the records analyzed.
The cable providing electrical connection between the Submersible Pum Pricing Factors
pump and surface is an important part of a submersible
system. The cable is connected to the motor at a waterproof The major components to be included in the estimate for
pothead that is usually a plug in type. Waterproof integrity is a submersible pump include: (a) pump, (b) motor, (c)
essential, and special EPDM elastomers are used for sealing. protector (seal), (d) cable, (e) wellhead juncti? box, (f)
Pothead leaks were a continuing source of trouble in early switchboard (controller), and (s) transformer.
submersibles for geothermal use, but the mew EPDM's have
somewhat alleviated the problems. A flat motor lead Performance data for pumps are generally published in
extension cable is usually installed from the pothead to above flow units of barrels per day (bpd). These units can be
the pumps. A cable guard is installed over the cable along the converted to gallons per minute(gpm)by dividing by 34.3. In
seal and pump sections to prevent mechanical damage during the smaller sizes, pumps are priced by the housing, rather than
installation and removal. Either round or flat cable is spliced by the stage. Each housing is capable of llccommodating a
above the pump and run to the surface through the wellhead specific number of stages. For example, a GBlOO pump is
and to a junction box. Cable is available for several operating available as shown in Table 9.11.
temperatures. Up to 180 to 2°F polypropylene insulation
with nitrile jacket is used. At temperatures above 2oo"F, Each housing has a specific sales price regardless of the
insulation and jacket are EPDM. Various coafigurationswith actual stage requirement. In this c8se, if 15 stages were
or without tape and braid and lead sheathing are available for required, the 20 housing would be employed. Although seven
temperatures up to 450°F. Most cable has an interlocking impellers would be omitted to meet the actual pumping
armor of galvanized steel or monel. Galvanized steel will have requirement, the price would be the same as if all 22 stages
a very short life in most geothermal fluids. Monel metals werequired.
generally have longer expectedlife dependingon the alloy and
amount of hydrogen sulfide @ I$)
present.
I.
209
Table 9.11 Stage/Housing-Arrangemts The fimction of the wellhead is to support the pump and
column, and provide B means of sealing the top of the well
casing.
HOusinp; Stags
10 10 A high voltagejunction box is required on all downhole
20 22 pump installations. The junction box provides for a connec-
30' 34 tion between the line from the switchboard and the line from
40 47 the well pump motor. In addition, it provides a vent for any
50 . 59 gases that might migrate up the cable from the well.
~ ~ ~
The switchboard, or amtroller, contains a starter,

controls, and monitoring equipment for the downhole motor.
In larger pumps, pricing is on a per stage basis. In Manufacturexsoffer a wide range of sophistication in terms of
addition to the pump itself, bolt-on intake and discharge monitoring and protection devices, both electro-mechanical
sections are also sometimes required. The intake section and electronic. The pricing method below assumes the use of
includes a screen and equipment for maintaining proper flow a basic switchboard with electro-mechanical protection
profile into the pump section ana-coUplingto the seal section. devices.
The discharge sections allow the pump to be coupled to the
tubing. Some pumps include integral intake and discharge. Estimatine Submersible PUmD Svstem Prices
Downhole motors are available in a number of different This method is intended to provide a preliminary budget
voltages. In general, sizes of 60 hp and below are available cost estimate for a submersible pump system. For unusual
in standard 440 V. Above this size, higher operating voltage applications or for a more specific price quote, manufactums
is generally employed. The voltage value may range from 750 should be consulted. Costs are based on prices from
to 2200 V. As a result, a surface transformer would be December, 1986.
requid to adjust the available voltage to the required motor
voltage. For deep pump settings, the surface voltage must 1. pump
also be adjusted to allow for losses in the downhole power a. From Table 9.12, seIect the pump model that has a
cable. The basic pricing method shown here includes peak efficiency flow rate (Column 2) close to the
allowances for a three-phase, auto transformer with a 440/420 required flow.
V primary winding and a variable secondary (800 to lo00 V).
b. Divide the TDH required by the head per stage from
The protector section is generally available in several column.2.
different materials and configurationsdependinguponpressure
and temperature in the pumping zone. The prices included in c. Divide the number of stages required by the stage
the estimating method below are for the basic unit. divider (Column 4) and subtract one. Round off to
the nearest whole number.
The type of downhole cable required is a function of
current flow, temperature and space availability. Two basic d. Substitute the value found in step c for X in the
profiles are available: flat and round. Round cable is pump cost formula.
generally less expensive for a giveawnductor size. Standard
conductors are availablein Numbers 1,2,4,and 6 AWG with e. Add intake and discharge section costs from Column
insulating ratings of 3 and 5 kV. 6.
The cable is three conductor and generally includes a 2.. Seal Section
layer of individual conductor insulation, a second layer of
conductor jacJ@ covering dl three conductors, and an outer add $2,605
armor covering the jacket. Standard materials for the
insulation, jacket, and,armor are pol~ropylene,nitrile and 3. Motor
gdV& steel. EPDM is employed in the insulation and
jacket of.high-temperature cable.I hp*- x 8:.33 l b / g a l x TDH
33,000 x E f f p
The preliminary pricing scheme outlined below i's based
on the use of Numbers 2 or 4. flat cable with. a 205°F
temperature limit"(standard materials as above). In most
cases, this cable will be of adequate size.to achieve an
acceptable voltage drop (20 to 30 V/lOOO ft).
210
Table 9.12 Submersible Pump Cost Formula
ColUmn column COlUmn Column column COlUnm

1 2 3 4 . . 5 6
pump Cost Intake and
pump Flow1 Maximum Flow Stage Formula Discharge Cost
Model HeadlStage (mm) Divider L$, A
1 60138 73 10 1,684 + (607X) 850
2 70142 90 90 1,684 + (607% 850
3 79143 99 10 1,684 + (607X) 850
4 102134 108 10 1,684 + (607X) 850
5 116132 131 6 1,995 + (682X) 850
6 175126 211 4 1,995 + (682X) 850
7 204130 248 4 1,995 + (682X) 850
8 264133 350 4 3,008 + (908X) 850
9 379144 478 4 2,904 + (756X) .- 243
10 205153 277 3 4,769 + (1,195X) 306
11 306160 357 3 4,805 + (1,159X) 306
12 466162 568 3 5,485 + (1,299X) 0
13 612/52 729 3 6,330 + (1,482x) 0
14 5251102 700 1 7,472 + (661X) 0
15 7581115 947 1 7,472 + (661- 0
16 1,0201155 1,384 1 7,482 + (703X) 0
17 1,0501100 1,720 1 8,603 + (805X) 0
18 2,3324 80 2,793 1 10,479 + (1,561X) 0
where 4. Cable
gpm =gallonspermin Cable size will depend upon motor hp, depth, and
8.33 = Ib of water'per gal operating voltage. Generally, Numbers 2 or 4 will
TDH =totaldynamicheadinft d c e . Length should be setting depth plus 100 ft.
33,000 = ft Iblmin in me hp costs are shown in Table 9.14.
Effp = pump efficiency
Select closest larger value from Table 9.13. Table 9.14 Cable Costs
I
Table 9.13 Submersible Pump Motor Costs Rating Cost

size n T v D e t s n n .
Cost Cost
h b a h b A 2 3K Flatgalvanizedarmor 3.85
20 6,401 100 16,000 4 3K ~ Flatgalvaninxiarmor 5.86
30 7,437 120 18,628
40 8,250 130 19,832 a. Cost per lineal foot.
50 9,752 150 22,256
60 11,356 160 23,492
70 12,594 180 25,927
80 13,818 200 20,554
211
i
1
I
I
I
i
5. Wellhead
I
1
i
Wellhead costs are shown m Table 9.15.
8. Example Cost Calculation
Required flow is 250 gpm at 450 fi TDH,the pump is set

at 350 ft, and 7 in. casing.
1
!
Table 9.15 Wellhead Costs a. Pump Cost
o Select pump from Table 9.10:

Casing OD Cost Model 8, 264 gpm @ 33 fthtage
(in:) ($,
o Determine No. stages:
5-1/2 697 (450 ft)/(33 ftlstage) = 13.6 stages
7 697
8-518 1,008 o From pump cost formula, Table 9.10
9-518 1,523 +
$3,008 (908 x 2) = $4,824
10-314 1,565
b. seal Section
o Add = 2,605
6. Switchboard and High Voltage Junction Box
c. Motor Cost
prices given in Table 9.16 are for a basic board with
electro-mechanicalprotection. o Determine hp by
Table 9.16 Switchboard and Junction Box Costs

hP - ( 2 5 0 gpm) (8.33 l b / g a l ) (450 ft)
(33,000 ft Ib/min) ( o . 6 5 )
hp
cost Cost hp = 43.7, say 50 hp

h Ahr, 0
o Select motor cost from Table 9.11:
25 2,477 100 3,401 Select 50 hp = 9,752
50 2,768 200 3,889
d. Cable Cost
o Select cable cost from Table 9.12

7. Transformer (350 ft + 100 ft)($3.851ft) = 1,733
Three-phase auto trans, 440 to 480 primary, variable e. Wellhead Cost

secondary costs are listed in Table 9.17.
o Select wellhead cost from Table 9.13
for 7 in. casing = 697
Table 9.17 Transformer Costs
f. Switchboard Cost
cost o Select switchboard and junction box

kVA2 0 fiom Table 9.14 for 50 hp motor = 2,768
50 2,889 g. Transformer Cost

75 3,591
100 4,196 o Not required. The 50 hp motor is
125 4,577 available for 440 V operation -
a. Kilp volt amps. h. TotalCost
o Total Cost = '(0.075)($22,380) = $16,785
212
9.2 JET PUMPS There have been numerous propods to use ordinary end
suction centrifugals to lift geothermal water from high static
Ajet pump is a combination of a centrifugal pump and a water level wells and springs. W l e this is practical and
nozzleventuri. In operation,a portion of the water pumped many are successfully doing it, the limitations placed by high
by the centrifugal at the muface is returned to the nozzle vapor pressures and high altitudes are often overlooked. The
venturi below the water level. The increase in velocity at the NPSH requid for a typical small centrifugal may be only 5
nozzle creates a low pressure that draws in well water, which to 10 ft, with larger high flow units requiring up to 20 ft or
is added to the flow in the circuit. The additive water is
available for use or storage but, in order to pump, some water
must always be circulated.
more. IfapumphasaNPSHRof 1Oftandistopump 16OT
water at 4,000 ft elevation, it will lift only - 7.5 R with a
reasonable inlet friction. The same pump will lift 50°F water
22.5 ft at sea level. In other hot water circulation systems,
Jet pumps were popular for domestic and small industrial the vapor pressure also affects the useful pressure at the
applications before the advent of satisfactory submersibles, impeller. Pressure relationshipsshown in Figure 9.4 also hold
because fairly large volumes can be pumped from deep water for centrifugal pumps.
levels. More recently, the sales of jets have declined and
manufacturers have eliminated all but the smaller sizes. To use a pump with a dischargeconsiderably smaller than
Currently, jets are available with capacities of only several the pipe to which it is attached is not unusual, the transition
tens of gallmin. being made with a reducer or flange. The sudden drop in
pressure at the enlargement can permit gases to come out of
Jet pumps are usually made of brass and are subject to solution. Depending on the gases in solution, this can result
corrosion. They are also inefficient, because a large in a change in pH, and scaling or localized d o n in the
percentage of the fluid moved by the centrifugal section is low-pressure area. Transitionsin all geothermalpiping should
recirculated. Advantages are that all the moving parts are at be gradual where there is the possibility of gases coming out
the d a c e and readily available for maintenance and can be of solution.
located remotely from the well.
Jets have been successfully used at temperatures of 170°F 9.4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES FOR GEOTHERMAL
in low TDS wells. They are subject to scaling in high TDS APPLICATION
fluids.
9.4.1 $ntroduction
9.3 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS Energy costs associated with the operation of production
well pumps constitute a large expense for many geothermal
centrifugal pumps of all types have been used on the sur- systems. In direct use systems, particularly those serving pre-
face for transporting geothermal fluids through pipes and sys- dominantly space heating loads, there is 8 Wide variation in
tems, maintaining pressures to prevent flashing and evolution flow requirements. As a result, an efficient means of con-
of condensablegases, and as lift pumps from springs and very trolling flow should be an integral part of these systems.
high static level wells. Generally, pumps designed for ordi-
nary hot water pumping have served well. There is very little Because most systems utilize centrifugal lineshaft-dxiven
evidence that pump failures are more common when pumping or submersible well pumps, there are three methods available
geothermal fluid than with other recirculating pumps-as long for controlling flow:
as attention is paid to proper metallurgy for the fluid.
1. Throttling pump output.
Very small amounts of hydrogen sulfide in combination 2. Varying the speed of the pump.
with very mnall amounts of oxygen will lead to de-alloying of 3. Intermittent pump operation with storage tank.
certain brasses and b r o m used in impellers, as noted in
Chapter 8. Throttling the output of any fluid handling device is
simply dissipating energy through the addition of fiction.
Leaking pimp shaft packing seals often lead to corrosion this is an inherently inefficient approach to flow control.
or scaling and wring in the sea! area. This makes proper
maintenance more important because the seals tend to in-leak Intermittent pump operation can impose serious shock
air when started under low-pressure conditions. This, in hun, loads in the pumping system, particularly at bearings and
leads to de-alloying, corrosion and scaling, in and downstream impeller connections. This has, in several projects, led to
from the pump. Because the systems are almost always of pump failures. Storage tanks can serve BS a p i n t of entrance
once-throughdesign, it is uneconomicalto incorporateoxygen , for oxygen, thus aggravating corrosion problems. The d t s
scavengers and other water treatment as in a closed system. of these combined effects has been unreasonably high
Proper maintenance of seals is therefore more important. maintenance costs.
213
Use of variable speed drives can significantly increase 1. Motor oriented control
pump life. A slow speed pump will outlive a high speed a. Multi-speed motor
pump with identical installations and pump construction. The b. Wound rotor motor
wear rate is proportional to somewherebetween the square and c. Adjustable frequency drive (ac).
cube of the speed ratio, or a pump rotating twice as fast will
wear at four to eight times the rate (Frost, 1988). 2. Shafl oriented control
a. Eddy current coupling
A review of the response of a basic pumping system b. Fluid coupling.
suggests that pump speed control is a much more energy
efficient approach to controlling flow rate: The choice pang the above techniques should consider:
1. Flow varies directly with speed 1. Capitalcost

2. Pressure drop through the system varies as the square of 2. Duty cycle and hp
flow 3. speed/torque relationship
3. Power required varies as the cube of the flow. 4. Efficiency
5. Maintenance requirement.
One must realize that the above relationships are based
upon a situation in which the pump head is cornposed entirely The following sections itre intended to introduce the
of friction head. In a geothexmal system,.much of the pump various control technologies available with respect to the
head may be composed of static head. Static head is, of above considerations.
course, independent of flow. 'As a result, for a pump
operating against a 100% static head, the system response 9.4.2 Motor Oriented Control
beC0meS:
Multi-S& Motors
1. Flow varies directly as speed
2. Pressure is independent of flow Multi-@ motors in the integral hp (greater than one
3. Power varies directly as flow. horsepower) size are available in constant hp, donstant torque,
and variable torque configurations. For most geothermal
The savings to be achieved through speed control of a applications with large static head, the constant torque type
centrifugal fluid handling device under a 100% static head would be the most appropriate. There are threebasic varieties
situation are significantly less than the savings achieved in a of multi-speed motors:
100% friction head situation over the same speed range. In
addition, there is a limit imposed by a large static head upon 1. Onewindingtwospeed
the minimum pump speed. This minimumspeed is a function 2. Twowindingtwospeed
of the ability of the pump to develop sufficient head to move 3. Two winding four speed.
the water out of the well.
The one winding two-speed motor offers a 2:l speed
Geothermal systemswill fall somewherebetween the two reduction ratio, such as 17501850rpm. The two winding two-
extremes (100% static head and 100% friction head) speed motor offers a somewhatgreater choice of speeds in that
depending upon: it is not limited to the 2:1 ratio. The two winding four speed
motor has the greatest range of speed adjustment. This is
1. Static water level typified by a common configuration such as 1,750 rpm/l,l50
2. Drawdown rpd850 rpd575 rpm (Andreas,1982). The constant torque
3. Surface equipment requiremats (wellhead pressure). arrangement would .be most applicable to geothermal applica-
tions. Under this configuration, hp varies directly as the
If the control strategy is based upon a constant wellhead speed. Obviously, the multi-speed motor offers a stepped
pressure, the system very nearly approaches the 100% static adjustment of output. For systems with infitely varying
head situation. In general, large surface pressure requirements requirements (such as space heating), throttling would be
(which vary with flow) relative to static head requirements required to adjust flow in between the available speeds. This,
tend to make speed controls more cost effective. of course, would decrease the potential savings available from
this trpe of speed control. MO~~-OV&, the sudden changes in
Most geothermal applications involve the use of a speed that would result from multi-speed operation could
squirrel cage induction motor that results in two basic impose additional mechanical constraints on pump shaft and
approaches to pump speed controk bearing design.
214
The multi-speed motor approach offers relatively low
cost, simplicity, and efficiency in comparison to other drives.
However, if throttling is required to regulate flow between
-
speeds, efficiency falls off substantially. The only costs
incurred are those of incremental motor cost (multi-speed over
-
single@) and speed Switching equipment. Motor effici- UOTOR LOSS r
ency is comparable to, though slightly less than,equivalently WWND
sized singlespeed motors. ROTOR ax

MOTOR LOSS
VARIES wxtn
LOAO
Cost for multi-speed motors is a function of the number
of speeds, number ofwindings, and speed/torqueconiiguration
and as a result, is not possible to c k t e r i z e costs in general
terms.
Wound Rotor Induction Motor
The wound rotor induction motor has historically been

limited to industrial applications in hoists and cranes. The
reason for this limited application was caused by the ineffici-
ent nature of speed and torque control. This was accomp- Slip loss is a function of output shaft speed and torque
lished by way of the introduction of resistance to the rotor compared to synchronous speed as:
winding using external resistors. Speed regulation was
unstable below 50% and all energy dissipated in the external Slip Loss = (N, - N d T / 5 2 5 0
resistors was lost as waste heat.
where
With recent advances in solid state techuology, inverter
circuits have been developed that return this lost rotor current N' = synchronous speed
energy to the line (termed slip loss recovery). This has N- =actualspeed
resulted in a variable speed umtrol system (wound rotor T = torque.
motor/slip loss recovery inverter) that rivals the efficiency of
the ac variable frequency system. Figure 9.14 shows the Obviously older, non-recovery type wound rotor motors
simplified slip recovery circuit. Control cabinet appearance would experience large losses dissipating this energy through
and physical size are very similar to a adjustable freciuency resistors. Typical performance curves for a wound rotor
drive unit. For speed reduction beyond SO%, external motor motor and slip loss recovery unit are shown in Figure 9.16,
ventilation is . d yrequired. 4
which applies only to the drive. Total energy input
calculations must consider pump efficiency. For example, at
75% torque and 50% of full speed, drive efficiency would be
SLIP Loss E W V E R Y INVERTER
.
85 % Assuming a hydraulic hp requirement of 50 and a pump
efficiency of 6096, energy input requirement would be:
50/(0.85 x 0.60) = 98 hp, or 73 kW.
$00. weal
-0.
%
0
I , J z
1 1 1 0
H
IL
'O.
.
to LPEEO CONTROL
Figure 9.14 Slip loss recovery invertor.
Efficiency of the unit is 98% and is constant over the

$i
>1 0
w
H
a
0
f l
entire speed range (Andreas,1982). This efficiency applies to
the recovery of slip loss energy only. An energy flow
diagram is shown in Figure 9.15. Efficiency at any point is
a function of motor loss and slip loss as shown here in Figure
9.15. Figure 9.16 Slip recovery system performance.
215
0
Annual energy use could be derived by calculating the of poles and the frequency of the applied power supply
energy requirement at each operating point and multiplying by according to the following relationship:
the time at that point. Summing the results of the individual
operating point calculations would result in total annual use, N, = 120flp
which could then be cofIlpated to other control techniques.
where
Maintenance requirements are similar to those for a
hydraulic coupling type control as regular attentionis required N, =syncbnousspeed
for the rotor slip rings. Speed control below 50% would 120 = constant
require external cooling fans and duct work, thus increasing f = frequency in Hz (hertz)
first cost and maintenance costs. The slip loss tecovery unit p = number of poles in the rotor.
itself is relatively maintenance free.
In reality, there is a slight slip in the actual motor speed
Costs for the device are shown in Table 9.18 (list comparedto’synchronous speed. This slip amounts to 2 to 6 %
prices). Increment$! costs for a wound rotor motor over a at full load, depending upon motor design.
standard squirrel cage induction motor a r ~
shown in Table
9.19 (list prices). As suggested by the above relationship, motor speed can
be adjusted by controlling the frequency of the power supply.
This frequency adjustment must be &ed out at a constant
Table 9.18 Slip Loss Recovery Inverter Costs (1986) relationship to voltage (constant volts per E).This is
necessary due to the method by which a motor produces
torque. Torque is produced by a magnetic flux that is directly
List Price proportional to voltage applied, and inversely proportional to
a
50
0
21,000
the frequency (Baumiester, 1978). Therefore, as motor speed
is reduced by frequency adjustment, voltage must also be
75 21,000 reduced to avoid unreasonable motor losses and magnetic
100 24OOo saturation (Andreas, 1982).
150 26,000
200 26,000 Frequency and voltage adjustment are accomplished by
drives referred to as inverters. Several designs are in use for
the inverter; however, three appear to be most common.
These include:
Table 9.19 Incremental Costs for Wound Rotor
Motors Over Squirrel Cage Design (1986) 1. Pulse width modulation (PWM)
2. Voltage source inverter (VSI)
3. Current source inverter (CSI).
List Price
A 0 The term inverter is somewhat misleading in that an
50 1,100 electronic adjustable speed drive unit acfually contains more
60 1,300 than an inverter. All systems include at least three basic
75 1,600 components. The rectifier serves to connect the incoming ac
100 2,000 power to dc. The dc is then fed to the inverter section for
125 2,400 conversion back to variable frequency ac. The inverter
150 3,000 accomplishes the conversion task using either transistors or
200 4,000 thyristors. These electronic devices switch the dc input (from
the rectifier) on and off to provide a controllable ac output
(EPRI, 1987). The third major component in the drive unit,
the controls, regulates the activity of the inverter switching
Some manu€acturers include power factor correction such that the motor operates at the speed required.
capacitors as an option with their units.
The CSI produces a power output with a six pulse current
Adiustable F m e n c v Control waveshape. The voltage waveshape is a function of the
electricalcharacteristicsofthe connected motor (EPRI, 1987).
To un@rstand an ac adjustable frequency controi, one Figure 9.17 indicates the shape of the output of a CSI.
must first review some basics of induction motor operation. Because a thyristor type inverter section is frequently used in
The speed of an induction motor is a function of the number CSI drives, some means of feedback from the controlled motor
is required for accurate control.
216
Variable Voltage Inverter Pulse width Modulatiop!
(WI) (FWM)
L i n e Voltage Line Current . L i n e Cutrent

s i x s t e p variation of current and Six step variation<of voltage and Varying pulse length at constant
frequency. frequency- voltage. -
Figure 9.17 Generaked waveforms for djustable frequency drives (Bell and Gossett, 1988).
100% SPEW
>
0
Z
W
H
u
H BO
IL
t-
z Bo
0
u
I I I I I
e0 40 60 BO 100
PERCENT FULL LOAD TORQUE
Figure 9.18 Adjustable frequency drive performance.
217
The voltage source inverter, like the CSI, produces a six Low maintenance is required fot the adjustable frequency
pulse output pattern. . In this case, however, the voltage is drive. The controller itself is constructed primarily of solid
pulsed (Figure 9.17) and the current is a function of the motor state components that require virtually no attention. However,
characteristics. The VSI drive has the capability to control the controller units sometimes have maximum and minimum
two half size motors (two 50 hp motors on a 100 hp unit) at temperature limits, As a result, they would have to be housed
the same time. in some type of umditioned wellhead structure for protection.
Both oil and air cooled units are available. For many
The P W M drive employs a voltage source inverter that geothermal applications, the oilcooled unit (which is suitable
produces positive and negative voltage pulses of different for outdoor installation) would be useful in eliminating
widths (EPRI, 1987). As indicated in Figure 9.17, motor exposure of electrical components to hydrogen sulfide (€I$)
current is a system using a PWM drive in close approximation environments. The adjustable frequency type of speed control
to that in a non-adjustable speed drive application. is the only one that would permit system operation in the
event of controller failure because electrical supply to the
The heating effect of the frequency controller upon the motor could be routed around the invertor. List prices are
motor can be compounded by operation at constant torque. shown in Table 9.20 accorcling to hp requirements. These
Under a constant torque load, as speed is reduced, motor figures are for the inverter only and additional costs would be
current remains fairly constant because of the load. As a incurred for control interface, starter, manual or automatic
result, motor losses and heating are also constant. However, bypass equipment.
the self cooling p r o d u d by the motor fan is reduced by the
lower speed. This raises motor winding temperature. Tem-
perature rise reaches 212°F at 75%speed, 320°F at 35%and Table 9.20 Adjustable Frequency Inverter Costs (1986)
428°F at 20% speed and full load (Andreas, 1982). Although
most manufacturers state that these controllers can be used
with standard induction motors, it would be wise to employ
motors with high-temperahue insulation characteristics.
hD *
List Price
25 8,600
Efficiency of adjustable frequency drives is generally 50 13,500
quoted by the manufacturersat 95 96. This value applies only 75 15,500
to the base frequency, which is usually 60 Hz (Andreas, 100 20,500
1982). Figure 9.18 shows efficiency at other operating points. 150 23,300
The plot is based only on the efficiency of the frequency 200 30,000
controller. Sinusoidal motor performance at the same torque 250 31,300
must be considered to arrive at drive efficiency. For example, 500 34,600
at 50%speed and 75%torque, a value of approximately 88%
is read from the diagram. In order to obtain drive efficiency,
this value would be multiplied by the motor efficiency at that
point (75%torque). Assuming a 100 hp motor, this value Shaft-Oriented Control
might be 90%. As a result, drive efficiency would be 0.90 x
0.88 = 0.792. Using the same pump figures from the 1. Eddy Current Coupling
example in the wound rotor section (50 hydraulic horsepower
requirement, 60% pump efficiency), a total electrical input of As a shaft oriented device, the eddy c u m t coupling is
SOl(0.792 x 60) = 105 hp, or 78.5 kW results. placed between the driving motor and the driven shaft as
shown in Figure 9.19. The coupling consists of rotating
When selecting a adjustable frequency drive, users input and output portions that are not mechanically
should be careful to specify a high power factor. All types coupled. The dc current from an external field coil
show relatively high (95%) power factor at full load, however, excites the winding on the output member. This induces
some drop off considerably as motor load diminishes. eddy currents in the input member, resulting in a torque
Generally, drives employing a diode bridge-type rectifier will at the output shaft. Flow control is accomplished by
maintain a consistently high power factor regardlessof load or adjusting the field current (Lienau, 1984).
speed. The diode bridge connection is most commonly found
in pulse width modulation (PWM) drives. Recent advances An eddy current coupling is considered a slip loss type
have brought the cost of constant (kigh) power factor drives device. The slip loss is a function of the transmitted
down to the point where they are competitive with variable torque and the slip or the difference in the speeds of the
power factor drives. input and output shafts are shown as:
Slip Loss = 2x x h m out - m m in) x tomue

33,000
218
nature of the eddy current coupling that it isbest applied
in situations where output speed is in the 23% or above
range, in order that efficiency is comparable to other
LINE IN
drives. Costs for eddy current couplings are shown in
Table 9.21.
Maintenance requirements for eddy current couplingsare

relatively low as there are no external moving parts or
E
REGULATOR
TO SPEED CONTROLLER
equipment requirements.
. Table 9.21 Eddy Current Coupling Costs (1986)

Figure 9.19 Eddy current coupling. List Price
hb ($,
For constant torque loads or for large slips (speed 5 2,275

reduction), this loss is a significant amount. In fact, the 7.5 2,900
overall efficiency of the eddy current coupling can never 10 3,320
exceed the ratio of output to input speed. Because of the 15 3,816
slip loss, this type of device is best applied to loads that 20 4,297
do not experience a large speed reduction. In addition 25 5,110
to slip loss, the eddy current coupling also experiences 30 5,412
friction and windage losses of approximately 1.5% of 40 6,500
input (Andreas, 1982). This loss is constant over the 50 7,707
1
entire speed range. Losses resulting from exitation are 60 8,556
very small and decrease with output speed. 75 9,844
100 11,716
125 13,612
i
150 16,167
200 19.618
i
i
,
2. FluidCoupling
The fluid coupling falls into a class of fluid drives know

I as hydrokinetic. Like the eddy current coupling, the
I fluid coupling consists of input and output members that
are mechanically independent. The impeller (input
i w 40 eo 00 IO0
member) accelerates the oil, which then enters the runner
I , PERCENT FULL SPEED (output member) where it is decelerated and the kinetic
i energy in the fluid is converted into shaft power
Figure 9.20 Eddy current and fluid coupling performance. (Andreas, 1982). As shown in Figure 9.21,the level of
~
oil in the impeller/runuer area is varied by a scoop tube

to adjust speed output. Lost energy or inefficiency is
Figure 9.20 shows a plot of eddy current coupling dissipated as heat. This heat is rejected to an externalheat
efficiency versus percent speed. In order to calculate exchanger. Speed reduction capabilities are 4:l with a
overall system efficiency, pump and motor efficiency constant torque load and 5:l with variable torque loads.
would have to be considered. For example, a motor Sizes range from 5 to several thousand hp.
driving a pump with a 50 hydraulic hp requirement at
75% speed and 50% torque, drive efficiency from A fluid coupling is a slip loss type device the same as the
Figure 9.20 would be 73.8%. Assuming a 60% pump eddy current coupling. Efficiency is primarily a function
efficiency and 90% motor efficiency, this would result of the slip or the difference in the input and output shaft
in an input requirement of 50/(0.738x 0.90 x 0.60) = speeds. Losses amounting to approximately 1.5 96 of unit
126 hp, or 93.6 kW. It is apparent from the slip loss rating are experienced because of parasitic losses for oil
219
cooling and circulating (Andreas,1982). Figure 9.20 Table 9.22 Fluid Coupling costs (1986)
illustrates typical unit efficiency. The values are very
comparable to, though slightly less than those of the
eddy current coupling. Steady state and annual energy List Price
calculations are similar to those described in previous hb A
sections. Costs for fluid couplings are shown in Table
9.22. 10 9,300
25 10,m
Maintenance requirementsof the fluid coupling itself are 50 10,700
relatively low. However, the external heat exchanger 125 12,300
and circulating pump increase requirements above those 200 16,500
for the eddy current coupling.
9.2.3 Adiustable Sueed Drive Considerations

n Calculatinz S W Reuuirements
In order to apply the variable speed drive, it is necessary

to understand the affects of speed variation on the pump
characteristics. Within limits, centrifugal pump affinity laws
state that:
1. Flow rate a pump rpm

2. Pump head a (pump rpm)'
3. Brake hp a (pump rpm)'.
Using these proportionalities, a pump curve for any speed

within the u s e l l limitscan be generated. For instance, from
the pump curve used earlier (Figure 9.4), at 700 gpm the head
Figure 9.21 Fluid coupling. is 29 ftlstage, efficiency is 78% and brake hp 6.5 hplstage
\ E ---
J
4
I-
O
=" 1 NEW FLOW AM) H E A D Y
I -8
I- -6 a
I
-4
01 I I
I I 8 1
I I 8
2
0 LOO 200 300 400 500 700 800
64i
CAPACITY (gpm)
Figure 9.22 Single stage pump curve (Aurora Pump).
220
when the pump is run at 1770 rpm. To find the characteristics Temmrature.IncreaseConsiderations
at a reduced speed of 1622 rpm (which is equivalent to 55 Hz
operation with an adjustable frequency drive) where: To further illustrate another point, refer to the previous
example where there is a 350 ft static level and 50 ft draw-
Flow = 700 gpm = 641.5 gpm down of 0.963 specific gravity fluid. The lift head is 400 ft.
1770 rpm The pump chosen has 19 stages, producing 700 gpm at 29 ft
per stage; or 551 ft TDH, and requires 6.5 x 0.%3= 6.26 hp
Head = (1622 r~m)~(129'
Wstage) = 24.4 ftlstage per stage.
1770 rpm
The zero flow speed, or the speed where that pump would
hp = (1622 1vm)~(6.5hp/stage) = 5.0 hp/stage. just maintain fluid at the surface, can be found by:
1770 rpm
New Speed = (New Head)' x old speed
Efficiency at the old head versus rate point is moved to Old Head
the new head versus rate point. The new points are shown in
Figure 9.22. New Speed = (400 ')tf x 1770 rpm = 1508 rpm.
551 ft
Using the proportionalities, a new pump curve can be
generated for 1622 rpm or a family of curves for any desired At that point, the pump would be dissipating brake
rpm. This is what was done to generate the family of curves horsepower speed (bhp) &own as:
shown in Figure 9.23. Note that the curves are for a 12-stage
pump. The total dynamic head is shown, rather than the head New bhp = (new mm)3 x old bhp
per stage. old rpm
CAPACITY (Qpd
Figure 9.23 Pump characteristics for 12 stages.
221.
New bhp = (1508 mmr x (6.26 bhplstage x 19 stages) where
1770 rpm
P(bhp) = pump brake horsepower
New bhp = 73.55 bph E = efficiency, decimal
Qw = flow through the pump, lblmin
(73.55 bhp) (42.41 BtulminJ = 3119.3 Btulmin.
hP other terms as above.
Because the pump is already operating in hot fluid and Because variable speed drives are often used in space
there is no flow to carry away heat, the first stage bearings heating applicationswhere there may be no flow requirements
soon have water vapor lubrication rather than water for substantial periods of time, it is important to maintain
lubrication, increasing the heat further. This leads to some minimum flow for cooling. The pump manufacturer
drastically premature pump failure. should be consulted to determine what that minirmUn flow is.
With constant speed pumps, an orifice or bypass control valve
The temperature rise at no flow can be approximatedby: can be used with discharge back to the well or through the
system. With variable speed drives, the lower speed limit
Tr=CmxPx must be set to attain the minimum flow. That flow can be
w x c diverted back to the well through an orifice or valve, or
through the system. In any case, it will result in increased
where pumping costs, but should pay for itself in decreased main-
tenance. Discharge back to the well is usually preferred,
Tr = temperature rise, OF/& because the resource in conserved.
Cm = 42.41 Btulmin
hP 9.5 RECIRCULATION
Ps = shut offhp Recirculation is a somewhat poorly understood

W weight of liquid in pump, lb
= phenomenon that occurs at decreasing flow rate in all
C = specific heat, Btunb OF. centrifugal pumps. A portion of the flow reverses at the
impeller suction or discharge, resulting in high shear velocities
The volume of water in a pump stage is not usually vortices (Figure 9.24). Within the vortices, low pressure is
given in pump specifications, but with an estimate of 3 created. When the pressure reaches the vapor pressure,
gallstage we will have 476 lb in the 19-stage pump. At no bubbles are formed that subsequently collapse, resulting in
flow, the water level will soon reach static level of 350 ft, cavitation. In addition to cavitation damage to the impellers,
giving 160 ft of submergence (allowing 50 ft for the length vanes, shrouds, and stationary vanes of the casing, the
of the bowl assembly), and an absolutepressure of 79.8 psi (at formation and collapse of bubbles cause high frequency
0.963 specific gravity and 5000 ft altitude). This corresponds vibrations and thrust reversals, resulting in bearing damage
to a saturated steam temperature of 310°F and indicates that and shaft failures.
water in the pump will start to boil in - 17 min.
As far as is known, failures caused by recirculationhave
The actual timewill be a little longer, because some heat not been observed in geothermal lineshaft or submersible
will be transferred to the water but, in any case, the pump will pumps. Apparently, the problem is more severe in larger
cavitate, clearances will change, collets, keys and set screws pumps with high specific suction speeds and high efficiencies.
l o o m and bearings overheat in a relatively short time. If the ratio of impeller eye diameter to outside (OD)diameter
is >0.5, discbarge recirculation occurs before suction
Similar, though perhaps not so drastic, things occur in recirculation. Recirculation usually occurs at 50 to 65% of
a pump that is throttled with a valve. All the energy that is rated capacity, depending on the eye to OD ratio. The onset
not COIlverted to water energy goes into heat. As long as of recirculation is indicated by a sudden increase of pressure
some flow exists, the temperature rise c811 be approximated fluctuations at the suction or discharge, which may reach 60
by: to 90 psi, resulting in vibration and noise. These indications
could be noticed in a surface pump but would be difficult to
Tr = Cm x PlbhDH1-E) detect in a pump set deep in a well.
Qwxc
222
Svstem Examle *
In order to evaluate the relative merits of some of the

above described speed control techniques, the following
example has been prepared. Information was taken from a
well currently operated by the Oregon Institute of Technology.
Static water level 360 ft

Drawdown Minimal (not considered)
Peak production rate 450 gpm
8ucTIoN-
RECfllCUUTION
DXSCHARGE
RECIRCULATION
- Wellheadpressure 20psi
Motor hp 75 hp
Duty cycle As in Table 9.23
Pump efficiency As shown in Figure 9.23
Motor efficiency Assumed at 0.90
This well supplies 191°F geothermal fluid for use in

winter space heating, summer cooling (by way of an absorp-
tion chiller), and a very small domestic hot water heating
duty.
Based on the information above, and that umtained in

Table 9.23 and Figure 9.23, four methods of flow were com-
pared. These included. (a) throttled output, (b) wound rotor
motor with slip recovery, (c) ac adjustable frequency control,
and (d) fluid coupling. Calculations for electricalc o v t i o n
were made at each production level and summed to arrive at
annual use, as suggested in the previous sections. Table 9.24
rmmmafizes the results of the energy mnsumptioncalculation.
I It is important to point out that this example is based on a
100%static head. As a result, savings are not as great as
Figure 9.24 Recirculation in centrifugal pumps would be expected if there was a large friction head on the
(Plant Engineering). system.
a. In all centrifugal pumps, recirculation at the inlet

occurs at some point as the flow rate decreases. Table 9.23 OIT Well #5 Duty Cycle
Recirculation cavitation damage possibly has been Flow Hours1

mistaken for NPSH cavitation damage. In cavitation caused (mm) Year
by insufficient NPSH, cavitation occurs on the low-pressure
side of the vanes. Both suction and discharge recirculation 450 25
cavitation erosion occurs on the high-pressure side of the 400 78
Vanes. 380 82
340 150
Although there have been no reported problems, the 300 476
engineer or pump user should be aware of possible probleins 260 675
when high efficiency pumps are throttled, as is often the case 225 1,132
in space heating applications. Frasier provides equations for 200 235
dculating the flow at both suction and dischargerecirculation 190 1,044
onset (Frasier, 1981). Flow is directly proportional to rpm, 150 4,862
and flow control through the use of variable speed drives
would reduce the possibility of problems, unless high lift
conditions result in essentiallythe same situation as throttling.
223
50
c5
3
Y
40
l-
3
a
Z
H
[5
w 30
. 3
0
a .
20
I
20 I
40
I
60
I
80 ibo
PERCENT FLOW
Figure 9.25 Energy requirements for four control methods.
As shown in Table 9.24, the wound rotor motor with each of the four control methods. For comparison purposes,
slip m v e r y shows the best performance, followed closely by theoretical energy requirement is also shown. This is based
I
the ac variable frequency control. The fluid coupling does upon hydraulichorsepower converted directly tokilowatts(Le.
surprisinglywell in this case. This is because of the combined assuming 100% pump and driver efficiencies).
effect of the pump performance and large static head. The
-
minimum speed of the pump in this example is 70% of full
speed. Because fluid coupling efficiency is primarily a Table 9.25 Flow Control Life Cycle Cost Comparisons
function of input and output speeds, efficiency remains high.
In a situation in which there is a lower minimum shafi speed,
8 greater difference would be seen between the variable
frequency drive and the fluid coupling. Figure 9.25 shows the
energy requirement in kilowattsversus percent peak flow for
i
Throttling Valve 0 24 21,313
Table 9.24 Results of Energy Use Calculations Fluid Coupling 11,000 330 13,424
ACFrequency Drive 16,000 240 10,972
Flow Control Method berm Use in kWhlYear a. Mation at 5961~.

b. Electrical inflation at 2%/y (real).
Throttle 473,6 14 c. Maintenance at O%/y (real).
Fluid coupling 298,306
Adjustable frequency 243,816
Wound rotor w/slip recovery 226,043
224
Table 9.26 Summary of Speed Control Techniques
Capital Maint. Overspeed Effecton Turn Auto Size

afficiency Cost Reauid CaDacitv Motor Life Down Control Ranee Confirmation
Woundroto? High High Moderate Y None 2: 1 Y 'Verticle

wlslip recovery
Adjustableb High Moderate LOW Y Lowers Inf. .Y Fractional N/A

. frequency (ac) to several
.hundred
Fluidc Moderate Moderate Moderate 'N None 4: 1 Y S - 10,OOO Verticle

coupling $5:1 hp Horizontal
Eddycurrent" Moderate Moderate Moderate Y None 201 Y Verticle

coupling Horizontal
Multi-speed" Moderate LOW LOW N None 2: 1 Y Fractional Verticle

motors toseveral Horizontal
hundred
lllrottlillgf very LOW LOW N None No Y No N/A

low limit limit
a. Can go beyond 2: May require extend cooling. Generally applied to very large motors or where Power Factor
correction is needed.
b. Allows motor operation in failure mode. Should use high temperature rise motors. Minimum ambient temperature
50°F.
c.
d. Poor efficiency at low output speeds.
-
Poor efficiency at low output speeds. Capital cost 30% less than variable frequency.
e. Stopped output speed in 2 or 4 increments must throttle in between, +ssible problems with shaft and bearings.
If. Should be considered only for very small applicationsor in csnjunctionwi~another method, Le., multi-speed.
Aswith any energy saving strategy, the magnitude of the Because of the simplicity of the analysis, fhese two
energy savings is only one part of the story. Costs for figures, 1.79 versus 1.15 y, can be considered as equal. As
maintenance, fuel, energy, and capital are equally important. a result, the choice between the fluid coupling and adjustable
In order to evaluate the options discussed above, in this light, frequency drive would be based on other considerations such
life cycle costs have been calculated for three of the systems as maintenance, ease of installation, torque and speed
(current costs .for wound rotor slip loss recovery were not requirements.
available). Table 9.25 summarizes theLinput.
Conclusion
incrementalinvestmentin the fluid coupling over the
mg valve shows a 20-y savings O f $335,428 Among the various drive technologies available, the
($1 15,635 disqwnted at a simple payback of 1-15 choice is a function of a host of project specific parametenr.
years. There is no ques e fluid coupling would %e The. information presented here, along with pump and well in-
the wiser approach of the two. The incremental investment formation from your project, should permit an accurate analy-
in the adjustablefrequency drive over the fluid coupling shows sis to be carried out. The results of this analysis cm then be
8 cumulative 20-y savings of$110,682 ($38, ted at employkd in the decision process. Table 9.26 Summarizes the
10%)andla simple payback of 1.79 years. various characteristicsof thespeed con techniquesoutlined
herein.
225
9.6 LESSONSLEARNED pressure. Air in-leakage leads to corrosion. Leaks
around lineshaft packing lead to corrosion/scaling of the
Listed below are a number of factors relating to pumps shaft, making sealing progressively more difficult.
that can lead to premature failure of pumps and other
components. Many of these have been noted or alluded to 8. Enclosed lineshaft pumps require that lubricant (water or
elsewhere, but are restated here. Some seem obvious, but the oil) be supplied before the pump is started. It has been
obvious is often overlooked. observed that installations where the lubricant flow
. started and stopped simultaneouslywith the pump motor,
1. Pump suppliers/manufacturersshould be provided with pumps failed prematurely.
complete data on all foreseen operating conditions and
complete chemical analyses. Standard potable water As noted in Chapter 8, almost without exception, .
analysis is not adequate, because they do not test for geothermal fluid contains some H$. If a start/sbp mode of
important constituents. operation is used, air is drawn into the system when fluid
drains down the column after the pump stops. This can cause
2. In general, continuous or nearly continuous operation of a greatly accelerated rate of pitting corrosion in carbon steels,
well pumps is p r e f d . Shortcycle stadstop operation formation of cuprous sulfide films, and crevice coTToGioll of
is to be avoided. This is particularly true for open copper, brass and bronze (except leaded brass and bronze),
lineshaftpumps. When the column drains,bearings and &-alloying of leadltin solders and dissolutionof silver solder.
the inside of the column are exposed to oxygen, leading
to corrosion.
GLOSSARY
Stadstop operations necessitate a storage tank. This is
often a source of air in-leakage. Parts per billion (ppb) -
Static Water Level ( S W ) The distance from the surface at
of oxygen (09 in combinationwith ppb hydrogen sulfide which water stands in the well in the static (no pumping)
(H$) can lead to early failure of copper and copper condition.
alloys, dezincificationof brass and bronze and soldering
alloys used in valves, fan coils, and piping. Pumping Level or Lift - The distance from the surface to
water under specified pumping conditions, Le. 400 ft @
Stadstop operation imposes high shaft and coupliug 700 gpm. Pumping level increases as pumping rate
torque loads. It is believed this has led to early failure increases. pumping level equals swl + drawdown.
of lineshah and lineshafl to motor couplings.
-
Drawdown The distance from static level to pumping level
3. Records of pressuff and flow versus rpm or power under specified conditions.
should be kept on a mgular basis. Decreases in flow or
pressure indicate something is wrong and are a portent Pump Setting - The distance from the sur€wto the pump
of more drastic trouble that could OCCUT later 011. inld.
4. Pumps should be pulled and inspected on a regular basis, Total Dynamic Head (TDH)- The total head reqired of the
baed on experience or as recommended by the pump under specific conditions. TDH equals lift + col-
man*-. umn or tubing friction head + friction head in swface
piping and equipment + lift head on the nuface + any
5. Some miuimum flow must be maintained. Relatively discharge pressure nquired at system outlet. TDH will
short periods of operation at shutoff will overheat pumps vary with pumping rate.
and motors.
Net Positive SuctionHead (NPSH) - The head, in feet, re
6 . Motors should be well ventilated. Although this seems quirea above the pump inlet for proper operation. NPSH
obvious, several motors have been installed in below varies with pump rate, pump rotatid speed, tempera-
ground unventilated pits. With piping at 200°F in close ture and elevation. Additional head will be required for
proximity, the motor is near its upper operating tail pipe, inlet screens,flow inducers, etc.
temperature before the power is turned on.
-
Wireto-WaterEfficiency Ratio of the energy input at the
7. Packing glands should be well maintained. All above pump motor terminals to the theoretical pumping
surface Centrifugal PUXIIPStend to in-leak air through requirement.
packing glands, especially if starting at lowsuctirm
226
REFERENCES Electric Power Research Institute, "ASDDirectory Adjustable
Speed Drives", 2nd edition, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA 1987.
Amqrican Society of Heating, Reftigeration and AirCon-
diti&g Engineem, "ASHRAE Handbook - 1983 Frasier, W. H., "Recirculationin Centrifugal F%mps",paper
Equipment Volume", Nerican Societv of Heating presented at 1981 ASME conference, New'York, NY,
Refrigeration and Air Conditionine Svstems, New York, 1981.
NY, pp. 3.26-3.27, 1983.
Frost, J., "Introduction to Geothermal Lineshaft Production
Andreas, John C., "Energy Efficient Electric Motors", pumps", Johnston pump Company.
Defier, New York, NY, pp. 120-153, 1982.
Frost, J., Personal communication,Johnston Pump Company,
Aurora Pumps Catalog, Engineering Manual Section, 1981. Glendora, CA, 1988.
Badester, T., Editor, "Marks's Standard Handbook for Lienau, P., "Direct Use Downhole Pumps", presented at
Mechanical Engineers", McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, Geothermal Resources Council, Short Course - pumbinq
pp. 15.46-15.51, 1978. of Geothermal Brine, Los Angeles, California, March
1984.
Bell and Gossett, Bulletin, "D-11OA-Power AC pumping
Systems", ITT Corporation, Morton Grove, IL 1988. Training and Retraining Jnc., "Motorsand Generators-How
They Work," Sans and Co., Inc., IndianapoIis, Indiana,
htrilift Hughes, Submersible Pump Handbook, 1983. pp. 180-192, 1982.
Cherry, R. C., "Analyzing Low Flow in Vertical Turbine

Pumps", Plant Engineering, April 23, 1987.
227
CHAPTER 10
PIPING
/ By Kevin D. Rafferty, P.E.
OIT Geo-Heat Center
Klamath Falls, Oregon 97601
I I I
10.1 INTRODUCTION 1. cruborrsteel
2mEpacy
The source of geothermal fluid for a direct use 3.FRP pcrvester
4. Ac
appfication is often located some distance away from the user. 5. $0
This requires a trammission pipeline to transport the 6.CPJC
geothermal fluid. Even in the absence of transmission line 7. pircruelmil
8. wc
requirements, it is frequently advisable to employ other than e. PE
standard piping materials for in-building or aboveground I I
I
piping. Geothermal energy for direct use applications is
usually transported in the liquid phase and has some of the
same design considerations as water distribution system.
Several factors including pipe material, dissolved chemical 3 ’ 4 ‘ 5 ’ 6 7 ’ 8 ’ 9
components,size, installation method, head loss and pumping RPiW rype
requirements, temperature, M a t i o n , pipe expansion and Figure 10.1 Maximum service temperature for pipe
servicetaps should be consideredbefore final system selection. XMteXialS.
In severalinstallations, long transmissionpipelinesappear

to be economidy feasible. Geothermal fluids are being 10.1.1 Pining Currently in Use
transported up to 37 mi in Iceland (Katlsson, 1982). In the
U.S., <5 mi is generally considered economical;however, the The following data was taken from a recent survey
distance is dependent on the size of the heat load and the load (Rafferty, 1989) of 13 operating geothermal district heating
factor. systems. The total main line (>2 in.) piping included in the
system reviewed for that report amounted to approximately
piping materials for geothermal heating systems have 269,000 linear feet(lo.
been of numerous types with great variation in cost and *
durability. Some of the materials which can be used in Figure 10.2 provides a breakdown of the total piping by
geothermal applications include: asbestos cement (AC), type. As indicated, asbestos cement (AC)material is clearly
ductile iron @I), dip-joint steel (STL-S), welded steel (STL- the most widely applied product with approximately 5596 of
W), gasketed polyvinyl chloride (PVC-G),- solvent welded the total piping in these systems. Steel and fiberglass are
PVC (PVC-S), chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC),
polyethylene (PE), polybutylene (PB), mechanical joint
fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP-M), FRP epoxy adhesive
joint-military (FRP-EM), FRP epoxy adhesivejoint (FRP-E),
FRP gasketedjoint (FRPS),and threadedjoint FRP (FRP-T).
The temperature and chemica! quality of the geothermalfluids,
in addition to cost, usually determines the type of pipeline
material used. Figures 10.1 and 10.2 introduce the tempera-
ture limitations and relative costs of the materials covered in
this chapter. Generally, the various pipe materials are more
expensive the higher the temperah= rating.
Installationcosts are very much a function of the type of

joining method employed and the piping material. The light
weight of most nonmetallic piping makes handling labor
significantly less than that of steel and ductile iron in sizes
greater than 3 in. Figure 10.2 Relative cost of piping by type.
229
distant m d to AC. only minimum quantities Of polybuty-
lene, ductile iron and PVC are in use. Of note is the fact that
there is increasing interest in ductile iron. Its relatively low
cost and simple installation techniques are similar to the now
unavailable AC pipe. The PVC currently in use is all
uninsulated piping in use on the collection network of one of
the low temperature systems.
District heating systems can be designed as "open" or

"closed" distribution networks. In the open design, the
geothermal fluid is delivered directly to the customer. Waste
or cooled fluid is collected in the return piping for delivery to
the disposal facility. Closed systems, on the other hand,
employ central heat exchangers to isolate most of the district
system from the geothermal fluid. Heat is delivered to the
customer via a "closed loop" of clean treated water.
The characteristicsof open and closed systems are quite

different. For example, closed systems generally employ Figure 10.4 Distribution of piping used in closed loop
insulated piping for both the supply and return piping; geothermal systems.
whereas, open systems use insulation only on the supply
piping. More importantly, open systems expose all of the
piping to the geothermal fluids and as a result, corrosion Figure 10.5 provides a similar breakdown for piping used
considerations are mote critical to these designs. Finally, the in open systems. Again AC pipe has obviously been the
cost of closed system is generally much higher than open m a t e d of choice for applicationsin which the pipe must be
systems. This is the result of costs associated with the central exposed to the geothermal fluid. Asbestos cement far
plant and the more extensive use of insulated piping. -
exceeded its closest competitor (FRP 1896) for this applica-
tion. The previous popularity of AC, coupled with the Edct
Figure 10.3 provides a breakdown of total piping with that it is for practical purposes no longer available, under-
respect to quantities used in open and closed distribution scores the need to identify a low cost alternative for this
systems. As indicated, open systems constitute most of the application.
piping applications.
PB (4.9%)7 rSteel (10.2%)
Figm 10.3 Comparison of total amount of pipe used in Figure 10.5 Distriiution of pipe used in open geothermal
open and closed geothermal district heating. district heating systems.
For the piping used in the closed distribution systems, None of the geothermal district systems reviewed uses
Figure 10.4 provides a breakdown by type. Clearly, steel piping larger than 14 in. A breakdown of piping by size
piping is the choice for this application. appears in Figure 10.6.
230
installation crews. The advantage of nonmetallic materials is
that they are virtually impervious to most chemicals found in
geothermal fluids. However, the installation procedures,
particularly for fiberglass, polyethylene and polyhtylene are,
in many cases,outside the experience of typical laborers and
local code officials. This is particularly true in rural areas.
The following sections review some specificsof each material
and cover some problems encountered in existing g e o t h e d
Systems.
10.2.1 Carbon Steel
Available in almost all areas, steel pipe is manufactured

in sizes ranging from 114 to over 72 in. Steel is the material
most familiar to pipe fitters and installation crews. The
joining method for small sizes (<2-1/2 in.) is usually
Figure 10.6 Size distribution of piping in geothermaldistrict threading, with welding used for sizes above this level
heating systems. (Khashab, 1984). For underground installations, alljoints are
typically welded when unlined piping is used. For epoxy-
lined piping, some form of mechanical joint should be
As discussed above, many of these systems employ employed so that welding does not interfere with the integrity
uninsulated piping on the return (or disposal) side of the of the fining mated. Commonly used steel pipe ratings are
distribution system. As indicated in Figure 10.7,.fully 27% Schedule 40 (standard) and Schedule 80 (extra strong). In
of all distribution piping in these systems is uninsulated. The most cases, in the U.S., Schedule 40 piping is used for
prospect for increased use of uninsulated material in future heating applications, although, in Europe and for some newer
system is discussed later in this chapter. non-geothermal district systems in the U.S., lighter weights
(approximately Schedule 20) are now used. Schedule 80 is
employed for high pressure applications or in cases where
higher than normal corrosion rates are expected.
Corrosion is a major concern with steel piping, parti-

cularly in geothermalapplications. As mentioned above, some
2 in. (8.3%)~ j-14 .&I (6.4%) allowance can be made by using the thicker-walled Schedule
80 ,piping. However, this approach is valid only for uniform
corrosion rates. In many geothermal fluids, there are various
ConCentrsLtions of dissolved chemicals or gases that can result
primarily in pitting or crevice corrosion. If the potential
exists for this type of attack, or if the fluid has been expose(t
8 in. (16.8%) to the air before entering the system, carbon steel should be
6 in. (24.2%) the material of last mort.
Steel piping is used primarily on the clean loop side of

Figure 10.7 Comparison of relative amounts of insulated and the isolation heat exchanger, although in a few cases it has
nnindated pipe in geothermal district heating been employed as the geothermal transmission line material.
systems.
A distinct disadvantage in using steel pipe is that the
buried pipe is also subject to external COKOS~OII unless
10.2 PIPE MATERIALS protected with a suitablewrapping or cathodicprotection. For
example, the distribution system at Oregon Institute of
Both metallic and nonmetallic piping can be considered Technology originally consisted of carbon steel pipe with a
for geothermal applications. Carbon steel is the most widely rigid foam cellular insulation wrapped with a mastic saturated
used metallic pipe and has an acceptable service life if with an asphalt material to provide a seal. 'The water seal
23 1
considexh for all direct buried installations. Various soil 10.2.2 Ductile Iron
types, presence of groundwater, and induced current fields
from power lines may accelerate external pipe corrosion and Ductile iron is similar to cast iron with the exception of
early system failure. the form of the carbon component. In cast iron, the carbon
(graphite) is in a flakelike structure. In ductile iron, the
In at least two geothermal systems, unlined steel piping structure is more spherical or nodular. This small difference
has performed well in normal operation but has suffered severe results in the greater strength, flexibility, and machinability
pitting corrosion during system shutdowns. In one case in from which the product derives its name. Table 10.2 outlines
-
which a systemwas down for 6 months,carbon steel piping
exhibited pitting corrosion rates of 70 to 200 milsly (my)
physical properties of this material. Ductile iron has been
described as more cortosion resistant than cast iron.
(Ellis, 1981). If unlined steel piping is employed on the However, the slight difference in camsion resistance would
geothermal si& of the system, it is most critical to assure a not be of any substantive meaning in-most geothermal
complete drying of the material for extended shutdowns. applications.
In both buried and aboveground installations, allowances

for expansion must be made in the form of expansionjoints or Table 10.2 Physical Properties of Ductile Iron Pipe
loops. These umsiderations have the effect of increasing both
the labor and material costs of the piping system.
Value
Galvanized steel has been employed with mixed SUCC~SS Coefficient of expansion 5.8 x 106 in./in."F
in geothermal applications. Some geothermal fluids have Thermal conductivity 240 Btu in.h ft2 O F
demonstmted the ability to leach zinc from solder and other Specific gravity 7.12
alloys. Selective removal of the zinc from galvauiz.ed pipe Hazen - Williams flow factor 140
could result in severe pitting corrosion. In addition,
umsideration should be given to the fact that the prohibitive
nature of the zink coating is generally not effective above
135°F. Cast iron piping was employed for over 80 years in the .
Warm Springs geothermal system (Boise, ID). Neither cast
An indication of the costs for steel piping is shown in nor ductile iron has seen any substantial application in modern
Table 10.1. g e o t h e d systems.
As an iron material, ductile iron is susceptible to

Table 10.1 Steel Piping Costs, Material Only (Means, 1990) comion from both external and internal sources. External
protection generally involves a moisture barrier. For a
pre-insulated product, special moisture protection would only
Size Schedule 40 Schedule 80 be required at the joints and other fittings.
(in.) c$nn tsnn
. Internal corrosion protection is usually provided by a
2 2.27 2.54 lining. The two most common materials are cement mortar
4 6.16 8.22 and coal tar epoxy. coal tar epoxy is limited to a temperature
6
8
12.32
16.52
22.08
33.14
-
of 120°F. Mortar lining, accordingto the Ductile Iron Pipe
Producers Research Association, is suitable to a service
temperature of 150°F with a protective seal coat. Without the
seal coat, maximum service temperature is 212°F. In some
applications with very soft water, a leaching of the mortar
Reference standards: lining has been observed when a seal coat is omitted (Fisher,
1987). As a result, a special high temperature epoxy coating
1. Pipe, American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) would be required. Unfortunately, quotes received by the San
A-120, A-53. Bemardino Water District (operators of the San Benrardin0,
California, Geothermal District Heating System) for linings of
2. Fittings, American Staudards Association (ASA) B16.9 this type for 130°F application would add $5.00 to $8.00/
(welded). lineal foot to the price of the pipe (Fisher, 1987). In
applications where water chemistry is such that bare cement
lining is acceptable, ductile iron could be a economical piping
choice.
232
Ductile iron is a much-thicker-walled product than The lack of a proven, cost effective, high temperatnre
standard carbon steel and, for uniform corrosion applications, (>150"F) W g material renders this type of piping
offers the probability of longer life. In geothermal questionablefor geothermal applicationsin the >150"F range.
applications, corrosion occurs by both uniform and pitting
modes. Pitting corrosion rates of 70 to 200 mpy in carbon Table 10.5 is a listing of ductile iron speciscationSand
steel have been observed in one low-temperature (C150°F) Standards.
system during shutdown periods.
Table 10.5 Ductile Iron Specifications Standards

Table 10.3 Ductile Iron Piping Dimensional Data -
Standard DescriDtion
Wail OD OD PreSSUre
Size Thickness Pipe Bell Weight Thickness Rating ANSIIAWWA C15OlA21.50 American National Standard
(in.) (in.) (in.) llbllfl Class (mi) for the Thickness Design of
3 0.25 3.9 6.1 9.4 0.51 150 Ductile Iron Pipe.
4 0.26 4.8 7.2 12.0 0.51 150
6 0.25 6.9 9.5 17.0 0.50 150 ANSIIAWWA C1511A21.51 American National Standard
8 0.27 9.1 12.0 24.1 0.50 150 for Ductile Iron Pipe,
10 0.29 11.1 14.2 31.9 0.50 150 centrifugally Cast in Metal
Molds or Sand Lined Molds
for Water and Other
.Liquids.
Ductile iron pipe is the heaviest material of those covered
in this chapter. As a result, it would incur additional handing ANSIIAWWA CllOlA21.10 American National Standard
costs in comparison to the lighter weight materials. Table for Ductile Iron and Gray
10.3 presents dimensional data for ductile iron piping. Iron Fittings 3 In. through
48 In. for Water and Other
Ductile iron piping is cost competitive with asbestos Liquids.
cement material. In addition, its common use in water supply
systems results in wider familiarity with its installation ANSIIAWWA C111lA21.11 American National Standard
practices. Table 10.4 outlines costs for ductile iron piping. for Rubber Gasket Joints for
' Ductile Iron and Gray Iron
Pressure Pipe and Fittings.
Table 10.4 Costs For - Ductile Iron Piping
-
(Uninsulated Tyton Joint) (Means, 1990) ANSIIAWWA C104lA21.4 American National Standard
for Cement-Mortar Lining
for Ductile Iron and Gray
Size cost Iron Pipe and Fittings for
(in.) -&!!I- Water.
4 6.50
6 8.10 ANSIIAWWA C105lA21.5 American National Standard
8 11.35 for Polyethylenehcasement
10 15.15 for Ductile Iron Piping for
12 18.70 Water and Other Liquids.
ANSIIAWWA C600 American Water Works

Association Standard for
The most common method of joining ductile iron piping Installation of Jhctile Iron
is through the use of a push+n or Tyton type joint. This is Water Mains and their
a bell and spigot gasketedjoint. In addition, several versions AppUrtenances.
of mechanical joints are available, although these are
characterized by higher cost than the push-on joints.
233
10.2.3 Fibernlass mTRP) able. Among the most popular are illustrated in Figure 10.8.
Of these, the keyed mechanical, and bell and spigot/adhesive
Fiberglasspiping, commonly referred to as RTRP (rein- have seen the widest application in geothermal systems.
forced thermosetting resin pipe) or FRP (fiberglassreinforced
plastic), is available in two materials: epoxy resin and In making the choice between the mechanical and
polyester resin. In addition, it is available in lined and adhesive type of joining, consideration should include cost,
unlined versions. The epoxy resin piping with an epoxy liner contractor familiarity, and probable installation temperature.
is generally selected for geothermal applications. Both epoxy
resin and polyester resin systems can be compounded to be
serviceable to temperatures of 300°F. Regardless of the type
The cost of the keyed joint piping is - 10% more than
the bell and spigot/adhesivejoint in the 6 in. size. Alternate
of fiberglass material used, care must be taken to maintain versions of mechanical joining are somewhat more expensive.
operating pressure high enough to prevent flashing of hot The added cost of the keyed-typejoint is compensated for by
fluids. At high temperatures (>boiling point), the RTRP the reduced labor necessary to complete the joint. In addition
systems are susceptible to damage when fluid flashes to vapor. to the amount of labor required, the adhesive joint also
The forces associated with the flashing may spall the fibers at demands a greater technical skill on the part of the installer.
the interior of the pipe surface. The epoxy adhesive must be properly mixedand applied to the
joint under acceptable conditions to ensure a reliable set. One
Fiberglasspiping is available from a number of manufac- of the most important of these conditions is temperature.
turers but, at the distributor and dealer level, it is considerably Figure 10.9 indicates the importance of ambient et-
less common than steel. Most manufacturersproduce sizes 2 on joint setup time.
in. and larger. As a result, if fiberglass is to be employed,
another material would have to be used for branch and small Two tecent developments which may be consideratiions
diameter piping of <2 in. are gasketed slip joint and integral thread joining. The slip
joint approach provides for installation very similar to tyton
As with all nonmetallic piping, the method of joining is joint ductile iron or AC pressure pipe. Integral thread (with
a large consideration with respect to both installation time and a double "0"ring) piping is also less labor intensive and low
expense. With FRP piping, a variety of methods are avail- cost.
-
Below 75T, curing time is substantidly increased. As
a result, if installation is to occur in a reasonable length of
SPIGOT and TAPERED TtlREADED JOINTS time, a special heating blanket must be applied to each joint
after makeup to ensure proper curing. As with most other
piping systems, the mechanical draw method is preferred for
joint assembly.
As shown in Table 10.6, the axial expansion of FRP is

approximately twice that of steel. However, because of the
relatively low axial modulus, forces developed as a result of
this expansion are only 3 to 5% that of steel under the same
conditions (Smith-Inland, 1982). As a result, for buried in-
stallations with at least 3 ft of cover, sufficient restraint is
provided by the overlying soil and no special precautionSneed
be made for expansion other than adequate thrust blocking.
For aboveground installations (onhangers), changes in direc-
tion are the most economical method of allowing for expan-
sion. In general, the next most economical method is the use
of guide p i n g .
Fittings are available from most manufacturers in a wide

FLANGE JOINT variety of configurations. In general, the bell and spigot/
epoxyjoint system offers a greater number of fittings than the
keyed joint system. In fact, it is likely that some field made
adhesive joints will be required even if a keyed joint system
is selected. Fittings are available to umvert h m the fiber-
glass connections system to standard flange umnections.
Saddle fittings of fiberglass construction are available for
service connections. Standard piping lengths are 20,30, and
Figure 10.8 Joining methods for fiberglass piping. 40 ft.
234
40 I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
' Time to pressure (hours)
Figure 10.9 Setup time for epoxy adhesive.
Table 10.6 Physical Properties of Fibexglass Pipe Cost for fiberglass piping systems are shown in Table
10.7. It should be noted that fitting custs can d t u t e a
substantialportion of the total cost for a piping system.
Vinyl
Proredies EDOXV Standard ratings for FRP piping are shown in Table 10.8.
Coefficient of expansion 1.26 x 10-5in.iin. "F 1.05
Thermal conductivity 2.8 Btum ft2 OF in. 1.30
Specific gravity 1.8 1.85 Table 10.8 Ratings for FRP Pipe
Hm-Williams flow factor 150 150
wall support
Size OD Thickness Weight Spacing Fremm/Teq
Table 10.7 -Cost 'for Fiberglass Piping (in.) tin.) (in.) (Iblft) (ft) (DsiPFl
(epoxy lindadhesive type joint) (Means,1990) 2 2.375 0.12 0.6 14.0 300/220200/200
4 .4.500 9.12 1.2 16.9 1501225 1251200
6 6.625 0.145 2.4 20.4 150/225 1001200
Fittings 8 8.695 0.162 3.1 22.9 150/225 1001200
Size Pipe Ell Tee JointKit 10 10.76 0.185 4.3 25.5 150/225 1001200
(in.) f$tea) A l a ) ,($led 12 12.72 0.202 6.1 27.8 150/225 1001200
2 4.91 34 78 11
3 6.47 40 92 14
4 . 8.07 50 1.12 17
6 12.01 90 188 21 Appropriate standards and specifications for fiberglass
'8 ~19.85 163 307 25 pipe are shown in Table 10.9.
IO 29.78 278 440 28
12 38.16 371 573 31
. 235
Table 10.9 Fiberglass Specifications and Standards In general, manufacturers produce either large diameter
pipe (2 to 18 in.) or small diameter pipe (<2 in.). Experi-
ence shows that small diameter material has greater avail-
Standard DescriDtions ability. ' The general physical properties of polybutylene are
ASTM D-2310 Standard Classification for Machine Made shown in Table 10.11.
RW.
ASTMD-2517 Standard Specification for R e i n f d Table 10.11 Physical Properties of Polybutylene Pipe
Epoxy Resin Gas Pressure Pipe and
Fittings.
ProDertv Value
ASTM D2996 Standard Specification for Filament Wound
.-. RTRP., Coefficient of expansion 7.1 x losin./in. OF
Thermal conductivity 1.5 Btu h./hft2 OF
MIL-P-28584-4 Pipe and Pipe Fittings, Glass Fiber Rein- Specific gravity 0.925
forced Plastic for CondensateReturn Lines. Hazen-Williams flow factor 150
10.2.4 Polvbutvlene PB) Because of the chemical nature of polyolefin piping, it

cannot be joined using solvents or adhesives. The most posi-
Polybutylene is classed along with polyethylene as a tive method, and that mmmended for all installations, is
polyolefin material. It is a flexible thermoplasticmaterial and, thermal fusion. Two methods are available, socket fusion and
in small sizes, is availablein roll form. Maximum Continuous butt fusion.
service temperatureis 180°F (Rahn, 1984). The resin material
is mauufachued by a few large petrochemical companies and Socket fusion is used for joining small diameter piping of
is then fabricated into pipe and fittings by smaller piping 2 to 3 in. or less. Butt fusion is used for all larger piping.
manufacturers. The fusionjoining procedure requires the use of a specialized
jig with provisions for hating the pipe. This tool is usually
The piping is rated on the basis of Standard Dimension available for rental from the piping vendors. Basically, the
Ratio (SDR)(Rabn, 1984). Basically, SDR is a ratio of the two lines to be joined are aligned in the jig, heated (to
510°F) and brought together under light pressure to form the
-
wall thickness to the pipe diameter. As wall thickness
increases at a given diameter, SDR decreases. Typical SDR joint. Operation of the heating jig requires special skills. As
ratings for hot water piping are 13.5 and 11. These are rated with other plastic pipe systems, it is wise to specify factory
at 160 and 200 psi, respectively at 75°F. As with many training or certification of the installation crew for this type of
plastic piping materials, the pressure rating of polybutylene piping.
reduces with increases in service temperature. Table 10.10
outlines the pressure derating factors that generally apply to A third method, not yet widely used, is thermal welding.
this material. This system reportedly employs a hot nitrogen gas torch and
a polyolefin welding rod (Knipe, 1987).
Table 10.10 Pressure Ratings for Polybutylene Pipe* Small diameter piping can be joined using a flare or com-
pression type procedure. The use of an insert stiffener is re-
commended, particularlywith higher SDR ratings and extreme
Temperature Derating service conditions (Rahn, 1984).
0 Factors
73 1.0 The advantage of compression type fittings is that the
~ 100 0.87 joint can be disassembledat a later date. Problems have been
1 140 0.80 experienced with this joining method in the Susanville,
"-I
..- 150 0.65 California, district heating system. Evidently, failure of the
180 0.50 joint can occur in hot water systems of the recirculating type
200 0.40 (where the joint has no opportunity to periodically cool) and
compression joining is not mmmended for this application
a. Rahn, 1984 (Templeton, 1987). The same system has had very good
experience with the pre-insulated polybutylene distribution
system. This material was assembled using the butt fusion
technique.
236
-
expansion of polybutykne is 17 times that of
steel. Because of &e very low modulus ofelastkity, however,
Table 10.13 Polybutylenesgeclficationsand Standards
only a minimum of concern need be directed at expansion.

For aboveground installations, the piping must be anchored Standad Describtion
only at sufficient intervals to reduce lateral movement to the ASTM F809-83 Standard §pecificatim for Large
extent of available space. For buried installations, as with Diameter PoTybutylene PiastiC Pipe.
fiberglass, the soil generally pmvides sufficient restraint.
Because of the lark expamion coefficient of PB, care should ASTM D2666 Standard Specification fai Folybutylene
be taken m exceptionally hot or cold installation conditions to (PB) Plastic Tubing.
allow for expansion and contraction when determining piping
length. ASTM D2662 Standard specification for Polyutylene
(PB) Plastic PipeSDR-PR).
Fittings for large diameter PB are available in a limited
number of configurations. Standard pipe fittings (elbows, ASTM D3000 Standard Specification for Polybutylene
tees, and reducers) are manufactured in mitered designs with (PB) Plastic Pipe Based on Outside
fiberglass reinforcement for strength. These arejoined to the Diameter.
pipe us&g the butt fusion p d u r e . For connecting to
valves, tanks and other devices, a flange adapter is used. This ASTM D3309 Standard Specification for Polybutylene
consists of a pipe stub end and slip-on flange. Bolt patterns (PB) Hot Water Distribution System.
are available in standard ASA B16.1 125 Ib pattern. Service
connections can be made with either fusion saddles or
mechanical service saddles. Bare polybutylene piping is
generally installed in direct buried type installations. Support 10.2.5 Asbestos Cement fAC)
spacing for hanger type installations is dependent upon
temperatwe, nominal pipe size and SDR rating. For example, Asbestos cement pipe, sometimes refmed to by the pro-
a 6 in. SDR 13.5 line at 80°F would require support at -
intervals. At 170"F, this spacing would be reduced to 4 ft.
5 ft prietary name of Transite, is a familiar material to most
installation crews. It has been used for many years in
It is apparent from these values that support requirements for municipal water systems. Recent concern about the carcino-
PB piping a x substantially greater than for other materials. genic nature of asbestos has resulted in an impact on the avail-
ability of AC pipe. Some manufacturershave ceased produc-
tion and it is likely the material will not be widely available
Costs for porybutylenepiping are shown in Table 10.12. in the future.
. The piping is manufactured in sizes of 3 to 24 in. and has

Table 10.12 Costs For Polybutylene Pipe and Fitings a maximum service temperatureof u)o"F. For geothermalser-
vice, the piping is generally specified with an epoxy Lining.
In most cases, asbestos cement pressure pipe is the material
SDR Fittinm employed. This piping is availablegenerally in three pressure
Size 17 13.5 90" Ell Tee classifications: 100, 150, and 200, with Class 150 most fre
(in.f mfl- tsnn G d . quently specifiedfor geothermalsewice. Table 10.14 presents
design data for the material.
2 - - - -
3 - $ 1.44 $129 $ 165
4 $ 4.16 5.26 139 203 Table 10.14 Class 150 Asbestos Cement Pressure Pipe
6 8.65 10.74 182 30s Information
a
8 14.67 18-08 279 465
10 22.53 . 26.23 407 719
12 31~70 39.30 604 955 Size
cm.l tin.)
4 4.00 4.77 6.1

Appropriate standards and specificationsfor polybutylene 6 6.00 7.05 11-1
pipe are iisted in Table 10.13. 8 8.00 9.22 16.5
10 10.00 1k43 22.7
12 12.00 13.69 32.1
237
b
Joining of the pipe at couplings and small branch take- Table 10.16 Costs for AC PressUtePipe Class 150Including
offs can be accomplished with O-ring slip togetherjoints made Coupling
ofthe same material as the pipe (Johus-MannviUe, 1982). The
generaIly preferred method is that the pipe be attached to the
coupling using the mechanical draw method. Fittings are Size Cost
availablein cast iron or steel construction. In sizes applicable (in. 1 snf
to geothermal systems, the cast iron material would be more 4 3.47
commonly used. These fittings would be the same as those 6 5.10
used in water main construction (AWWA 110). For both the 8 6.90
fittings and the couplings, it is important to specify a gasket 10 10.25
materid that is compatible with the fluid being handled. This 12 14.10
compatibility should consider both temperature and fluid
chemistry. Most manufacturers can supply EPDM gaskets. a. Means, 1989
Service co~ectiODsto AC pipe can be accomplished for small
diameter service lines with special tapped, AC couplings. In
addition, standard mechanical service saddles can be used.
Appropriate standards of specification for AC piping are
. Table 10.15 presents basic physical properties of AC shown in Table 10.17.
piping.
Table 10.17 Specifications and Standards for AC Piping

Table 10.15 Physical Properties of AC Piping
Standard kriDtion
PrWeltV Value ASTM C296 -
Coefficient of expansion 4.5 x 106 in./in.OF ASTM D 1869 Rubber Rings for AC Pressure Pipe
Thermal conductivity 3.0 Btu in./"F ft2 h
Specific gravity 2.03 AWWA C400 AWWA Standard for AC Pressure Pipe
Hazen-Williams flow factor 150 for Water and Other Liquids
AWWA C603 Standard for Installation of AC Water

Pipe
Expansion of AC is about the same as that of steel.
Becauseofthe constructionof the AC coupIings, all expansion
is compensated for at the joint. As a result, expansion loops
orjoints are not required. Careful bedding procedures should 10.2.6 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) and
be employed because of the relatively fragile nature of the pipe Chlorinated PolwinVl Chloride fCPVC)
material.
- PVC is a low-temperature (maximumservice temperature
Experience with 240°F geothermal water at the Raft is 140°F) rigid thermoplastic material. It is manufactured in
River, Idaho project demonstmted that AC pipe is susceptible 0.5 to over 12 in. in diameter sizes and is, next to steel, the
to thermal shock (Austin,l980). At lower system tempera- most commonly available piping material. Common ratings
tures, the thermal shock is r e d u d and the AC pipe is not used for plumbing applicationsare., as steel, Schedule 40 and
affected. In many installations, a system can be brought up to Schedule 80. In most applications, the Schedule 40 would
temperature and not subjected to $he wide fluctuations and suffice. For higher temperahe suspended applications, the
temperature cycling obsewed at Raft River. The AC pipe is Schedule80 material would require slightly less support. The
performing satisfactoriIy in several low temperature (170°F) most common methud ofjoining PVC is by solvent welding.
installations in California and Idaho including the San
Bemardino, Susanville, and Boise district heating systems. -
Schedule 80 material can also be threaded. Most types of
fittings and some valves are.available in PVC up to 12 in.
(celanese, 1976). Table 10.18 presents a summary of PVC
Cost for asbestos cement piping is shown in Table 10.16. and CPVC physical Properties.
238
Table 10.18 Physical Properties of PVC and CPVC Table 10.20 Weight and Suppost Requirementsfor
Schedule 80
Prouerties PVC CPVC
Coefficient of 3x losin./in.aF 3.8 x lV5 in.Ein. O

F Weight
expansion Size PVC CPVC '60°F 140°F @kF 180°F
(in.3 (Ibtlfi fibtlfi J&Lcft',cft,Ifl
Thermal 1.2 Btuh ft2 "Flin. 0.95 Btu/h A2 "Flin. 2 0.93 1.01 7 5 8 4
conductivity . 3 1.86 2.03 8 6 9 5
4 2.73 2.97 9 6 10 6
Specific gravity 1.39 1.55 6 5.20 5.67 10 7 .10 6
8 7.91
11.70
-- 11
12 8
8 11
-
7
-
H--Wdliam~ 150 150 10
flow factor
Table 10.21 Costs for PVC and CPVC Pipe and Fittings
CPVC is a highertemperaturerated material with a maxi- (Means, 1990)
mum temperature rating of 2XPF. Pressure handling ability
at this temperature is very low (as is PVC at its maximum
tempemhue) and support requirements are almost continuous. PVC CPVC 90 De- Ell
Tabie 10.19 out€ines the effect of service'temperature or Size Sch. 80 Sch. 80 PVC CPVC
pressure rating of PVC and CPVC,piping materials. (in.) c$nn B!EL &&&21
2 1.03 3.18 2.12 14.50
3 1.87 6.51 5.40 30.00
Table 10.19 Pressure Ratings for PVC and CPVC Pipe 4 2.52 9.10 9.25 54.00
6 4.42 19.34 21.00 11u.00
8 8.61 35.06 49.00 -
Temperature Pressure Rating 10 12.73
1
,
. -EL - -
PVC CPVC
75 1.00 1.00
j 80 0.90 1.00 Table 10.22 PVCand CBVC Piping Specificationsand
90 0.75 0.92 Standards
100 0.62 0.85
120 0.40 0.65 .
130 0.30 0.57 Standard DescriDtion
140 U.22 0.50 ASTM D-1784 PVC and CPVC Compounds Rigid -
160 - 0.40
130
180
200
-- 0.32
0.25
0.20
ASTM D1785 PVC Plastic Pipe Schedule 40; 80, and
120
ASTMD2464 Threaded PVC Plastic Pipe Fittings

Schedule 80
Table 10.2O.presentsweight and support requirementsfor ASTM D2466 Socket Type PVC Plastic Pipe Fittings
PVC and CPVC. :Schedule 40
Costs .for these piping materials are presented in Table ASTM 2467 Socket Type .PVC Plastic Pipe Fittings
30;21. &-a result of the high costs for CPVC, it Schedule 80
little application.in geothermal system.
ASTM 2564 Solvent cements for PVC Plastic pipe
..Selectedstan& for PVC and CPVC piping are listed and Fittings
-inTable 10.22.
239
10.2.7 Polvethvlene (PE) The pressure ratings ofpolyethylene piping are a function
of SDR and temperature. Table 10.24 outlines typical ratings.
Polyethylene is in the same chemical family (polyolefin)
as polybutylene and is similar in physical characteristics. It is As with polybutylene, support spacing is dependent upon
a flexible material availablein a wide variety of sizes from 0.5 line size, temperature and SDR as indicated in Table 10.25.
to 42 in. diameter. To date, this material has seen little appli-
cation in geothermal systems, primarily because of its maxi-
mum service tempemture of 140 to 150°F. This maximum Table 10.25 Support Spacing for Polyethylene Piping
temperature is a rule of thumb recommended by the manufac-
turer (Phillips - Drisco Pipe, 1981). ?he piping is recom-
mended only for gravity flow applicationsabove this tempera- SDR 25.2 SDR 11
ture. Very high molecular weightlhigh-density PE can be Size 73°F 125°F 73°F 125°F
employed for low pressure applications up-to tempemtms as
high as 175°F. The SDR (wall thickness) requirements under
(in.)
2
& L a
4 3
m4 a
3
these conditions, however, greatly reduce the cost advantages 4 4 4 5 4
normally found in polyethylene. Use of the material in geo- 6 5 4 6 5
thermal applications has been limited to small diameter (0.5 to 8 6 5 7 6
1 in.) tubing employed for bare tube heating systems in 10 7 6 8 7
greenhouses.
SO= Eur~peandistrict hating S Y S ~ I Xare

S using B CTOSS-
linked PE product for branch lines of 4 in. and under. This costs for polyethylene piping are shown in Table 10.26.
material is servicable to 194°F at a pressure of - 85 psi.
Availability of this product in Iarge sizes is questionable.
Table 10.26 Costs for Polyethylene Pipe (1987)
Joining methods and fittingsfor polyethylenepipe are the
same as those for polybutylene. Size Cost
(in.) -
SDR tsnn
Table 10.23 presents typical physical propertia for 112 11 0.08
polyethylene piping. 314 11 0.12
1 11 0.19
1-114 11 0.32
Table 10.23 Physical Properties of Polyethylene Piping 1-112 11 0.44
2 11 0.73
3 11 1.86
PrODertV Value 4 11 3.30
Coefficient of expansion 8.0 x 1w in./in. OF 6 21 3.69
Thermal conductivity 2.7 Btum fi2 "F1in. 8 21 7.00
specific gravity 0.957 8 8.3 11.24
Hazen-Williams flow factor 155
Appropriate specificationsand stan- for polyethylene

Table 10.24 Pressure Ratings (in psi) pipe are listed in Table 10.27.
for Polyethylene Piping
10.2.8 Comer
Temperature SDR Copper piping, one of the most common materials in

(OF) -
21 -
17 13.5- 11 standard COLIStTUCtioll, is generally not acceptable for geo-
50 90 113 145 180 the~~~Iap~lications. Mostresource~cOntain~erydq~an-
80 76 95 122 150 tities of hydrogen sulfide (HS), the dissolved gas that results
100 63 79 101 125 in a rotten egg odor. This constituent is very aggressive
120 50 63 80 100 toward copper and copper alloys. In addition, the solder used
140 40 50 64 80 to join copper has also been subject to attack in even very low
total dissolved solids ('FDS) fluids. For these reasons, copper
is not recommended for use in geothermal systems.
240
Table 10.27 Polyethylene Pipe Specifications and Standards There is a wide variet$o o m available.interdls
of jacket and carrier pipe materials. The only coIlimon factor
among most products is the use of polyurethane for the insula-
Standard Descriution tion layer. This insulation is .generallyfoamed ~ II using
place
ft3 and a tmmpmsive strength of .25 psi.
ASTMO1248 Polyethylene Plastic ity of the palyudiane varies, %ut a mean
Extrusion Materials value of 0.18 Btu in.& OF al 15odF is genefidly specified.
ASTM 03350 Polyethylene Plastic Pipe and Fittings AC pre-insulated systems generally employ AC materials
Materials for both fhe carrier pipe and the jacket. carrier piping is as
described in the AC section above. The jacket material is
ASTM 02447 Polyethylene (PE) Plastic Pipe, Schedules usually a class 1500 sewer pipe product (ASTM C428).
40 and 80 Based on Controlled OD
For steel, FRP, PB, PE, and PVC a variety of jacket
ASTM 03055 Polyethylene Plastic Pipe (SDR-PR) materials are available. These includepolyethylene, PVC, and
Based on controlled OD fiberglass.
ASTMO3201 Butt Fusion polyethylene (PE) Plastic The most common material is PVC. High impact type
Fittings for Polyethylene
. .
Plastic Pipe and piping is employed for this service with a minimumthickness
Tubing of 60 mil.
ASTM 02321 Underground Installations of Flexible Polyethylenejacketing material is commonlyfound on the

Thermoplastic Sewer pipe European steel district heating lines and is g e n d y B mini-
mum of 125 mil.
AWWA C-901 Polyethylene (PE) Pressure Pipe 0.5 in.
through 3 in. for Water Fiberglass jacketing is used primarily with fiberglass
carrier material.
Most jacketed systems(except fiberglass) employ a rubber

10.3 PRE-INSULATED PIPING SYSTEMS end seal to protect the insulation from exposure to moisture.
On fiberglass systems, the jacketing material is tapered at the
Most district heating systems or long transmission lines . end of each length to meet the carrier pipe, thereby forming
carrying warm geothermal fluid will require some form of a complete encasement of the insulation.
insulation. This insulation can be provided by selec
backfill methods, fieid applied insulation or, more commonly Most systems employ a 1 to 2 in. insulation layer and
a pre-insulated piping system. fittings are left uninsulated.
As shown in Figure 10.10, the pre-indated system . Table 10.28 presents cost data for selected examples of
Consists of a carrier pipe, through which the fluid is pre-insulatedpipingsystems.
Table 10. t Data Pre-insulated Piping System
Size
3in. 4in. 6in. gin.
Carrier Jacket s!!fLa!!fL&!KL_csfln
SteeltPVC .99 19.59 26.19 -
(mech. joint) 17.53 21.17 27.81 -
CARRIER PIPE
joint) 15.46 18.37 2524 -
10.14 13.36 21.05 30.32
40) 5.00 6.75 7.90 12.80
Figure IO.10 binsulated piping system.
241
10.4 INSTALLATION METHODS Pipelinehead loss should be carefully calculated Using the
manufacturer's flow data and corrected for the temperature
Buried or aboveground pipe installationsmay be options involved. Because of the variation in flow characteristicsfor
in the system design that require evaluation. Abovegroundin- the materials covered in this chapter, it is not possible to cover
stallations typically are supported on concrete pipe supports data for all piping products. It is recommended that the
and mllers. This installation eliminates conflicts with buried Dmy-Wieskh method be used for pipeline calculations.
utilities and may be easier to maintain. However, above-
ground installations are more subject to damage and van- The successful geothermalpipeline layout should umsider
dalism. Pipe supports and constraints, road c d g s , the topography of the system. Distribution networks and
venting, expansion pmvisions, and insulation protection are transmission mains with significant changes in elevaltion may
important d d e r a t i o n s in the aboveground design. require additional Ventkg and valva. Non-
d e n s i b l e gasses trapped at system high points can restrict
Buried piping systems, the most common type of trans- flow rates and increase Pumping requirements. If the water is
mission line, are aesthetically more pleasing than aboveground drained from a pipeline without proper air venting, low
installations and are deemed far superior from the standpoint pressure can be created that can cause the transmissionline to
of immunity to accidentalor intentionaldamage. Major disad- collapse. Hot water has a higher vapor pressure and the
vantages are externalpipe corrosionand accessibility for main- problems associated with water flashing should be addressed.
tenance or service connections. Proper pipe bedding mater-
ials, grading, venting, expansion provisions, and corrosion
protection should be reviewed for buried installations. Proper 10.5 UNINSULATED PIF'ING
bedding is particularly important for the nonmetallicmaterials.
High initial capital costs are one reason development has
A method of buried installation that allows accesssibility lagged in the area of district heating. Much of this cost (40
is the use of utility tunnels with removable covers or adequate to 60%) is (LssociBfed with the installation of the distribution
crawl space and manholes. This system is being used success- piping network. The use of uninsulated piping for a portion
fully for district heating systems in Iceland and Klamath Falls, of the distribution offers the prospect of reducing the piping
Oregon (Karlsson, 1982; Lienau, 1984). It is also common on material costs by more than 50 55.
college campuses,military facilities, and conventional district
heating systems. This type of piping is the most expensive Although the uninsulated piping would have much higher
and also the one with the longest life expectancy and lowest heat loss than insulated lines, this could be compensated for by
maintenance cost of all pipelines. Because of the high initial increasing system flow rates. The additionalpumping costs to
cost, this type is generaly not used unless the line is relatively maintainthese rates would be offset by reduced system capital
short or the consumer market is large. In an area being newly costs. Prelimhry analysis indicates that it would be most
developed, this method can be used for a number of utilites. beneficial to use uninsulated lines in sizes above about 6 in.
The system merits should be carefully evaluated and cost-to- in certain applications.
benefits analyzed.
It is impoaant before discussing the specifics of
Pipe expausion and stress resulting from temperature I uninsulated'piping to draw a clear distinction between heat
changes should be allowed for in the piping system design. loss (measured in Btulhr If) and temperature loss (measured in
Adequate thrust blocking and restraints are needed to secure OF/lf). Heat loss from a buried pipeline is driven largely by
some kinds of pipe. Steel pipe should have expansion loops the temperature difference between water in the pipe and the
or expansion joints and thrust blocking to control the ambient air. The tempera- loss which results from the heat
expansionand keep the pipe stress within the allowable limits. loss is a function of the water flow in the line. As a result,
During the sytem layout, a comprehensive stress anaysis for a line operating at a given temperature, the greater the
should be performed to determine if all sections of the system flow rate the lower the temperature drop. In geothermal
are within the allowable stress limits. The AC, ductile iron, systems, the cost of energy is primarily related to pumping;
and other ypes of push-on joints may allow for expansion in this results in a low energy cost relative to conventional
the joint and require only thrust blocks. district systems and the ability to sustain higher energy losses
(of the uninsulated piping) more economically.
Another consideration is the head loss in a system. As
the pipe size is decreased for a given fluid flow, the head loss Figure 10.11 illustraks the relationship of heat loss and
will increase, therefore, increasing the pump motor size and temperature loss. The figure is based upon 6 in. pre-inrmlated
energy consumption. Head loss in a piping system is a func- (1.8 in. insulation, PVC jacket,FRP uurier pipe) and a 6 in.
tion of the quantity (gpm) circulated and the friction loss in uninsulated pipe buried 4 ft below the ground and operating
the pipe. at 170°F inlet temperature. Temperatureloss per 1,OOO ft is
242
6-
7-
6-
-
CI
0
0
5-
0
*
\ 4-
lL
0
Y
3-
I-
4
2-
1-
0 -
I
I I I
100 200 300
FLOW RATE (gpm)
' Figure 10.11 Buried pipeline temperature loss versus flow rate.
plotted against flow rate. As discussed above, the graph 1. 6 in. fiberglass pipeline
indicates the substituted increase in temperature loss at low 2. 170°F water temperature
flow rates. 3. Sftburialdepth
4. Soil conductivity = 10
The prospect for the use of uniusulated piping is greatest 5. Design velocity 5 Wsec (450 gpm)
for larger sizes (>6 in.). T h i s is related to the fact that in 6. Minimun flow = 15%of design (68 gpm)
larger sizes the ratio of the exposed surface area (pipe outside 7. Minimum flow occurs at temperatures above 60°F
surface area) compared to the volume (flow capacity) is 8. Between 0" (design temperature) and 6O"F a hear
reduced. This relationship reduces the heat lost per gallon of reduction in flow occurs (from 450 to 68 gpm)
water passed through the line. 9. Average well pump efficiency = .63
10. Pumping level = 200 €t
If the use of uninsulated piping is to be economically 11. Well head pressure requirement = 40 psi
attractive, a high load factor (total annual flow divided by 12. Electricity costs $O.O7/kwh
peak flow) is required. In many district systems, initial 13. Allowable temperature drop = 2°F
customer flow requirements amount to only a small fraction of 14. Line length = 1,500 ft.
the distribution capability. Many years are required for the
system to approach full capacity. Under these conditions, the Column 1 contains the outside temperature values.
system is operated at very low load factor initially and the Column 2 contains the annual number of hours at each outside
economics of uninsulated piping would likely not prove to be temperature. Column 3 provides the system flow requirement
favorable. at each outdoor temperature. The temperature drop across the
line for each temperature appears in Column 4. The required
Systems designed for an existing group of buildings or flow to maintain a 2°F temperature drop appears in Column 5.
those which serve process loads are more likely candidates for Column 6 is theexcess flow (above system requirements) to
the use of uninsulated piping. maintain a 2°F temperature drop. Column 7 shows the
required well pump kw to provide the excess flow. Column
Table 10.29 presents the results of an example of 8 indicates the total annual kwh consumption for temperature
uninsulated pipe used for a specific case. The table is based maintenance for each outside temperature.
on the following:
243
Table 10.29 Base Loss 140.6 Btu/hr If.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
,
Outside Flow Excess
air Flow At for flow pump Annual
temp. "F hrslvr PDm -"F 2" At
- PDm -kw M
0
2 17 450 0.94 0 0
7 39 414 0.98 - 0 0 0
12 82 374 1.05 - 0 0 0
17 150 338 1.12 0 0 0
22 352 302 1.22 - 0 0 0
27 675 261 1.36 - 0 0 0
32 1132 225 1.52 0 0 0
37 1044 189 1.75 - 0 0 0
42 93 1 149 2.13 159 10 .873 813
47 826 113 2.70 153 39 3.460 2706
52 783 77 3.80 146 69 6.050 4743
57 658 68 4.12 140 72 6.300 4145
62 55 1 68 3.94 134 66 5.760 3 173
67 468 68 3.76 128 60 5.220 2442
72 373 68 3.58 122 54 4.710 1758
77 313 68 3.40 115 47 4.130 1294
82 235 68 3.21 109 41 3.600 845
87 124 68 3.02 103 35 3.050 379
92 - 39 68 2.85 97 29 2.510 - 98
8792 22396
22396 kwh @ . W h h = $ 1,5681~~

500 If e $ioflf savings = $15,000
In this particular case,the elimination of insulation on 3. Allowable Temperature Drop. The more temperature
the 1,500 fi, 6 in. line would save approximately $15,000 in which can be sacrificed, the greater the possibility to
capital costs. The first year cost of electricity to compensate use uninsulated piping. Allowable temperature drop
for the lack of pipe insulation amounts to $1,568. must be carefully balanced against resourcetemperature
and customer needs. In the example, had a 3" rather
Assuming the owner was financing the project at 9 96 for than 2" drop been acceptable, annual pumping costs for
20 years and that electricity inflates at 7% per year, the simple tempera-ure maintenaucewould have been reduced from
payback on the insulation for the pipe is in excess of 15 years. $1,568 to $369 per year for the line. A four degree
drop would have eliminated excess pumping
10.5.1 Items I m r t a n t to the Considerationof Uninsulated completely.
PiDing:
* 4. Proximity of Other Utilities. Close proximity to some
1. Cost of Pumping. This is influenced primarily by the telephone, electric or water utility lines may preclude
overall pumping system efficiency, cost of electricity, the consideration of uninsulated lines due to
well pumping level, well head pressure requirements, and temperature effects.
pump capacity control (throttling valve, variable speed
drive, etc.). As the unit cost of pumping increases, the 5. Disposal Method. It is apparent from the example that
attractiveness of uninsulated pipe decreases. most excess flow requirementsoccur during the summer
months. If d a c e disposal is employed, low surface
2. System Load Factor. The higher the load factor, the water flows (rivers) may influence the maximum rate of
more practical uninsulated piping becomes. . Higher g e u t h d disposal based on chemical or thermal
system load factor reduces the quantity of excess water pollution.
which must be pumped to maintain supply temperatures.
244
6. Customer Contract. Allowkce for lower 10.6 BURIED PIPELINE ~T LOSS
supply water during the warmer portion of the y
reduce the requirement for excess pumping for The heat loss for the line various conditions should be
calculated to determine the buried pipeline heat loss, using:
7. Piping Type. The use of uninsulated piping would be -

AT
less attractive with respect to skel and possible ductile

iron. The& materials would likely require exterior
protection if uninsulated. This would reduce the savings
achieved through the use of uninsulated pipe.
8. Local Soil conditions. Soils of high thermal conduct- where

ivity or wet areas tend to increase heat loss from piping.
These areas would reduce the potential for uninsulated
piping.
.
1
- heat loss p i p e , Btu/h If
9. System Water Temperature. Lower temperature systems AT = design teprature difference between soil
may be better candidates for uninsulated pipe use. surface temperature and fluid in pipe (T)
10. Line Size. As discussed earlier, larger lines (>6 in.) are
more likely to yield positive results with respect to the
use of uninsulated pipe.
d
r1 i = radii of the various concentric layers involved
in the problem (in.)
r4
ft'F
k, = FPB = 2.8 BTU-inh
W = 0.18BTU-inh ftF
k2 = I '
k, = PVC 4 . 2 BTU-idhr f?"F '
k, = SOIL = 12 BTU-in/hr f?"F

.Ti = VATER = 150°F
TZ = SOIL SURFACE = 20°F
,r = 6.13 i n
Figure 10.12 Data for pre-insulated fiberglass pipe.
245
d = buried depth of pipe to cater line (in.) Ellis,P. and P. Conover, "Materials SelectionGuidelinesfor
-
Geothermal Energy Utilization Systems," USDOE (DOE
kl RA270266-1), W & m , DC, January 1981.
k2
= thermal conductivity of various materials Fisher, K., Personal communication, San Bemardm
* owater
k3 @tu in.5 ft2 O F ) Department, San * 0, CA, 1987.

k4
Johns Mansville, Temp-tite Catalog #CH-8, Johns Mansville,
Denver, CO, 1982.
The use of this equation is most easily demonstrated
through the use of a typical example. Assume a pre-insulated Karlsson, T., "Geothermal District Heating, The Iceland
8 in. FRP line is installed according to the diagram in Figure Experience," UNU Geothermal Training Program,
10.12. University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland, 1982.
Substituting the values into the above, we have: Khashab, A. M., HVAC System Estimating Manual,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New Yo&, 1984.
q = 33.7 Btu/h If.
Kuipe, E., Personal c o d c a t i o n , 1987.
For an uninsulated line, the expressions relating to the
insulation and jacket would simply be eliminated. It should Lienau, P. J., "GeothermalDistrict Heating Projects," District
be pointed out that this method is somewhat conservative for Heatinq, Vol. 70, No. 1 & 2, International District
t w reasons:
~ (a) it assumes a steady state situation, and (b) it Heating Association, Washington,DC, 1984.
ignores the conductance of the ground surface film. Both of
these would tend to reduce the actual heat loss from the line. Phillips - Drisco Pipe, 1981.
However, because the effect of these items is relatively small,
they can safely be omitted for design purposes. Rahn Metals and Plastics, Ltd., "Design ConsideratiOnS for
PolybutylenePipe," Rahn Metals and Plastics, Ud.,1984.
REFERENCES Ryan, G. P. "Equipment Used in Direct Heat Projects,"
Geothermal Resources Council Transactions, Vol. 5,
Anderson, D. N. and J. W.Lund, editors, "Direct Utilization Davis, CA, 1981.
Geothermal Energy: A Technical Handbook,"
Geothermal Resources Council Special Report No. 7, Smith-Inland, Inc., "Engineering and Design Guide for
Davis, CA, 1979. Fiberglass Reinforced Piping Systems," A. 0. Smith-
Inland, Inc., Little Rock, AR, 1982.
Austin, J. C., "TransporatiOnand Distribution of Geothermal
Fluids," Commercial Uses of Geothermal Heat, Special Templeton, Louie Jr, Geothermal Energy Manager, City of
Report No. 9, Geothermal Resources Council, Davis, Susanville, personal communication, Susanville, CA,
CA, 1980. 1987.
CelanesePiping Systems, Inc., Chemtrol Thermo-plastic Pipe
and Fittings Catalog, Bulletin #319, Celanese, Inc.
Hilliard, OH, February 1976.
246
CHAP
HEAT EXCHARJGERS 8
By Kevin.D. Rafferty, P.E.

and Gene Culver
OlT Geo-Heat center
KiamthFdls, Oregon 97691
ll.€ ZNTRODUCTION Since the heat transfer area is constructed of &in plates,
stainless steel or other high. alloy amstmch'an is
Most geothermal e d s , beeause of their elevated significantly less costly than for a shell and tube-
temgerahue, contain a variety of dissolved chemicals. These exchanger of similar material.
& d c a l s are frequently corrosive toward standard lnaterials
of comtruction. As a result, it is advisable in most cases to 3. Easeofmaintenance.
isolate the geothermal fluid from the process to which heat is
being trartsfd. The constxuction of the heat exchangeris such &at, upon
disassembly, all heat transfer areas are available for
The task of heat transfer from the geothermal fluid to a inspection and cleaning. Disassembly consists only of
closed process loop is most often handled by a plate heat loosening a Smau number of tie bolts.
exchanger. Plateheat exchangers are availablein two types of
constnrction: gasketed and brazed. 4. Expandability and multiplex capability.
For smaller systems, in geothermal zesource areas of a The nature of the plate heat exchanger cOflStruction
specific character, downhole heat exchiuxgm (DHEs) provide permits expansion of the unit should heat transfer
a unique means of heat extraction. These devices eliminate requirements increase after installation. In addition, two
the requirement for physical removal of fluid from the well. or more heat exchangers can be housed in a single frame,
For this reawn, DHE-based systems avoid entirely the thus reducing space requirementsand capital costs.
environmentaI and practical problems associated with fluid
disposal. 5. Compactdesign.
Shell and tube heat exchangers play only a minor role in , The superior thermal performance of the plate heat
Iow-temperature, direct-use systems. These units have been in exchanger and the space efficient design of the plate
common use in industrial applications for many years and, as arrangement d t s in a very compact piece of
a &t, are well understood. For these reasons, shell and equipment. Space requirements for the plate heat
tube heat exchangers will not be covered in this chapter. exchanger generally run 1096 to 50 96 that of a shell and
tube unit for equivalent duty. In addition, tube cleaning
and replacing clearances are eliminated.
11.2 GASKETED PLATE HEAT EXCHANGERS
Figure 11.1 presents an introduction to the terminology
The pIate heat exchanger is the most widely used of the plate heat exchanger. Plate heat exchanger, as it is used
configuration in geothermal systems of m t design. A in this section, refers to the gasketed plate and frame variety
number of characteristicsparticularly attractive to g e o t h e d of heat exchanger. Other types of plate heat exchangers are
applications are responsible for this. Among these are: available; though among these, only the brazed plate heat
exchanger has found application in geothermal systems.
1. Superior thermal pedbrmance.
As shown in €5- 11.1, the plate heat exchanger-is
Plate heat exchangers are capable of nominal approach basically a series of individual plates pressed between two
temperatures of 10°F compared to a nominal 20°F for heavy end covers. The entire assembly is held together by the
shell and tube units. In addition, overall heat transfer tie bolts. Individual plates are hung from the top carryingbar
coefficients 0 .for plate type exchangers are three to and are guided by the bottom carrying bar. For single pass
four times those of shell and tube units. circuiting, hot and cold side fluid'mections are located on
the fixed end cover. Multi-pass circuiting d t s in fluid
2. Availability of a wide variety of corrosion resistant ~onnection~ both fixed and m e a b l e end coye~s.
alloys.
247
11.2.1 General Camabilities
l mi In Comparison to shell and tube units, plate and frame
heat exchangers are a relatively low pressUrenow temperature
device. Current maximum design ratings for most
manufacturersare: temperature, W F , and 300psig (Tmter,
undated).
Abve these values, an alternate type of heat exchanger

would have to be seleited. The actual limitations for a
particular heat exchanger are a function of the- materials
selected for the gaskets and plates, these will be discussed
later.
Figure 11.1 The plate heat exchanger. Individual plate area varies from about 0.3 to 21.5 tt2
with a maximum heat transfer area for a single heat exchanger
currently in the range of 13,000.'tf The plate size
Figure 11.2 illustrates the nature of fluid flow through does 'place a lower limit on applications of plate heat
the plate heat exchanger. The primary and secondary fluids exchangers. For geothermal applications, this limit generally
flow in opposite directions on either side of the plates. Water affects selections for loads such as residential and small
flow and circuiting are controlledby the placement of the plate commercial space heating and domestic hot water.
gaskets. By varying the position of the gasket, water can be
channeled over a plate or past it. Gaskets are installed in such The largest units are capable of handling flow rates of
a way that a gasket failure cannot result in a mixing of the 6OOO gallons per minute (gpm) and the smallest units
fluids. In addition, the outer circumference of all gaskets is serviceable down to flows of approximately 5 gpm.
exposed to the atmosphere. As a result, should a leak OCCUT, Connection sizes are available from 3/4 to 14 in. to
a visual indication is provided. accommodate these flows.
248
11.2.2 Materials Most manufacturerswill quote either 304 or 3 16 stainless
steel as the basic material.
Materials selection for plate heat exchangers focuses
pfimarily u p the plates and gaskets. Since these items For direct use geothermal applications, the choice of
significantlyeffect first cost and equipmentlife, this p d u r e materials is generally a selection between 304 stainless, 316 '
&odd receive special attention. stainless, and titanium. The selectionbetween 304 and 316 is
most often based upon a combination of temperature and
plates chloride mtexit of the geothermal fluid. This is illustrated in
Figure 11.3. This figure contains two curves, one for 304 and
One of the features which makes pIate-type heat one for 316. At temperature/chloridemcentrations which
exchangers so attractive for geothermal applications is the fall into the region below the curve, the particular alloy in
availability of a wide variety of corrosion-resistantalloys for question is considered safe to use. Combinations of tempera-
constructionof the heat transfer surfaces. Most manufacturers ture and chloride content that are located above the curveoffer
offer the alloys listed below: the potential for localized pitting and crevice corrosion. Fluid
characteristics above the curve for a particular alloy do not
1. 304StainlessSteel guarantee that corrosion will absolntely occur. However, this
2. 316StainIessSteel curve, based on oxygen-freeenvironments, does provide a use-
3. 317WessSteel ful guide for plate selection. Should oxygen be present in as
4. Titanium . , little as parts per billion (Pph) concentrations. the rates of
5. Tantalum localized corrosion would be significantry increased (Ellis,
6. Incaloy 825 1981). Should the system for which the heat exchanger is
7. Hastelloy being selected offer the potential for oxygen entering the
8. Inconel circuit, a more umservative approach to materials selection is
9. AluminumBrom mmmended.
10. Monef.
Titanium is only rarely required for direct use applica-
In addition to these, a larger number of optional alloys tions. In applicationswhere the temperattue/chloriderequire-
are available by special order. ments are in excess of the capabilities of 316 stainless steel,
titanium generally offers the least cost alternative.
. -
RECIPROCAL .ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE f°K-'x 1000)
Figure 1 1 3 Chloride required to produce localized corrosion of Type 304 and Type 316 as a function of -et
@fin3and Moller, 1978).
249
Austenitic stainless alloys with higher chromium and The discussion of materials selection for both the plates
molybdenum contents could be recommended for this and gaskets is based primarily upon the geothermal fluid
application also. These alloys, however, are generally not characteristics. This assumes that the secondary fluid is of a
available as standard plate materials as is titanium (Ellis, relatively non-aggressive nature. Should the secondary fluid
1981). be a chemical process or other than treated water, additional
materials selection considerations would apply.
A typical application in which titanium has been
employed is in geothermal systems that serve loads in which Frame. Tie Bolts. and Fluid Connections
the secondary fluid is heavily chlorinated. The most common
of these is swimming p l s . The nature of swimming pools The frame of most plate heat exchangers is collsttucfed of
is such that the p l water is both high in chloride and oxygen carbon steel. This is generally painted with an epoxy based
umtent. As a result, titanium is the alloy generally selected. material.
Plates made of 316 stainless steel, in the heat exchanger
serving the swimmingpool at Oregon Institute of Technology, Tie bolts are of nickel-plated carbon steel. Alternative
Klamath Falls, Oregon, failed in less than 2 years as a result materials are available (stainless steel), though these are
of localized corrosion. generally unnecessary for geothermal applications.
The first cost premium for titanium over stainless steel Staudard connections are 150-lb flangetype of carbon
plates is approximately 50 % . steel constmction (2-112 in. and larger). connectionsof 1-112
in. and smaller are generally threaded. Altemate materia!~and
Gaskets configuratons (threaded, clamp, etc) are available.
As with plate materials, a variety of gasket materials are 11.2.3 Perforrnance

available. Among the most common are those shown in Table
11.1. The plate-type heat exchanger demonstrates superior
thermal performance in comparison to the shell and -tubeheat
exchanger. Plate heat exchangers in water-to-water duty are
Table 11.1 Plate Heat Exchanger Gasket Materials capable of approach temperatures as low as 2°F and o v d
(APV, A l h - h ~ a l Tranter)
, heat transfer coefficients as high as 1200 Btu/h ftz OF. In
comparison,shell and tube heat exchangersare capableof only
Temperature about a 10°F approach and are limited to overdl U values of
common Limit approximately 150 to 275 Btu/h e ° F .
Material Name 0
This level of performance is due primarily to the
Styrene-Butadiene Bm-S 185 configuration of the heat transfer surfaces. As discussed
Neoprene Neoprene 250 earlier, the two fluids flow in opposite directions on either
Acry1onitrileButadiene Buna-N 275 side of the plates. This results in a very close approach to
Ethy1enePmpylene EPDM 300 perfect counterflow conditions. For equal pass arrangements,
Fluorocarbon Viton 300 the log meantemperaturedifference (LMTD)correction factor
Resin-cured Butyl Resin-curedButyl 300 for most applications is above 0.85. In shell and tube units,
compressed Asbestos CompresSedAsbestos 500 the combination of cross-flow and counterflow on the shell
side results in a maximum LMTD correction of 0.50.-
The counterflow design, coupled with the high rate of
Testing by Radian Corporation has xevealed that Viton heat transfer and the closely-spaced plates, results in a very
shows the best performance in geothermal application, compact unit, relative to shell and tube exchangers.
followed by Buna-N. Their results revealed that neoprene
developed an extreme compression set and Buna-S and natural The high ratio of heat transfer results not only from the
rubber also performed poorly (Ellis, 1981). flow arrangement in the heat exchanger, but also the shape of
the individual plates. Each manufacturer has its own
Although Viton demonstrates the best pedormance, its proprietary designs for plates, however, the principle of
high cost generally eliminates it from consideration unless its operation is the same. The embossed pattern shown in Figure
specific characteristics are requited. Buna-N, generally the 11.4 induces turbulent conditions at Reynold's Numbers as
basic material quoted by most manufacturers, and the slightly low as 150 (APV undated). In comparison, turbulent
more expensive EPDM material are genedly acceptable for conditions in a shell and tube machine would not be possible
geothermal applications. below Reynold's Number of 2100. The turbulence, in
250
addition to enhancing heat transfer, also results in a scrubbing For example, consider a heat exchanger with the hot side
action that reduces the necessary allowances for fouling. fluid entering at 200°F and leaving at 125"F, and the cold si&
fluid entering at 75°F and leaving at 175°F. The NTU is:
A useful index for comparing plate-type and shell and
tube heat exchangers is the effectiveness - NTU method. The ATh - AT, - AT,
Number of Transfer Units (NTU) is a dimensionlessparameter In ( A T , / A T ~ )
that is widely used for heat exchanger analysis and is defined
as:
LMIEID- In (125-OF-75
( 12 5 OF-75 OF) ( 2 00 OF- 17 5 OF)
OF)
where = 36.1"F
IJ = overall heat transfer coefficient ATm = 175°F 75°F -

A =surfacearea = 100°F
C,, = minimum heat capacity rate
AT,,, = larger temperature change. NTU = 100"F/36.loF
= 2.77
Plate heat exchangers are capable of generating a much

1 rger NTU per pass than shell and tube heat exchangers.
Specifically, a shell and tube unit is capable of a realistic
maximum of 0.3 to 0.5 NTU per pass and plate heat
exchangers 0.6 to 4.0 per pass, depending upon the type of
plate used (APV, undated). Since most shell and tube heat
exchangers are capable of a maximum of 4 to 6 passes, a point
is quickly reached (in low LMTD applications) where the
number of passes required to achieve the necessary NTU is
beyond what can be accommodated in a single shell. As a
result, multiple shells would be required (AFV, undated).
In geothermal applications, the cost of the heat transfer

equipment in the secondary loop (space heating equipment, for
example) is very much a function of the available supply water
temperature. Since resource temperatures are fresuently far
below conventional heating design temperatum, very little
loss can be tolerated across the heat exchanger. This results
in the low LMTDhigh NTU situation described above. As a
result, the plate heat exchanger fits neatly into many
geothermal applications.
In addition to thermal performance, pressure drop and

pumping power should be considered in any heat exchanger
application. For plate heat exchangers, the same turbulence
Figure 11.4 Various sizes and designs of plates. that creates effective heat transfer also results in higher unit
pressure drop (per pass) than in shell and tube heat
exchangers. However, because of the generally lower n&ber
NTU is arrived at by dividing the larger temperature of passes required, this effect is somewhat offset. Our
change by the log mean temperature difference (LMTD = experience indicates that an average value of approximately
AT,,,,) and is shown as: 3.5 psi/NTU can be employed for initial evaluation, though
this figure may vary from 1 to 8 under certain circumstances
NTU = AT,,,/AT& (Hulbert, 1985). Manufacturers can select alternate ftame
sizes and plate configurationsto accommodateavailabiesystem
head.
251
11.2.4 Preliminam Sizinq 1. CaldateLMTD:
Plate heat exchanger manufacturers employ proprietary ATo 130°F - 110°F = 20°F
computer selection methods. To our knowledge, none provide -
AT, =: 160°F 150°F = 10°F
a manual calculation procedure similar to those common in
&ell and tube catalogs. Based on a large number of previous AT, - 20°F- 10%
In 20°F
selections for geothermal applications, the following
prelimkry values can be employed:
-
10%
1. Overall heat transfer coefficient, U = 900 Btuh ft2 OF

(probable range is 700 to 1100 Btum including AT, = 14.4"F
fouling)(Hdbelt, 1986)
2. Apply LMTD correction:
2. LMTD correction = 0.90 (probable range 0.80 to 0.99)
AT, = 14.4bF x 0.90
3. Pressuredrop = 3.5 x NTU (probable range 1.0 to 6.0) AT, = 12.9"F
Example 1 1.1 Sizing plate heat exchangers: 3. CalculateNTu:
4. Geothermal side temperature change is 160 to 130°F AT,,, = larger temperature change
NTU = 4042.9
5.- Clean loop side temperature change is 110 to 150°F
NTU- 150 - 110'F
6. Geothermal flow = 200 gpm 12.9OF
NTU = 3.1
eo -
CI
(u
4J -
cc
\
2
a 60 -
W
a:
a
a: -
w
LL
ul
f 40-
a:
t-
I-
a
W
-
I
U
w
II
20-
I-
UI
10 I I I I I
100 200 300 400 500
AREA (ft*)
Figure 11.5 Plate heat exchanger cdst for BUM-N gaskets and 316 Stainless Steel plates (1986).
252
4. calculate duty nq*: 11.2.6 Maintenance
q = 500 x gpmx At The accessibility to the heat fer &.is one of the
features that makes plate heat exchangers ftuiction 80 well in
applications. When cleaning becomes ilecessary,
the exchanger is simply disassembled and each plate cleaned
individually. This 6811 be accomplished in less one man
q = 3 . 0 ~106Btu/h day with most units.
5. Calculate plate tuea r e q a Because of the smooth d a c e of the plate, a simple

brushing and rinse is generally all that is required. Brushing
A = QKJATb should always be perf& with a plastic or nylon brush
A = (3.0 x 106 Btu/h)/(900 Btuh fiz "F) x (12.9"F) (Alfa-hval, undated). If a steel brush is required, it should
A=259ft2 employ stainless steel bristles. Carbon steel cannot be used,
nor can steel t v d .
6. Calculate pressure drop:
Cleaning intervals are dependent upon the tesource
Ap = 3.5 x "TU quality. Some heat exchangers in the Klamath Falls, Oregon
Ap = 3.5 x 3.1 area have been in service for s e v d years with no discernible
Ap = 10.9 psig. loss in thermal performance.
In this example, a 10°F approach temperature was
employed (la0 to 150°F). The actual Vdue of the approach Before disassembly, the he& exchanger should be coored
temperature is a variable in the final design. The additional to ambient temperature. Cold water flushing can be employed
cost of a heat exchanger required to achieve a smaller for this purpose. Separationof the plates should be performed
approach should be considered along with the reduced costs of slowly and carefully. If gaskets are dislodged during the
clean loop equipment on the secondary side of the exchanger. process, they should be carefully glued back into place
Experience has been that a 10°F approach is a realistic value (Alfa-Laval undated).
for preliminary design purposes.
plate gaskets are reusable; however, all surfaces
A number of quotes at both k g e r and smaller approach checked before assembly. As with all torquing
tanperatures should be obtained when evaluating the final procedures, the tie bolts should be tightened in a careful,even
design. manner that avoids warping eithef the end covers or plates.
11.2.5 Q& . Inorderto disassembly, the piping connections

to the moveable plate should be designed for easy removal.
For most geothermal systems, the plate heat exchanger One designer suggests the use of Victaulic-type fittings with
can constitute a large portion of the mechanical room ells off the moveable cover @pe, 1987).
equipment cost. For this m n , it is usefid tohave it method
of evaluating the capital cost of this component when Once the unit is fully assembled, it should be
considering the system design. hydrostatically to 1-112 times the working pressure.
is a b c t i o n of materials,
size and plate configuration.
temperature c h g e result in leaks and undue plate and
Figure 11.5 presents a plot of plate heat exchanger costs gasket thermal sw
in 1986 dollarslft2 of heat transfer area. Since heat transfer
area takes into account duty, temperature difference and
11.3 BRAZED PLATE HEAT ERS
fouling, it is the most useful index for preliminary costing.
As the name implies, these are heat exchangers in which
data used to generate Figure 11.5 are from a number permanently brazed together rather than bolted
's quotes for various geothermal applications. Meen two end . This design offers significant cost
The costs are based on 316 stainless steel plate construction compared to gasketed equipment.
and medium nitrile gaskek are balmd by the inability to disassemble
the b d units for cleaning and/or expansion.
253
Brazed plate heat exchangers are available in only a DHE outputs range from supplying domestic hot water
limited size range. In general, the upits can accommodafe for a single family at Jemez Springs, New Mexico to
total heat transfer surface area requirementsof less than 40 fP Ponderosa High School in Klamath Falls, Oregon. The single
and flow rates of less than 50 gpm. This limits brazed plate family is supplied from a 40 ft well and the school at over one
units to small applications. It is in this range that gasketed MWt from a 560 ft, 2(n"F, 16 in. diameter well. The DHE's
plate exchangers are generally not cost effective. As a result, are also in use in New Zealand, Austria,Turkey, the USSR
the lower cost brazed units allow some small duty applications and others. A DHE producing 6 MWt has been teported in
such as residential domestic hot water to be economically use in Turkey.
retrofit for geothermal use.
ical Desians
11.4.1 Jb
. The major mcem with brazed plate heat exchangers is
the ability of the brazing material to survive exposure to The most common DHE consists of a system of pipes or
geothermal fluid. The braze is accomplished with nearly pure tubes suspended in the well through which clean water is
copper. As a result, contact with HS bearing geothermal pumped or allowed to circulateby natural COLIVeCtion. Figure
fluids may be a problem. To date, insufficient information is 11.6 shows a U tube system typical of some 500 %allations
available to evaluate this potential. However, in view of the in Klamath Falls, Oregon. The wells are 10 or 12 in.
very low cost of these units (2030% of a gasketed unit for the diameter drilled 20 or more ft into geothermal fluids and an 8
same duty), a shorter service life could be tolerated. in. casing is installed. A packer is placed around the casing
below any cold water or unconsolidated rock, usually 20 to 50
Thermal performance of brazed plate units is the same as ft, and the well cemented from the packer to the surface. The
for gasketed heat exchangers. For preliminay selection, the casing is torch perforated (0.5 x 6 in.) in the live water area
procedure described for gasketed units can be used. and just below the static water level. Perforated sections are
usually 15 to 30 ft long and the total cross-sectionalarea of
the perforations should be at least 1-1/2 to 2 times the casing
11.4 DOWNHOLE HEAT EXCHANGERS cross section. Becausefluid levels fluctuate summer to winter
the upper perforations should start below the lowest expected
The downhole heat exchanger @HE) is of a design that level. A 314 or 1 in. pipe welded to outside of the casing and
eliminates the problems associatedwith disposal of geothermal extending from ground rmrface to below the packer permits
water since only heat is taken from the well. These systems sounding and temperature measurements in the annulus and is
can offer significant savings over surface heat exchangers very useful in diagnosing well problems.
where available heat loads are low and geologic and ground
water conditions permit their use. The space heating DHE is usually 1-1/2 or 2 in. black
iron pipe with a return U-bend at the bottom. The domestic
The use of a DHE for domestic or commercial water DHE is 314 or 1 in. pipe. The return U bend usually
geothermal space and domestic water heating has several has a 3 to 5 ft section of pipe welded on the bottom to act as
appealing features when compared to the alternative a trap for corrosion products that otherwise could fill the
geothermal heat extraction techniques. It is essentially a U-bend, preventing free circulation. Couplings should be
passive means of exploiting the geothermalenergy because, in d e a b l e rather than cast iron to facilitate removal.
marked contrast to the alternative techniques, no water is
extracted or flows from the well. Environmental and Other types of DHEs in use are:
institutional restrictions generally require geothermal water to
be returned to the aquifer from which it was obtained. 1. Short multiple tubeswith headers at each end. These are
Therefore, techniquesinvolving removal of water from a well somewhat similar to a tube bundle in a shell and tube
require a second well to dispose of the water. This can be a exchanger, but more open to allow for naaval circulation
costly addition to a small geothermal heating project. The rather than f'orced circulation. The tubes are suspended
cost of keeping a pump operating in the sometimes corrosive just below the upper perforations.
geothermal fluid is usually far greater than that involved with
the maintenance of a DHE. 2. Straight pipes extending to near the well bottom with
coils of copper or steel pipe at the ends.
The principal disadvantagewith the DHE techniqueis its
dependence on the natural heat flow in the part of the hot 3. DHEs for heat pump applications. These will be covered
aquifer pen- by the well. A pumped well draws in hot in a later section.
water and the resultant heat output is normally many times the
natural value. This limitation on the potential heat output of 4. Combined pump and DHE in a single well.
a DHE makes it most suitable for d to moderatesized
thermal applications.
254
Figure 11.6 Typical hot-water. distribution system using a downhole heat exchanger ( a v e r , 1978).
5. A 20 kWt, 16 Et prototype heat pipe system was should be used at the wellhead to isolate the DHE from stray
succesfidly tested at least several months in the Agnano currents in the building and city water lines. Galvanid pipe
geothermal field in Southern Italy (Figures 11.7 and is to be avoided since many geothermal waters leach zincand
11.8). usually above 135°F galvanizing loses its protective ability.
6. A co-axial DHE was described and analyzed for Considerable success has been realized with nonmetallic
conduction heat transfer only (Home, 1980). Pan (1983) pipe, both fikg€ass-reinfod epoxy and polybutylene.
reported that heat output from a co-axial and U-tube Approximately 100,OOO A of fiberglass reportedly has been
exchanger were very nearly equal in a laboratory well install& in Reno at bottom hole temperatures up to 325°F.
simulation test that included convection. There are no The oldest installations have been in a b u t 4 to 5 years-much
known co-axial DHE installations except for heat pumps. too short a time to be evaluated. The only problem noted has
been ~ t i pipe d 'taper (NPT) thread failure that was
11.4.2 Materials - attributed to poor quality resin in some ,pipe. Another
manufacturers pipe, -with epoxied joints, performed
Considerkg life and replacement costs, materials should satisfactorily. Before installing any FRP pipe check with the
be selected to provide economical protection from corrosion. manufacturer giving him temperature, water chemistry, and
Attention should be given to the galvanic cell action between details of installation. Also check on warranties for the
the DHE and well casing, since the casing could be an specific conditions.
expensive replacement item. Experience indicates that g a d
corrosion of the DHE is most severe at the air-water intedace Fiberglass pipe is available in both NPT and a coarse 4
at the static water level. Stray electrical currents can cause kead/in. malefemale configuration.in sizes at least down to
extremelocalized corrosion below the water. Insulatedunions 1-1/2 in. pipe.
255
i
GTC: G e o t h e r m a l c o n v e r t e r
P : Pump
TC : Thermocouple
V :Capecity c o n t r o l vessel
Figure 11.7 Schematic of experimental loop (Cannaviello, 1982).
I I I I
no I
no 100
I 110
I le0
I 1=
I j40
8
SO 80 70
INLET CONDENSER WATER TEMPERATURE (‘F)
Figure 11.8 Performance of 20 kW g e o t h e d cmvector (Cannaviello, 1982).
256
DHE pipes should be approved for potable water, since While the difference is significant, it is less than might
it may heat domestic water and many geothermal resources be anticipated by comparing only the thermal conductivitiesof
supply water for drinking and spas. Although there are no the two pipe materials. Usually the depth of the well to reach
known installations, chlorinated polyvinyl (CPVC) or geothermal fluids will Bccommodate the additional pipe
irradiation cross-linked polyethylene are good candidates. required and the long life justifies the use of nonmetallicpipe.
Thermal mductiuity is much lower for nonmetallic pipe Average DHE life is difficult to predict. For the
than for metallic pipe. The value for fiberglass epoxy pipe is approximately 500 black iron DHEs installed in Klamath
2.5 Btuh ft? "F/in. and polybutylene is 1.5 Btuh ft2"F/in., Falls, the average life has been estimated to be 14 y. In some
while steel is 460 Btuh ft2"F/in. Also, nonmetallic pipe is instances, however, regular replacement in 3 to 5 y has been
typically thicker than metallic. However, the overall t h e d required. In other cases, installations have been in service
conductivity is a function of the conductivity of the pipe, the over 30 y with no problems. Stray electrical currents, as
film coefficients on both the inside and outside, and of the noted above, have undoubtedly been a contributing factor in
scale. Scaling is an important considerationbecause in many some early failures. currents of several tens of &-amps
geothermal fluids, significant scaling on metallic DHE pipes have been measured. In others, examination of the DHES
occuts, 6ut the scale will not build up on the nonmetallic after removal reveals long, deeply corroded lines along one
pipes. It is not unusual to see 1/16 in. of scale buildup on the side. This may be caused by thermal expansion and
geothermal side of DHE pipes, at least in Klamath Falls contraction ofthe DHE against the side of the well bore where
geothermal fluids. Scale car^ be assumed to have a thermal the constant movement could scrub off protective scale,
conductivity similar to limestone and concrete or about 7 exposing clean surface for further corrosion.
Btuh ft2"F/in.
Corrosion at the air-water interface is by far the most
The overall heat transfer coefficient can be calculated common cause of failure. Putting clean turbine oil or paraffin
from: in the well appears to help somewhat, but is difficult to
accurately evaluate. Use of oil or p a r a f i is frowned on by
1 the Environmental Protection Agency since geothermal water
u-
- l+ - + -f + - f l often commingles with fresh water.
b k p k s h i
DHE wells are typically left open at the top, but there
Where appears to be no reason they could not be d e d &-tight.
Once the initial charge of oxygen is used up in forming
U = overall thermal conductivity @tu5f t 2 O F / i n . ) corrosion products, there would be no more oxygen available
ho = outside film coefficient because there is essentially no dissolved oxygen in the
hi = inside film coefficient geothermal fluid. Swisher and Wright (1986) measured
t = pipe or scale thickness (in.) corrosion rates of mild steel in geothermal water under aerobic
kp = thermal conductivity of pipe material and anerobic conditions in the lab. They found aerobic
Btu5 @ O F ) corrosion rates of 260-280 micrometerlyear with completely
ks = thermal conductivity of scale. emersed specimens with paraffin on the water, 830
micmmetedyear above the paraffin on partially emersed
Assuming film coefficieatsof 250 and using values above specimens and only 11 micrometerlyear under anembic
for thermal conductivities of typical pipes is written: conditions.
iI steel - - *1- * - +0.154

-
1
A
0.0625 1
11.4.4
250 460 7 S O Although $he interaction between the fluid in the well,
fluid in the aquifer, and the rock surrounding the well is
= 58 Btu5 ft2"F p r l y understood, it is known that the heat output can be
significantly increased if a convectiqx cell can be set up in the
re is probably some degree of naW mixing; Le.,
the aquifer continuously enters the well, mixes
with the well flui the well to the aquifer.
There are two methods of inducing
=25Btu5ff0F convection.
257
100 I I I I I I I I I
e5 50 7s 100 . 125 is0 175 200
DEPTH I N WELL ( f t )
Figure 11.9 Temperature vs depth with and without casing (Culver, 1978).
The first method may be used when a well is drilled in

a stable formation, and will stand open without a casing. This
allows an undersized casing to be installed. If the casing is
perforated just below the minimum static water level and near t-I
the bottom or at the hot aquifer level, a convection cell is
induced and the well becomes very nearly isothermal between
the perforations (Figure 11.9). Cold surface water and
m'b y - -
unstable formations near the surface are cemented off above a -WATER LEVEL
packer. If a DHE is then installed and heat extracted, a
convecfioncell is established with flow down the inside of the
casing and up the annulus between the well wall and casing.
The driving force is the density difference between the fluid
surrounding the DHE and fluid in the annulus. The more heat
extracted, the higher the fluid velocity. Velocities of 2 fils
have been measured with very high heat extraction rates but
the usual velocities are between 0.04 and 0.4 ft/s.
The second method is used where a different situation

exists. In New Zealand where wells do not stand open and
CONVECTION
PROMOTING PIPE
ABOUT 0.510) IN
QIAMETLR
- SLOTTED CASIN6
several layers of cold water must be cased off, a system using

a convection promoter pipe was developed (Figure 11-10). U-6HIpED O.H.E.
The convector pipe is simply a pipe open at both ends, AawT O . O S 8 1
suspended in the well above the bottom and below the static IN DIAMETER
water level. An alternate design involves the pipe resting on . .
the bottom, and having perforations at the bottom and below . . .
static water level. The DHE c811 be installed either in the
convector or outside the convector, the latter being more Figure 11.10 Convection promoter pipe with DHE
economical since smaller convector pipe is used. (Allis, 1979).
Both lab and field tests indicate that the convection cell cool fluid to sink into the aquifer near the well bottom. At
velocities are about the same in undersized casing systems'and some combination of density difference and permeability the
convector pipe systems. ability to conduct flow is exceeded and the well rapidly cools
with increasing load.
dptimum conditions exist when frictional resistance
because of wetted surfaces (hydraulic radius) is equal in both The theoretical maximum steady state amount of heat that
legs of the cell and DHE surface area is maximized, providing could be extracted from the aquifer would be when the mixing
maximum heat transfer. For designs using undersized casing ratio equals zero. That is, when all the water makes a single
and DHE inside the convector, this occurs when the casing or pass through the convection cell and out the well bottom.
wnv@or is 0.7 times the well diameter. When the DHE is Mixing ratios lower than 0.5 have never been observed and
outside the convector, the convector should be 0.5 times the usually range from about 0.5 to 0.94. The theoretical
well diameter. The full length U-tube DHE diameter is 0.25 maximum steady heat extraction rate can be estimated if the
times the well diameter in all cases. Partial length or hydraulic conductivity and hydraulic gradient are known and
multi-tube excbgers will have different ratios. it is assumed there is some temperature drop of the water.
Maximum convection rates are obtained when the casing If K is the hydraulic conductivity and M A 1 is the
or convector pipe are insulated. This maintains the hydraulic gradient, by Darcy's Law the speci!ic velocity
temperature and density difference between the cell legs. through the aquifer is given by:
Nonmetallic pipe is preferred. Although corrosion products
help insulate the pipe, scaling does not normally occur to any v =KMAl.
great degree because the casing or convector are the same
temperature as the water. The mass flow through an area, A, perpendicular to the
flow is therefore shown as:
11.4.5 Desim Considerations
v Ad = K Ad M A 1
Downhole heat exchangers extract heat by L o methods:
(a) extractingheat from water flowing through the aquifer, and where d is the density of the water. The steady state heat flow
(b) extracting stored heat from the rocks surroundingthe well.
can be found by:
q = K A d c (To- T,)&/AI
Once the DHE is extracting heat and a convection cell is
established, a portion of the convecting water is new water
where
entering the well from the aquifer; the same amount of cooled
water leaves the well and enters the aquifer.
A = cross section of well in the aquifer or the
The ratio of convecting water to new water has been perforated section
d = density of water
termed the mixing ratio and is defined as:
c = specificheat
*a
To= aquifer temperature
Rm-l-- T, = temperature of water returning to the aquifer
mt
-
Multiplying the above by (& - Rm), or 0.5 to 0.6, the
expected steady state DHE output can be determined.
where
The most importantfactor in the above equation is K.
Rm = mixing ratio This value can vary by many orders of magnitude (even in the
m, = mass flow of new water same aquifer) depending on whether major fractures are
m, = total mass flow of convecting water. intersected, or drilling mud or debris partially clogs the
aquifer, etc. The variation between aquifers can be even
Note that a larger mixing ratio indicates a smaller greater.
proportion of new water in the convection cell.
Based on.short-termpump tests to determine hydraulic
Mixing ratios vary widely between wells even in the conductivity and an estimated 1% hydraulic gradient, the
same aquifer and apparently depend on permeability. As more
heat isextracted, the mass flow rate in the convection cell
increases, but the mixing ratio appears to remain relatively
-
specific velocity in the Moana area of Reno is estimated at 1
to 3 ft/y. The hot aquifer is generally encounteredin mixed
or interbedded layers of fine sand and silt stone. In Klamath
constant up to some point, then increases with further DHE Falls, where the hot aquifer is in highly fractured basalt and
loading. This is interpreted as the permeability, allowing coarse pumice, specific yelocity 'is estimated at 20 to
hot fluid to enter the well or, more probably, allowing & y
259
150 Alday, perhaps higher in localized areas. Values of K in It is now p d , but not verified, that if a DHE were
seven wells in Moana were estimated at 3.28 x lo' to 3.28 x operating and then tumed off, the Convection cell would
104 Als. The K in Klamath Falls is estimated to be at least reverse in the case of the undersized casing and when the DHE
4.9 Als. This implies a factor of 10 thousand to 10 million is inside the convection promoter. If the DHE is outside the
difference in the steady state output. Differences by a factor promoter, the cell direction would remain the same &when
of 100 have been measured, and some wells in Moana have the DHE is extracting heat.
been abandoned because they could not provide enough heat,
even for domestic hot water. DHEs are principally used in space and domestic water
heating applications: homes, schools, small commercial
Many DHE wells in Moana are pumped to increase hot buildings and greenhouses, with the resulting intermittent
water flow into the well. Pumping rates for residential use is operation. When the heating system is not calling for heat,
limited to 1800 gallday and the pump is thermostatically and if a convection cell can exist, it functions to store heat in
controlled. The system is designed to switch on the pump if rocks surrounding the well; especially those cooler rocks
the DHE temperature drops below some predetemhed level, nearer the surface that would normally be at the ~ h u a l
usuallyi- 120°F. This method permits use of a well that tempratme gradient for the locale. The undersized casing or
would not supply enough heat using a RHE alone, yet umvection promoter then acts to increase thermal storage.
minimizes pumped fluid and pumping costs. It is, however,
limited to temperaturesat which an economical submersibleor Referring again to Figure 11.10, it can be seen that up to
other pump can be used. the upper perforations, the well becomes very nearly isother-
mal, with the upper portion approaching the aquifer tempera-
Unfortunately, at the present time, there is no way to ture and a e rock temperature increasing significantly. When
relate mixing ratio and permeability. With good permeability a DHE is turned on,the water in the well cools rather rapidly;
similar towell-fractured basalt, themixing ratiomightbe the rate depending on the mixing ratio. As the water um-
- -
0.5, in coarse sand 0.8, and in clayey sand 0.9 to 0.94. tinues to cool, the convection cell extracts heat from the
surrounding tpcks.
At the time the tefm mixing ratio was introduced, it
seemed to be B logical hypothesis because all known DHE A good design procedure is currently lacking. Culver and
wells had (and most still have) perforations, at least in the hot Reistad (Culver, 1978) presented a computer program that pre-
aquifer zone. Some fluid could enter the well, mix with dicts DHE output to within 10 to 1596 if the mixing ratio is
fluid in the well and some &y water exit the well. The known. The problem is, there is no way of predicting mixing
mixing ratio is really a term for energy input into the well. ratio except by experience in a specific aquifer and then
Although perforations undoubtedly help, a solidly cased well probably only over a fairly wide m g e as noted above. The
with a DHE will provide heat. The energy output is then procedure was written in Fortran but has been umverted to
limited by the conduction of the rock and casing, allowing "-85 Basic by Pan (Pan, 1983) and into Basic for use on
energy to flow into the well. This has been experimentally most persanal computers by Liemu in 1989. The program
verified using a model well in a laboratory at the University enables the user to choose optimum geometric parameters to
of Auclcland in New Zealand. With an electric heater at the match a DHE to an energy load if a mixing ratio is assumed.
model well bottom and a umvector pipe and DHE installed, The program does not include a permeability variable, nor
a convection cell was induced and an amrent mixing ratio of does it take thermal storage into account. In wells with good
0.954 was calculated, similar to what might be expected in a permea-bility, thermal storage may not be a significant factor.
very low permeability aquifer. Experience in Reno indicates that for low permeability wells,
thermal storage is very important. With low permeability, a
As mentioned at the first of this section, the second convection promoter can promote thermal storage and,
method of using a DHE is extracting heat stored in thereby, increase non-steady state output.
surrounding rocks.
Permeability can be rather accurately estimated using
In Klamath Falls, it has been experimentallyverified that relatively simple Hvorslev plots as described in Chapter 7,
when a well is drilled, there is negligible umvective flow in "Well Testing". Relating the permeability thus obtained to
the well bore. When undersized perforated casing is installed, mixing ratios typical in other permeabilities could give an
a umvection cell is set up, causing flow up the inside of the estimate of the mixing ratio that could be used in the computer
casing and down the annulus between the casing and well program. Data are limited to very high and very low
wall. When a DHE is installed and heat is extracted, the permeability situations. Middle ground data are not available.
convection cell reverses with the flow downward in the casing
(around the DHE) and up the annulus. Similar circulation
patterns were noted in New Zealand using umvection
promoters.
c
260
--
REFERENCES Ellis, P. and P. Conover, "Materials Selection Guidelimes

for Geothermal Energy Utilization System", USDOE
Alfa-Laval Inc, "Plate Heat Exchangers", undated. (DOE RA270226-l), Washington, DC, January, 1981.
Allis, R. G, "A Study of the Use of Downhole Heat Hesong, Pan, Master's Thesis. University of Auckland,
Exchangers in the Moana Hot Water Area, Reno, New Zealand, Department of Mechanical Engiueerhg,
Nevada", May, 1981. May, 1983.
Allis, R. G. and R. James, "A Nahual Convection Promoter Hulbert, G., "Plate Heat Exchangers", Geo-Heat Center
for Geothermal Wells", 1979. Quarterly Bulletin, Oregon Institute of Technology,
Geo-Heat Center, Klamath Falls, OR, Winter,1986.
APV Company Inc., "Heat Transfer Handbook", APV
Company Inc., Tonawanda, NY. Undated. Hulbert, G., "TechnicalPresentation at 1985 conference on
Direct Use Geothermal Systems", Oregon Institute of
APV Company Inc., "A 60 Second Study in Heat Transfer Technology, ,Klamath Falls, OR, May, 1985.
Efficiency", (sales literature), APV Company Inc.,
Tonawanda, NY,undated. Kuipe, E., Personal communication, 1987.
Cannaviello, M., et al., "An Advanced System for Heat Swisher, R. and G. A. Wright, "Inhibition of Corrosion by
Transfer from Geothermal Low and Medium Enthalpy Paraffin at the Air-Water Interface in Geothermal
Sources", International Conference on Geothermal Downhole Heat Exchangers", University of Auckland,
Energy, Florence, Italy, May, 1982. Auckland, New Zealand, 1986.
Culver, G. G. and G. M. Reistad, "Evaluation and Design of Tranter Inc., "Supercharger Plate and Frame Heat
Downhole Heat Exchangers for Direct Application", Exchangers", (sales literature, form Sa), Tranter Inc.,
December, 1978. Wichita Falls, 'IX, undated.
Efird, K. D. and G. E. Moller, ;Electrochemical Character-

istics of 304 & 316 Stainless Steels inFresh Water as
Fmctions of Chloride Concentration and Temperature",
Paper 87, Corrosion/78, Houston, TX. March 6-10,
1978.
26 1
CHAPTER 12
SPACE HEATING EQUIPlVENT
By Kevin D. Merty, P.E.
OIT Geo-Heat Center
12.1 INTRODUCTION Figure 12.1 illustrates the effect of low water velocity on
heat transfer in hot water heating equipment. As indicated by
The performance evaluation of space heating equipment the w e , heat output is relatively unaffected by water side
for a geothermal application is generally considered from velocity above a critical value. It is important when
either of two perspectives: (a) selecting equipment for designing for larger than normal AT (low flow rate) that the
installation in new construction, or (b) evaluating the critical velocity for the heating equipment in Question be
pedormance and retrofit requirements of an existing system. avoided, as capacity falls off asymtotically in this region.
With regard to new umstruction, the procedure is Figure 12.1 is a generalized relationship. %cause the
relatively straightforward. Once the heating requirements are issue illustrated is really one of Reynold’s Number and
determined, the process need only involve the selection of transition to laminat flow, critical velocity will vary with
appropriately sized hot water heating equipment based on the temperature and line size. However, for the piping diameters
available water temperature. and temperatures generally encountered in heating equipment,
velocities of 0.25 ft/s or less should be avoided for 1 to 2 in.
It is important to remember that space heating equipment lines (typical of finned tube radiators) and 0.50 ftls or less for
for geothermal applications is the same equipment used in 1 in.and smaller lines (typical of finned coil equipment). For
non-geothermal applications. What makes geothermal
applicationsunique is that the equipment is generally applied
at temperatures and flow rates that depart significautly from
-
the 5/8 in. tubes commonly found in h e d coil equipment,
this velocity correspondsto a flow rate of 0.6 gal/& gpm.
In most cases, this very low velocity would only become a
traditional heating system design. factor in applications of very low capacity (< 15,OOO Btdh)
using a AT of 40°F or more.
This chapter presents general considerations for the
performanceof heating equipmentat non-standardtemperature Figure 12.2 illustrates the effect of reduced water
and flow conditions, retrofit of existing systems, and aspects temperatureon hot water heating equipmentperformance. The
of domestic hot water heating. width of the c w e is an effort to reflect the fact that all types
of heating equipment do not respond to reduced temperature
equally.
12.2 HEATING EQUIF’MENT PERFORMANCE AT
NON-STANDARD CONDITIONS Figure 12.2, as is most heating equipment, is indexed to
a temperature of 215°F. The percent capacity shown on the
For about the past 40 years, heating systems have been vertical axis is the percent of the 215°F rated capacity at the
designed for a hot water supply temperature of 180 to 200°F temperature in question. For example, the output of a parti-
with a 20°F temperature drop (AT). These temperatures were
chosen largely to result in equipment requirements similar to
-
cular piece of heating equipment at 150°F would be 45 % of
its capacity at 215°F. This relationship holds for equipmellt
those of the older steam systems. Equipment manufacturer’s such as finned tube radiators, unit heaters, cast iron radiators,
selection data are indexed to these temperatures as are the and convectors.
practices of many design professionals.
For finned coils, the considerationsare somewhat more
Geothermal tesources,of the variety frequently applied complex with respect to low temperature service. For other
to space heating applications, are generally characterized by types of equipment, compensation for low temperature opera-
temperatures less .than the standard 180 to 200°F range. tion is primarily in terms of additional length, larger
Because well pumping costs constitute a sizable portion of the individual units, or a greater number of units. For finned
operating costs of a geothermal system, it is in the best coils, the physical size (in terms of face area) can remain
interest of the designer to minimize flow requirements. This unchanged and the configuration of the coil (number of rows
requiresbigher systemAT than conventionaldesigns. Accord- and fins/in. or both) adjusted to Bccommodate low temperature
ingly, it is beneficial to examine the performance of heating operation.
equipment at low flow or temperature conditions.
263
/
,'- CRITICAL VELOCITY
I
I
I I I I I
i e 3 4 6
VELOCITY IN FEET PER SECOND
Figure 12.1 The effect of low water velocity on heat transfer in hot water heating equipment (ASHRAE, 1983).
io0 4
io0
I I
iio
I
~ B Q
I
130
I
$40
I
is0
I
ieo
I
$70
I
iao
I
iao
I
ZOO
AVERAGE WATER TEMPERATURE (OF)

Figure 12.2 Capacity at reduced water temperature (ASIBAE, 1983). Width of line shows that all types of heating
equipment do not have the same response to reduced water temperature.
264
.--
0
r'
Row
co
3 Row
4 Row
CD 1 I 4 I I I 1
120 1
140
I I
160 180 200 220
Temperature (T)
Figure 12.3 Coil configuration for reduced water temperatures.
e7
e
i a
0.2.
I I I 1 I I I
1 2 3 4 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Figure 12.4 Pressure drop and operating costs for hot water coils.
265
To illustrate this point, Figure 12.3 presents an indication This relationship is developed from coil costs appearing
of the coil configuration required for a specific duty (500 in the 1990 Means Mechanical Cost Data and from previous
Wmin face velocity, 40" AT water, 65°F air in - 100°F air project cost data on fde in the Geo-Heat Center.
out). Coil surface area (in terms of fins/in. or rows) require-
ment increases as supply water temperature is reduced. How- For the 50,000 ftz office building mentioned above (at 1
ever, as indicated in the design, a two row coil will suffice cfm/ft2 and 500 fpm face velocity), this would result in a coil
down to supply water temperatures of - 130°F. -
incremental capital cost of $4,000.
BAuse the terminal equipment in most large buildings Assuming a variable air volume (VAV) system in the
primarily consists of finned coil units, it is useful to explore example building with a total heating energy CoIlSumption of
the impact of deeper coils upon capital and operating costs for 20,000 Btu@ y, .the savings in energy consumption (at
a typical application. $OSO/them) would repay the incremental coil cost in less
than one year even when incremental fan energy costs are
Assume a geothermal resource is available that will be deducted from the savings.
capable of producing a building supply water temperature of
140°F. The competing conventional system is a gas boiler that
would be operated at a 200°F supply water temperature. 12.3 USE OF HEAT EXCHANGEM
Using Figure 12.3, the required coil (for the boiler system)
would be a one row, 9 Win. model. For the geothermal Most geothermal systems will employ a heat exchanger
case, a two row, 11 fin/in. coil would be required. to isolate the building heating loop from the geothermal fluid.
As a result, the supply water temperature available to the
- Figure 12.4 indicates the air sidepressure drop associated heating system will be less than the geothermal resource
-
with these coils. For the 200°F case, this amounts to 0.08 temperature. In most cases, an allowance of a 10°F loss
through the heat exchanger will be sufficient for the selection
in. water gauge (in. wg) and for the 140°F case,about 0.21
in. wg. of heating equipment. Eumomical heat exchanger selections
generally fall between the 5 and 10°F approach to the
The two curves on the right side of Figure 12.4 convert geothermal temperature. Heat exchangers are discussed more
these air side pressure drops into operating costs in terms of fully in Chapter 11.
dollars/1,000 cfm (at $.06/kWh and 50% overall fanand drive
efficiency). Assuming the application is an office building
(- 2500 operating h/y), the operating cost for the 200°F case 12.4 CONTROLS CONSIDERATIONS
would amount to $3.00/1,000 cfm and the 140°F case
$7.50/1000 cfm. For a 50,000 ft2 office building, this would Certain control strategies enhance the effectiveness of
amount to less than $2501~ in incremental operating costs for using a geothermal resource in a building W A C system.
the geothermal terminal equipment over the conventional Some of the more important of these are discussed in the
terminal equipment. For buildings operated 24 h a day, or in paragraphs below.
areas of higher electrical rates, the cost would increase;
however, it is unlikely to increase to the extent that it 12.4.1 Main Heat Exchanger Control
constitutes more than a small fraction of the annual operating
costs for the system as a whole. Most geothermal systems use a plate type heat exchanger
to isolate the building's circulating loop from exposure to the
The second cost factor associated with low temperature geothermal fluid. A variety of options can be used for control
operation of the system is the incremental capital cost of the of this heat exchanger.
low temperature equipment over the standard temperature
equipment. For finned coils, this cost increase can be A method that can be utilized when the user has little or
estimated by the ratio of the number of rows to the 0.51 no control over the resource temperature and flow rate is
power as follows: shown in Figure 12.5. Under this design condition, the
primary side of the heat exchanger is permitted to run wild
o One row coil cost = $llO/ftz (typical of coils of (operate without temperature control) and temperature control
approximately 4.0 ftz each) is accomplished on the seumdary side. This approach may be
used for applications that involve d e d resources,or when
x ($110) = $150/ftz.
o TWOrow coil cost = (2/1)0.45 the constant resource flow must be maintained. A three-way
valve on the secondary side of the heat exchanger is used for
supply water temperature control.
266
reduced fluid flow requirements from the production well.
Reduced flow+,rates are always desible in a geothermal
system from both an economic standpoint and for aquifer
CoIIServBtion purposes.
12.4.3 b w e r Sumly Water Temmratu?

i Designing for the lowest secondary supply water
tempemture that is economically feasible reduces geothermal
flow requirements. At a constant resource kmpembm,
Figure 12.5 Heat exchanger used to isolate building heating progressively lower supplywater temperatures(onthe building
loop from geothermal fluid. side of the heat exchanger) result in conespodngly Iower
geothermal flow requirementsassuminga umstant approach to
the return water temperature.
Because most larger geothermal systems produce fluid
from a well, there is adequate umtrol of the source. As a 12.4.4 Desinn for Higher System A T
result, control is applied to the primary si& of the heat
exchanger. In most cases, it is desirable to use a two-way For purposes of reduced geothermal flow, it is desirable
control valve at the heat exchanger. The two-way valve to design for larger than the standard 20°F temperature
allows for either throttling control of the production well difference. Depending upon the specific design, a A T of 30
pump or, when used in conjunction with a variable speed to 40°F or more is desirable.
drive, allows control of the drive through production line
pressure. In this way, only the quantity of geothermal fluid 12.4.5 Use of Two-way Control Valves
necessary to meet the load is pumped.
Two-way control valves are the p r e f d method of
For temperature control, it is acceptable to place the umtrol for a geothermal space heating system. In addition to
umtrol valve on either the inlet or outlet of the heat their superior umtrol characteristics in general, they provide
exchanger. Because of the very small fluid volume in the additional benefits for geothermal system. With two-way
plate heat exchanger, there is little thermal mass to interfere valve umtrol, the system responds to load reductions at a
with response to load changes as can sometimes be the case relatively constant AT. This contrasts with the thnee-way
with downstreamcontrol valve locations in other applications. valve or 'constant' flow control under which the system AT
decreases with the load. The ability to maintainhigher system
In some cases, it may be desirable to place the control A T is desirable with geothermal systems. Two-way control
valve at the heat exchanger outlet. This location is preferred provides this feature (Haines, 1983)(AsHR~E,1984).
when the geothermal fluid contains a high percentage of
dissolved gases, particularly CO,. It is Fmmon for such
gases to come out of solution when the fluid pressure is 12.5 CASCADED USES
?educed (such as at a wntrol valve) below the gas'sahuation
pressure. Release of CO, can change the fluid pH to allow Relatively low temperature applicationssuch 8s domestic
other species to precipitate out on nearby surfaces. However, hot water heating and ventilation air preheat should be
downstream location for the umtrol valve maintains the cascaded from the primary space heating heat exchanger if
pressure on the heat exchanger to prevent such an occurrence. possible. These loads c811 be served by a physically separate
heat exchanger operating on effluent from the primary space
Under most circumstances, the valve is controlled to heating heat exchanger. Alternately, the load can be served by
maintaina particular supply fluid temperature. This set point a duplex type plate heat exchanger. Duplex heat exchangers
can be reset by a discriminator control or by outdoor air are discussed in the heat exchanger chapter.
temperature, depending upon the design of the system.
12.4.2 Sumlv Water Reset Control 12.6 RETROFIT OF EXISTING SYSTEMS
Using a supply water reset control on the building loop, Certain types of heating system are more amenable to
if possible, is desirable because this type of control results in geothermal retrofit than others. For existing hot water
a reduced supply water temperature with reduced load. systems, adequate operation at lower supply water tempera-
Assuming a constant geothermal fluid temperature, such tures may have ti, be verified. For non-hot water systems, it
control allows for an increasing AT on the geothermal side of is likely that new hot water equipmentwill peed to be installed
the heat exchanger 8s load decreases. This, in hun, allows for adjacent to or in place of the existing equipment. Over the
267
Table 12.1 Retrofit Suitability Valueb of Selected Heating Systems
Retrofit Suitability
Single Multiple
Air systems Air Handler Air Handler
Low temperature hot water (< 150°F)

Single zone, multi-zone, dual duct 10 8
Terminal reheat, variable volume,
Induction 8 6
Standard hot water (1 8O-2WF)

Terminal reheat, variable volume,
Induction 7 6
steam
Terminal reheat, variable volume
Induction 5 4
Electric resistance forced air

Air-to-airsplit system heat pump
Fossil fuel fired furnace
Roof top packaged equipment
Fossil fuel fired unit heaters
Water Systems
Loop heat Pump 10

Radiant panel 10
Fan millunit ventilator
2 Pipe 9
4 Pipe single mil 9
4 Pipe 7
Unit heaters 7
Finned tube/convector 6
Steam Systems
Finned tube radiation

Unit ventilator
Two pipe cast iron radiator
One pipe cast iron radiator
Perimeter Electric Systems
Electric resistance baseboard 2

Through-the-wall units 1
a. Suitability values shown a b v e are average. Site specific conditions fresuently influence suitability in positive or
negative ways. The table addresses only the mechanical considerationsof the retrofit. The relative energy efficiency
of the existing system also heavily influences retrofit suitability.
b. A value of 10 is best, 1 is worst.
268
years, the Oregon Institute of Technology's Geo-Heat Center
has gained considerable experience in evaluating heating
systems for retrofit. Table 12.1 rmmmarizes the results of this
experience with regard to some of the systems that may be
encountered. It is important to note that the retrofit Suitability
of these systems as indicated in the table is not absolute. Site
I I COOUICI
specific considerations can easily alter the ability (either
positively or negatively) of a system to Bccommodate hot
water use. Some of these issues will be discussed for specific
system in the paragraphs below.
, The largest of these considerationsis the degree of excess

capacity present in the existing system. This excess capacity,
present in most systems, is the result of a number of factors, Figure 12.6 Single zone system (Bloomquist, 1987).
the most important of which is umservative design practice.
In addition, manual methods of equipment selection used in
the past resulted in conservative results compared to present
automated methods. It is not unusual to find a heating system "E- R
with an overdesign factor of 50% or more. This is a result
of the nature of the system design. First, the peak heat loss
is calculated, sometimes using unrealistically low outside
design temperature that artificially increases the load by -
10%. Then a 10 to 30% safety factor is added, a 5% duct
loss &tor, and a 25%-pi* factor (for regain after night set
back). When equipment is selected, the capacity may be any-
where from 5 to 20% over the requirements because of equip-
ment availability. M e n the results of all this are considered
together, 1.10 x 1.10 x 1.05 x 1.25 x 1.05 = 1.68, the
system can be grossly oversized. As a result, it can be oper- Figure 12.7 Multizone system (Bloomquist, 1987).
ated at significantly reduced capacity and still meet heating
requirementswith no difficulty. In many cases,overdesigned
hot water systems have been operated at much reduced supply
water temperatures (lower capacity) and actually provided
improved performance through better part-load valve control.
The existing equipment capacity does not always reflect

the actual heating requirements of the building. The presence
of excess capacity in the existing system generally offers some
advantage in the retrofit process. 7 '- \ I/ I
12.6.1 Air Svstems
Air systems involve the delivery of heated air from a

central source,generally through a ducted distribution system,
to the space to be heated. This group can generally be split Figure 12.8 Double duct system (Bloomquist, 1987).
into two classifications: (a) large building systems, and
@) smaIl building systems.
mils in the terminal equipment located in each heating zone.
Laree Buildings Because an individual air handler may serve from a few to
several hundred terminal units, retrofit, if any, could be costly
Largebuilding systems include those described in Figures for these heating coils. Because the heating mils are located
12.6 through 12.11. Of these, the most favorable for retrofit in the occupied spaces, -retrofit of the units would be
are the single-zone, multi-zonemd dual duct systems (Figures disruptive to the building tenants. The heating mils in these
12.6, 12.7 and 12.8). These systems include only a single systems are generally +signed for a fairly low temperatm
heating coil in the central air handler. As a result, retrofit, if rise on the air side (that is, the air is generally heated to only
necasary, is umfined to the mechauical room. The terminal 80 to 105"F), which generally allows for acceptable low
reheat, variable air volume, and induction systems all include supply water temperabe operation. In the event that the
t
269
individual zone heating coils will not operate acceptably at the The large building air systems described above can use
temperature available from the geothermal system, a peaking low temperaturehot water, standard hot water or steam for the
arrangementwith the existing boiler is generally more accept- heating coils. By far the most common is standard hot water
able than retrofit of the coils. Under this approach, the coils designed for 200°F supply and 180°F return. Because of
system operates on geothermally supplied heat for most of the overdesign, these systems often will operate acceptably at
year. During unusually cold periods, the supply water tem- reduced water temperatures. Systems designed in the last 10
perature is boosted by the building's existing boiler. year may use a lower temperature hot water system with
supply temperatures from 140 to 160"F, rather than the
standard 200°F used in the past. These systems are more
m
#N
attractive for retrofit because it is unlikely that any terminal
equipment retrofit or peaking will be required. It is rare to
find steam used for terminal heating coils in large building air
systems, though a few have been designed.
//////
Some air systems, which use larger percentagesof outside

air (typical of hospitals) or are located in very cold climates,
may include a preheat coil in the main air handler. This
preheat coil serves to heat the mixture of return air and outside
air (or 10096 outside air in some buildings) to a temperature
of 55 to 60°F before entering the main duct system. Even
when the balance of the system is a hot water design, the
Figure 12.9 Terminal reheat system (Bloomquist, 1987). preheat coil is frequently designed for steam use. These steam
preheat coils would require retrofit for hot water operation.
COOLUG
It is important to use specific design techniques when
COIL1 implementing hot water preheat coils in order to maintain an
adequate water velocity that prevents freezing in the coil.
-
This value is generally taken to be 3 ft/s. A number of
control strategies are available to accomplish this with most
Using a recirculationpump at the coil. Hot water preheat coil
design is discussed in detail in Hainm, 1983 and ASHRAE,
1984.
I . n, Large building air systems are frequently installed with
a separate system that provides heating to the perimeter of the
building. This second system is usually a hot water radiation-
Figure 12.10 Variable air volume system (Bloomquist, finned pipe system. As a result, it is important to consider the
1987). performance of both the central air system and the perimeter
systemwhen analyzing the building retrofit requirements. The
hot water radiation system will be discussed further under
water systems.
0
A final consideration for large building air systems
relates to the number of air handlers used in the building. If
retrofit of the main heating coils is required, fewer units are
better. During the 1950s and l%Os, it was a common
HUMIDIFIER OR
practice to use a small number of very large air handlers. In
recent years, the trend has been the opposite (i.e., large
number of small air handlers).
-_ In summary, for large buildings, the most attractive

system from the geothermal use standpoint is a single-mne,
multi-zone, or dual duct system that uses hot water (or low
HOTOR C RECIRCULATED temperature hot water) heating coils and includes a small
-ROOM AIR number of air handling units.
Figure 12.11 Induction system (Bloomquist, 1987).
270
Fossil fuel fired furnaces (Figure 12.13) are somewhat
less easily retrofit than electric resistance units. This is
Small building air systems are distinct &OM large because of higher supply air temperature used with this type
building systems in terms of complexity and heat source. In of furnace, smaller ductwork, and difficulty in mil
smaller buildings, sepatate boiler to supply hot water or installation.
steam to the air handlers is generally not included. As a
result, individual equipment serves as both the heat source and
the air handler as in the case of air-to-air heat pumps, roof top
gadelectric units, and fossil €uel fired and electric resistance
furnaces. The duct distribution system, if any, is generally
much less sophisticated than in the large air systems. Retrofit
costs for small building air systems are as much a function of
the number of individual units as of the type of unit.
Furnaces of the fossil fuel fired or electric resistance

variety are found primarily in small office and municipal
buildings, residences, and to some extent, in retail buildings.
As indicated in Table 12.1, the electric furnace is considered
fair in terms of retrofit ease.
Retrofit cost is influenced by the number of units

involved; the fewer the better. Retrofit of this type of system
involves the installation of a hot water coil in the supply air
duct. Electric furnaces (Figure 12.12), because they are
designed for fairly low supply air temperature are considered
to be more easily retrofit than fossil fuel fired equipment. The Figure 12.13 Fossil fuel fired fumace (Bloomquist, 1987).
low supply air temperature permits low supply water tempera-
ture operation and less costly coil installation (because of
larger ductwork); however, it may be necessary to increase fan When analyzing any furnace based heating system, be
horsepower to accommmodate the higher air side pressure drop aware that oversizing of the existing equipment is very likely.
imposed by the coil Wpe, 1987). Finally, electric resistance Fukces are available in only a limited number of sizes and
supplied heat can be very expensive and, as a result, savings installationinvariably involves selectionof the next larger unit
can be high when a g e o t h e d system is added. for safety. As a result, the equipment is generally much larger
than required. Electric furnaces, because of the higher cost of
operation, are less likely than fossil fuel fired equipmeat to be
grossly oversized.
Air-to-air heat pumps are availablein two d g u r a t i m :

split system and package. Of the two, the split system is the
more easily retrofit. Split systems, as shown in Figure 12.14,
involve an outside unit that contains €he compressor and a heat
exchanger and an inside unit, which containsa heat exchanger
unit and a fan. The inside unit is usually installed in a
mechanical closet and, as a result, access for retrofit is good.
th the furnaces described above, retrofit consists of the
lation of a hot water coil in the supply air unit. Split
system heat pumps are most commonly found in small office
buildings and residences. Because of their relatively low cost
of operation and the likelihood that a large number of units
will be installed in a building of any reasonable size, this
I
4
system is unliiely to be a good candidate for retrofit.
Figure 12.12 Electric resistance furnace (Bloomquist, 1987).
27 1
rooftop package equipment frequently bears little resemblance
to actual building requirements and, in many cases, may
exceed requirements by a factor of two or three.
Fossil fuel fired unit heaters are a self contained device

including a fan, burners, and heat exchanger as shown in
FN CEI Figure 12.16. These units are usually suspended from the
ceiling in applications such as smaller food markets, shops,
small retail stores, coffee shops, and auto dealerships. The
retrofit of fossil fuel fired unit heaters involves replacement
with new hot water unit heaters. The suitability of 8
particular system for retrofit is mostly dependent upon the
Figure 12.14 Split system air to air heat pump (Bloomquist, number of units required. As the number of individual units
1987). increases, costs for hot water distribution piping within the
building increases, along with equipment costs for the new
unit heaters. Because unit heaters are typically used in
Rooftop package equipment, as shown in Figure 12.15, buildings that require little or no heating during unoccupied
can involve an air-to-air heat pump, an electric cooling/electric hours, savings generated by the retrofit may be very small.
resistanceheating combination, or more commonly, an electric As a result, the retrofit suitability of this system is shown in
cooling/gas heating unit. The rooftop package unit is most Table 12.1 as a 4.
often found in retail applications, particularly shopping
centers, fast food outlets, and in low rise office buildings.
The compact nature of this equipment usually precludes
installation of a heating coil in the unit itself except in very
large capacity units. Coil installation should be in the supply
air duct, usually located in a restricted space between the
suspended ceiling and the roof (or floor) above. The limited
space available, and the requirement to install the coil in the
occupied area of the building, results in only a fair rating for
this type of system in terms of retrofit suitability. One
favorable characteristic of the rooftop system is it virtually
always includes air conditioning capability, resulting in
somewhat larger ductwork than would be the case for a
heating only installation. This larger ductwork reduces hot
water coil retrofit difficulties.
GAS SUPPLY/ ( J
Figure 12.16 Fossil fuel finned unit heater (Bloomquist,
1987).
Location of Retrofit Hot Water Coils

Many of the small building systems discussed thus far
Figure 12.15 Packaged roof top system (Bloomquist, 1987). involve installation of a hot water coil for retrofit purposes.
In many cases, the access to, and the sizing of, the return air
duct would result in a much easier retrofit than the supply air
The number of units to be retrofit significantly affects the duct location. Return air hot water coil retrofits should be
total cost. A building with a single large rooftop unit would avoided. Locating the heating coil in the return air stream
be a much more favorable candidate than a similar building results in two primary difficulties because of the elevated
with five smaller units. returnair tempe- (a) reducedfan motorcooling, and
(b) r e d u d fan capacity.
A final comment on rootlop equipment relates to name
plate rating (heating capacity). These units are generally Most small equipment is designed for return air cooling
selected on the basis of cooling capacity with little con- of the fan motor. Raising the tempemture of the air stream
sideration given to the heating capacity. Heating capacity of (with the new coil) results in motor overheating. In addition,
272
an inc&’ rem air t e q i e r a h ~ eincreases the specific During the cooling season, heat is rejected from the
volume of the gir, thus reducing fan capacity. Placing the coil cooling tower.e cool the circuit. During the colder periods
in the return air stream should be used only when full of the year, heat is added to the loop by a boiier. The
consideration has been given to these issues. attractivenessof the loop heat pump system lies in the fact that
the water circuit serving the heat pumps is generally
12.6.2 Water Systems maintained at 60 to W F , depending upon the seasan.
Water systeis can IXvarious~yconfigured, but each will Retrofit of the system involves d y the installation of a
have a main hot water circulating loop that serves a number of heat exchanger adjacent to the existing boiler. Because of the
individual heating units. Though individual terminal units low tempratwe operation of this system in comparison to
may use small duct-type distribution systems within their most geothermal resource temperatures, the heat exchauger
respective zones, water systems do not h v e a central duct requirement is very small. A large temperature drop can be
disttibution system. Systems included in this chapter consist used on the geothermal side of the system. Because of the
of: (a) bop heat pump, (b) radiant panel, (c) fan coil/unit ease of the retrofit of this system, it is rated as a 10 in terms
ventilator, (d) hot water unit heater, and (e) finned of district heating suitability. Although the practical retrofit
tube/convection. cansiderationsfor this system are excellent, eamomics may be
quite poor.
The loop heat pump system provides for one of the
simplest retrofits to geothermal. This type of system, as The loop heat pump system is an energy efficient system
depicted in Figma 12.17 and 12.18, uses a very low tempera- because it has the ability to recycle heat within the building.
ture water loop serving a large number of individual heat This frequently results in a very small auxiliary heating
pump units throughout the building. requirement.
n CoaJNtr
TOJMR
J, J
The water loop heat pump system is used primarily in
large, multi-story office buildings and similar structures that
have year round cooling requirements. One variation of the
system that would not be suitable for geothermal heating
retrofit is the cooling only loop system. Under this design,
the individual units are not capable of opkrating as a heat
pump and electric resistance heaters are used for perimeter
heating of the building.
- Radiant panel systems are rarely used today, but were

fairly common in constructionof the 1950s. Applicationsthat
Figure 12.17 Water loop heat pump system flow schematic lend themselves well to this type of system are automotive
(Bloomquist, 1987). repair shops,Iarge high ceiling manufacturing structures, and
schools. Radiant panel systems as indicated in Figure 12.19
involve the circulation of warm water (90 to 130°F) through
piping that is embedded in the floor of the building. Older
systems were constructed with copper or steel piping. Leaks
that developed because of expansion and umtraction, and
corrosion resulted in expensive repair requirenaents. As a
result, the panel system fell into disuse for many years. With
the advent of new, nonmetallic piping products (ptimarily
polybutylene), radiant panel systems have begun to reappear.
Retrofit of the system consists of the installationof a heat

exchangeradjacent to the system boiler. As with the loop heat
pump system, the low temperature operation of the panel
system greatly enhances retrofit prospects in cOmpariSOIl to
other hot water systems. As shown in Table 12.1, the system
rates a 10 in retrofit suitability.
Figure 12.18 Typical water loop heat pump unit
(Bloomquist, 1987).
8
273
coil units, as shown in Figures 12.20 and 12.21, consist of a
sheet metal box containing a fan, air filter, and one or two
coils. A unit ventilator is similar to a fan coil unit with the
exception that it contains accommodations for the supply of
outdoor air for ventilation.
Figure 12.21 Horizontal fan coil unit (Bloomquist, 1987).
Two types of FC/UV systems are available: two pipe

and four pipe. The two or four pipe designation refers to the
water distribution system serving the terminal equipment. A
two pipe system includes only one supply line and one return
ut INLET W E R line. As a result, it can supply only heating or cooling to the
building at any particular time. Fan coil units and unit
ventilators served by a two pipe system (Figure 12.22) umtain
Figure 12.19 Radiant panel system (Bloomquist, 1987). only one coil that serves as heathg or cooling coil, depending
upon the season.
Fan coil (FC) and unit ventilator 0 systems or both

are found primarily in hotel/motel chains and schools. The
f
system consists of a main hot water loop that serves a large
number of terminal units located throughout the building. Fan
-LED WATER
FLTER
ATED
Figure 12.22 Unit ventilator served by two pipe system

(Bloomquist, 1987).
m
Figure 12.20 Vertical fan coil unit (Bloomquist, 1987).
For purposes of this discussion, the four pipe single coil
system will be considered as a two pipe system because its
design offers similar &antages with respect to low
temperature retrofit.
274
Because the coil must perform both heating 'and cooling Unit heaters are available in two basic configurations:
functions, it is designed for the most demanding duty, which horizontal (Figure 12.24) and vertical (Figwe 1229, with
is cooling. As a result, it is able to meet heating kqGrements horizontal units the most common. Assuming that the supply
at very low water temperatures (< 120°F). This low tempera- fluid temperature after connection to the geothermal system
ture capability provides the same advantages discussed above will be equal to or greater than the present supply temperature,
for water systems. this systemwould be a good candidate. If the expected supply
fluid temperaturewill be less than the existing system, retrofit
The four pipe system includes a distribution system that of the terminal equipment or peaking may be required. When
contains both hot water supply and return lines and chilled operated on lower than originally designed water tempemhue,
water supply and return lines. As a result, either heating or unit heatem produce correspondingly lower supply air temper-
cooling can be delivered to any zone at any time. Terminal atures. This can result in a drafty sensation for occupauts.
equipment (fan coil units or unit ventilators) for the four pipe However, because of the application in which these units are
system usuallycontains both heating and cooling coils as normally found, a greater latitude can be taken with respect to
shown in Figure 12.23. Heating coils in these units generally pce'fr. Asaresult,thisoptionratesa7intermsof
require much higher water temperature than two pipe system retrofit suitability.
units.
- -
Figure 12.24 Horizontal hot water unit heater

(Bloomquist, 1987).
Figare 12.23 Unit ventilator served by four pipe system

(Bloomquist, 1987).
As a result, if expected supply water temperatures under

the geothermal system are to be less than existing system
supply water temperature, coil retrofit or peaking would have
to be evahted for this system.
In recognition of the low temperature capability of the

G o pipe system its retrofit suitability index is shown as 8 and
the higher temperature four pipe system as a 6.
Figure 12.25 Vertical hot water unit heater
Hot water unit heaters are a simpIerversion of the system (Bloomquist, 1987).
described above. This equipment is found in applications in
which noise generation and aesthetics are less of a Finned tube/convector systems, \asillustrated in Figures
consideration, such as automotive repair shops, warehouses, 12.26 and 12.27, require the highest temperature of all hot
supermarkets, and small retail stores. watersystems. Thisequipment is found inmany typesof
275
buildings and fresuently in conjunction with an air system in
larger buildings. Because this system uses no fans for
circulating, it relies entirely on elevated temperature to
promote the air convection by which it operates. As a result,
it does not perform well at temperatures less than that for
which it was designed.
METAL FRONT
Figure 12.27 Typical recessed convection

(Bloomquist, 1987).
Most finned tube/convector systems incorpOratea supply

water temperature reset control. This control (as described in
the New Building section) reduces system supply water temp-
Figure 12.26 Fin tube radiator (Bloomquist, 1987). erature as outdoor temperature rises. It is useful to examine
"i"
1 I
I
I
Figure 12.28 Retrofit analysis flow diagram.
276
the reset schedule on this control and determine the compati- Because many of the air systems described above and dl
bility with the expected supply water temperatures under the of the hot water systems involve distribution of hot water to
geothermal system. In this way, the quantity of peakiag, if some form of heating equipment, a procedure for evaluating
any, requid from the conventional boiler can be determined. these systems for geothermal retrofit systems is necessary.
The following outlines such a procedure. Figure 12.28 is a
It is also useful when considering the retrofit of a flow diagram for a retrofit analysis of an existing hot water
building to lower the setting of the reset contfouer steadily system. The first step is to calculate the peak heating
during cold weather to determine the minimum acceptable requirements in Btu5. This is the quantity of heat the heating
operating temperature for the system. In some cases,lowering system must supply to keep the building warm in the coldest
the water temperature actually results in improved system weather. It is important to be as accurate as possible and to
performance. use realistic design temperatures such as those published by
ASHRAE (ASHRAE, 1985). The design load is critical
As with most other water systems, retrofit of the because it will determine the required capacity of the heating
equipmentis generally less economical than occasional peakiag equipment. An overly ccmservative approach, such as that
with the conventional boiler. The design philosophy for described earlier, will suggest a more extensive retrofit or
finned tube systems involves using a relatively low outputlft peaking requirement than is actually necessaTy.
(Btuh If) of element so as to result in a large length
requirement, thus covering most of the inside perimeter of the Next, the installed capacity of present equipment is
building. As a result, it is difficult to compensate for lower determined. This can most easily be accomplished with the
temperature operation by installing additional heating building design drawings. A comparison of the calculated
elements. load from the first step and the installed capacity will give an
immediate indicationof the degree of oversizingin the present
a 6 in terms of its retrofit characteristics. .

The hot water finned tube/convection system is rated as system.
100
-
is
A
r
0
80
0
W 60
0
-c,
0 40.
I
(1,
n
20.
100 i i o i$o 130 140 Go

1'60 i f o I ~ 1'90
O 260
Average water temperature CF)
Figure 12.29 Performance of hot water equipment at non-standard temperatufa (Bloomquist, 1987).
2?7
Determinethe present supply water temperahm. Because temperature is close to the existing system and there are a
many larger systems involve a temperature reset schedule, it large number of units to be retrofit or both. Figure 12.30
is not acceptable to simply check the qpply temperature at illustrates the reason for this. The figure is a generalid plot
any time. It must be monitored during the coldest weather of percentage of peak load versus annual hours of operation.
period or verified at the reset controller. It is apparent from the figure that once 60% of the peak load
has been met, the bulk of the annual space heating energy
Next, calculate the probable supply water temperature requirements have been met. Supplying the remainder of the
under geothermal operation. If the installed capacity is much requirements with a conventional peaking system would not
larger than the calculated heating load, then it is likely that the result in significant fuel costs.
can be operated successfully at a much lower water
. If the probable supply temperatureis equal to or After determining the more economicalof the above two
the existing system supply water temperature, the options, the final step is to calculate the overall economics of
analysis need proceed no further. The system will operate the geothermal system, including capital and operating costs
acceptably with no equipment retrofit. If the for the balance of the system.
geothermalsystem water temperature is less than the existing
supply temperature, it is necessary to calculate the existing 12.6.3 Steam Svstems
equipment performanceat the reduced temperature. As a first
cut, Figure 12.29 can be used to estimate this value. The As with the water systems, steam systems may take a
correction factor for the probable geothermal supply fluid variety of configurations. Thm included Under this classif-
temperaturedivided by the factor for the existing temperature, ication for this chapter are: (a) finned tube radiation/
multiplied by the existing capacity will give the new capacity convector, (b) unit heater/unit ventilator, (c) two pipe cast
of-the system. If this value is at or above the calculated iron radiation, and (d) one pipe cast iron radiation.
heating load, the analysis is completed. If the capacity is less
than the calculated requirement, two options should be The principle characteristic which distinguishes these
e v a l W . (a) retrofit requirements (and cost) to meet 100% from other s9stems is the use of a steam heating medium
of the design load, or (b) quantity of annual energy that could directly in the terminal equipment. Many buildings contain a
be met by the reduced capacity geothermal system and steam boiler but use a convector to produce hot water for
conveutional peaking. heating'purposes, The system described in this section
delivers the steam directly to the heating equipment. This is
generally low pressure steam at 15 lb/in.* (psi) or less. As a
-
result, it has a temperature of 200 to 240°F. This illustrates
the primary disadvantage of steam equipment for geothermal
heating operations. It is unlikely that most geothermal
systems will be capable of delivering water that is hot enough
to generate steam for the existing building's steain system.
Because the supply water temperature for a hot water system
will likely be less than 2WF, the steam equipment will
operate at a much reduced capacity because it was designed for
200 to 240°F. If the system does not contain sufficient excess
capacity to accommodatethis, much of the terminalequipment
will have to be replaced or significantpeaking will be needed.
A second difficulty with steam systems that must be

PERCENT OF PEAK LOAD converted to hot water lies in the piping arrangement. Steam
Figure 12.30 Annual hours of operations versus percent of systems produce heat by allowing the steam to condense in the
peak load (Bloomquist, 1987). heating equipment. For each pound of steamcondensed,
loo0 Btu is supplied to the space. When the steam con-,
a large volume reduction occurs (1 lb of condensate or water
'Retrofit requirements to meet the eatire peak load would is much smaller than 1 lb of steam). To accollMlodate this
consist of equipment replacementsand the installationof addi- volume reduction, steam systems employ very large lines to
tional equipment or both. The possibility of using existing deliver the steam to the heating equipmentand very small ones
cooling coils for.heating purposes can substantially reduce to carry away the condensate. When the system is converted
retrofit costs. This approach is generally more favorable in to hot water, the steam piping is usually much larger than
situations where the geothermal supply temperature is signif- required, which does not present a problem. The condensate
icantly less than the present supply temperature, and there is lines, however, are frequently much smaller than required for
only a small number of units to retrofit or both. The second the hot water flow. These lines, in some cases, must be
option is usually more economical if the geothermal supply replaced with adequately sized piping.
278
Steam controls are rarely -table for hot water This system is rated as a 3 in terms of its ability to
operation. As shown in Figure 12.31, steam systems include Biccommodate hot water Operatian.
not only a valve to control the flow of steam to the heating
equipment, but a trap for regulating condensate flow out of the Cast iron radiation systems (Figure 12.32) are divided
equipment. In a conversion to a hot water system the steam into two groups: one pipe and two pipe. Neither of these are
c4mtrol valve should be replaced with a hot water control particularly suitable for hot water operation.
valve and the trap removed -from the line.
% >
< I
Figure 12.31 Steam unit heater (Bloomquist, 1987).
The difficulty of the replacement of this equipment is

compounded by the fact that most steam systems are at least
25 years old, and many are closer to 50 years old.
In summary, the magnitude of the retrofit requirements

fix steam systems fresuenty causes them to be uneconomical .
to connect b g e o t h e d &stems. Figure 12.32 Typical cast iron radiators (Bloomquist, 1987).
Finned tube radiatidconvector systems opetated on

s those described under the hot
steam are very much the same a The one pipe radiationsystem employs only a singlepipe
water systems above. The difficullty Bssociatedwith installing to the individual radiators. This riser acconrmodates steam
additional elements discussed above is compounded by a large flow up the line while condensate flows down. These are the
capacity reduction that is experienced in converting from oldest of the steam systems and are generally found in
steam to hot water. When piping and controls replacement are buildings of only a few stories in height. The m e pipe nature
,this system is rated as only a 3 in terms of retrofit of this systemeliminatesany possibility of hot water operation
suitability. without substantial piping installation.
Unit ventilator systems for steam operation are the same In addition, it is likely that &-rating for hot water
as those discussed under the hot water section. It is possible service would d t in insufficient &city. These systems
to repla& the steam coil in the unit ventilator with a hot water can be Collsidezed for retrofit only if a total building
coil. However, because of the age of most steam unit venti- remodeling effort is pIanned.
lator systems, experience has shown this to be uneconomical
in comparison to replacing the existing unit ventilator with a The two pipe cast iton radiation system is only
new hot water unit ventilator. Many of the unit ventilator marginally better for retrofit purposes than the m e pipe
systems, particularly those in schools tructed during the system. As suggested by the above, the two pipe system
1940s and 1950s, have steam piping installed in trenches employs a separate steam supply line and con- rehun
around the inside perimeter ofthe Wdiig. These trenchesdo line to the heating equipment. Few of these systems have
not provide adeqate access to the piping for replacement of been successfully retrofit for hot water operation. The retrofit
the condensate system and this greatly increases retrofit cost. generally includes the removal of the steam trap and
279
installation of a new hot water thermostatic control valve The through-the-wall system involves a unit similar to
(most steam systems have only manual valve control of steam that shown in Figure 12.33. These units can be either air-to-
to the radiator). As with all other steam systems, derating for air heat pumps or electric air conditioners with electric
hot water service is a problem unless significant oversizing is resistance heating. The through-the-wall system is most
present. Piping retrofit requirements, with V t to conden- common in hotelslmotels and apartment buildings.
sate lines, varies greatly. Many smaller buildings (low rise)
employ steam and condensatemains in the basement. To these Because one unit is required for each occupied room, the
mains, individual risers to each radiator are attached. When number of units in a single building can easily reach several
this is the case,usually only condensatepiping replacement in hundred. This system is nearly impossible to retrofit and is
the basement is required and the risers can remain. In taller designated as a one.
buildings, submainsare frequently used and a number of radi-
ators on different floors are connected to the same riser. 12.6.5 Domestic Hot Water Heating
Under these conditions, piping retrofit becomes more
complicated and retrofit less attractive. Dpmestic hot water heating is frequently served by dis-
trict heating systems. One of the early cletemkations to be
12.6.4 Perimeter Electrical Svstems made in a geothermal feasibility study is whether or not to
connect a particular building’s domestic hot water system to
nese systems are distinct from a11 of tGse discussed the district heating system. The decision should be based
thus far in that they contain no allowances for piping or duct primarily upon the volume of hot water used in the building.
work associated with the heating system. Heating is provided In general, hotels, motels, apartment buildings, high schools,
by some type ofelectric device such as electric baseboard, unit restaurants,hospitals, and health clubs will be characterizedby
heaters, or through-the-wallunits. The large number of these sufficient domestic hot water consumption to warrant retrofit
units typically installed in the building, in conjunction with of the existing system. Buildings such as offices,retail stom,
the requirement to install a completely new heating system, theaters, and elementiry schools are unlikely to be attractive
generally renders buildings containing these systems to be low domestic hot water candidates.
priority candidates for connection to a geothermal system.
Table 12.12 outlines average hot water umsumption for
The electric resistance baseboard system can be found in various types of buildings.
many types of buildings from residences to retail buildings to
offices. It is typically used in low first cost umstruction in
which the rental tenant will be responsible for the heating bill. Table 12.2 Domestic Hot Water Consumption for Selected
As a result, there is little motivation for the owner to convert Applications (ASHRAE, 1983)
to a geothermal system, because it is the tenant who will
benefit. chlsumption
Amlication Average Dav
For relatively small buildings with central air condition- Men’s dormitory 3.1 galhtudent
ing, a hot water coil can be installed in the air conditioning womeds dormitory 12.3 gallstudent
distribution system. In the absence of this approach, a new
hot water baseboard or hot water unit heater system must be Motels: 20units 20.0 gallunit
installed. The relatively poor economics of this magnitude of 60 units 14.0 gal/unit
retrofit result in this system being designated as a 2 in tern 100 units 10.0 flunit
of retrofit suitability.
Nursing homes 18.4 gal/bed
Office buildings 1.0 gallperson
Restaurants (Full service) 2.4 gall&

Luncheonettes . 0.7 gallmeal
Apartment houses: 20 or less 42.0 gal/apt.

50 40.0 gallapt.
75 38.0 gal/apt.
100 37.0 gal/apt.
200 35.0 gal/apt.
Figure 12.33 Typical through-the-wall type unit Elementary schools 0.6 gallstudent
(Bloomquist, 1987). Jr & Sr high schools 1.8 gallstudent
280
The p r e f d arrangement for domestichot water heating Under some conditions, the flow rate from the space heat
is shown in Figure 12.34. Under this design, water exiting exchangerwill not be sufficientto raiee the domestic hot water
from the space heating heat exchanger is directed to the to the required temperature. In this case, a second Circuit
domestic hot water heat exchanger. This schemeprovides for connected to the primary hot water supply can be added to the
larger temperature drop in both the end user building and in domestic hot water heating heat exchanger. This second
the district heating system. Larger temperature drops reduce circuit would provide the additional boosting of the domestic
system flow rates and required piping sizes. hot water to the required temperaturn. As an alternative, the
seumd circuit in b e heat exchanger could be connected to the
existing storage tank as shown.
ASHRAE 1983 Handbook of Equipment, American Society of

Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineen,
Chapter 29, Atlanta, GA, 1983.
ASHRAE 1984 Handbook of Systems, American Society of

Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers,
Chapter 31, Atlanta, GA, 1984.
ASHRAE 1985 Handbook of Fundamentals,American Society

of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Engineers, Atlanta, GA, 1985.
Bloomquist, G., et al., "District Heating Development

Guide", Washington State Energy Office,Olympia,WA,
I ' I 1987.
Haines, R. W.,"Control Systems for Heating, Ventilatingand

Air conditioning", Van Nostrand Reinhold Company,
New Yo&, NY, 1983.
Figure 12.34 Typical domestic hot water heating flow
scheme (Bloomquist, 1987). Knipe, E.,Personal communication, 1987.
Rafferty, K., 'Geothermal Retrofit of Existing SpaceHearing
Sizing procedures for this type of instantaneous hearing System", Geo-Heat Center Quarterly Bulletin, Oregon
arrangement are found in the ASHRAE, 1984 Systems InstituteofTechnology, Geo-Heat center, Klamath Falls,
Volume, Chapter 34. Basically, hot water demand in fixture OR, Winter 1986.
Units is determined and the required hot water flow rate for
the building in question is found using the Modified Hunter
Curves.
28 1
CHAPTER 13
WEAT PUMPS
'
By Keyin D.Rafferty, P.E.
OIT Geo-Heat center
13.1 INTRODUCTION Table 13.1 illustrates the off-peakperformanceof small,

medium and large (with respect to the 3 x 106 Btum) capacity
When geothermal resoufce temperatures fall below the reciprocating heat pumps.
100 to 120°F range, it is frequently impractical to use the fluid
directly for most ipplications. Under these conditions, the The increase in efficiency at part load is because of the
water 8ource heat pump can provide thenecessary temperature e capacity control employed by the manufacturer from
~ t u r of
boost to concentrate the heat from a very low temperature which data were taken. This is a result of a special unloading
resource. This is particularly true in areas, such as the arrangementand the part load operationof two separate refrig-
Northwest, which are characterized by substantial low erant circuits on the heat pump. This increases the amount of
temperature resources, moderate climate, and low electrical heat transfer area available in the evaporator and condenser
rates. relative to load requirements, thus inmasing efficiency.
Heat pumps are available in a wide variety of capacities The refrigerant employed is a function of the tempera-
and configurations. Discussing all of these is beyond the tures between which the machine is working. Table 13.2
scope of this chapter. The following is limited to presents a summary of refrigerant temperature limitations.
commercially available, U.S. .manufactured, industrial sized
heat pumps. Evaporators are of the shell and tube type with water
generally on the shell side. However, one major mmfacturer
produces equipment with water on the tube side. condensers
13.2 EQUIPMENT are also shell and tube with water on the tube side. Recip-
rocating machines do not generally include a separate liquid
Jn the commercially available size range, equipment is in sub-cooling heat exchanger, though sub-cooling is addressed
two basic configurations; reciprocating and centrifugal. in condenser circuitry condenser circuitry (Carrier, 1987).
Centrifugalmachines are used for the largest applicationswith
reciprocating equipment for smaller capacities. The following Packaged reciprocating heat pumps are supplied fiom the
sections briefly discuss each of these types of equipment. factory with all safety and operating controls for the machine
including, in most cases, cbmpressor starters. "he machines
13.2.1 ~eciDrocatinq need only to be interfaced with system controls and a power
source.
Reciprocating compressor heat pumps are available as
standard units in sizes generalIy below 3 x 106 Bhdh heating 13.2.2 Centrikal
output (McQuay, 1986). This equipment employs a one, four,
six, or eight cylinder compressor on smaller equipment and centrifugalheat pumps are availablein capacitiesranging
multiple four or six cylinder compressors on larger units from- lxl06to25x106Btu/hinasingleunit(McQuay,
(Carrier, 1384). 1983).
Capacity control is accomplished by suction cut off type The equipment features a single or dual compressor,
-
cylinder unloading down to 15-2096 capacity below which
hot gas by-pass .must be employed. As a result, it is
depending upon the size. One large manuhturer of this
equipment in the U.S. employs a high speed wheel, drivea by
important, particularly for space heating applications, that a hermetically sealed squirrel cage motor through a Single
equipmentselectionconsidersoff-peakoperation. Thenumber helical gear couple. Motor cooling is provided by controued
ofcontrol steps is dependent upon the number of compressor liquid mfrigerant injection. A second manufaturer employs
cylinders, with four step control available on the smaller units a 3atage compressor operating at motor speed. Refrigerant
and up to eight step control on the larger units. temperature limitations are similar to those shown in Table
13.2 for reciprocating equipment.
283
Table 13.1 Off Peak Performance of Reciprocating Heat Pun@
smn Medium Large

Capacity kW Capacity kW Capacity kW
L.?Lm
100 100
o
100
m
100
0 0
100 100
86 81 92 88 94 90
68 60 84 76 87 80
24 20 72 64 75 62
- - 60 54 59 46
- - 31 27 51 37
- - - 42 29
- - - - 23 14
a. McQuay, 1986.
Table 13.2 Reciprocating Heat Pump Refrigerant Temperature Limitatid
MaximumCondenser MinimumlMaximum Evaporation

Leaving Water Temperature . Leaving Water Temperature
Refrigerant (Om tom
R-22 130 42/90
R-500 150 40/100
R-12 170 40/100
R-114 220 701120
a. McQuay, 1986; Carrier, 1981.
Stable part load operation is maintained by det guide operated at At's up to 20°F. For temperature rise applications
vanes with the assistance of an djustable diffuser block at the >20"F in the condenser, alternate circuiting of four or eight
wheel exhaust (McQuay, 1983). passes is available.
Construction of the balance of the machine is similar to Capacity ratings are based upon fouling factors of O.OOO5
that of the reciprocating machine with the exception that the for each heat exchanger (Carrier, 1987).
source water in the evaporatorflows through the tubes, rather
than the shell as in reciprocating equipment. This conf~gur- Off the shelf type heat pumps are, because of the use of
ation permits the use of alternate tube construction materials singlestagecompressors, limited in termsoftemperatureboost
to accommodate (without the use of a heat exchanger loop) (difference between condenser and evaporator leaving water
aggressive fluids in certain applications. -
temperatures). Most equipment is limited to 100 to 140°F
boost with a maximum of 220°F (180°F for centrifugal
Part load performance for a typical machine is shown in machines) leaving condenserwater temperature. For applica-
Figure 13.1. Centrifugal heat pumps are supplied with the tions that exceed this temperature limit, a system of conven-
same electrical equipment as reciprocating machines. tional fuel peaking or a multi stage heat pump must be
employed. Two separate heat pump machines can be con-
13.2.3 Ratings and Performance nected in series (the condenser of the low temperame machine
COMecfed to the evaporator of the high pressure machine);
Equipment ratings are generally based upon a temperature however, the thermodynamic losses in the heat exchangexs
drop through the evaporator of 10°F and a temperature rise generally render this approach impractical from an economic
through the condenser of 10°F. Standard equipment may be standpoint.
284
I
Y
t-
z
W
u
U
W
a
PERCENT RATED CAPACITY
Figure 13.1 Typical machine part load performance.
3 4 5 6
COEFFICIEPJT OF PERFORMANCE (COP)
Figure 13;2 Perfofmance of reciprocating heat pumps.
285
Figure 13.2 presents performance information for 13.2.4 Euuiument Costs
reciprocating heat pumps (McQuay, 1986 and Carrier, 1987).
Heat pump machine cost is related to both the heat output
This figure was developed from the manukturer's required (Btuh)and the condenser leaving temperatm. As
tabular data. It is important to note that heat pump size exerts the requiredcapacity is increased,larger equipment at higher
some influence upon performance. At a given set of cost is needed. In addition, higher condenser leaving water
temperatures, the largest capacity machines are generally more t e m p e m are chatacterizedby higher condensing t e v -
efficient than the smaller machines. tures and pressures. This d t s in higher pressure ratings on
the heat exchanger, which increases cost.
At certain temperature combinations, it is possible to
employ either of two refrigerants. The choice of one Each manufacturer produces a limited range of basic
refrigerant over another can have an effect upon the COP. machine frame sizes. Generally, a given frame size will
produce higher capacity at lower temperature boost and lower
Figure 13.3 indicates the performanceof centrifugalheat capacity at higher temperature boost. For varying outlet
pumps. Because of the nature of the centrifugal comptess~, temperatures, different refrigerants and mixtures thereof are
this type of machine tends to be somewhat less efficient than employed.
the reciprocating heat pump in higher temperature
applications, and more efficient than reciprocating units in Budget cost information for a selection of different
lower temperature boost applications. capacity and temperature applications appear graphically in
When considering the performance of the heat pump for Figure 13.4.
a particular application, it is important to allow for
temperatureloss across the sourcewater heat exchanger, if one Figure 13.5 presents similar information for centrifugal
is eiployed. machines.
c.
Q
0
0
Y
w
0
Z
a
I.
U
0
LL
U
W
a
LL
0
I-
Z
z
0
H
IL
lL
W
0
u
I I I I I
50 70 90 110 130
LEAVING SOURCE WATER TEMPERATURE (OF)
Figure 13.3 Performance of centrifugal heat pumps.
I 286
i
i
60 -
SO
45/95 (RECIP MILLER1
X
2 '40
so
- I I I I I I
0 .s
287
13.3 SYSTEM CONFIGURATION This problem was initially addressed through the use of
various treatment chemicals. Treatment met with only limited
The general configuration of the heat pump system can success and by 1958 its cost became prohibitive. A decision
have a substantial effect upon both its energy efficiency and its was then made to employ isolation heat exchangers as shown
service life. Two general types of layouts are possible: open in Figure 13.7.
and closed. In an open system the groundwater is used
directly in the heat pump or piping system. The closed system It is important to highlight the use of heat exchangers in
isolates the building system and heat pump from the ground- the early systems because many recently designed systems are
water with a heat exchanger. The following sections provide based on Kroeker’s original papers. These papers do not
a brief history of large tonnage heat pumps and some cover this important design modification.
suggestions for the design of new systems.
This importancewas reinforced by the experience with a
13.3.1 Historv e‘E.1985) recently designed system. A large tonnage groundwater heat
pump systeminstalledin the Yakima (Washington)County Jail
The large tonnagegroundwatercoupledheat pump system was designed in a similar fashion to Kmeker’s early system.
was pioneered in the U.S. primarily by J.D. Kroeker, an Within one year, before the County even took possession of
engineer in Portland, Oregon. Kroeker designed and installed the building, a severe corrosion problem developed with the
the first large water source heat pump systems in 1947. The system piping. Subsequently, isolation heat exchangers were
most well known of these is the Commonwealth Building added and the system has operated satisfactorily since.
(formerly known as the Equitable Building) in downtown
Portland. This building is designated a National Engineering 13.3.2 Recommendations for the
Laadmark. Its system is similar in configuration to many of pesien of Heat Pum Systems
the later Kroeker installations. As shown in Figure 13.6, a
central chillerheat pump was c o ~ e ~ t etod the building Although this chapter concentrates primarily on the heat
heating and cooling loops. pump machine, there are many considerations that relate to
other components of the system, which should be carefully
Heating requirements were supplied by the condenser addressed in any design. Fail= to accomplish this can
loop and cooling requirements by the evaporator loop. Two seriously compromise both the efficiency and reliability of the
groundwater wells, one slightly warmer than the other, were system.
directly connected to the heating and cooling loops. The
warmer well was connected to the evaporator loop. During This discussion will begin at the production well and
the cooling season, excess heat was rejected to the condenser proceed through the system in an effort to point out areas that
loop and carried away by a modulated flow from the cool well should receive consideration in the design process.
through the loop to the warmer well. During the heating
season, a similar arrangement from the warmer well through Casing Diameter
the loop to the cooler well was employed. This warm well/
cool well system was an approach unique to the downtown Details of well drilling and testing are covered in
Portland area that is underlain by two distinct aquifers of Chapters 6 and 7 and they will not be repeated here, with one
slightly different temperature. This system constituted the exception. It is critical, when specifying casing diameter, to
earliest known practical application of seasonal energy storage verify that a production well pump capable of supplying the
(Kuipe, 1987). required flow rate can be accommodated. This is more critical
in the case of lineshaft driven pumps than for submersible
The success of these systems was well documented in the pumps.
ASHRAE Tmnsactiom of the period. Subsequent system
difficulties and related modifications, however, were not well Resource TemDerature
documented. Primary among these modifications was the
installationof heat exchangers to isolate the groundwater from With regard to fluid temperature,it has generally proven
the building mechanical system. uneconomical to drill deeper wells to supply warmer water to
the heat pumps unless an unusually high gradient is indicated.
After a year of operation it became dear that a severe This is rarely the case for groundwater applications.
corrosion problem was occufting as a result of the direct use
of the groundwater in the piping system. The corrosion was Well Pum T m
exacerbated by the use of open settling tanks at the outlet of
each of the production wells. The higher than normal concen- At normal groundwater temperatures, the selection
tration of dissolved solids in the groundwater combined with between submersible and heshaft driven pumps is not
the introduction of oxygen fromthe settling tank resulted in influenced by temperature; therefore,the choice will be made
corrosion of the black iron piping system. primarily on the basis of cost, availability, and other factors.
288
Eondtttonad
it.
t i i 1
-
;?
coo1 well
Figure 13.6 Commomvealth Building - groundwater heat pump system original design (Kroeket, 1948).
bI
iE i t NOTE FLOW ARROWS SHOWN TO

I f f
2 2
EI INDICATE FLOWS WHEN SYSTEM
i iI I S HEATING AND COOLING, WITH

COOLING THE MAJOR LOAD.
(OUTSIDE AIR 45.F TO 65.F)
U 7 1
289
One characteristic that should be seriously considered, Temperature plus variable speed control an efficient
particularly for larger projects and low static water level strategy. This method (Figure 13.9) eliminates the pressure
applications, is overall efficiency. In most cases,the lineshaft drop associated with the control valve and the necessity to
pump will offer higher overall efficiency in comparison to the maintain anything greater than a minimum positive pressure.
submersible pump. This difference in overall efficiency is a As a result, the hplflow relationship lies somewherebetween
result primarily of motor performance rather than pump a direct relationship of the 100% static head situation and the
efficiency. The annual energy cost differencebetween the two cubic relationship of the 100% friction head situation. As
types of pumps should be evaluated for high load factor with any variable speed application, the greater the friction
projects (industrialprocess loads or space heating and cooling) head in comparison to the lift (static head), the more benefit
that involve pumping levels of 200 Et or more. will be gained from the use of variable speed control. This
method of control is most suited to large applications in which
Well F'ump Control the well pump is serving only a single heat exchanger, and
surfixe pressure requirements at system design conditions
Control of the well pump can employ one of several constitute a large portion of the total pump head.
strategies:
Start/stop control with storage is the most energy efficient
1. No control (pump runs wild) approach available because the pump runs only when flow is
2. Throttle control required and there are no variable speed drive losses.
3. Throttle and variable speed drive Unfortunately, the way in which this approach has been most
4. Temperature and variable speed drive commonly applied in the past has led to premature system
5. Start/stop storage. failures in a number of cases. As B result, it is critical to
L
observe two cautionswhen employing this design: (a) rigorous
These strategies are arranged in order of overall energy avoidance of points of entrance for oxygen, (b) tank capacity
efficiency. sufficiently large for adequate motor cycling time.
The no control method is rarely justifiable unless the Early systems generally employed a storage tank vented
effluent from the heat pump system is being used for some to atmosphere. Venting permitted oxygen to enter the system
other purpose. As a result, it is rarely employed. and resulted in greatly accelerated corrosion. The use of
bladder tanksor inert gas blanketing is strongly mmmended
For very small applications (well pump under 10 to 20 to eliminate the potential of oxygen introduced corrosion.
hp), a throttling type of control may be the most economical.
Under this type of control, a throttling valve, responding to It is also critical to umsider pump cycling in the tank
some temperature, controls flow from the well. It is important volume calculation. Large motors are limited in terms of the
to carefully consider the shape of the well pump curve with allowable number of starts that can be withstood without
regard to control valve torque or force requirements to assure damage to the motor or shortened life. In addition, frequent
proper operation throughout the control range. This method cycling produces loads that can result in premature mechanical
is slightly more efficient than no control. In addition, it failure of certain pump components. Tank size should result
greatly reduces the quantity of water removed from the in a maximum number of starts5 within motor capabilities.
aquifer. When properly applied, the start/stop storage control approach
can frequently provide the least cost alternative, particularly
Throttle plus variable speed control (Figure 13.8) is sfor small systems.
employed generally in cases where the production pumps are
serving multiple heat pumps or multiple uses, such as heat Piuing
pumps and irrigation. Under this type of control, a throttling
valve controls flow through the system. As secondary control, Once the fluid has been produced, it is necessary to
the variable speed drive controls the well pump to maintain a deliver it to the point of use. Nonmetallic piping (see Chapter
constant pressure in the delivery lines. This umstant pressure 10) should be seriously cansidered for this duty. The use of
maintains service to additional users. It is important to note such materials eliminates most problems associated with both
that constant delivery line ptessure causes the pump energy use internal and external corrosion.
to be directly related to flow. This is in bharp contrast to
many variable speed applications in which energy use varies Settling Tanks
as the cube of flow. Depending upon the specific capacity of
the well (gpmlft of drawdown), actual energy use may be The design of many existing systems has included a
somewhat less than that suggested by a direct relationship settling tank on the production line from the well. The
between flow and horsepower. purpose of this tank is generally for removing sand or other
290
Electronic
Variable Speed
Pive
t
I
Variable speed
PIve rmtrols
pllp~produce
only the required
aunt of fluid.
L
Figure 13.8 Throttle plus variable-kpeed drive control for production well pump.
To heat
P
P
I
To other
uses
Figure 13.9 Temperature plus variable-speed drive control-production well pumps.
291
solids from the flow or for flow control for the stadstop addition, it is highly unlikely that the treated effluent from the
pump. In reality, these tanks (virtually always vented to system could be disposed of in an envimmentally acceptable
atmosphere) serve as a point of entrance for oxygen that manner. Most states require that injection fluid be unchanged
greatly accelerates the corrosion rate. With equipment except for temperature. All other fluid is considered 'waste'
available today, there is generally no reason to include a fluid and is subject to extensive regulations. As a result, the
settling tank in the system. Proper testing of fluid produced only realistic option for handling the groundwater is through
from the well and subsequent completion techniques can the use of an isolation heat exchanger. In most cases, a plate
greatly reduce or eliminate the problem of sand production. type heat exchanger will be employed for this application.
For existing wells, economical sand separators are available. Theseunitsarediscussedinchapter11.
As for flow control, the strategies discussed above are Two arguments are generally presented against the use of
capable of providing adequate control. For the reasons heat exchangers: (a) increased capital cost and (b) decreased
discussed above, stadstop control should rarely be employed operating efficiency. There is no question that the use of heat
for large pumps of either the lineshaft or submersiblevariety. exchangers has this effects. The degree to which capital cost
and performanceare effected, however, is less than commonly
Isolation Heat Exchangers believed.
One of the most important considerations in the design is consider the case of a 100,OOO ft' office building with a
the isolation of the groundwater or geothermal fluid from the groundwater heat pump system. Assuming a single heat
building loop and heat pump. In most cases,the groundwater exchanger installation, the incremental cost for the heat
will contain various chemical species (both solids and gases)
or-biological organisms that can cause severe corrosion, translates into $0.14/ftZof building or
--
exchangerover using water directly is $14,000. This figure
3% of the total
scaling or obstructionswithin the system. In order to evaluate building W A C costs. Table 13.5 outlines the details of these
these tendencies, a thorough chemical analysis should be per- costs.
formed on the source water. A simple, code required, pota-
bility analysis will not identify many of the problem chemical
species. A completeanalysis(Knipe, 1985) should address the Table 13.5 Capital Costs Associated with Heat Exchanger for
following: Example System
Hydrogen sulfide @I$)

Ammonia (NH,) Item cosr
Chloride (Cl) Heat Exchanger $ 8,110
oxygen (02) Control Valve 1,050
Ph Piping 2.600
Carbon dioxide (COa $11,760
Sulfate (SO,) Contingency 20% 2.352
Calcium carbonate (CaCO,) $14,1 lZb
Calcium sulfate (CaSO,)
Biological species - most commonly iron bacteria. a. 1986 Means average HVAC costs for midriseoffice bldg.
= $4.96/ftZ.
When the concentration of all these species are quanti- b. HVACCosts
fied, an accurate prediction of fluid aggressiveness can be $14,112/100,000 frz
made. (0.14/4.%)100 = 2.8%.
If fluid chemistry indicates a potential problem with

respect to standard materials, three options are available:
(a) amstruction of the system using corrosion resistant With regard to annual operating costs, the use of a heat
mateds, (b) isolation of the groundwater, or (c) chemical exchangerwould require higher groundwater flows to meet the
treatment. Construction of the entire system in corrosion load requirements. This would result in higher pumping
resistant alloys is generally out of the question from an costs. The impact of the heat exchanger on the performance
economic standpoint. of the heat pump itself is influenced by the ~ t u r eof the
system operation. If the machine is producing both chilled
Water treatment is also a problem with respect to oper- water and hot water to meet heating and cooling needs on a
ating cost becam the groundwater heat pump, by the ~ t u r e year round basis, the heat exchanger will have no impact on
of its operation, requires substantial flows of once-through heat pump performance. Under these mditions, the conden-
ser and evaporator loops will be operating at temperatures of
fluid. Maintaining an adequate concentration of treatment
chemicals in sucha system is prohibitively expensive. In -
100 to 120 and 45°F respectively, which should present no
292
difficulties as far as transfer through the heat exchanger, to such a way that the heat pump is installed in Series with the
and from the groundwater. For the 100,OOO ft2 example returnside of the boiler. This permits the boiler to be used as
building, the additional pump energy umsumed (assuming a a peaking device, supplying only the tempatwe increase
200 ft pumping level, 65% Wire-tO-water efficiency, 40 psi required. In addition, it is critical that the systembe designed
well head pressure and 5°F heat exchanger ap&mch) would such that both peak and off peak return temperatures are
mount to - 10,500 k W y . This translates hto only 360
BWft2 y in terms of specific building energy use or < 1% of
sufficiently low for efficient heat pump operation.
the total C Q I L S W X I P ~for
~ ~ ~a typical office building.' Large Temberature D r o ~
For applicationsin which the heat pump is sewing a two As with any other W A C system, the use of system At
pipe system or some other form of non-simultanmwheating as large as possible holds significant potential for energy
and cooling system, an impact will be felt on performance as savings. Larger tempemhue dmpk reduce required flow rate
a result of the heat exchanger. During the cooling season, a and, hence, piping and pumping costs. Although d e e p coils
slightly higher cooling water temperature will increase chiller are required, a net savings will generally result.
energy consumption. During the heating season, lower
evaporation temperatures will reduce machine COP. This For heat pump systems, the use of a larger At means a
assumes that the system design, with the heat exchanger, will reducedreturn temperature relative to the supply tempemhue.
employ the same groundwater flow rate from the well as the This has a positive effect upon machine perfomce.
non-heat exchanger design. Under these conditions, an
increasein condenser enteringwater temperature, or a decrease mditioning
in evaporator leaving ,e-t will result from the
temperature loss through the heat exchanger. The energy efficiency of a heat pump system can also be
substantially increased by using the resource fluid directly
An alternatedesign could be to increase the groundwater (unheatpumped by way of a heat exchanger glycol loop) for
flow rate such that the tempemtam loss through the heat pre conditioning of ventilation air. Dependins upon the
exchanger is compensatedfor by a smaller AT. In either case, resource temperature, this may be feasible for preheat or
an increase in energy consumption will occur. pre-cool purposes.
In this particular case, and in most cases, it is more Terminal Euuipment control
reasonable from an ecoIlomic standpoint to maintain lower
well flow and accept a small penalty in machine perfomce. Two-way valve control is desirable for heat pump
The r e d u d machine performance, as a result of the use of a systems. This approach is particularly important in systems
heat exchanger, amounts to an additional 35,000 k W y as for which the heat pump is producing both hot and chilled
shown in Case 1. At current northwest rates, this would water simultaneously. Two-way control provides fix a mre
-
amount to $1,80O/y or <$O.O2/ft2. stable temperature drop (or rise) with load. his
maximhs return temperature to the machine, which maintains
or
In view of the insurance provided by the heat exchanger higher performance. In addition to machine considerations,
against UIlzeaSonaMe maintenance or early system failure, the two-way cantrol also provides superior.tenninalunit part load
capital and operating costs discussed above do not appear to confro1 in compaxison to *way control.
be unreaswable. As a result, it is recornmeended that isolation
heat exchangersbe included in the &sign oflarge groundwater
heat pump systems. For further discussion of heat exchangers, REFERENCES
see Chapter 11.
Jkdcing
-
Carrier Corp., Amlication Data The Heat Machine, Carrier
Corporation, Syracuse, NY, 1981.
In many cases, a heat pump system is considered for Carrier Corp., Catalog 30H-lPD, Packaged Hermetic
installatian in an existing building. These buildings were &&mxting Liquid Chillem, Carrier Corporation,
typically designed for supply water temperature far in excess Syracuse, NY,1987.
of what can be economically produced by a heat pump.
However, it is not u n a to find that many of these existing Geo-Heatcenter, "Heat Pump System, A.C. Davis High
hot water systems will operate acceptably at much reduced Scho~l",Oregon Institute of Technofogy Geo-Heat-
temperatures, particularly at part load. Under these Center, Klamath Falls, OR, 1980.
conditions, it is possible to use the heat pump alone to meet
heating requirements for 60 to 70% of the time and p J the
e
a Kuipe, E. and K. Rafferty, CorrosioninLowTemmrature
system during colder periods with the existing boiler. In Gothermal Auvlications ASHRAE Transactions 1985,
order to operate effectively, this system must be plumbed in a. pt. 2, H1-85-02 No.~,ASHRAE,Atlanta, GA, 1985.
293
Knipe, E., Personal communication, 1987.
Kroeker, J. D. and R. C. Chewning, Heat Pumu in fm Office

Building, New York ASHVE Transactions54, ASHVE,
NY, 1940.
McGraw, K., Personal communication, 1987.
McQuay, Catalog 1210, "Heat Recovery Water Heaters,"

McQuay Inc., Minneapolis, MN, 1983.
McQuay, Catalog 1200-2, "TemplifierReciprocating Water

C&illers," McQuay Inc., Minneapolis, MN, 1986.
I
294
CHAPTER 14
ABSORPTION
~FRIGERATION
By Kevin D. Rafferty, P.E.
Geo-Heat Center
i Klamath Falls, OR 97601
14.1 INTRODUCTION the absorberevaporator shell, the water boils at a very low
temperature. This boiling causes the water to absorb heat
The absorption cycle is a process by which refrigeration from the medium to be cooled, thus, lowering its temperature.
effect is produced through the use of two fluids and some Evaporated water then passes into the absorber section where
quantity of input, rather than electrical input as in the it is mixed with a Li Br/HzOsolution that is very low in water
more familiar vapor compression cycle. Both vapor compres- content. This strong solution (strong in Li Br) tends to absorb
sion and absorption refrigeration cycles accomplish the the vapor from the evaporator section to form a weaker solu-
removal of heat through the evaporation of a refrigerant at a tion. This is the absorption pr;Jcess that gives the cycle its
low pressure and the rejection of heat &ugh the conden- name. The weak solution is then pumped to the generator
sation of the refrigerant at a higher pressure. The method of section to repeat the cycle.
creating the pressure difference and circulating the refrigerant
is the primary difference between the two cycles. The vapor
compression cycle employs a mechanical comp-r to create
the pressure differences necessary to circulate the refrigerant.
In the absorption system, a secondary fluid or absorbent is
used to circulate the refrigerant. Because the temperature
requirements for the cycle fall into the low-to-moderate
temperature range, and there is significant potential for
electrical energy savings, absorption would, at first glance,
seem to be a good prospect for geothermal application.
Absorption machines are Commetciauy available today in

two basic configurations. For applications above 32°F
(primarilyair conditioning), the cycle uses lithium bromide as
the absorbent and water as the refrigerant. For applications
below 32"F, an ammonidwater cycle is employed with
ammonia as the refrigerant and water as the absorbent.
14.2 LITHIUM BROMIDENATER CYCLE MACHINES

<
cup cup
Figure 14.1 shows a diagram of a typical lithium

bromidelwater machine (Li Br/HzO). As in most designs, the Figure 14.1 Diagram of two-shell lithium bromide cycle
process occurs in two vessels or shells. The upper shell water chiller (ASHRAE, 1983).
contains the generator and condenser; the lower shell, the
absorber and evaporator.
As shown in Figure 14t.1, there are three fluid Circuits
Heat supplied in the generator section is added to a that have external connections: a) generator heat input, b)
solution of Li Br/&O. This heat causes the refrigerant, in cooling water, and c) chilled water. Associated with each of
this case water, to be boiled out of the solution in a distillation these circuits is a specific temperature at which the machines
process. The water vapor that results passes into the conden- are rated. For single-stage units, these -et are : 12
ser section where a cooling medium.is used to condense the psi steam (or equivalent hot water) entering the generator,
vapor back to a liquid state. The water then flows down to 85°F cooling water, and 44°F leaving chilled water (ASHRAE,
the evaporator section where it passes over tubes containing
the fluid to be cooled. By maintaining a very low pressure in -
1983). Under these conditions, a coefficient of performance
(COP)of 0.65 to 0.70 could be expected (ASHRAE, 1983).
295
The COP can be thought of as a sort of index of the efficiency reduction in the entering hot water causes a
of the machine. It is calculated by dividing the cooling output reduction in the temperature difference between the hot fluid
by the required heat input. For example, a 5Wton absorption and the boiling mixture. Because heat transfer varies directly
chiller operating at a COP of 0.70 would requim (500 x with temperature difference, there is a nearly linear drop off
12,000 Btuh) divided by 0.70 = 8,571,429 Btum heat input. in absorption refigeration capacity with entering hot water
This heat input suggests a flow of 9,022 lbsh of 12 psi steam, temperature. In the past few years, one manufacturer( Y d ,
or 1,008 gpm of 240°F water with a 17°F AT. undated) has modified mnaU capacity units (2 to 10 ton) for
increased performance at lower inlet temperature. However,
Two-stage machines with significantly higher COPSare low-temperature modified machines are not yet available in
available (ASHRAE, 1983). Howevgr, temperature require- large outputs, which would be applicable to institutional- and
ments for these are well into the power generation temperature industrial-type projects. Although COP and capacity axe also
range 950°F). As a result, two-stage machines would affectedby other variables such as condenser and chilled water
probably not be applied to geothermal applications. temperatures and flow rates, generator heat input conditions
have the largest impact on performance. This is a particularry
important consideration with r e g d to geothermal
14.3 PERFORMANCE applications.
Based on equations that have been developed (Christen, Because many geothermal tesources in the 240°F and
1977)a describe the performanceof a single-stage absorption above temperature range are being investigated for power
machine, Figure 14.2 shows the effect on COP and capacity generation using organic Rankine cycle (ORC)schemes, it is
(cooling output) versus input hot-water temperature. Entering likely that space conditioning applications would see
hot water temperatures of less than 220°F result in substantial temperaturesbelow this value. As a result, chillers operating
reduction in equipment capacity. The teason for the steep in the 180 to 230°F range would (according to Figure 14.2)
drop off in capacity with temperature is related to the nature have to be (depending on tesource temperature) between 20
of the heat input to the absorption cycle. In the generator, and 400% oversized for a particular applidon. This would
heat input causes boiling to occur in the absorbenthfiigerant tend to increase capital cost and decrease payback when
mixture. Because the pressure is fairly constant in the compared to a conventional system.
generator, this fixes the boiling temperature. As a result, a
0
H
I-
H
0
z
0
u
0
W
I-
U
a:
I-
U
).
El
u
U
a.
4
0
It
0
I-
Z
W
0
a
W
a
ENTERING HOT WATER TEMPERATURE (OF)
Figure 14.2 Capacity of a lithium bromide absorption chiller (Christen, 1977).
296
An additional increasein capital cost would arise from the campus extension and the existence of a geothermal heating
larger cooling tower costs that result from the low COP of system, a 150-ton absorption chiller was chosen for replace
absorption equipment. The COP of singe effect equipment is ment. Design conditiorxs called for 369 gpm of chilled water
- 0.7. The COP of a vapor compression machine under the
same conditions mal be 3.0 or higher. As a result, for each
at 44"F, 600 gpm of 190°F geothermal fluid, and 1,250 gpm
of 85°F cooling water. Installed cost of this machine was
unit of refrigeration, a vapor compression systemwould have $171,747. The high cost of the absorption machine is due
to reject 1.33 units of heat at the cooling tower. For an largely to the fact that in order to obtain a capacity of 150
absorption system, at a COP of 0.7, 2.43 units of heat must tons, a nominal 312-ton machine was purchased. comparing
be rejected at the cooling tower. This results in a significant this to the cost of a similarly sized reciprocating chiller yields
cost penalty for the absorption system with regard to the an incremental capital cost of $97,000. Use of the absorption
cooling tower and accessories. machine was not the first choice of the system designer, and
the high capital cost may have been partially caused by the use
In order to maintain good heat transfer in the generator of federal demonstration funds. Pertinent well data includes
section, only small ATs can be tolerated in the hot water flow 360 A pumping level and 10 psi discharge pressure.
stream. This is a result of the fact that the machines were
originally designed for steam input to the generator. Heat This resulted in a pumping requirement of 0.277 kW/t at
transfer from the condensing steam is a umstant tempemtwe a 60% wire-to-water efficiency. Using an electrical rate of
process. As a result, m order to have equal performance, the $0.0414/kW and 1,OOO full load hours per year, the
entering hot water ten&rattm would have to be above the absorption chiller shows a 15-year simple payback with no
saturatedtemperature corresponding to the inlet steam pressure discounted payback (@ 10%)within a 20-year period. The
at rated conditions. This is to allow for some AT in the hot results of the lifecycle cost analysis are shown in Table 14.1.
water flow circuit. In boiler coupled operation, this is of little The project does not appear to be very favorable. This is
consequence to Operating cost. However, because AT directly primarily the result of four factors: a) low electrical rates in
affects flow rate, and thus pumping energy, this is a major the area that reduce savings, b) small machine size that results
C0I;siderationin geothermaI applications. in high capital cost per ton, c) low-resource temperature that
results in oversizing and high capital cost, and d) low-mual
For example, d g a COP of 0.54 and 15°F AT on cooling requirements. All of the above factors are variable
the geothennal fluid, 250 ft pump head and 65% wire-to-water and could change the overall economics at another site.
efficiency at the well pump, -
would be required. This compares to -
0.20 kW/t pumping power
0.65 kW/t for the
compression of a large centrifugal machine (compressor 14.5 LARGE TONNAGE EQUIPMENT COSTS
consumption only). At 31% of the electrical ixmsumption,
there is certainly a substantial savings in operating cost. Figure 14.3 presents some more general cost information
However, this illustrates the fact that the g e o t h e d heat does on large tonnage (> 100 tons) cooling equipment for space
not arrive at the chiller for free. conditioning applications. The plot presents installed costs of
both absorption and centrifugal refrigerationequipment m two
The small AT and high flow rates also point out another forms: (a) machine only, and (b) machine with cooling tower
consideration with regard to absorption chiller use in space and cooling water pump, and piping. As shown, there is a
conditioning applications. Assume a geothermal system is to considerably larger margin between the costs with cooling
be designed for heating and cooling a new building. Because tower and accessories than between chiller only costs. The
the heating system can be &signed for rather large ATs in reason for this lies in the much lower COP of the absorption
comparison to the chiller, the incremental cost of the cycle, as discussed earlier.
absorption approach would have to include the higher well
andlor pump costs to accommmodate its requirements. A
second approach would be to design the well for space heating 14.6 SMALL TONNAGE EQUIPMENT
requhments and use a smaller absorption machine for base
load duty. In this approach, a second electric chiller would be To our knowledge, there is only one company (Yazaki,
used for peaking. In either case, capital cost would be undated) currently manufacturing small tonnage (<20tons)
increased. lithium bromide refrigeration equipment. This firm, located
in Japan, produces equipment primarily for solar applications.
Currently, units are available in 1.3, 2, 3,5,7.5, and 10 ton
14.4 EXAMPLE APPLICATION capacities. These units can be manifolded together to provide
capacities of up to 50 tons. In addition, two huger (14 and 21
In order to examine these issues for an actual installation, ton) units are available that incorpotate a natural gas double
the following discussion concerns a chiller installed on the effect chiller, along with a hot water source chiller (Yazaki,
Oregon Institute of Technology campus. Because of the undated).
297
400
- Absorption
360 - . Centrifugal
-320
0
0 280
r-
#
* 240
-cc-
g 200
0
-0 160
-
Q,
0
t; 120
C
80
40
0 I I I I I I I I I 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Capacity in Tons * 100
Figure 14.3a Large tonnage lithium bromide chiller installed costs (chiller only).
600
- Absorption
- . Centrifugal
500
0
0
2 400
#
*
Y
0
v, 300
u
U
-
Q,
-d
Y
200
v)
-C
100
0 1 I I I I I I I I 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Capacity in Tons I 100
Figure 14.3b Large tonnage lithium bromide chiller &talled costs (including chiller, cooling tower, cooling water pumps
and piping).
298
Table 14.1 OIT Absorption Chiller Life Cycle Costs
Electric Geothermal Net Energy cumulative

Cumulative Discounted
Chiller pulnping Savings Cash Flow Cash Flow
Discounted
year Costs ($1 Costs ($1 Cash Flow ($1 0($, cash Flow ($1
zero 5,037 1,766

1983 5,435 - 1,906 3,529 3,529 3,151 3,151
1984 5,864 2,056 3,808 7,338 3,036 6,187
1985 6,328 2,218 4,109 11,447 2,925 9,112
1986 6,827 2,394 4,434 15,880 2,818 11,930
1987 7,367 2,583 4,784 20,664 2,715 14,644
1988 7,949 2,787 5,162 25,821 2,615 17,259
1989 8,672 3,040 5,632 31,458 2,547 19,807
1990 9,461 3,317 6,144 37,602 2,482 22,288
1991 10,322 3,619 6,703 44,305 2,417 24,706
1992. 11,262 3,948 7,313 51,618 2,355 27,060
1993 12,286 4,308 7,979 59,597 2,294 29,354
1994 13,404 4,700 8,705 68,302 2,234 31,588
1995 14,624 5,127 9,497 77,799 2,176 33,765
1996 15,955 5,594 10,361 88,160 2,120 35,885
1997 + 17,407 6,103 11,304 99,464 2,065 37,950
1998 18,991 6,658 12,333 111,797 2,012 39,962
1999 20,719 7.264 13,455 125,252 1,960 41,921
2000 22,605 7,925 14,679 139,931 1,909 43,830
2001 24,662 8,647 16,015 155,946 1,859 45,690
2002 25.906 9.433 17.473 173,419 1.811 47,501
. i
i
TOTALS 267,047 93,628 173,419 47,501
It is unlikely that these units will see wide application in each case, the annual electric cost savings of the absorption
geothermal projects. The reasons for this are similar to those system (at 2,000 full load hours per year) is compared to the
discussed for large absorption equipment. Because the units incremental capital cost of the system to arrive at a simple
are water cooled chillers, they require considerably more payback value. The conventional system to which absorption
mec@cal equipment for a given capacity than the wven- is compared in this case is a rooftop package unit. This is the
t i d electricvapor compression equipment usually applied in type of unit most commonly installed in small commerd
this size range. In addition to the absorption chiller itself, a applications.
cooling tower is required. The cooling tower, which is
installed outside, requires interumnecting piping and a The plot is based on the availability of g e o t h d fluid
circulation pump. Because the absorption machine produces of sufficient temperature to allow operation at rated capacity
chilled water, a cooling coil and fan are required to deliver the (190°F or above). In addition, other than piping, no costs for
cooling capacity to the room. Interconnecting, insulated geothermal well or pumping are incorporated. Only cooling
piping is required to connect the machine to the cooling coil. equipment related costs are considered. As a result, the
Another circulating pump is required for the chilled water payback values in Figure 14.4 are valid only for a situation m
circuit. Finally, hot water must be supplied to the absorption which a geothermal resource has already been developed for
machine. This requires a third piping loop. some other purpose (space heating and aquaculture), and the
only decision at hand is that of choosing between electric and
In order to evaluate the eumomic merit of small absorption cooling options.
absorption equipment compared to conventional electric
cooling, Figure 14.4 was developed. This plot comparesthe Figure 14.4 also shows that the economics of small
savings achieved through the use of the absorption equipment tonnage absorption cooling are attractiveonly in cases of 5 to
to its incremental capital costs over a conventional cooling 10 ton capacity requirements and more than $0.10 kW/h
system. Specifically, the figureplots cost of electricity against electrical costs, characteristic of such areas as San Diego and
simple payback in years for the five different size units. In Hawaii. Although the equipment could be employed in other
299
40
u)
II
a so
W
>
z
H
Y
0 10
ma 90
>.
a
a
W
-I
0.
x
H 10
u)
I
.02 .Q4I .OB
I
.OBI I
.10 .leI
COST OF ELECTRICITY IN $ PER kWh
Figure 14.4 Simple payback on small absorption equipment compared to conventional rooftop equipment.
situations, it is unlikely that it would prove to be a realistic 14.7 COMMERCIAL, REFRIGERATION

investment. Figure 14.4 is based on an annual cooling
requirement of 2,000full load hours per year. This is on the Most commercial and industrial refrigeration applications
upper end of requirements for most geographical areas. To involve process temperatures of less than 32°F and many are
adjust for other annual cooling requirements, simply multiply 0°F. As a result, the lithium bromide/water cycle is no longer
the simple payback from Figure 14.4 by actual full load hours able to meet the requirements, because water is used for the
and divide by 2,000. refrigerant. As a result, a fluid which is not subject to
freezing at these temperatures is required. The most common
The performance of the absorption cooling machine was type of absorptioncycle employed for these applicationsis the
based on nominal conditions in order to develop Figure 14.4. water/ammonia cycle. In this case,water is the absorbent and
It should be noted that, as with the larger machines, ammonia is the refrigerant.
p e r f m c e is heavily dependent upon entering hot water
temperature and entering cooling water temperature. Ratings Use of water/ammonia equipment in conjunction with
are based on 190°F entering hot water, 85°F entering cooling geothermalresourcesfor commerd refrigeration applications
water and 48°F leaving chilled water. Flow rates for all three is influenced by some of the same considerations as space
loops are based upon a 9" AT. cooling applications. Figure 14.5 illustrates the most
important of these. As refrigeration temperature is reduced,
Figure 14.5 illustrates the effect of entering hot water the required hot water input temperatureis increased. Because
temperature and entering cooling water temperature on small most commercialand industrial refrigerationapplicationsoccur
machine performance. At entering hot water temperatures of at temperatures below 32"F, required heat input temperatures
less than 180"F, substantial derating is necessary. For must be at least 230°F. In most areas, it is unrealistic to
prelimbuy evaluation, the 85°F cooling water curve should expect cooling water temperatures of 50 or 68°F. For initial
be employed. evaluation, the 86°F curve should be used. It should also be
300
remembered that the required evapoqtion temperature is 10 to W. A. Hirai and Associates of Hilo, Hawaii, as
15°F below the process kmperafure. For example, for a subcontractors to the Geo-Heat Center, prepared a feasibility
+2@F cold storageapplication, a 5°F evaporation temperature study of the use of effluent from the Puna HGP-A well. The
would be required. 40,000 to 45,000 lbs5 of 350°F fluid is currently disposed of
in surface ponds. Because of the acute shortage of ice
Using the 86°F cooling water curve, Figure 14.6 suggests praduction and cold storage facilities in the Puna district, the
a minimumhot water temperature of 275°F would be required. high cost of electricity ($0.12kW/h), and the availabiity of
There is not a large number of geothermal resouices in this the hot fluid, absorption was a natural oonsideration. The
temperahue range. For geothermal resources that produce facility evaluated involved a 20-ton/day ice making capacity,
temperatures in this range, it is likely that small scale power 2,888 fl? chill mom (35"F), 2,888 fk' locker area (OT)and a
generation would be competing consideration unless cascaded 2,888 cold storage (-10°F). Calculated refrigeration
uses are employed. requirements were 50 tons. No manufactums were found
who produce absorptionequipment in this range. One German
Figure 14.7 indicates another drawback of refrigeration manufacturer, Borsig, manufacturersequipment in the 166 ton
applications. The COP for most applications is likely to be and above range.
less than 0.55. As a d t , hot water flow requirements are
substantial. In addition, the cooling tower requirements, as An American firm, Lewis Refrigeration, manufactures
discussed above, are much larger than for equivalently sized equipment in the 200 to 5,000 ton range. As a result, it was
vapor compression equipment. determined that a custom system, at a cost of $4,OOO/ton,
would have to be employed. With the cooling tower, the
The Geo-Heat Center has been involved in two feasibility refrigerationplant was calculated to cost $220,000. A myear
studies in the past few years, which have examined the use of cash flow analysis showed that the rate of retum OII the total
absorption refrigeration for commercial applications. One $746,000 capital cost of the facility would amount to 23.4%
study involved the use of a 350°F fluid for an ice making and (Hirai, 1982).
cold storage facility. A second involved the use of absorption
refrigeration in a malting plant. A summary of the findings
of these two repo* follows.
301
aoo
COOLING WATER TEMPERATURE (OF)
LL
Y
w 300
a
3
I-
a
a
W
0.
I:
W
I-
W 200
0
LT
3
0
u)
I I I
a0 . . io h -20 -40 -60
E V A P O R A T I O N TEMPERATURE (0 F)
Figure 14.6 Required fesoutcetempemtures for ammodwater absorption equipment (Hirai, 1982).
0.7
COOLING WATER TEMPERATURE (" F)
0.6
0.5
Q
0
0
0.4
0.3
0.2
I I I I I I
40 20 0 -20 -40 -60
EVAPORATION TEMPERATURE F)
(O
Figure 14.7 The COP for ammonidwater absorption equipment in refrigeration applications (Hirai, 1982).
302
1,.6
2R
1.2
a.
0
0 0.8
0.4
I
I I I I I I
120 160 200 240 280 320
SUPPLY WATER TEMPERATURE [' F)

Figure 14.8 AmmoIllii/
' water single and double effect regenerative cycle performance.
A second feasibility study, examining the use of The two cycles that h v e been developed are designed 1R
absorption refrigeration for cooling requirements in a malting and 2R for single effect regenerative cycle and double effect
facility was prepared for the Geo-Heat Center by Davy-McKee regenerative cycle, respectively. As shown in Figure 14.8,
Corporation. The study evaluated a 750-ton refrigerationplant these two cycles show substantiallyhigher COP, over a much
that would supply a total of 1,539,550 ton h/y of capacity. broader range of generator input temperatures than the
Most of this load was in the form of relatively high tempera- conventional lithium/bromide cycles. The superior
ture air and water cooling loads. Capital cost for the performance is achieved by operating the chiller input stage at
absorptionplant and plate heat exchanger was estimated to be constant temperature, rather than constant pressure as in
$545,000. The system was compared to a centrihgal refriger- wnventional system. This has the effect of reducing the
ation plant which would consume 0.82 kW/t and cost only thermodynamic irreversibilities in the absorption cycle
$97,500. As a result, without considering the cost of geo- (Wahlig, 1984).
thermal fluid, the absorption system showed a simple payback
of 14 years and was not recommended. The study ~ s s u m e da It is not known to what extent this techology has been
tesoutce temperature of 190°F (Davy-McKee, 1981). incorporated by the major manufactums of inerect fired
absorption equipment.
14.8 CURRENT ABSORPTION RESEARCH

(Wahlig, 1984) 14.9 MATERIALS
Recent work at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (LBL) The generator section is the only portion of the absorpb'on
has resulted in signifiwtly improved absorption cycle machine that is likely to be exposed to the geothermal fluid.
performance. Researchers at LBL, working to improve In this section, the heating medium is passed through a tube
absorption cycle performance for solar application, have bundle to provide heat to the refrigerant/absorbent mixture
developed two advanced versions of the ammonialwater located in the shell.
machine. Ammonidwater was chosen as the working fluid
pair in order to allow the use of an air-cooled condenser for
potential heat pump operation.
303
The generator tube bundle is generally constructed of Annual cooline load for mace conditianine. in 111 load
copper or a copper alloy (90/10 cupro nickel). These alloys, hours or for vrocess cooline. in terms of load factor.
as discussed in Chapter 8, are not compatible with most geo-
thermal resources, particularly if hydrogen sulphide (€I$)Obviously
, higher utilization of the equipment results in
ammonia ("a or oxygen are present. Because most resour- more rapid payout.
ces contain some or all of these dissolved gases, exposure of
standard construction chillers to these fluids is not m m - Pumine bower for resources with unusually low static
mended. Two available options are: . water levels or drawdowns.
1. Special order chiller with corrosion resistant tubes. Pumping power may approach 50% of high efficiency
2. An isolation heat exchanger and clean water loop. electric chiller consumption.
Conversations with at least one major large tonnage Utilitv rates.

absorption machine manufacturer indicate that the first option
may be the most cost effective (Todd,1987). Although a 316 As with any cansewation project, high utility rates for
stainlesssteel tube would appear to be the most cost effective, both consumption and demand result in better system
the manufacturer suggest the use of titanium. Because titan- economics.
ium tubes are more generally availablein the enhanced surface
configurationsnecessary for this application, their cost is very
competitivewith the stainless steel tubes. In addition, the use REFERJ2NCES
of unenhanced stainless steel tu& would, according to the
manufacturer, result in a large de-rating of the chiller because American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air
of less effative heat transfer. Conditioning Engineers, " 183 Handbook of
Fundamentals", ASHRAE,Atlanta, CA, ap. 14.1-14.8,
The incremental capital cost for this type of constnrction 1983.
-
(titanium generator tubes) would amount to 10 to 15% of
the basic machine cost. In most cases, this would be far less Carrier Corporation, Carrier Hermatic Absorption Liquid
than the cost associated with the heat exchanger, circulating chillers, Cat. No. 521-601, Carrier Corporation,
pump, piping, and controls necessary for an isolation loop. Syracuse, NY, 1975.
An additional advantage is that the altemate generator con-
struction avoids the losses Bssociated with the heat exchanger. christen,J. E., "central Cooling - Absorptive Chillers", Oak
Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge TN, 1977.
14.11 CONCLUSION Davy-McKee, "Geothermal Feasibility Study for Malting
Investments, Inc." Oregon Institute of Technology, Geo-
In conclusion, it is necessary to evaluate the following Heat Center, Klamath Falls, OR, 1981.
factors when considering a geothed/absorption cooling
application for space conditioning. Hirai, W.A., "Feasibility Study of an Ice Making and Cold
Storage Facility Using Geothermal Waste Heat", OIT
Resource temDerature. Geo-Heat Center, September 1982.
Substantial derating factors must be applied to equipment Means, R. S., "1985 Means Mechanical Cost Data",R. S.
at temperatures less than 220°F. Very high tesource Means, Inc., Kingston, MA, 1985.
tempemtum or two-stage are required for low-
tempemhue refrigeration. Todd,M., Sales Engineer, Airefco Inc., Portland, OR,
Personal communication, March 16, 1987.
Absomtion machine hot water reauirements c o m r e d to
suace heating flow reuuirements. Wahlig, M., .Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Personal com-
munication with Gene Culver, Geo-Heat Center,July 11,
Incremental well and pumping costs should be applied to 1984.
the absorption machine.
Yazaki Corporation, YazakiGas & Solar Airconditioning
Refieeration camcity reuuired. Equipment - Cat. No. 15.3 AME, Yazaki Corporation,
. Tokyo, Japan, undated.
Larger machines, less than 300 tons, have lower incre-
mental capital costs on a $/ton basis. Coupled with the
larger displaced energy, resulting in a more positive
economic picture.
304
CHAPTER 15
GEENHOUSES
By Kevin D. Rafferty, P.E. '
OIT Ge0-I-h Center

15.1 INTRODUCTION cold air through the many "Cracks" in the amstmction. This
issue of high transmission loss has been addressed in recent
Greenhouse heating is one of the most common uses of years through the introduction of new, double glazing panels
geothermal resources. Because of the significant heating for glass houses. However, because of the expense of these
requirements of greenhouses and their ability to use very-low- panels and their effect upon light transmission, most glass
temperature fluids, they are a natural application. The greenhouses remain single layer.
evaluation of a particular greenhouse project involves consid- \
eration of the structure heating requirements, and the system Plastic film greenhouses are the newest variation in
to meet those requirements. This chapter is intended to greenhouseconstructiontechniques. Thistypeofstructureis
provide information on each of these areas. almost always of the arched roof or "quomet hut" design.
The roof can come all the way down to the ground o r a n be
fitted with side walls. The side walls, if employed, and end
15.2 GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION walls are generally of fiberglass construction. Maintenance
requirements for the plastic film are high in that it generally
In order to make an evaluation of geothermal heating requires replacement on 3-year intervals or less, depending011
systems for greenhouses, it is first necessary to examine the the quality of the material. Most plastic film houses employ
differentheating requirementsimposed by variousconstruction a dogble layer of film separated by air space. The air space
methods. is maintained by a small blower that pressurizes the volume
between the layers. This double poly design is a very energy
At one time, greenhouseswere constructed exclusively of efficient approach to greenhouse design. Double poly not
cypress wood frames and single glass lites. Recent years have only reduces transmission losses (losses through the walls and
seen substantial changes in construction techniques and roof) by 30 to 4096, but also substantially reduces infiltration
materials. In general, construction may be considered to fall (in leakage of cold air). Although the plastic film tends to
into one of the following four categories: lose more heat than glass through radiation, the net effect is
a reduction in heating requirements compared to glass
1. Glass construction. Infiltration is reduced because the "cracks"
2. Plastic film present in other types of construction are eliminated through
3. Fiberglass or similar rigid plastics the use of the continuous plastic film. As a d t , there is
4. combination of two and three. less opportunity for the cold outside air to penetrate the
structure. The superior energy efficiency of the film
All of the above are generally constructed of steel or construction comes at the price of reduced light transmission,
aluminum frames. however. As a result, highly light sensitive crops cannot be
grown in the double-poly greenhouse as successfdly as in
Glass greenhouses are the most expensive to construct other constructions. These greenhouses are generally
because of both the cost of the glazing material and the constructed in 30 ft width and 100 and 150 ft lengths.
requirement for a stronger w e w o r k to support the glass. In
many cases, fiberglass panels are employed on the side and Fiberglass greenhouses m similar in umstruction to the
. end walls of the structure. The building profile is generally glass houses described above. They are gaerally of peaked
of peaked design, with 36 and 42 ft widths, and lengths in 20 roof design, but require less structural support as a resuft of
fi increments most common. "his type of greenhouse is the lower weight of the fiber glass. Heat loss of the fiberglass
preferred by growers whose plants require mperior light house is about the same as the glass house. Although the
transmission qualities. In addition to offering the highest light fiberglass material has a lower conductivity than glass, when
quality, the glass greenhouse also has the poorest energy considered in the overall building heat loss, this has little
efficiency. Heating costs are high because of the poor effect.
insulating quality of single glazing and the high infiltration of
305
15.3 HEATING REQUIREMENTS Total fiberglass area:
In order to select a heating system for greenhouse, the A,=A,+%

first step is to determine the peak heating requirement for the A, = 1,232 ft + 1,920 ft
structure. Heat loss for a greenhouse is composed of two A, = 3,152 ft2.
components: (a) transmission loss through the walls and roof,
and (b) infiltration and ventilation losses caused by the heating Afterdetemmm
' -
g the total surface area (A) of the various
of cold outside air. amtrwtion materials, this value is then combined with a
design temperature difference (AT)and a heat loss factor
To evaluate transmission loss, the first step is to calculate for each component, to calculate the total transmission heat
the surface area of the structwe. This d a c e area should be loss (q):
subdivided into the various materials employed, i.e. square
feet of double plastic, square feet of fiberglass, etc. Q = (AI x AT x VI) + (A2 x AT x Ua.
For example, consider a fiberglasswall, double-polyroof The design temperature difference is a function of two
greenhouse 42 ft x 120 ft with 8 ft side walls (see Figure values: (a) design inside tern, and (b) design outside
15.1). temperature. The inside design value is simply the
44.5 f t -
e
t to be maintained inside the space (usually in the
50 to 65°F range). The design outdoor temperatm is g@ the
coldest outdoor temperature mrded at the site. It is
a ft generally considered to be a that is valid for all
but 22 h/y during the heating season. Acceptable values for
various locationS are generally available from state energy
offices or organizationssuch as American Society of Heating,
Refkigeration and Air conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE,
1978).
For this example, assume a design outdoor temperature

of 0°F and a design indoor temperature of 60°F. This results
in a design temperatwe difference (AT) of:
AT=60"F-O"F
AT = 60°F.
Figure 15.1 Example greenhouse.
The final value in the transmission heat loss equation is
the heat transfer coefficient 0. Acceptable values for
Determine the double poly area (roof only): various mateds are shown in Table 15.1.
A1 arch width x greenhouse length

A1 = 44.5 ft x 120 ft Table 15.1 Glazing Material U Val&
A, = 5,340 ft2
Fiberglass area (side walls and end walls), Material Btu5 V'F
Si& walls:
Glass 1.10
A, = height x length x 2
A, = 8 ft x 120 ftx 2 Fiberglass . 1.00
A, = 1,920fi2
. Single poly 1.15
End walls:
Double poly 0.70
& = 2 x [(height x greenhouse width)
+ (0.165* x greenhouse width?]
4 = 2 x [(8 ft x 42 ft) + (0.165 x (42ft)?] a. Roberts, 1985
4 = 1,232 ft2
* may vary slightly,withdifferent arch designs
306
The U factor is also influenced by wind speed. The Table 15.3 Air Change Data for Various Glazing Materials
above values am based upon a wind speed of 15 mph. If
other wind speeds are expected to occut at the design outside
condition, then allowances should be made for this by Material Air Chaneesh
adjusting the U factor are shown in Table 15.2.
Single glass 2.5 to 3.5
Double glass 1.0 to 1.5
Table 15.2 U Values at Various Wind VelOciti& Fiberglass 2.0 to 3.0
Single poly 0.5 to 1.0
Double poly 0.0 to 0.5
Material Velocitv (mph) Single poly WAOW fiberglass sides 1.0 to 1.5
- - - - -
0 25 -
5
30 10 20 Double poly wllow fiberglass sides
Single poly w/high fiberglass sides
0.5 to 1.0
1.5 to 2.0
Glass 0.765 0.951 1.040 1.140 1.160 1.180 Double poly w/high fiberglass sides 1.0 to 1.5
Fiberglass 0.695 0.865 .949 1.034 1.058 1.078
, Single poly 0.810 1.OOO 1.090 1.190 1.210 1.230 a. Roberts, 1985, ASHRAE, 1978.
Doublepoly 0.535 0.631 0.675 0.716 0.728 0.736
As the number of air changes is related to the volume of

For the example, the transmission heat loss (qJ for the the greenhouse, after selecting the appropriate figure from
double poly roof area is: above, it is necessary to calculate the volume of the structure.
For the example structure, this is most easily accomplished in
Q = 5340 ftz x 60°F x 0.70 Btuh f
t' OF two steps. These figures do not include ventilation.
'lp = 224,280 Btulh Step 1 - volume (VI) of the lower (rectangular) area of the
greenhouse:
and for the fiberglass areas:
VI = length x width x height
QF = 3,152 ft' x 60°F x 1.00 Btuh ft2OF VI= 1 2 0 f t x 4 2 f t x 8 f t
VI= 40,320 ft3
i QF = 189,120Btum
-
Step 2 volume (V3 of the upper (arched) roof area of the
Total transmission heat loss (4,)is then: greenhouse:
91='lp+e V, = (area of arched s e ~ t i ~ n ) @ x d ~ ~length)

u~e
V2 = (0.165 x wz)(greenhouse length)
. q, = 224,280 Btuh + 189,120 Btuh V, = (0.165 x (42 ft)3(120 fi)
V2 = 34,927 ft3
q1 = 413,400Btuh
I The total volume (VT)of the greenhouse:
- As mentioned previously, total heat loss is a function of
two components: (a) transmission heat loss, and (b) V, = 34,927 ft3 4- 40,320 ft?
infiltration. For greenhouse design, infiltration is genedly VT = 75,247 ft?
analyzed via the air change method. This method is based
' upon the number of times per hour that the air in the From the above table, the number of air changeslh
greenhouse is replaced by cold air leaking in from outside. (ACH) would be 1.0.
'
The number of air changes which occur is a function of wind
speed, greenhouse construction, and inside and outside Heat loss (e)caused by infiltration:
temperatures. Table 15.3 outlines general values for different
types of greenhouse construction. e = ACH x V, x AT x 0.018
e = 1.0 x 75,247 @ x 60°F x 0.018
e = 81,267 Btuh
307
Total greenhouse heating (%) requirement: 15.4.1 Heat Exchangers
qT= 41 + % In most geothermal applications, a heat exchanger is

qT +
= 413,400 Btuk 81,267 Bh/h required to separate actual heating equipment from the
g = 494,667 Btu/h (98.15 Btulft of floor area) geothermal fluid. Tbis is because of the scaling and corrosion
associated with most geothermal fluids. Generally, the heat
This calculation assumes that infiltration will meet winter exchanger is placed between two circulating loops, the
ventilation requirements. If artificialventilation is required in geothermal loop and the clean loop, as shown in Figure 15.2.
excess of infiltration, this should be added to the peak load.
This is the peak or design heating load for the Finned

greenhouse. The heating equipment selected for the structure lubes
would have to be capable of meeting this requirement.
15.4 GREENHOUSE HEATING SYSTEMS Circulating

Pump
There are basically seven different geothermal heating Figure 15.2 Heat exchanger schematic.
systems which are applied to greenhouses:
1. Finned pipe As a result of this heat exchanger, there is some loss in

2.- Unitheaters the temperature available for use in the actual heating eqyip-
3. Fancoilunits ment. This temperature loss depends upon the type of heat
4. Soil heating exchangerused. For platetype heat exchangers, a temperature
5. cascading of 5 to 10°F should be applied, for shell and tube heat
6. Plastic tubing exchangers 15 to 2@F, and for homemade d g u r a t i m 20
7. Combination of the above. to 40°F. For example, assuming a geothermal resource tem-
perature of 150°F is available, use of a plate heat exchanger
Often the choice of heating system type is not dictated by would result in 140°F supply water, as shown in Figure 15.2.
engineering considerations such as maximum use of the
available geothermal resoum or even the most economical Now that the heating requirement and supply water
system, but on grower preference. Grower preference may be temperaturehas been established, various heating systems can
based strictly on past experience and familiarity with growing be evaluated with respect to their ability to meet this demand.
crops with that system. It may also be influenced by factors For geothermalapplications, the availableg e o t h e d resource
such as the type of crop, or potential disease problems. Some temperature has a large impact upon the system chosen. This
crops, such as roses and mums, require closely umhlled is a result of the fact that certain types of heating methods
humidity and a considerable amount of air circulation to yield better results with low-temperature fluid than others.
prevent leaf mildew. If a radiant floor system is used,
auxiliary circulating fans will be required. Tropical and Finned Pipe
subtropical potted plants, on the other hand, may require high
humidity and higher soil temperatures. In this case,a radiant, As the name implies, finned pipe is d l y constructed
under the bench system will be preferred, perhaps combined of steel or copper pipe with steel or aluminum fins attached to
with an overhead air system for snow melting, and to get the outside. These fins can either be circular, square or
maximum sunlightduring winter months in areas of high snow rectangular in shape. In the size range employed in green-
fall. Certainflowering plants may requireshading to control houses, the steel pipe with steel fins is most common.
blooming, thereby enabling the grower to market at the most
opportune time. The type and location of the shading cover Since most finned-pipe heating equipment used in
can affect the placement of heating and air handling equipment geothermal projects was originally designed for standard hot
and, perhaps, the type of heating. water use, heating capacity is generally based upon 200°F or
higher average water temperature and 65°F entering air
AU these things should be taken into consideration and temperature. If the available supply temperature from the
the heating system designer should maintain close geothermal system is less than the 200°F value, the capacity of
communication with the grower in the selection of type and the heating equipment, in this case finned pipes, will be less
the placement of heating device. than the rated value. In addition, heating capacity of finned
pipe, usually expressed in Btuk per lineal foot, is influenced
The following paragraphs outline the performance of the by fin size, pipe size and flow velocity. Table 15.5 show
heating systems mentioned above. one manufacturer’s rating for equipment.
308
Table l5.5 Steam and Extended Hot Water Ratings' (Bare Element)
Hot Water Ratings. Btu/h/lf Average Water Temmrature

Bare Heating
J3ements 240°F 23PF 220°F 210°F 200°F 190°F 180°F 1°F
1 1630 1480 1370 1240 1120 1010 900 790

33 finslft 2 2810 2570 2360 2140 1940 1760 1550 1370
3 3660 3340 3080 2780 2520 2290 2020 1790
40 finslft 1 1750 1600 1470 1330 1220 io90 970 850

2 2930 2670 2460 2220 2010 1830 1610 1430
a. Vulcan, 1971.
Table 15.6 shows the appropriate de-rating factors to be With a 150°F mmme and a 10°F drop across the heat
applied for average water temperatures of < 190°F. exchanger, this results in a 140°F supply temperature (TJ.
Since a 20°F drop from supply to fetum was calculated, the
average water temperature is then:
Table 15.6 Derating Factors'
AWT T, (AT/2)-
Average Water -
AWT = 140°F (20"F/2)
("F) Factor AWT = 130°F.
180 0.80
160 0.62 This provides the information required to select the
140 0.47 necessary length of hed-pipe heating element required.
120 0.30 Using Table 15.5, for a 2-in. steel element having 4-114 in.
100 0.17 square fins spaced at 33/ft, output at 200°F AWT (factor of
1.00) is 1120 Btuk If. Using a correction €actor of 0.385
a. Vulcan, 1971. from Table 15.6, actual capacity will be 0.385 x 1120 Btulh
If = 431 Btulh If at the 130°F AWT.
With this value and the heating requirement of 494,667

It is important to note that the capacity of this equipment Btum, calculate the length (lof
)element required as:
is indexed to pverage water temperature, not supply water
temperature. In order to find average water temperature 1 = (494,667 Btulh)/(431 Btuh If)
(AWT), it is first necessary to calculate the temperature drop 1 = 1,148 ft.
(AT), which is found according to the following relationship:
This large length requirement points up the iimitationof
AT = q/(500 x Q)
where
-
finned pipe with respect to low tempe~ture.As averagewater
temperature mls below 150"F, large lengths of finned
element are required to meet the heating load in colder
regions. As a result, finned pipe is not a particularly p o d
AT = temperaturedrop ("F) choice fur low-temperature resources.
q = heating requirement (Btulh)
500 = constant, Btu/h gpm (T) Finned elements are generally installed along the long
Q = flowrate(gpm). dimension of the greenhouse adjacent to the outside wall.
Improved heat distribution is achieved if about me-third of the
Using the greenhouse example from above, with a total required length is installed in 811 evenly s p a 4 pattem
requirement of 494,667 Btulh, assume a 150°F resource, a across the greenhouse floor (ASHRAE 1978). This system
flow of SO gpm, and the use of a plate-type heat exchanger. has the disadvantage of using precious floor space that would
othemise be available for plants. In addition, it is less
AT = (494,667 Btu/h)/(500 Btuh gpm "F x 50 gpm) capable of W i g effectively with ventilation if it is required.
n
AT = 20°F Maintenance requirements are low, particularly if a heat
309
exchanger is used. In addition, the natural convection nahve in the unit heater can result in scaling if the fluid has this
of the b e d pipe system does not increase electrical costs as tendency. As a result, a unit heater system should not be
a result of fan operation. applied without an isolation heat exchanger.
The costs for finned pipe elements are a function of the

type and size of piping (steel or copper), and fin spacing Table 15.8 Hot Water Unit Heater Ratings' (Modine, 1979)
(finslft). It is not possible to present costs for all
combinations of these characteristics; however, Table 15.7 Final
should sene to illustrate cost trends in fin pipe equipment. Air
-
Model -
Btulh -
GPM -
CFM Tern. J
3J
A 90,000 9.0 1775 110 1/6
Table 15.7 Comparative Costs of Finned Pipe Elements B 133,000 13.4 3240 100 1/3
C 139,000 14.0 2900 107 1/3
D 198,000 20.0 4560 102 1/2
Element W / l f ($1 E 224,000 22.0 4590 108 112
F 273,000 27.0 5130 108 1/2
Copper/aluminum(3/4 in., 33 Wft) 4.00
copper/aluminum (1 in., 33 Wft) 5.60 a. Standard Conditions, 200°F EWT/60"F EAT.
copper/aluminUm (1-114 in., 33 Wft) 8.25
Copper/aluminum (1-1/4 in., 40 Wft) 9.15
Steellsteel (2 in., 24 Wft) 8.05
Steel/steel (2 in., 33 Wft) 9.40 Using information h m the example greenhouse, unit
heaters can be selected to meet the heating requirement.
Example conditions are given in Table 15.10.
For labor cost estimating, a value of 0.25 to 0.35 man From Table 15.9, find a correction kctor of 0.571. This
hours per lineal foot can be employed for h e d pipe factor is then applied to the capacity values shown in Table
installation(Iaa&ab, 1984). 15.8 to adjust them to the system conditions.
Standard Unit Heaters

Table 15.9 Unit Heater Correction Facton? (Modine, 1979)
Unit heaters consist of a finned coil and small propeller
fancontained in a predesigned unit. These units are available EAT0
in either horizontal or vertical configurationsand are generally EWT PF) 406080 100
hung h m the greenhouse structureat roof level. Air is dis- 80 0.293 0.143 -0- -0-
charged either directly into the greenhouse or into a perforated 100 0.439 0.286 0.140 0.069
plastic distribution tube. 120 0.585 0.429 0.279 0.137
140 0.731 0.571 0.419 0.273
As with the finned pipe equipment, unit heaten are 160 0.878 0.714 0.559 0.410
generally rated at 200°F entering water temperature 0 180 1.024 0.857 0.699 0.547
and 6ooF entering air temperature (EAT). Changes in either 200 1.170 1.OOO 0.833 0.684
of these two parameters will affect unit capacity (usually
expressed in Btulh). Since most geothermal tesourcesapplied a. To be applied to standard ratings.
to greenhouses are <200"F, some adjustment of unit capacity
is necessary. Table 15.8 shows a typical set of manufacturer's
performancedata for unit heaters at standard conditions (200°F
EWTI6O"F EAT). To adjust for other conditions, Table 15.9 Table 15.10 Unit Heater Example Conditions
values are employed. It is important that the gpm values
shown in Table 15.8 are met. providing a unit with a flow Condition Value
less than that shown will hecrease capacity. Load 494,667 Btu5
~ R e s o u r ~temperam
e 150°F
Becausetheseunitsaregendlyconstructedwithcopper Heat exchanger loss 10°F
tubes, even very small COIlcentrations of dissolved hydrogen Supply water temperature 140°F (150-10"F)
sulphide (Hg)or ammonia ( "9 will result in rapid Failure. Greenhouse inside design temp. 60°F
In addition, the long path through which the water must flow
310
For greenhouses over 50 ft in length, it is advisable to a "poly tube" adapter is frequently required to attach the dis-
place unit heaters at each end to d o w for better heat tribution system to the front of the heating device. Prices for
distribution. Assuming two units are used in this case,each each of these items are shown in Table 15.11. Capacities for
would need acapacity (4)of: unit heaters are based on 200°F entering water temperature.
q = (494,667 Btu/h)/;l = 247,334 Btu/h. Poly tube adapter costs are given in Table 15.12.
To umvert this to an equivalent in Table 15.9, dividing

by the above CoRectiOn factor of 0.571: . Table 15.12 Poly Tube Adapter Costs'
~~~ ~
q = (247,334 Bt~h)/0.571= 433,158 Btuh.

Size cost
A two-unit system will not work because the largest unit
capacity for a horizontal configuration is 273,000 Btuh. The
-fin.>
12
a
78
next step is to try a four-unit system-two-unit heaters at each 18 89
end of the house. In this case, each unit would have a 24 132
capacity of:
a. Roper,undated.
q = (433,158 Btu/h)/2 = 216,579 Btdh.
This results in half the capacity calculated for the single

unit above. Fan Coil Units
The proper seIection would be the "E"unit at a capacity These units are very similar to the siandard unit heater
of 223,000 Btuh. This is slightly more than the required discussed previously. They consist of a finned coil and a
216,579 and will allow for a margin of safety in the design. centrifugal blower in a single cabinet. A few manufacturers
As shown, the flow requirement (Q) for the four units will be: offer units in an off-the-shelf line for low temperature green-
house heating. It is much more common that they are custom
Q = 22 gpmx 4 units = 88 gpm. selected. The differencebetween the fan coil unit and the hot-
water unit heater is primarily in the coil itself. In the fan coil
If the available flow rate is less than this value, unit system, the coil is much thicker and usually has closer fin
capacity would have to be corrected for this reduced flow, spacing than the coil in a unit heater. Unit heaters generally
possibly resulting in the need for a d d i t i d units. have only a one or two row coil. A custom designed coil can
have as many as six or eight rows. The additional rows of
Two types of hot-water unit heaters are commonly used tubes create more surface area. The added surfacearea allows
in greenhouse applications: horizontal and vertical. Of these for more effective heat transfer, resulting in the ability to
two configurations, the horizontal unit is the more common. extract more heat from the water. To illustrate this, d d e r
Vertical unit heaters are generally availablein larger capacities the unit heater selected in the previous section. conditions are
than the horizontal units. In addition to the unit heater itself, given in Table 15.13.
Table 15.11 Horizontal and Vertical Unit Heater costs' Table 15.13 Unit Heater Example' (two tow)
frorizontal Unit Heaters Vertical Unit Heaters

Capacityb Cost Capacityb Cost Condition Value
AJ!.B?L 1 $ L o I $ )
27 425 72 460 CaPity 127,904 Btulh
45 510 88 510 @571xrn,an)
73 565 123 550 Air flow 4,590 cfmb
106 595 140 600 Water flow 22 gpm
160 775 220 840 supply water temperature 140°F
255 1005 297 1055 Leavingwatertemperature 128.4"F
293 1085 408 1420 Leaving air temperature 858°F
520 1485
a. Mode1 E Unit heater.
a. Means, 1990. b. Cubic MI&.
b. lOOOBtu5.
311
Supplying the same temperature water to a fan coil unit fan coil system is the most cost effective method for extracting
with a four-row coil would result in the values as shown in large quantities of heat from very-low-temperature heating
Table 15.14. mediums.
Table 15.15 presents pricing information for fan coil

Table 15.14 Fan Coil Example' (four-row) equipment.
Condition Value Table 15.15 Fan Coil Unit Prices
%city 275,171 Btum

Air flow 4,590 cfm Unit Nominal Capacity cost
Water flow 13.76 gpm 0 Btulhr a
Supply water temp. 140°F 2000 120,000 1240
Leaving water temp. 100°F 4000 240,000 1665
Air in temp. 60°F 6Ooo 360,000 2320
Air out temp. 115°F 8000 480.000 2970
a. Four-kw coil with 11 fins/in., 2.5 ft x 3.67 ft. a. Means,1990.
Using only 60%of the water flow, the fan coil unit has As with the unit heater, a poly tube adapter would be
the capability to more than double the heat output. In required if this equipment is to be attached to such a
addition, the leaving air temperature is raised to 115°F from distribution system. For prices, see unit heater Section.
85.8"F.
Soil Heating
This benefit is not without cost, however. The fan coil
units are generally larger and more bulky than the hot-water This system generally involves using the floor of the
unit heater. As a result, they cost more. The larger coils greenhouse as a large radiator. Tubes, through which warm
discussed above generally require a larger fan motor to push water is circulated, are buried in the floor of the greenhouse.
the air through the added coil resistance. In this case, the unit Heat from warm water is transferred through the tube to the
heater would require a 0.5 horsepower (hp), motor and the fan soil and, eventually, to the air in the greenhouse.
coil unit would require a 1 hp motor. These factors may be
compensated for by increased capacity, thus requiring fewer In the past, tube materials were generally copper or steel.
units. Because of corrosion and expansion problems with these
materials, nonmetallic materials have seen increasing
Most importantly, the ability to extract more heat from application in recent years. The most popular of these is
each gallon of water pumped reduces well pumping require- polybutylene. This material is able to withstand relatively
ments and allows the development of more greenhouse area, -
high temperatures(up to 180°F) and is availablein roll form
using the same resource. As a general d e of thumb, a well for easy installation. PVC piping is only available in rigid
designed coil can cool water down to within about 15 to 25°F form and is limited with respect to temperature. Polyethylene
of the same space temperature. For example, if a greenhouse and similar materials are available in flexible roll form, but
is to be maintained at 60°F and the k e d coils are supplied are (as PVC) generally limited in terms of temperature
+
with water at 120"F, a system AT of 120°F - (60°F 25"F), handling ability.
or 35°F could be achieved. If the well flow is known, then
the total heat supplied (q) can be calculated as: A soil heating system is p r e f d by many operators
because it results in very even temperature distribution from
q=500xgpmxAT=Btu/h. floor to ceiling and does not obstruct floor space or cause
shadows. However, its ability to supply 100%of the heating
This figure can then be compared to greenhouse heat loss requirementsof a greenhouse necessitatesa rather mild climate
to find the total area of greenhouse that can be developed. and a low inside design temperature. This is caused by the
nature of heat transfer in the system. As heating requirements
The fan coil construction is very similar to that of the are increased, the required heat output from the floor is
unit heater. For the same reasons,it is not recommended that increased. In order to produce more heat, the floor surface
they be applied without an isolation heat exchanger. The temperaturemust be increased. Very quickly a point is reached
3 12
at which it is difficult to spend 'extended periods on such a hot Insidesurf~temperaturecanbecalculatedaccordingto
floor. In addition, if plants me grown on or hear the floor the formula below. Referring back to the heat 16s-example,
(including benches), heat transfer to the plants may be the greenhouse is constructed of both double poly (roof) and
excesssive with a radiant floor system. As a tesult, this single fiberglass (walls). The calculation for AUST is:
system is generally employed in conjunction with another
system such as unit heaters. The floor system supplies the IST = IDT - l[O.595/(l/U)] x AT1
Base load for the greenhouseand the secondary system is used
for occasional peaking purposes. where
The procedure for designing a floor system consists of: IST =e inside mvface temperature (T)
IDT = inside design temperature (OF)
1. Determining the heat load for the greenhouse. U = glazing material U factor, Btu5 ft? (T)
AT = design temperature difference (T).
2. Calculating the requiied floor tempera-ture. to meet the
load. For the example greenhouse, the inside surfam
temperature.of the double poly roof area is:
3. Calculating the required size, depth and spacing of the
tubes. -
IST = 60°F [(.595/(1/.70) x 6o"F]
IST = 350°F.
The load analysis portion of the procedure has been
covered. The next step is to determine the required floor The inside surface temperature for the single fiberglass
surface temperature. area is:
The heat output of the floor (usuaIIy expressed in Btum IST = 60°F - }[0.595/(1/1.0)] x 6 O T I
ft3 is a function of the floor surfice temperature, greenhouse IST = 24.3"F
air temperature and average temperature of unheated mvfaces
in the room (AUST). Heat output from the floor occurs by AUST = (Ai x ISTI + A2 x ISTa/(A, + Ad
two mechanisms: convection and radiation.
ADST - (5,340ft2x3f@) + ( 3 , 1 5 2 f t a x 2 1 . 3 0 P 3
(5,340 + 4 , 3 5 2 ft')
After the heat loss of the greenhouse has been calculated,
it is divided by the area of the floor which will be used for
heating purposes (usually about 10%less than the actual floor = 31.1T
area). Usbg the previous greenhouse example, 42 ft x 120 ft,
with a total heat loss of 494,667 Btum, the value for heat Ioss This value can now be inserted into the equation for floor
(q/A) is: tebrature. developed by A S H U E as:
q/A = (494,667 Btulh)/(42 ft x 120 ft x 0.90) q/A = 0.15[(Tp + 460/100)' - (31.1 + W/lOO)']
q/A = 109.1 Btu5 ftz. + -
(0.32flp 60)lA2= 109.1 Btulh e
This value is then used in the following equation to solve
for the required floor surface temperature (ASHRAE, 1984):
-
q/A = O.lS[(ti, + 460/100)' (AUST + 460/100)']
+ -
(0.32flp Ta)'" = 109.1 Btulh fi2 the peak demand, a
floor surface temperature of 103°F would be required. Plants
where could not be grown in or near such warm soil. In addition,
the amourtt of time that workers could be exposed would be
Tp = floor tempera- limited. As a result, it would be advisable to supply a portion
Ta = indoor air kmperature. of the design capacity with this system and the rest with a
secondary system. If the system is designed for only 60% of
Before the above can be solved for Tp, a value for AUST peak requirements (65.5 Btu/ftz), a floor temperatureof only
must first be calculated. As mentioned earlier, AUST is the 84°F would be required. This figure is close to the maximum
area weighted avehge temperature of unheated surfaces in the recommended floor mvface temperature of 85°F for occupied
room. For a greenhouse, these surfaces are the walls and areas. If the greenhouse is occupied only for bAef perid,
roof. this value can be exceeded somewhat. A secondary system
would be used for peaking.
313
The next step is to determine the depth and spacingof the Table 15.16 Maximum Recommended Mean Water
tubes supplying the heat. Tube spacing and size is dependent Temperatures (OF)
upon the available water temperature. Generally, depth is
more a function of protecting the tubes from surface activity
than system design, and a figure of 2 to 6 in. below the Burial Depth Steel Piue Polvbutvlene Tube
surface is common. (in.) k=6 k=9 k-6 k=9
1 111 105 124 112
Since it is the purpose of the floor panel system to use 2 116 110 131 120
the floor as a large radiator, it follows that the installation of 3 122 115 139 128
the tubing should result in as uniform a floor surface 4 125 117 144 131
temperatureas possible. This is accomplished by two general 5 128 120 148 135
approaches: (a) placing smaller diameter tubes at close 6 134 125 156 142
spacing near the surface of the floor, or (b) placing larger
tubes spaced further apart at a greater burial depth. The a. k = soil conductivity in Btu x in./hr x f@Fx OF.
theory behind this approach is to reduce the difference
between the distance heat must travel vertically (fromthe tube
to the surface directly above it) and laterally (from each tube
to the surface between the tubes)(Adlam, 1947).
The depth at which the tubes are to be buried is often a

function of protecting them from surface activity. For burial
in the soil floor of a greenhouse, a depth of at least 2 to 3 in.
should be employed. If crops are to be grown -tly in the
soil, depth requirements are such that this type of system
becomes impractical.
Tubing size is a function of heating requirements.
Common sizes are 112 in., 314 in. and 1 in. with the smaller
sizes used generally in the 2 to 4 in. depth and the larger limes
for depths of 5 in. and greater.
The linal determination of the size and spacing is a

function of heat output (Btu1fP) required, mean water
temperature, soil conductivity, and burial depth.
The required heat loss is fixed by the type of greenhouse

construction used. Soil conductivity is also fixed by site
characteristics. As mentioned earlier, the minimum burial
depth is fixed by surface activity. As a result, the choice of
size and spacing is balanced against mean water temperature,
the singleparameter over which the designer has somecontrol.
Table 15.16 lists some maximum mean water temperatures for
various situations. Employing mean water temperatures above
these values will result in floor surface temperatures >9OOF.
If workers are to spend extended periods in the greenhouse,
floor surface temperatures above this value would be
unacceptable.
In addition to the maximum mean water temperature, it

is also important when making this calculation to be aware of
system AT (supply temperature minus return water tempera-
ture) and its impact upon system design. Temperature drops
-
above 15°F should employ a double setpentine to balance
the circuit output. For AT below 1S0F,a single serpentine
can be used as shown in Figure 15.3.
Figure 15.3 Single and double serpentine piping layout.
314
Using the heating requirement and floor surface Subtracting the required floor surface temperahe from
temperature calculated above, some combinations of tubing the mean water temprature results in the tubtoadace
size and spacing can be determined. It will be assumed that, -et difference. Using this and the valw from Figure
because of surface activity, the tubes would have to be buried. 15.4, the heat output per lineal foot of) of tube cau be
a minimum of 3 in. below the surface. Soil conductivity is 9 determined. From Figure 15.4, for a burial depth of 3 in., a
Btu b./hft2OF. Resource temperature is 140°F and a flow of value of 1.40 Btulh If "F for 3/4 in. tubing results. For 1 in.
60 gpm is available. Polybutylene tubing will be employed. tubing due to greater surface area, the value would be 1.87
Plate heat exchanger loss is 7°F. Btu/h If "F.
As a result of the heat exchanger loss, 133°F fluid will be The heat output per If for each of these tubes would be
available for supply. If the entire flow is used, the system AT arrived at by multiplying the Btu/hr.lf."F value times the
would be: tube-to-surface temperature difference.
AT = (1%,800 Btu/h)/(500 Btu/h gpm "F
x 60 gpm) = 6.6"F
-
For 3/4 in. tube: 1.4 x (128°F 84°F) = 61.6 Btulh If
>
For 1 in. tube: 1.87 x (128°F - 84°F) = 82.2 Btu/h lf
The resulting mean water temperature (Tw) would be:
The tube spacing is determined by dividing the tube
-
TW = 133°F (6.6"F/2) = 130°F output per h
eal foot into the heating requirement (per square
foot).
This value is close to the recommended maximum mean
water temperature found in Table 15.17, so design can For 314 in. tuk. (65.5 Btu/ft2h)/(61.6 Btu/h 1f)
proceed. If this value had been above the zecommmended = 1.06 lf/ft2
temperature, either the tubes would have to be buried deeper
or the radiant floor system operated at a lower supply-water For 1 in. tube: (65.5 Btu/ft2h)/(82.2 Btum If)
temperature. = 0.80 lflft'.
6
I
s
h
C
.A
Y
4
I
t-
o.
W
'0 3
1.O P.0
TUBE OUTPUT (BTU/hr-
Figure 15.4 Heat output for radiant floor system.
3 15
Taking the inverse of the above results and multiplying The cost ofboth polybutyleneand polyethylene piping is
by 12 in./ft yields tube spacing: a function of pipe size and the standard dimension ratio
(SDR). The SDR is related to the nominal pipe size divided
For 314 in. tube: (Vl.06) x 12 = 11.3 in. by the wall thickness, or as the SDR inmases, the wall
thickness decreases. Material costs shown in Table 15.18 are
For 1 in. tube: (110.85) x 12 = 15.0 in. for SDR 11. This material is rated at 100 psi at 180°F
(polybutylene) and 160 psi at 70°F (polyethylene).
In most cases, because of losses downward and at the
edges, a safety factor of 10 to 1596 is added to the tube
requirements. This is most conveniently ammplished by Table 15.18 Polyethylene and Polybutylene Pipe Costs
reducing the tube spacing by 10 to 15%.- (Means, 1990)
In order to demonstrate the sensitivity of the system to

other parameters, Table 15.17 shows some additional tube Size Polybutylene Polyethylene
spacing calculations that are made: (in.) ($/In c$nn
1/4 0.13 -
Table 15.17 Tube Spacing (in.) 318 0.15 -
112 0.16 0.08
314 0.29 0.13
Tubing 1 0.49 0.20
-
Soilk De~th MWT 314in. I in. 1-1/4 0.70 0.34
1-1/2 0.99 0.46
Basecase 9 3 128 11.30 15.0 2 1.66 . 0.77
6 3 128 8.10 10.8
9 6 128 10.23 13.6
6 3 118 8.94 11.8
6 6 118 5.43 7.2 cascading
This method, which was developed by the Soviets for

waste heat applications, involves distributing water over the
Using the base casetube spacing and 314 in. tubes, a total outside of the greenhouse in a thin "sheet" of flow. Although
of 4,818 ft of tubing will be required. In order that a this is a very effective method of heating a greenhouse, there
reasonable pressure drop will be attained, the total 60 gpm are some disadvantages that would limit its use in geothermal
flow would be divided among a number of individualcircuits. applications.
At a velocity of approximately 3 ft/s, each circuit would carry
5 gpm. This would require 14 circuits for the total flow. If Distributinglarge quantitiesofwarm water over a surface
the 1 in. tubing is used, a smaller number of higher flow exposed to the atmosphere results in substantialenergy losses.
circuits could be employed. These losses exceed by many times the requirements of the
greenhouse. As a result of the large heat losses from the cas-
As suggested above, a heat exchangeris used in this case. caded fluid, a great deal of evaporation takes place. Because
This is for two reasons: protection from scaling and control of the many chemical species contained in g e o t h d fluids,
of temperature. evaporation would tend to cause concentration and subsequent
deposition of these constituents on greenhouse surfaces.
Control of temperature is the most critical. The only
method of controlling the output of a floor system is by Because of these disadvantages, it is unlikely that such a
controlling the water temperature in the tubes. The use of a system would be applied to any greaf extent in the U.S.
heat exchanger allows this control to be &ed out more Therefore, it will not be discussed here.
easily. The flow of geothermal fluid to the exchanger is
regulated to maintain a given supply temperatureto the heating Bare Tube System
loop as shown in Figure 15.2.
This systeminvolvesthe use of bare tubing, usually small
As suggested in the example, a great deal of piping' diameter polybutylene or similar material. The tubing is
material is requiredto supplyjust 60% ofthe peak requirement installed either on the floor or suspended under benches. It is
of a greenhouse in a cold location. In addition, the inability preferable for the tubing to be 1pCatea low in the greenhouse,
to grow directly in or on the soil surface also restricts the although a portion may be located overhead. Regardless of
wide acceptance of this type of system. the installationlocation, it is very important that the tubing be
316
arranged such that each tube is separated from the others. If where
the tubes are bunched together, the effective surface area of
each is reduced, thus lowering hating capacity. D = tube diameter (in.)
,T = 460 + (AWT - T*)/2 ("F)
In colder regions, this system encounters the same AT = AWT-T, + 3"F("F)
problem as the floor panel system in that large quantities of TI = 460 + AWT("F)
tubing are required to meet the design requirement. +
T2 = 460 T3 ("F)
+
T3 = (AUST T,)/2 ("F)
Control of the system in many cases has been manual by
way of gate valves. However, as with the floor panel system, Using a 3/4 ha. tube, 60°F air temperature and 134°F
the use of a heat exchanger can d o w accurate control of AWT, Btuh if for the example case:
temperature and, hence, output. Design of a system is based
upon the average water temperature of the heating loop. For x (71)'.a66]
1[1.106 x (l/l.05)o" x (1/557)0.181
a system using a heat exchanger: -
+ (15.7 x 10'0) x [(594)' (505)'l I x (0.275)
1. Determine the flow of geothermal fluid available. We qn = 45.2 ~ t u m
If
will assume 80 gpm at 150°F for the example case.
The total length (l)
required to meet the design load
2. Calculate the greenhouse heat loss; i.e., 494,667 Btuh becomes:
for the example.
1 = g/(g/l)
3. Determine the temperature drop in the available water 1 = (494,667 Btuh)/(45.2 Btuh If)
flow: - 1 = 10,944lf
AT = q/(500 x gpm) This length requirement can then be co- to

AT = (494,667 Btu/h)/(SOO Btuh gpm "F x 80 gpm) requirements for other tubing sizes and water tempemtures to
AT = 12.4T. determine the most economical system.
4. Determine heating loop average water tempera- Costs for polybutylene and polyethylene piping used in
(AWT) using: the bare. tube system are shown under the previous section.
TS Tg - 10°F The procedures presented in this chapte2 are intended to
familiarize the reader with some of the considerations
where appropriate to greenhouse hating systems. It is strongly
Tecommended that the services of a consulting engineer be
Ts = supply temperature (T) retained for final design purposes.
Tg = geothermal resource temp. (OF)
TS = 150°F - 10°F
TS = 140F REFERENCES
-
AWT TS (AWT12) Acme Engineeriug, 'The Greenhouse Climate Control
AWT =i 140°F - (12.4T/2) Handbook", Acme Engheerhg, Muskogee, OK, 1970.
AWT = 134°F
Adlam, T.D., "Radiant Heating", pp. 415-420, The Industrial
5. Calculate heat output per foot of tubing based ofl the Press, New Yo&, NY, 1947. .
average water temrature (AWT) using:
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air
q/l = 1 [1.016 x (l/D)O" x (l/T&o.'ax (AT'=)] conditioning Engineers, '1977 Applicatians', p. 23.1,
+ -
(15.7 x lo-"') x (Tl' 3-231 x (ft2/lf pipe) ASHRAE, New Yo&, NY, 1977.
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air M d i e Manufacturing Co., Product Data, Hot Water Unit
Conditioning Engineers, "1978 Applications", p. 22.14, Heaters Catalog 1-150.1, Modine Manufacturing Co.,
ASHRAE, New Yo&, NY, 1978. pp. 3, 17, 18, Racine, WI,1979.
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air NEPCO Inc., NEPCO Geothermal Products Price Bulletin,
Conditioning Engineers, "1984 Applications", pp. NEPCO Engineered Energy, Seattle, WA, May 1984.
8.4-8.5, ASHRAE, New York, NY, 1984.
Roberts, W.J., et al., "Energy Conservation for Comrcial
Heilman, R. H., "SurfaceHeat Transmission", Trans.Am. Greenhouses", Northeast Regional Agricultural
Soc. Mech. Engrs., pp. 51, 227, 1929. Engineering Service, 1985.
Khashab, A. M., "HVAC Systems Estimating Manual", Roper IBG, International Growers Market Place Catalog,
McGraw Hill, New Yo&, NY, 1984. Roper IBG,pp. 14-23, Wheeling, IL,undated.
Means, R. S., "Means Mechanical Cost Data 1986". Robert Vulcan Radiator Co., Linovector Element Product
S. Means Co., 1986. Jn€ormation, Vulcan Radiator Co., Hartford, CN, 1976.
318
CHAPTER 16
AQUACULTURE
By Kevin D. M e r t y , P.E.
OIT Geo-Heat Center
16.1 INTRODUCrrON 16.3 HEAT EXCHANGE PROCESSES
One of the most common areas of interest in geothermal A nonavered body of water, exposed to the elements,
direct use is that of aquacdture. For those involved with the exchanges heat with the atmosphere by way of four
initial planning of such a project, one of the first questions to mechanisms: (a) evaporation, (b) convection, (c) radiation,
be addressed relates to project size. In most geothermal and (d) conduction. Each of these is influenced by different
applications,the maximum pond area that can be developed is parameters that are discussed separately in the following
restricted by the maximum heat available from the resource. paragraphs.
It is the purpose of this chapter to present a brief introduction
to the subject of heat loss from ponds (or pools) so that 16.3.1 Evamrative Loss
develops can make an informed evaluation of geothermal
resources for this purpose. Evaporation is generally the largest component of the
total heat loss from the pond. Considering evaporation, the
loss of volume generally comes to mind rather than the loss of
16.2 TEMPERATURE REQUIREMENTS FOR heat. However, in order to boil water (and hence cause
SELECTED SPECIES evaporation) heat must be added. The quantity of heat
requiredto evaporate 1 pound of water varies with temperature
In order to determine the heat loss of the ponds, it is and pressure, but under normal atmospheric conditions the
necessary to h i select the temperature at which the water
must be maintained. Table 16.1 provides a summary of
-
value is 1,OOO British thermal units @tu). M e n water is
evaporated from the surface of the pond, the heat is taken
appropriate temperatures for selected p i e s . In addition, from the remaining water. As a result, as each pound of
growth periods for cultures at optimum temperatures are
shown in column 3.
-
water evaporates from the surface, 1,OOO Btu are lost with
escaping vapor. Losses can occur by evaporation evea when
Table 16.1 Temperature Requirements and Growth Periods for Selected Aquaculture Species'
Tolerable Optimum Growth Period

Extremes (T) Growth ("F) to Market Size (mas)
OySterS 32 to 97 typ 76 to 78 typ 24

Lobsters 32 to 88 72 b.75 24
Penaeid Shrimp
KunUna 40 to ? 77 to87 - 6to8typ
pink 52'to 104 75 to 85 6to8
Salmon pacific) 40 to 77 59 6 t o 12
Freshwater P r a w 75 to 90 83 to 87 6 to 12
catfish 35 to 95 82 to 87 6
Eels 32 to 97 73 to 86 12 to 24
Tilapia 47 ,to,106 12 to 86 -
carp 40 to 100 cia to 90 -
Trout 32 to 89 63 6Jo 8
Yellow Perch 32 to 86 72 to a2 10
Striped Bass ? to 86 61 to66 6to8
a. Behrends, 1978
319
the water temperature is at or below the SutfouIlding air For indoor locations with a design of approximately
temperature. This is because water evaporates from the 75°F and 50% relative humidity, Pa can be taken as
surface of the pond at the wet bulb temperature. At 10096 0.211 psia.
relative humidity, the wet bulb temperature is equal to the dry
bulb temperature (dry bulb is the temperature given by a For example, assume a pond with a surface area of 500
standard thermometer). At anything less than 100%relative f&*located outside in an area with design temperature of 15°F.
humidity, the wet bulb temperature is less than the dry bulb Wind velocity is 5 mph and pond water is to be 80°F.
temperature and, as a result, evaporation loss can occur below
the air temperature.
The rate at which evaporation occurs is a function of air

velocity and the premire difference between the pond water
and the water vapor in the air (vapor pressure difference). As
= 37.0 lbmlh
the temperature of the p d water is increased or the relative
humidity of the air is decreased, evaporation rate increases. To obtain the heat loss (&) in Btu5, simply multiply
The equation that describes the rate of evaporation is (Eckert, the lbmlh loss by the value of 1,050 Btuhbm.
1959).
% = 37.0 lbmh x 1,050 Btuhbm
% = 38,850 Btu5
where This is the peak or design heat loss. It is important to

note that the example values given above are for the design
Wp = rate of evaporation (lbmlh) (worst) case. At higher outdoor air temperatures and different
/ A = pondsurfacearea(ft3 relative humidities, this value would be less. As mentioned
v = air velocity, (fils) earlier, the rate of evaporation loss is influenced by the vapor
Pw = saturation vapor pressure of the pond water (psia) pressure difference between the pond water and the water
Pa = saturation pressure air dew point (psia) vapor in the air. Figure 16.1 illustrates the effect of increased
Ts = surface temperature (OF) pond water temperature on vapor pressure (Pw). R e d u d
water temperaturewould reduce the vapor pressure difference
For enclosed ponds or indoor swimming pools, this and hence, the rate of evaporation.
equation can be reduced to (ASHRAE, 1978).
16.3.2 Convective Loss
Wp = 0.204 x A x (Pw - Pa)
The next major mechanism of loss from the pond d a c e
where is that of convection. This is the mode associated with the
heat loss caused by cold air passing over the pond surface.
Wp = rate of evaporation (lbmlh) The two most important influences on the magnitude of
A =pondarea(fP) convective heat loss are wind velocity and temperature
Pw = saturation pressure of the pond water (psia) difference between the pond surface and the air. This is
Pa = saturation pressure at air dew point e a ) evidenced in (Wolf, 1983):
Following are some common values for v, Pw, and Pa: qcv = (0.135~)x A x (Tw - Ta)
For v: @ 5 mph wind, v = 7.33 A/s where
@ 10 mph wind, v = 14.7 ft/s
@ 15 mph wind, v = 22 fi/s qcv = convection heat loss (Btuh)
v = air velocity (ft/s)
For PW: @ W F water, Pw = 0.256 psia A = pondarea(ft3
@ 70°F water, Pw = 0.363 psia Tw = water temperature (OF)
@ 80°F water, Pw = 0.507 psia Ta = air temperature (OF)
@ 90°F water, Pw = 0.698 psia
For an indoor pool, this equation would be (Lauer,
For Pa: For outdoor locations with a design dry undated):
bulb air temperature below 30"F, Pa can
be taken as 0.074 psia. qcv = 0.38 ("w - Ta)*.= x A x (Tw -Ta)
320
I
I
. .
I I I I
60 70 EO so
WATER TEMPERATURE (OF) .

Figure 16.1 Plot of pond water vapor pressure versus t e m p e m .
z
0
H
I-
u
w
>
z
0
u
1
ul
u)
0
J
I-
a
W
I
W
>
U
l-
a
J
W
a
1 1 I I
2.5 - 5 7.5 io
WIND SPEED (mph)
Figure 16.2 Plot of relative umvective heat loss versus wind speed.
321
Using the example from abpve (15°F design 16.3.4 Conductive Loss
temperature, 80°F water and 5 mph wind), the following
convective heat -loss can be calculated: The final mode of heat loss is that of condudon. This
is the loss associated with the walls of the pond. Of the four
qcv = (0.1351 x 7.33 fth) x 500 ft2 losses, conduction is by far the smallest and in many
calculations is simply omitted. The following method
qcv = 32,160 Btuh
. (ASHRAE, 1985) is valid for a pond depth of 3 to 5 f&.
Figure 16.2 illustrates the importance of air velocity on qcD={~(L+w)x2xll

convectiveheat loss. The shape of this curve would be similar
for evaporation loss also. + (L x W x .02)}uw - fla + lS)]
Evaporationand convectivelosses can also be influenced where
by the type of aeration system used. Some of the systems
involve sprays or splashing effects that C B I ~increase heat loss. qcD= conductive heat loss (Btuh)
Heat loss fiom aeration should be calculated separately. L = length of pond (ft)
W = width of p d (ft)
16.3.3 Radiant Loss Tw = design water temperature (OF)
Ta = design outside air temperature ("F)
Radiant heat loss, the third largest component of the
total heat loss is dependent primarily on the temperature This calculation assumes the use of lined pond
difference between the pond surface temperature and the construction. This is, there is no significant leakage from the
surzounding air temperature. Under normal circumstanw, walls or floor of the pond.
radiant heat exchange is assumed to occur between solid
bodies with little or no gain to the air in between the bodies. Using the previous example, the following conductive
However, because of the evaporative losses near the pond heat loss is calculated:
surface, the air tends to contain a large quantity of water
vapor. When this is the case,the pond surfixe radiates to the qcD = (((10 ft + 50 ft) x 2 x 11
water vapor in the air, which is assumed to be at the + (10 ft x 50 ft x 0.02))
temperature of the air itself. The equation describing this +
180°F - (15°F 15OF)I
process is (Stoever, 1941):
, 0.174 x lo" x 0.93 [(460

e ~= + Tw)~
Table 16.2 summarizes the results of the calculations
- (460 + Ta)4] x A performed for the example 500 ftzpond.
where
Table 16.2 Summary of Example Heat Loss
e ( ~= radiant heat loss (Btuh) ~~
Tw = pond water temperature (OF)

Ta = air temperature (OF) Heat Loss Method Loss (Btuh) Amount (96)
A = pond surface area (it? Evaporation 38,350 37
Convection 32,160- 31
Again referring to the above example (15°F design Radiation 27,610 26
temperature, 80°F pond temperature), the following radiant Conduction 6.500 - 6
heat loss is calculated: TOTAL 106,120 100
QRD = 0.174 x lo" x 0.93 ((460 + 80°F)'

- (460 + 15)4] x 500 These losses are the peak or maximum heat loss. At any
given time during the year, other than the design case, the
= 27,610 Btuh
e(~ heat loss would be less than this value. The annual heating
requirement cannot be determined fromsimply multiplying the
peak heating requirement by 8760 hly. Because of the need
for considerationof varying temperature, wind, humidity, and
solar heat gain, methods for calculating the annual heating
requirement are beyond the scope of this chapter.
322
16.4 SURFACECOVER Table 16.4 Summary of Example Heat
Loss Using Pond Enclosure
Heat losses from ?he pond surface are Y
influend by wind velocity and the temperature difference
between the p d and the surrounding air. Any method that J-IeatLossMethod WfBtub)
can be employed substantially redm heating.requirements. Evaparation 35,150 47
ChV&iOIl 14,460 19
For ou& pools, a floating cover is an excellent Radiation 18,229 25
example. The use of a 0.5 in. floating foam cover (on the Conduction 6.500 -
- 9
pool surface) would reduce the peak heat loas for the example TOTAL 74,339 100
pool to the values shown in Table 16.3.
. Table 16.3 Summary of ExampIe Heat

This value amounts to - 71%of the original example.
Loss using Pool cover

16.6 THERMALMASS
HeatLossMethod JAXs (Btuh) &nomt (96) Onefinalmethodforduchgpeakheatingrequirements

Evaporation 0 0 for pond or pool hating lies in the use of the large thermal
Convection 5,219 35 mass rmpplied by the araterJtse€f. Water is an excellent heat
Radiation 3,212 22 storage mediuh. Assuming the examplepond is 5 ft deep and
Conduction 6.500 -43 500 fl? in area, the total volume contained would be 2,500 ft?.
At 7.49 gallft), this results in 18,725 gal or 156,000 Ibm of
TOTAL 14,931 100
water at 8.33 lbmlgal. Because 1 lb of water gives up one
Btu for each degree it is oooled, this means that our example
pond that umtains 156,000 lbm of water wuld provide
This peak load is only - 14% of the originally
calculatedheat loss. This is, in large measure, a result of the
156,000 Btu of offset heating requirements if it were allowed
to cool 1°F. This stored heating capacity can be used to
elimination of evaporation loss that is provided by a floating reduce the peak heating requirement on the heating system.
type cover. Unfortunately, a floating cover is generally not Using the origiually calculated peak heating requirement of
considered practical for commercial aquacultureapplicatia 105,120 Bhrlh, an example of thermal storage use follows.
Assume that the peak heating requirement occurs over an 8-
hour period after which, because of air temperahe increase
16.5 POND ENCLOSURE and solar gain, the heatiqg load is reduced, Further, assume
that the heating system is &signed to Slrpply only 80% of the
A pond enc€osure is another (though much more peak requirement. What will h a p to the pond temperature?
expensive) option for reducing heat loss. The advantages
provided by an enclosure depend to a large extent upon the First, calculate the tdal heat required for the &hour
construction techniques employed (Oovering material, degree period.
of enclosure, pressure, or a k c e of ventilation. The variety
of COIlStSUCtiOIl methods and materials available are too 8 h x 105,120 Btu/h = 840,960 Btu
numerous to cover here. The basic advantagesofan enclosure
are: (a) reduced air velocity, (b) reduced tempratme Second, calcdate the heat that the system can supply
difference between t h e p n d and surrounding air, and (c) based on its 80%capacity.
~dvaporpressuredifferencebetweenthepondwateran8
air (increased relative humidity). Theseeffects reduce the 8 h x 10.80 x 105,120 Btuh) = 672,768 Btu
losses associated with evaporation, cOIlvection and d a t i o n .
Then, calculatethe dif€erence to be suppliedbyallowing
Assuming an enclomueis placed over o w examplepond, the pond water to 0001.
reducing air velocity to the 10 to 30 ftlmin range, increasing
humidity to 90% and air temperature to 48°F (half way -
840,960 Btu 672,768 Bta 3 168,192 Btu
between outside air and pond water temperature), pond heat
loss would be reduced to the values shown in 'fable 16.4.
323
Finally, calculate the drop in pond temperature caused aeration scheme to increaseits beneficial effect. In both cases,
by supplying the heat required. the quantity of cold or recirculatedwater could be determined
by the following formula:
168,192 Btu/(156,000 Ibm x 1 BtuflbmOF) = 1.1"F.
As a result, the pond will have cooled by 1.1"F. The

heating system would then bring the pond back up to the
temperatureduring the day when higher temperaturesand solar where
gain would reduce heating requirements.
Q = required cold flow rate (gprn)
The degree to which thermal storage can be incoprated Q,, = hot water flow rate (gpm)
into the heating system design is a complex issue of Th = temperature of hot water ("F)
environmental factors, pond characteristics, and the species T, = temperature of cold water ("F)
being raised. Some species, such as prawns, are particularly T,,, = temperature of desired mixed water ("F)
sensitive to temperature fluctuations (Johnson, 1978).
The above methods are presented to provide interested
individuals with an introduction to the subject of heat losses
16.7 FLOW REQUIREMENTS from ponds. The equations provided are simplifications of
very complex relationships and should be employed only for
The rate of flow required to meet the peak heating initial calculations. In addition, losses that can OCCUT from
demand of a particular pond is a function of h e temperature various aeration schemes and other activities have not been
difference between the pond water and the resource addressed. It is strongly recommended that a competent
temperature. The following equation can be used to determine engineer be enlisted for final design purposes.
the flow (Q) requirement and is written:
Q = e,/[500 x (Tr - Tw)] REFERENCE
where American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air

Conditioning Engineers, "Handbook of Applications,
Q = resource flow requirement (gprn) AS-, NY,NY,p. 4.7, 1978.
e, = total calculated pond heat loss
= 9Ev + 9cv + 4RD + Qm American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air
Conditioning Engineers, "Handbook of Fundamentals",
Tw = pond temperature ("F) ASHRAE, NY, NY,p. 25.6, 1985.
Tr =resourcetemperature("F)
500 = constant, Btdh gpm (OF) B e h d s , L. L., "Waste Heat Utilization for Agricultureand
Aquaculture", Tennessee Valley Authority, August
Assuming that our example pond is to be heated with a 1978.
resource t e m p e m of 100°F:
Eckert, E. R. G., "Heat andMassTransfer", McGraw-Hill,
-
Q = 105,120 Btu5/[500 x (100°F SOOF)] NY, NY,pp. 475476, 1959.
Q = 10.5 gpm
Johnson, W.C., "Culture of Freshwater Prawns Using
Again, the point is made that this is the peak Geothermal Waste Water", Geo-Heat Center, Klamath
requirement. The required flow at any other time would be a Falls, OR, 1978.
value <10.5 gpm. This approach is valid for aquaculture
projects and resource temperatures up to levels that would Lauer, B. E., "Heat Transfer calculations", Handbook
prove harmful if supplied directly to the pond. Above this reprinted from the Oil and Gas S o d , p. 9, undated.
temperature (which varies according to species), the heating
water would have to be mixed with cooler water to reduce its Stoever, H. J., "Applied Heat Transmission", McGraw-Hill,
temperature. Two methods are possible for mixing. If a NY,NY, 1941.
sufficient supply of cold water is available, the hot water
could be mixed with the cold water before introductionin the Wolf, H.,"Heat Transfer", Harder & Row, NY,NY,p. 254,
pond. A second approach, which would apply in the absence 1983.
of cold water, would be to recirculate pond water for mixing
purposes. The recirculation could be combined with an
324
CHAPTER 17
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
By Paul J. Lienau
OIT Geo-Heat Center
KlamathFalls,OR97603 .
17.1 INTRODUCnON I
17.1.1 ~UI'L).Pam. and Wood Processing
Geothermal energy m y be used in a number of ways in The site for the integrated newsprint, pulp and timber
the industrial field. Potential applications could include mills of the Tasman Pulp and Paper Company Ltd., located in
drying, process heating, evaporation, distillation, washing, Kawerau, New Zealand, is the largest industrial development
desalination, and chemical extraction. to utilize geothermal energy. The plant site was selected
because of the availability of geothermal energy. Geothermal
The most important energy considerations for an exploration at Kawerau started in 1952 with the main purpose
industrial complex.are the cost, quality, and reliability. of locating and developing the geothermal resource for use in
Geothermalenergy may be attractive to an industry providing: a projected pulp and paper mill.
(a) the cost of energy/lb of product is lower than that presently
used, (b) the quality of geothermal energy is as good or better In 1985, the Tasman Pulp and Paper Company was using
than the present supply, and (c) the reliability of geothermal a total flow of 2.54 million lblh from four wells to supply
energy is available for the life of the plant. Reliability and steam at two pt.essures, 235 and 115 psi. The geothermal
availability can only be proven by long-term use or testing. steam, which is generated by separate flash plants in the bore
field, is used:
In some situations where available geothermal fluid
temperatures are lower than those 'required by the industrial 1. For directly operating log kickers in the wood mom, for
application, the tempemtum can be raised by means of timber drying for shatter sprays, and for combustion air
integrating thermal systems (boilers, upgrading systems, heat heaters in the m v e q boilers.
pumps, etc.). In designing geothermal energy recovery and
utilization systems, alternate possibilities could be considered 2. To generate clean steam in shell-and-tubeboilers for use
for various applications. The usual approach for utilization of inthepapermakingequipment. Cleansteamisnecessary
geothermal fluid by proposed industries is to fit the industry as the small percentage of nonmdemible gases in the
to the available fluids. An alternate approach is to fit the geothermal steam ean cause intolerable tempemtue
available fluids to proposed industries. "his alternate f I ~ ~ t u a t i 0in1 paper-making
~ equipment. These heat
approach requires developing ways to economically upgrade exchangers are the most important users of geothermal
the quality of existing geothermal fluids or the fluids derived steam at Tasman.
tiom them. Figure 17.1 shows application kmperature ranges
for some industrial and agricultural applications. 3. For a l0MW turbo-alternatorinstalled in 1960, designed
to exhaust to atmosphere. In 1968, a single effect
While there are many potential industrial uses of evaporator was installed to use exhaust steam to provide
geothermal energy, the number of worldwide applications is additional black liquor evaporation capacity.
relatively small. However, a fairly wide range of uses are
represented, including thermal enhanced oil recovery, heap
leaching of precious metals, vegetable dehydration, grain and
-
Geothermal supplies 30% of the total process steam
requirement and up to 4% of the electricity demand at
lumber drying, pulp and paper processing, diatomaceous earth TaSIIlall.
processing, chemical rewvery, and waste water treatment.
Industrial applications largely require the use of steam, or 17.1.2 Diatomite Hant
superheated water, while agricultwal users may use lower
temperature geothermal fluids. The largest industrial - The production of diatomaceous earth at Namafjall,
applications are a pulp, paper, and wood ptocesSing plant in Iceland, utilizing geothermal energy, is an important
New Zealand, a diatomaceous earth plant in Iceland and a development for g e o t h d energy because it serves as an
vegetable dehydratian plant in the United States. These exampre of the way in which cheap geothermal energy CIM
systems provide the best present example of industrial make a process economic when, with umvational energy
geothermal energy use. iesources, the process could not be justified. The
325
'F 50' 100' 150' 20d 250' 300'
I I I II I
1 J
'c 10' 38. 66' 83' 121' 4 AQ'
I food R o c e a s i n g I I E%: I
I Coal Drying
I
I Textile M i l l I
I Furniture
I Lumber
I
I Pulp ind Paper I
I Laether
1 I Styrene 1
4~reeate
.i
. ..
"
I Pickling
1 R Cane Sugar
Eveporr t ion
. . I Motel Pert8 Weahing I
Whey Condensing
Pulp Drying
S o i l Yarning
CUltuM
I Malt 8everimea 1
I Clrce8a Yaah and Clein-up I I
R M i l k Evaporition
I D i a t i l l e d Ltguor I
* Alumina
rzLl Exxtriction
R Ph~t'IIaCiUtiC~l
I soft Pink6
I Auto Cliving E Cleen-up
I Synthetic Robber
1
I Organic Chemicals
O y ~ r mDrying II
I
I Oreanhousing I R Kaolin Drying
C 10' . 38' 66'

I 1 I 93'
I 121'
I 149'
I
I I 8 I
150' 20d 250 ' 300'
APPLICATION TEMPERATURE (' F, C)
Figure! 17.1 Application temperature range for some industrial processes and agricultural applications.
326
diatomaceous earth is dredged from the bottom of Lake the salt products deposited near the edges of the lagoni
Myvatn by a suction dredger, and the diatomaceous slurry is (fumaroles). Traces of boric salts have been found in the
transmitted by pumping through a three km pipeline to the glaze of Etruscan plates and crockery, a fact testifying to how
plant site. Up to 50 tOnm of steam at 36I0F/147 psig may be these people, many centuries before Christ, had already
transmitted from bore holes 1,970 ft away. The capacity of developed a high degree of artistry and technology in the
this plant is 42,000 ton/yr of dried diatomaceousearth that is grinding and chemical treatment of the borates, and also in the
subsequently turned into 24,OOO ton of diatomite filter aids, proportioning of these products with the other substan- that
the final product. ' w e their fine pottery.
Steam is used to keep the reservoirs Containing settled In 1812, the first attempts were made to extract boric
diatomaceous earth ice-fiee and in the dryer, which is a rotary acid from boiling mineral springs scattered over a large a m
-
steamtubetype. Ofsteam, 3Otonmareusedforthedryer. between Volterra and the mining center of Massa Marrittima.
This boric acid was p r o d u d by evaporation of boric solutims
17.1.3 Vecetable Dehvdration in iron cauldronswith crystallizationin wooden barrels. Brick
domes were built over the natural outlets of steam, forcing the
Geothermal Food Processors, a subsidiary of Gilroy steam through an orifice to feed the evaporation boilers.
Foods, located at Brady Hot Springs near Fernley, Nevada is Francesm Larderel was founder of the boric acid industry and
mainly involved in onion drying. They produce different in 1846 the area was named Larderello in his honor. With an
grades of dried onion; from powdered form up to various size increase in production, growth in trade, and refinement of the
granules. The final product has moisture content of 3.5 to process, a wide range of boron and ammonium compounds
5 96. Geothermal fluid is used for heating requirements at the were produced in the early 1900s. This process continued
plant. The plant operates 6 moJy; from May to November until World War I& after the war, the plant was put into
during the harvest season. It has been operating since 1978 operation again and continues to this day, using importedores,
and there have been no major equipment failures. to produce boric acid with - 30 ton of steam/h.
Geothermal fluid is pumped from the well at a rate of In New Zealand, at Broadlands, a cooperative of 12
750 gpm at 31O"F/190 psig and, at this condition, the vapor farms is drying alfalfa (lucerne) using 363°F steam in a large
pressure is 64 psig. The system is pressurized to almost three forced air heat exchanger. The drier is a fixed bed, double
times the vapor pressure to make sure that the geothermal fluid pass drier, discharginginto a hammer mill and pellet press for
is always in its liquid state. Operating the plant at elevated the final product. The plant produces 1 ton of compressed
pressure prevents serious formation of scale inside the hot pelletsh from 5 ton of fresh alfalfa.
water coils and the pipeline. The discharge temperature is
108°F and has a pressure of 40 psig. In Japan, geothermal energy is used for dryiig timber by
Y y w a GeothermalDrying Co., L.td on the island of Honshu.
The moistwe content of the onions is initially 50% and The drying facility consistsof a vacuum dryer, bark boiier and
after going through three stages and a desiccator the final
-
product has a moisture content of 5 96. The product is dried hot water.
-
a forced air unit. The plant utilizes 95,000 l b h of 208°F
in a 190 ft long, Proctor & Schwartz, Continuous conveyor
food dehydrator. The drying is accomplished by passing In China, low temperature (118 to 174°F) geothermal
geothermally heated air ttuough a perforated stainless steel water is used mainly for washing in wool mills and for dyeing
belt. The geothermal heat is transferred into the drying air by cloth in Tianjin, Beiing, Fengshun ofGuandong Province and
10 steel tube hot water heating coils. Xiangyne of LiaOning Province. The Jiannan gas field of
Hubei Province has for many years produced chemicals from
The advantages of using a geothermal heating system geothermalbrines. Besides a yearly production of 10,OOO tons
include: (a) elimination of fire hazards, (b) no contamination of table salt, the wells yield 0.5 tons of iodine, 18.8 tons of
or discoloration of the product because there are no products bromine, 40 tons of boron, 5.8 tons of aluminium carbonate,
of combustion in the air stream, and (c) elimination of and 480 tons of 6%ammonia water and other trace eIements
conventional fuels. for use in industry.
17.1.4 Other Industrial Uses In the US.,heap leaching in a gold mining operation in
Nevada is a recent new use of geothermal fluids. Tube and
The oldest $nownuse of geothermal energy for industrial shell heat exchangers are used to heat cyanide solutions in
applications occurred in Italy. In circa 1500 B.C. the heap leaching operation. Geothesmal fluids are also used as
Etruscam used geothermal energy in the Tuscany region not make up water. Table 17.1 lists most of the known
only for therapeutic purposes, but also for the exploitation of geothermal industrial applications through out the world.
327
Table 17.1 Industrial Applications of Geothermal Energy
Production Associated
Steamorwater Power
Amlication Countrv DescriDtion FlowRate 0
Wood and Paper
Industry sic24
Pulp&paper Newzealand Procasing and a small amount of electric power 1,270 ton5 100 to 125
Kawerau generation. Krafiprocessused. Geothermal of wet steam
energy delivered to mills by 2.54 million l b 5 of
235 and 115 psig steam, which are obtained by
flashing the wet steam at a central flash plant
(Wilson, 1974).
Timberdrying Japan The facility consists of a vacuum dryer and a 47.6 tOnm 1.0
Yuzawa bark boiler @or& 1985). hot water with
200°F inlet &
176°F outlet temp.
Timber drying Taiwan The capacity of the kiln is 1,400 fP and can 0.5 ton&
Tab produce 8,500 ft' of kiln dried lumber/month 140°F in kiln
(Chin, 1976).
Mining
Diatomaceous Iceland Production of dried diatomaceous earth recovered 50 ton/h of 35

earth plant Namatjall by wet mining techniques. Dredging of Lake steam at 361°F
Myvatn is done only in the summer while plant
runs throughout the year (Lindal, 1973).
Copper USA Kennecott, Corp. reportedly used thermal water 93°F 0.8
procesSing Hurly, in copper procasing (Kenkeremath, 1985).
New Mexico
Heapleaching USA Two gold mining operations use geothermal fluids 1,100 gpm of 17.5
Nevada in heat exchangers to heat cyanide solutions hot water at 180
(Trexler, 1990). to 240°F
Enhanced oil
Recovery sic29
Oilrecovery USA Injection of thermal waters into oil reservoirs for C200"F 400
MOlltalM, enhanced recovery (Reed,1982).
N. Dakota
& Wyoming
Chemicals
salt plant Philippines Production of salt from sea water. Sea water C2.5
Tiwi brought 3 km to plant. Three grades of salt
produced (Howard, 1975)
Boricacid Italy Geothermal steam used for processing imported 30 tonm 15 to 19

Larderello ore(Lindal, 1973). of steam
Waste water -
USA San Sludge digester heating (Racine, 1981). 155 gpm of hot 0.5
BernardinO, water at 145°F
California
328
Agriculture Product
Drying
Vegetable USA Geothermal Food Pmcessors produce dried onions 750 gpm of hot 22.2
B d y Hot using hot water coils from a 50 to 5% moisture water at 3 10°F
Spriqy, content using a continuous through&cuIation
Nevada conveyor dryer. Production rate is 9,900 l b h
of Fresh onions, resulting in 1,760 l b h of dried
product for 6 moly (Guillen, 1987).
Alfalfa drying New Zealand The Broadlands Lucerne Company's geothermal 27 todh of 5.0
Broi&ands dryer has a capacity of drying about 5,OOO lblh of steam at 363°F
alfalfa, producing pellets for 165 dly. A separator
is used to deliver steam to steam coils heating air
to 255°F (Freeston, 1980).
Mushroom USA Oregon Trail Mushrooms produces 2,500 ton of 275 gpm of hot 4.0
growing Vale, white button mushrooms annually. Geothermal water at 235°F
Oregon fluids are used for soil composting and space
heating and cooling (Rutten, 1987).
17.2 UPGRADING AVAILABLE GEOTHERMAL Upgrading systems could include: (a) flashing, then hea-
ENERGY (Homburg 1978) thg by way of fossil fuels, (b) heating the geothermal fluid by
way of fossil fuels followed by flashing, and (c) mechanical
The energy that is available initially from a geothermal compression. The first two of these use fossil fuels and do
well is heat, usually in the form of hot water or wet steam. not increase the amount of heat extracted from the geothermal
In the case of agricultural related industries, such as drying brine.
vegetables, blanching, washing, etc., hot water (>200°F) can
be used. The higher level heat should first be extracted and Mechanical compression, although being capital cost
a cascading use can then be accomplished to maximize energy intensive, is higher in effective use of the high grade energy
utilization. Other industries, such as pulp and paper, kiln to upgrade the low grade heat and pressure. The system am-
drying of lumber, chemical, etc., probably will require steam cept is analogous to a heat pump that extracts low temperature
at varying pressures. In most cases, the heat can be extracted ambient heat and raises its tempentture to a useful level by
for process use by the following means: way of mechanical work. Although most (- 98%) of the
mechanical work is convertedback to pressure and tempefature
1. Geothermal fluid to process fluid heat exchange. energy, it is essential to minimize the quantity needed because
it is a high grade and expensive form of energy.
2. Convert to steam for process heating.
For example, consider a geothermal well producing
3. Convert to steam for electricity generation or shafl 250°F fluid, which is delivered to a flash vessel producing 25
Power. psia saturated steam and specific industrial processes require
25, 75, and 135 psia steam. These are the most common
4. Convert to a secondary fluid vapor (freon, isobutane, steam pressures for most industrial pn>cesses.
etc.) for electricity generation, and shaft power or
process heating. Various types of compressors could be used, such as
centrifugal, axial, rotary mew, and reciprocating. Factors to
Each of these means to transport heat can have some be considered in selecting the type of compressor are: flow
application in specific processes. In practice, the process or rate, pressure, temperature limitations, method of seating,
the plant equipment limits the application of most of these methodof lubrication, power consumption, serviceability, and
methods because of the characteristicsof the geothermal fluid. cost. Four major categories of drives could be considered,
Because steam is the universal process heating media,we will including electric motors, engines (diesel and gas turbine),
concentrate on designing systems to supply p'ocess steam at steam turbines, and hydrocarbon or fluorocarbon turbine. A
needed pressures by way of compression. This accomplishes system using a turbine operating on a hydrombon or fluoro-
an upgrading of the availableenergy. The object is to broaden carbon fluid offers the advantage of being able to extract
the spectrum of potential user industries and the quality of further low grade heat from the geothermal fldd and convert
geothermal heat used in each process. this to mechanical power for comjmsion.
329
Figure 17.2 Alternate steam compression cycles.
7 R*sH
VESSEL
,k I
COOLING WATER
I
SEOTI-EWAL
RESERVOIR 1
I
1 3 ISOBUTANE
LIOUIO. t0S.P
BRINE TO REINJECTIDN
I
Figure 17.3 Basic system for upgrading geothermal fluids.
330
Centrifugal machines are built with characteristics that working fluids should be investigated depending on the
cover a range of likely applications for most hdutries. They gedthermal fluid tempera&. In any case, a technical and
are built for dry steam compressionbut can handle some liquid economic analysis will be necessary to determine the optimum
in the inlet if it was properly atomized and distributed. Ln a design and benefits of an upgrading system for specific
multi-stage machine, liquid could be injected between stages, geothermal resource temperatures and industrial applications.
thus reducing the total mount of liquid injected in any single
tage. The centrifugal compress^, with de-superheating
between each stage or between a number of stages appears 17.3 SELECTED INDUSTRIALAPPLICATIONS
most appropriate to supply process steam for large indwtrial
users. These could efficiently compress steam in a flow range Pulp and paper mills, lumber drying, drying crops and
from 50,OOO to 200,000 lblh with single units. For those vegetables, food procesSing, heap leaching, waste water
applications where under 50,000 lblh is required, it would be treatment, and other industries have been extensively studied
more economical and technically correct to use another type of in regard to the use of geothermal energy. Examples of
compressor with a wet vapor at the inlet. applications of these industries are presented below to show
designs of using the geothermal energy and to indicate in an
The compression of the steam from a flash vessel or approximate manner how it might be used in other pmceses.
steam generator to the desired process steam conditions can be Greater detail can be found in referenced final reports.
directed along several paths. These are as follows:
17.3.1 and Pamr Mill (Hornburn 1978)
1. Compression of a two-phase wet mixture of appropriate
quality to final conditions. Process flow diagram for a typical bleached pulp and
paper mill is shown in Figure 17.4. The pulp process utilized
2. Compression of dry saturated steam to final pressurewith is the Kraft, or sulfate method.
final temperature obtained by de-supeheating.
This typical plant has all motor drives for pumps and
3. Multieffect compression with de-superheating between other driven equipment powered by steam. Steam for the
effects. process is normally generated in liquor recovery boilers, bark
fed power boilers and oil or gas fired boilers.
These paths are shown in Figure 17.2. Path 1 is for wet
compression and results in the highest equivalent thermo- The wood to be pulped is first debarked in the barker.
dynamic efficiency. h b l e m s develop in trying to compress The bark is used as fuel to produce process steam. Once
wet steam because most of the compmsm made are designed debarked, the wood is chipped to specified chip size, which
for handling only dry steam. The exception to this is the aids in packing chips in the digester. The correct ratio of
rotary screw compressor. Path 2 would require the greatest chips to liquor must be maintained between 2.5 and 3.5 Ib
amount of shaft work and, hence, is the least desirable. Path liquorfib of wood.
3 represents de-superheating between compressor effects that
may be comprised of-a number of stages and is most suitable The cooking liquor contains essentially sodium sulfide
for the centrifugalcompressor. and caustic soda. The liquor, as it is received from the
recovery system, is too concentfated for proper digesting
Figure 17.3 shows the basic system for upgrading a results; therefore, it has to be diluted. The dilution is
geothermal fluid for various industrial process pressures. accomplished using the weak Mack liquor to keep water
Inc~rporatedin this system is a flash vessel for the production additions to a minimum.
of steam, a compressor driven by an isobutane turbine, an
isobutane condenser, and a heat exchanger to heat and The digester charge is then heated either by the addition
evaporate the condensed isobutane using the geothermal fluid. of live steam to the bottom of the digester or indirectly with
The compressor work required should be such that the total steam. The time required for cooking the wood varies, depen-
geothermal fluid needed to produce the required flash steam is ding on the end use of the pulp. The maximum cooking tem-
equal to the amount of hot liquid needed (at the temperature perature is between 335 and 347°F (steam pressure is 95 and
after flashing) to produce the work required by the isobutane 115 psig, respectively).
turbine for compression. This type of design results in the
minimum total fluid to produce process steam. However, with
lower temperature geothermal wells (<275?F), the resulting
pressure of the isobutane vapor is low. This requires high
-
At the completion of the cook, the pressure within the
digester is allowed to decrease to 80 psig. The pulp is then
expelled by opening a quick opening valve at the bottom of
isobutane mass f l ~ wrates and increased costs of the turbine the digester. The pulp then flows to the flash tank. The flash
drive system. In these cases, it may be more economical for tank is arranged with a special vapor outlet. Heat is some-
some, or all, of the geothermal fluid for the isobutane heater/ times recovered from this vapor.
boiler tocome directly from the wells. Also, different
331
w
w
LOGS
1
t3
v
SHREDDER BARKER (1) STACK
ELECT. and (2) 4 m-
MUD CONCENTRATER
1 AIR
ELECT.
RETURNED
I BOILER
~ (18)
PROCESS
STEAM
STEAM DIGESTER 14)
340 F
I
WHITE LIOUOR
1 200.F I
GREEN LIQUOR
CONDENSATE
ON-SITE
FUEL
AUX.
EWIP.
CW rn
PURCH . WATER
* WLTIPLE
EVAPORATORS
(7) COND. VAPOR
c COND.
LIGHTING, ELECT. 230.F
OTHERS STEAM b b cn
I
W
ELECT.
WATER
ELECT. 4 DEWATERING. PRESSN

IO]
f¶Al
ELECT. DRYING (15)

STEAM
The pulp is then screened to remove small pieces of to the final tempemtwe of 21WF. Also, an air drym is used
unamked wood. Following screening, the pulp is washed to to pdeat.the air in the drying section. This section would
remove the cooking liquors. It is ecanomically important to also bedesigned to use steamat Upsiainlieu of 135.psiaas
remove as much of the liquor as possible. The pulp washing is usually the case. Other changes include use of 75 psia
is carried out in rotary vacuum washers. This process is so steam m lieu of 135 psia steam for black liquor heating and
efficient that between 98 and 99%of the cooking chemicals miscellaneous high pressure requirements. Table 17.2
are washed from tbe pulp. Hot water is used for washing. compaffs the process steam requirements of a conventional
The pulp leaving the washer is of relatively high consistency. system to one using a geothermal upgraded system.
The weak black liqwr washed from the pulp is first

concentrated in multiple effect evaporators and then further Table 17.2 Comparison of Pulp and Paper
concentrated in direct contact evapomtom. New chemical Process Steam Requirements
makeup is added and the strong liquor bumed to remove dis-
solved organic material. The smelt is then dissolved and
caustirized to form white cooking liquor. conventional Geothermal
System System
The bleaching of pulp is carried out in from one to five Isteam. Dsia) (steam.mia)
or more stages. The basic steps in the bleaching process are:
Wash water heating 25 25&hotwater
1. Mix the chemicals in the proper ratios with the pulp. Evaporators 25 25
2. Raise the pulp temperature to the required level. Miscellaneous, L.P.' 25 25
3. Maintain the mix at this temperature for a specified Black liquor heating 135 75
period. Digester 135 135
4. Wash residual chemicals from the pulp. Dryer 135 25&hotwater
Miscellaneous,H.P.b 135 75
Chlorine dioxide is almost always used as the bleaching
chemical. The procedure is to treat the pulp with chlorine a. Lowpressuresteam
dioxide followed by neutralization with calcium hypochlorite. b. Highpt.essuresteam
This process represents the optimum for most kraft pulp
bleaching.
Before actual paper manuhcture on a paper machine, the The geothermal energy system could be designed to
pulp stock must be prepared. Beaters and refiners are nor- supply the energy needed as shown in Figure 17.3. In this
mally used to accomplish this task. The purpose of beating system, the bark boiler and fuel oil boiler have been elimi-
and refining is to change the physical form of the fibers in the nated and the heat previously supplied by these units is now
pulp, The process is related to grinding. It is carried out in furnished by a geothermal upgrading system using geothermal
a number of different ways depending on the fibers desired. fluid at 250°F. The recovery boiler must be retained b u s e
The overall objective is to maximize bonding strength. it is needed to recover process chemicals as well as generate
high pressure steam.
Paper is made by depositing a dilute water rmspenSion of
pulp on a fine screen, which permits the water to drain
through but which retains the fiber layer. This layer is then
-
A typical pulp and paper mill could have 30% of its
energy supplied by 250°F geothermal fluid. Extending this to
removed from the screen, pressed, and dried. 390°F geothermal fluid and considering that the electrical
requirements could also be generated from geothermal, it is
Most of the process heat requirements are in themrange of possible that 100% of the energy for a pulp and paper mill
250 to 350°F and the heating is accoIllplishedby way of steam could be supplied fromgeothermal.
in shell and tube heat exchangers. In a conventional system
the energy needs are met by generating steam at 450 psia
(700°F in a black liquor recovery boiler, a bark boiler, and a
The -very boiler will generate -50% of the
electricity required by the plant. Thus, 50% of the electricity
conventid fossil-friel firerf boiler). Most of this steam is pmhased, generated from a d d i t i d geothermal
passed through a back pressUrerextraction turbine to generate generated €?omsteam produced from bark.
electricity and pass-out steam at 25 psia that is utilized in the
Process* 17.3.2 prVt'ne Lumber NTN-CSL. 1977)
Geothermal fluids could partly accoIIIplish water heating A process flow diagram for a typical lumber miU is
and heating of air for paper drying as shown in Figure 17.4. shown in Figure 17.5. In small lumber mills where drying
Two wash witer h e a h &,,one using geothermal fluid at kilns are heated by steam from c o n v a t i d oil tired boilers,
213°F and the other using steam at 25 psia to heat the water substitution ofgeothermal energy forthe heating energy
333
Figure 17.5 Lumber drying process flow.
source can achieve substantial energy cost savings. In larger, drying rates vary from species to species and decrease with
well integrated mills, all energy from operations can be thicker cut sizes. Kiln drying is usually carried out as a batch
provided by burning sawdust and other wood waste products. process. The kiln is a box-shaped room with loading doors at
If a market develops for the waste products or where the one end. It has insulated walls and ceiling and has fans to
energy can be more economically applied elsewhere, the recirculate the air at high velocity through the lumber. The
geothermal source may also become economical in integrated sawed lumber is spaced and stacked to assist the free air move-
plants. Drying lumber in batch kilns is standard practice for ment and is loaded by large fork lifts or other specializsd
most upper grade lumber in the western U.S. The two basic lumber handling trucks into the kiln. When fully loaded, the
purposes of drying are to set the sap and to prevent warping. doors are closed and the heating cycle is started. Make up air,
preheated to a temperatureconsistent with the drying schedule,
The sap sets at 135 to 140°F. Warping is prevented by enters the kiln where it recirculates through the stacked lumber
establishing uniform moisture content throughout the and picks up moisture. Exhaust fans draw the moist air from
thickness. Lumber left to dry under ambient conditions loses the kiln and discharge it to the atmosphere. The exhaust is
its moisture from exposed surfaces at a faster rate than primarily air and water. The rates of flow and temperahueare
internally. This differential drying rate sets up stresses that adjusted so that the temperature and the humidity in the kiln
cause the warping. Moisture occurs in wood in cell cavities will retard the drying rate sufficiently to prevent warping.
and in the cell walls. The majority of the moisture is first lost During the drying cycle, the lumber loses a large portion of
from the cavities. Tzlis loss is not accompanied by changes in its weight from evaporation of water, 50 to 60% for many
the size of the cell or in warpage. When water is lost from species.
the cell walls, however, shrinkage of the wall fibers takes
place setting up the stresses that cause warping. Figure 17.6 shows a typical lumber drying kiln. The
vents are over the fan shaft h e e n the fans. The vent on the
In the kiln drying process, the evaporation rate must be high pressure side of the fan become a fresh air inlet when the
carefully controlled to prevent these stresses. The allowable direction of circulation is reversed.
334
Drying schedules are specific for each species of lumber
and for size. The larger the size the more tightly the moisture
is held in the wood fiber, and slower the schedule. Drying
schedules range from less than 24 h to several weeks per
batch. Table 17.3 shows typical drying schedules for
pbnderosa pine.
Green wood contains high quantities of moisture.

Ponderosa pine, for example, runs approximately 60% mois-
ture. Because of the physical and chemical binding to the
wood chemicals, it takes from 1%to 3 times the energy to
evaporate moisture from wood as it does from pure watk.
Energy CoIlSumed in ki4 drying wood varies cunsiderablyfor
different species. Drying energy, therefore, varies widely
with the p i e s and sizes processed as shown in Table 17.4.
Figure 17.6 Lcmg-shaft, double-track, Compartmmt kiln

with alternately opposing internal fans.
Table 17.3 Typical Kiln Drying Schedule
Dry Bulb Wet Bulb E u c b

J%mderosapine ("E) ("E) Time 0
414 all heart common
sort (fast on well
160
No CODditianing
130 - 21 h 5.8
sorted stock)
414 all heart R W 150 130 u p to setting 8.0

(conservative) 150 125 To 12 h 6.9
Common 150 130 12htilldry 5.8
(24to 28 h)
414 half and half 160 140 40to50h 8.0

mmmon (mostly 8 in.) No Conditioning
Shop and select 1214 115 108 First day 14.1
120 110 Second day 12.1
125 115 Third day 12.1
130 120 Fourth day 12.1
140 130 Fifth to tenth 11.9
145 130 Tenth to 12th 9.5
150 135 12th to 15th 9.5
155 140 15th to 18th 9.4
160 140 18th to a d 7.9
COO1
180 170 -24h 11.1
Equalizing & conditioning
a. Kilndrying Western Softwoods, Moore Dry Kiln Company, Oregon.

b. E.M.C. = E%piliiumMoisture Content.
1
335
Table 17.4 Energy Consumed in Kiln Drying Wood' existing kilns (several arrangements are shown in Figure
17.7) so that the air recirculation route would include a pass
over the heat exchangers. The water temperature must be at
Energy use BtU/Dry least 20 to 40°F above the ambient operating tempemhue in
Lumber (Btuflb H,O) (bd ft) the kiln. This would mean a geothermal supply kmpemhm
of 200 to 240°F would be required. Where geothermal fluid
Douglas fir 2,000 to 3,000 1 mt o5 3 4 0 of insufficient temperature is available ( C 180°F for most
Southern yellow pine 1,600 to 2,200 4,600 to 6,300 uses), energy supplies could be supplementedby conventional
Red oak 3,m+ 7,850+ heating system during the final high temperature portions of
I .
the drying schedules. Table 17.5 gives the minimumgeother-
a. Moore Dry Kiln Company, Oregon. mal fluid temperatures for two sizes and several Species of
lumber.
The discharge fluid for these applications would haGe

Geothermal energy could be adapted to kiln drying by .te- ranging from 160 to 180°F and would be
passing air over finned heat exchanger tubes carrying hot available for other applications in the mill, for heating of
water.- The finned tube heat exchanger could be placed &side office buildings, for log ponds, or other c8sc8ded uses.
n
L
NO. I NO. 2 NO. 3

n n n n
w
NO. 4 NO. 5 NO. 6
n- .n n
0
0
-0
0
NO. 7 NO. 0 NO. 9
Figure 17.7 Location of fans and heat exchangers in kilns.
336
Table 17.5 Minimum Geothermal Fluid Temperatures
for Kiln Drying at Kiln Mer
Minimum Geothermal
Fluid Temrature (OF)-
Lumber Size
Smies -
414 -
814
Ponderosa pine 175 195

Sugar pine 175 175
Englemen spruce 175 -
Sitka spruce 195 195
Douglas fir 195 195
Incensecedar 185 -
a. Moore Dry Kiln Company, Oregon
17.3.3 Cnm Drving. (Liemu. 1978)
The use of geothermal energy for crop drying of alfalfa

and grain processing is described below.
STACK
FIELD HILT
A
FUEL-+ DRYER
ELECT. a
ELECT. --d HAM ME^ MILL
PURCH
ELECT.
.
PELLET MILL
STEAM 4 BIN .
I
ELECT. PELLET COOLER
ELECT. PACKAGING
Figure 17.8 Alfalfa drying and pelletizing process.

337
The pracess starts with cutting and chopping the alfalfa
-
in the field at 70% initial moisture. The chopped material
is then allowed to sun wilt for 24 to 48 h to a 15 to 25%
moisture content. This can easily be accomplished in areas of
the West because of available sun and low rainfall during the
-
season. The Midwest is only able to wilt to 60% moisture.
This short field wilting time also prevents damage to the next
crop, as the cut material is removed before the new shoots
sprout and are crushed by equipment. The field wilted
material is then trucked to the plant, and stockpiled for no
-
more than 2 days. The chopped material is then belt-fed to
a triple-pass rotary drum dryer. This dryer may use either
M Wgas or fuel oil. The alfalfa is dried at a temperature
below 250°F. Any temperature over 390°F will overdry the
product. The actual drying temperature depends upon the
ambient conditions and moisture content of the alfalfa. Dryer
temperatures can go as low as 176°F. The material is moved
throughthe dryer byasuction fan. Theretention timeis
- 15 to 20 e.
Figure 17.9 Perforated false floor system for bin
From the dryer, the alfalfa is fed to the hammer mill and drying of grain.
the pellet meal bin. The latter is the surge point in the
system. Here, the material is conditioned with steam and then
fed to the pellet mill pressure extruder. The steam helps in Several operating methods for drying grain in storage
providing a uniform product and makes it easier to extrude bins are in use. They may be classified as full-bin drying,
through the holes in the circular steel plates. The material is layer drying, and batch drying. The deep bed dryer can be
then cooled and the fines removed in a scalper. Finally, the installed in any structure that will hold grain. Most grain
product is weighed on batch scales, packaged and stored. storage structures can be designed or adapted for drying by
providing a means of distributing the drying air uniformly
A low temperature geothermal energy conversion would through the grain. This is most commonly done by either a
require using 200°F air drying temperature from a triple-pass perforated false floor or duct systems placed on the floor of
dryer using at least 220" geothermal fluid. One well could the bin.
provide the required flow for a plant producing 25,OOO to
30,000 tons of alfalfa pelletslyear (at 8 to 15%moisture). Full-bin drying is generally done with unheated air or air
heated 10 to 20°F above ambient. A humidistat is frequently
Grain Drving used to sense the humidity of the drying air and turn off the
heater if the weather conditions are such that heated air would
Significant amounts of energy are consumed anuually for cause over drying.
grain drying and barley malting. These processes can be
easily adapted to geothermal energy in the temperature range The depth of grain (distance of air travel) is limited only
of 100 to 180°F. Most farm crops must be dried to, and by the cost of the fan, motor, air distribution system, and
maintained at, a moisture content of 12 to 13% wet basis, power required. The maximum practical depth appears to be
depending on the specific crop, storage temperature, and 20 ft for corn and beans, and 13 ft for wheat. Grain stirring
length of storage. Mold growth and spoilage are functions of devices are used witp full-bin systems. These devices typically
elapsed storage time, temperature, and moisture content above consist of one or more open, 2 in. diameter, standard pitch
the critical value. Grain to be sold through commercial augers suspended from the bin roof and si& wall and exten-
markets is priced according to a specified moisture content, ding to near the bin floor.
with discounts for moisture levels above a specified value.
Conversion of the deep bed dryer to geothermal energy
The grain dryer is typically a deep bed dryer, as shown is accomplished by simply installing a hot water coil in the
in Figure 17.9. Most cropdrying equipment consists of: (a) inlet duct using geothermal fluid in the 100 to 120°F
a fan to move the air through the product, (b) a controlled temperature range.
heater to increase the ambient air temperature to the desired
level, and (c) a container to distribute the drying air uniformly Of all grains, rice is probably the most difficult to
through the product. The exhaust air is vented to the atmos- process without quality loss. Rice containing more than
phere. Where the climate and other factors are favorable, 13.5% mois-ture cannot be safely stored for long periods.
unheated air is used for drying, and the heater is omitted. When harvested at a moisture content of 20 to 26%,drying
338
must be started promptly to prevent the rice from souring. Kernel temperature is normally maintained at loooF when the
Deep-bed or columnar dryers could be used; a columnar dryer
will be considered.
moisture content is -21% and at lower moisture content,
C 1796, temperature is limited to 95°F. At atonstant grain
temperature of lWF, air is heated to 180 to 200°F during
Grain is transferred from the storage bins to the top of cold weather and - 140 to 180°F during the warm season.
the column dryer by bucket conveyors. The column must be
com-pletely filled before the drying operations start. The
grain flows from top to bottom by gravity and the amount of Converting the columnar dryer to geothermal fluids
flow is controlled by the speed of the screw conveyor, located involves the 'installation of a hot water coil upstream of the
at the bottom of the column, as shown in Figure 17.10. blower fan to obtain uniform temperature inside the plenum
chamber. The air flow pattern is shown in Figure 17.10 and
The two important variables in the drying operation are there is no air recirculation because of the presence of dust on
the air-mass flow rat&and the temperature at the inlet to the the down stream side.
dryer. Hot air is blown from the bottom and a static pressure
is maintained between columns. Air temperature is controlled Air flow could be maintained at a constant rate; then the
by regulating the burner output from several thermocouples only variable would be the flow rate of the grain.
installed inside the column to monitor the air and kernel
temperature. 17.3.4 Vegetable and Fruit Dehvdration (Lienau. 19781
Rice is loaded in the dryer at - 21 to 22% moisture Vegetable and h i t dehydration involves the use of a
tunnel dryer, or a continuous conveyor dryer using fairly low
content and the drying cycle is normally completed after three
to four passes. The final moisture content should be below temperature hot air from 100 to 220°F.
15% before it can be safely stored in the warehouse. After
each pass, partially dried rice is stored io tempering bins for A tunnel dryer is an enclosed, insulated housing in which
at least 12 h before another pass takes place. The rice is the products to be dried are placed upon tiers of trays or
tempered to equalize intend moisture content, thus stacked in piles in the case of large objects, as shown in
minimizing thermal stresses and avoiding breakage of kernels. Figure 17.11. Heat transfer may be direct from gases to
products by circulation of large volumes of gas, or indirect by
use of heated shelves or radiator coils.
Figure 17.10 Columnar grain dryer (Guillen, 1986).

I
339
OP6
SNIllIW '133'131
mH.i.0
'8NIlHSIl
MUOd
'xnv
ON13115 - 133u
I
----rrPr
Table 17.6 Product Drying in a Conveyor Dryer Table 17.7 Conveyor Dryer Energy Requkment
Alr @pnUfMtC f StfMtcd

Tcmperatuk Heat HE Openlng A i r Flow
& (W SuJ& Size (Cf.1
A1
A2
210
210
Gas
burners
Gas
-
11x3t
33
14 x 3 f t
t3 29.000
29.000 5.9
burners = 42 tt*
A3 190 Gas 13 x 3 '5 41.000 3.6
burners = 39 tt
A4 180 Gas 15 x 3 '5 41.000 4.9
burners 9 45 tt
E1
82
160
145
Gas
burners
steam
-
14 x 3
11 x 3
f5
42 f t
'5
17.OoO 3.6
The energy requirements for the operation of a conveyor coils = 33 tt

19.000 1.0
dryer will vary because of differences in outside temperature,
C 130 Steam 15 x 3 t% 20.0oo 0.4
dryer loading, and requirements for the final moisture content eo11 s 9 45 tt
of the product. A singleline conveyor dryer handling 10,OOO 0 120 Steam 29x3ft 10.500 0.6
lb of raw productlh (1,500 to 1,800 lb finished) will require co11r a7 tt2
- 21.0 x 106 Btulh, or for an average season of 150 d, 7.6 x
10'' BWseason, using - 1.5 x lo4 Btuflb of dry product.
Bryalr 300 Gat
burners
25 6.300 .o
- 1
TOTAL 26 x 10'
The energy (Figure 17.12) is usually provided by natural a. Assuming &lent at 4OO'F; total = 21 x lo6 E t d h a t 65.F &lent.
gas; air is passed directly through the gas flame in Stages A
and B, and over steam coils in Stages C and D. The steam
coils are necessary to eliminate turning of the product in the
last two stages. Figure 17.13 delineates a design using 230°F geothermal
fluid. The line has to be split between compartments A-1 and
In addition to the heating requirements, electrical energy A-2, because both require 210°F air. A total flow of 900 gpm
is needed fbr the draft and recirculation fans and small is required. The Bryair desiccator in Stage D requires 300°F
amounts for controls and driving the bed motors. Total on the reactor side, thus only half of the 1.0 x 106 Btum
electric power required for motors is from 500 to 600 hp, or energy requirements can be met by geothermal energy.
- 1.0 x lo4 kWday, or 2.0 x 106 kwhl season. This Geothermal fluid will be used for preheating to 175"F, with
to -
amounts to 1.0 x l@BWIb of finished product and increases
6.0 x l@Btuflb when all electrical requirements are
considered.
natural gas or propane used to boost the air to 300°F. The
waste water from €he Bryair preheater has a temperahm of
192"F, thus this could be used for cascaded uses. The waste
water could be returned to the reservoir by means of an
In general, four stages (A through D) are preferred, injection well.
-
however, if the ambient air humidity is below 1096, Stage *
D can be eliminated. Also, temperature and number of In Compartments A-1, A-2, A-3, and A-4, four finned
compartments in each stage may vary. air-water heat exchangers in parallel would be required to
satisfy tlie energy requirement and water velocity flows. The
In summary, total heat requirement is 21.0 to 26.0 x 106 remaining stages would require from one to two heat
-
Btuh for a single-line conveyor dryer 210 ft long x 12.5 A
wide with an average input of 10,OOO l b h wet product, pro-
exchangers in each compartnmt, depending upon the energy
requirements.
ducing 1,500 to 1,800 lb/h dry product. Table 17.7 illustrates
the energy requirement for each stage, using natural gas as a If lower temperature geothermal fluids were encountered
fuel, assuming ambient temperature at 40°F. For ambient (below 200"F), then not all of the energy could be supplied to
temperature 0f,65"F, 21.0 x 106 Btum would be q u i d . Stage A by geothermal fluid. Geothermal fluid would then be
used as a preheater, with natural gas providing the energy for
Using the example in Table 17.7, geothermal fluid is the final temperature rise.
used to supply the required energy. Using a 20°F minimum
approach temperature between €he geothermal fluid and 17.3.5 potato Processhe (Lienau. 19781
process air, a well with 230°F fluid is required. The
first-stage air temperature can be as low as 180°F; however, Potato processing could result in a number of different
temperatures >200"F are desirable. types of products, including:
341
1. Potato chips. Upon leaving the chemical peeler, the potatoes are
2. Frozen french fries and other frozen potato products. conveyed to a battery of scrubbers, where the peeling is
3. Dehydrated mashed potatoes - potato granules. removed. After the scrubbers, the peeled potatoes are
4. Potato flakes. subjected to another washing process aud then conveyed to the
5. Dehydrated diced potatoes. trim tables by pumping. The peeling removed by the
6. Potato starch. scrubbers is pumped to a holding tank and sold as cattle feed
7. Potato flour. following neutralization of the lye residue.
8. cannedpotatoes.
9. Miscellaneous products from potatoes. After the potatoes are trimmed for defects, the product is
conveyed to cutter areas. Shakers sort the product. Small
Since 1970, frozen potato products have constituted from lengths are separated and then pfocessed into hash browns or
45 to 48% of all the potatoes used for processing, or nearly tator tots. The properly trimmed and sized product is then
onequarter of the food use of potatoes in the U.S. (Tdburt, carried by gravity to the blanching system.
1975).
After blanching, the potatoes are &watered and fed
Figure 17.14 illustrates a frozen &ch fry processing through a sugar drag, which adds a slight amount of dextrose
line. Many of the processing methods used by potato to the surfaceof the potato, impadng a golden color when the
processors can utilize energy supplied by 300°F or lower potatoes are fried. They then pass through a dryer that
temperature geothermal fluids. Typically, however, a few of removes the surface moisture before a two stage frying
the operations, notably the frying operation, will require process. The first stage cooks the product more completely,
higher temperatures than can be provided by a majority of the while the second stage gives it the golden color. The oil in
g&thermal resources. the fryers is heated to 375°F by heat exchangers receiving
high-pressure steam at 275 psig.
Potatoes for processing are conveyed to a battery of
scrubbers and then moved into a prehater, which warms the Freezing of the products is by umtinuous freezing
potatoes and softens the skin, making it easier to remove. The systems powered by wmpmrs. Freezing temperatures are
potatoes are then chemically peeled by a 15%lye solution maintained at a constant -30°F.
maintained at a temperature of 140 to 175°F.
40%
BTU
210% 19o.F asxlo
I
192%
U Product ion
Wells (2)
I mxlOb-mo~
~ mapm-~tBO'F
I
l6O.F 14* 13O.F 12O'F l00.F
.f 3 L t I
- - 1
I
18O'F
8-1
165.F
8-2 -
l61.F
-
5
c
159.F
- D
5 156v
c
curln, 154.F
500 gpm wck5 ~ooopm-
.
3.6 x l
0
' l.oxlO~y 0.4 x 10' 0.6 x 10'
(assumed oubide air lemprrature is 40.F)

Well (1)
Figure 17.13 Multi-stage conveyor dryer using 230°F geothermal fluid and 40°F ambient air.
342
POTATOES
I
STACK
Figure 17.14 Frozen french fry process flow.
For system that would use geothermal energy, the Processes that could be supplied by a 300°F geothermal
energy would probably be supplied to the process by way of resource are distinguished in Table 17.8 by their function and
intermediate heat exchangers. To avoid any possible con- temperature requirements. The peeling process involves three
tamination of the product by the geothermal fluid, or the need distinct steps calling for input temperatures of 250,200, and
for treatment of the fluid, the geothermal fluid passing through 150°F. The hot blanch process uses B I ~input temperature of
these exchangers will transfer energy to a secondary fluid, 200°F and the warm blanch process requires 150°F. Heating
usually water, which delivers the energy to the process. The of hot water used for various functions also calls for 150°F as
secondary fluid, circulating in a closed system, then returns to does the plant heating system.
the intermediate heat exchanger to be reheated.
Figure 17.15 suggests one possible routing of the
geothermal fluid through the intermediate heat exchangersfor
Table 17.8 Potato Processing Tempera- Requiremefits maximum extraction of energy. Energy requirements for the
high temperature (200°F or more) processes are satisfied by
dropping the geothermal fluid temperature from 300 to 190°F.
Temperature In Temperature Out The lower temperature pro~essesare then supplied partialry by
Function (OF) t°F) this cascaded geothermal fluid and partially by fresh
Peeling 260 - 200 geothermal fluid.
Peeling 200 150
Peeling 150 300 The intermediate heat exchangers could either be of the
Hot blanch 200 100 shell-and-tube design or the compact and versatile plate-type
Warm blanch 150 100 heat exchanger. The secoIlclafy fluid circulating to the
Water hating 150 50 processing tanks could eider be used directly, or the fluid
Plant heat . 150 100 could pass through heat exchangers located at the procesSing
tanks to heat the fluid in the tanks.
343
water
heating
___c
peeling
warm
blanch
+ W'F
3Oo'E
GF -
Figure 17.15 Potato processing flow diagram for geothermal conversion.
GEOTHERMAL
FLUIDS
COLUMNS
POND POND
Figure 17.16 Idealized thermally enhanced heap leach (Trexler, 1990).
344
The energy needed for refrigeration used for freezing at
-30°F probably could not be supplied by geothermal energy
because of the advanced state-of-the-artrequired for obtaining * L _
such low temperatures.

MINE ORE
Saturated frying employs heat exchangers and steam at
275 psig. Typically, the fryers collsume about 45% of the
[CRUSHING 1 AGGLOMERATION
I- Cyanide. Lime ,
process energy of the plant and because the return temperature
is >300"F, an assumed geothermal fluid supply temperature,
p $ T T I dc Cement I
Pre nant
over 50% of the process energy requirements could be
supplied by geothermal energy.
Soqution
Pre nant
*[I PREGNANT GEO-FLUID IN
17.3.6 Heap Leaching (Trexler, 1987 & 1990) SoiLtion PROCESS

GEO-FLUID OUT
Heap leaching for gold and silver recovery is a fairly
simple process that eliminates many complicated steps needed
in conventional milling. A "typical' precious metal heap I-
leaching operation consists of placing crushed ore on an
impemiouspad. A dilute sodium cyanide solution is delivered
to the heap, usually by sprinkling or drip irrigation. The
solution trickles through the material, dissolving the gold and
silver in the rock. The pregnant (gold bearing) solution drains
'2
REFINERY
from the heap and is collected in a large plastic-lined pond

(Figure 17.16). Figure 17.17 Heap leach process flow.
Pregnant solution is then pumped through tanks

containing activated charcoal at the process plant, which It is known that the addition of heat to the cyanide
absorbs the gold and silver. The now barren cyanide solution dissolutionprocess accelerates the chemical reaction. Trexler,
is pumped to a holding basin, where lime and cyanide are et al. (1987) determined that gold and silver recovery could be
added to repeat the leaching process. Gold bearing chardoal enhanced by 5 to 17 percent in an experiment that simulated
is chemically treated to release the gold and is reactivated by the use of geothermal heating of cyanide solutions.
heating for future use. The resultant gold bearing strip
solution, more umcentrated than the original pregnant cyanide Perhaps the most important aspect of using geothermal
solution, is treated at the process plant to produce a dor6, or energy is that geothermallyenhanced heap-leaching operations
bar of impure gold. The dor6 is then sold or shipped to a can provide year-round production, independentof the prevail-
smelter for refining. Figure 17.17 is a process flow diagram ing weather conditions. Figure 17.18 illustrates a cyanide
for the operation. heap leach "production window' that may be expected in cen-
tral Nevada. This curve is provided for illustration purposes
One of the problems associatedwith heap leaching is low only and has not been substantiated by actual praductim data.
gold recovery. Commonly untreated ore will yield about 70 If the production window opens at a minimum femperature of
percent or less of the contained gold. Crushing the ore will 4O"F, then 1eaGhing operations may begin in dd-MarCh and
i n c m recovery, but it also increases production costs. At continue through late October. This has been the historical
some mines, the ore must be agglomerated, or roasted to practice at Nevada mines. Since enhanced recovery of gold
increase recovery. Gold recovery can be usually increased by from heated cyanide solutions has already been established,
crushing, grinding, vat leaching, agglomerated, wasting, maximum production would be restricted to June, July and
chemical pretreatment, or wetting, depending on the ore. August. Using geothermal fluids would substantiallyincrease
Gold recoveries of over 95 percent are possible with cyanide the size of the production window (shadowed area, Figure
leaching. The value of the additional gold recovered must be 17.18) and would provide for enhanced e x k t i o n rates on a
compared with the increase processing costs to determine the year-round basis. The benefits include increased revenue to
most cost effective method. the mine operator, year-round employment for the labor force,
and increased royalty payments for mined leases to both
Using geothermal energy is another method of increasing federal and state governments.
gold m v e r y . Heating of cyanide leach solutions with
geothermal energy provide for year-round operation and
increases precious metal recovery.
345
1. Geothermal fluids do not cause plugging of the leach
columns by precipitation of minerals.
2. The percent of m v e r y of gold is not significantly

, affected by concentration of the geothermal fluids in the
process stream.
3. Geothermal fluids with high TDS do not contain

significant concentrations of cyanocides.
17.3.7 Wastewater Treatment Plant (Racine. 1981)
Potential uses of geothermal energy in the processing of

domestic and industrial wastewater by a treatment plant
include: (a) sludge digester heating, (b) sludge disinfection,
(c) sludge drying, and (d) grease melting. Figure 17.19 is a
process flow diagram for a wastewater treatment plant.
1 I 1 I I I I I I I 1 I
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Wastewater enters the treatment plant by way of sewer
Month lines. The wastewater undergoes preliminary treatment incor-
Figure 17.18 Soil temperature at a depth of 10 cm (4 inches) porating .bar screens that collect Screenings of debris. These
at Central Nevada Field Laboratory near are mechanically removed, and deposited into collection bins
Austin, NV (elevation 5,950 ft)(Trexler, 1987). for sanitary disposal. Also, grit removal is accomplished by
pre-aeration, a process by which air, under pressure, is
bubbled through the raw wastewater to enmurage floatable
Mines that incorporate geothermal fluids directly in heap material and settleable material to separate more readily.
leaching operations need to consider the chemical as well as
the physical nature of the resource. Two aspects that must be Following preliminary treatment, the wastewater flows to
addressed during elevated temperature leaching are the com- primary treatment where organic materials are allowed to
patibility of geothermal fluids with leach solution chemistry SepHrate. This is accomplishedby reducing the velocity of the
and the susceptibility of the heap to mineral deposit formation wastewater in the primary clarifiers, so that these substances
from high total dissolved solids (TDS) geothermal fluids. will separate from the water carrying them. The solid
material, both settled sludge and skimmings, are removed for
Cyanide reacts chemically with gold and oxygen to form further Watment. The liquid portion, or primary effluent,
a soluble gold cyanate (Na Au ( 0 2 . Silver and platinum then flows to the aeration system to begin secondary
group metals are also dissolved by cyanide in similar treatment.
reactions. Non-precious metals, such as iron, copper,
manganese, calcium and zinc, along with the non-metals Secondary treatment processes are biological pfocesses in
carbon, sulfur, arsenic and antimony also react with cyanide. which living aerobic (free oxygen demanding) micro-
Undesirable elements and chemical compounds, other than organisms feed on the suspendedorganic material not removed
precious metals, that react with cyanide are called cyanocides. during primary treatment. The activated sludge process is
accomplished in the aerators by introducinga culture of micro-
Since cyanocides consume cyanide, high concentrations organisms (activated sludge) to the primary effluent, along
may interfere with the economic recovery of precious metals. with large quantitiesof air for respiration of the microbes and
To determine the compatibility of geothermal fluid chemistry for turbulent mixing of the primary effluent and activated
with cyanide solutions, a series of consumption tests were sludge.
conducted by Division of Earth Sciences, UNLV on a variety
of geothermal waters from Nevada. Three major types of After aeration, the mixture of primary effluent and acti-
geothermal fluids are present in Nevada: NaCl, NaSO, and vated sludge flows to a seumdary clarifier. At this point,
NdCaCo,. settleable materials are again allowed to settle and the activated
sludge is pumped back to the aeration system. Gradually, an
Experimentalleach columns were used by the Division of excessive amount of solids Bccumulates and has to be
Earth Science, UNLV to analyze compatibility of geothermal removed. This waste activated sludge is treated with the solid
fluid chemistry with cyanide solutions and to determine the material removed during primary treatment.
effects of geothermal fluid chemistry on ore permeability.
Preliminary results from this work indicate that:
346
SEWAGE
RESERVOIR
mu
Figure 17.19 Waste water treatment process flow.
The secondary effluent then flows to the chlorine contact There are several uses for low temperature geothermal
chamber and is disinfected by chlorination. In this process, fluids within a typical waste water treatment facility. Table
liquid chlorine is evaporated into its gaseous state, the gas is 17.9 presents a summary of potential heat uses that include
injected at a controlled rate into a water supply, and this sludge digester heating, sludge disinfection, sludge drying,
chlorine saturated water is allowed to mix with the secondary and grease melting. Low temperature geothermal fluids are
effluent. Sufficient detention time for thorough chlorine most suitable for sludge digester heating and sludge drying,
contact is then allowed, and finally the effluent is discharged which will be considered.
to an outfall.
A portion of this final effluent is treated for a third time Table 17.9 Waste Water Treatment Plant Pfocess
at the tertiary plant, where chemical additives are introduced Temperatures
to help remove any suspended material remaining in the efflu-
ent. After chemical treatment in a reactor clarifier, the effluent
passes through a rapid sand filter for polishing and then into Temperature Range
a storage reservoir. Process (OF1
The sludges and other solids collected throughout the Sludge digester heati 85 to 100 (mesophilic)
treatment process are pumped from their various collection 120 to 135 (thermophilic)
points to the thickeners, where they are concentrated through
settling. This thickened sludge then is pumped to the diges- Sludge disinfection
ters. Digestion is a biological process that uszs living Pasteurization 158
anaerobic (absence of free oxygen) micro-organisms to feed on Composting 131
the organics. Processes aided by heating and mixing break
down the organic materials into a digested sludge and methane Sludge drying 125 to 130
gas. The methane gas is collected and can be used to fuel
various in-plant engines that drive pumps and compressors, Grease melting 205
while the well digested sludge is dried atmospherically on
sand-bottom drying beds and mechanically with one belt press.
347
In the anerobic digesters the contents are heated and Kenkeremath, D.C., et al.; "The Current Statusof Geothermal
mixed to enhance the digestion process. The sludge tempera- Direct Use Development in the United States,"
ture is maintained between 90 and 100"F, within the meso- International Svmmsium on Geothermal Energv,
philic range, by circulating sludge from the digester to a heat International Volume, Geothermal Resources Council,
exchanger where the sludge picks up heat and is returned to Davis, California, 1985.
the digester. Methane fueled or natural gas boilers are usually
used to heat water to - 155°F. This water is passed through Knight, E.; "Kiln-DVing Westem Softwoods", Moore Dry
a spiral plate type heat exchanger where its heat is transferred Kiln Company of Oregon, Portland, Oregon, 1970.
to sludge circulating on the other side of the exchanger. Geo-
thermal fluid temperatures as low as 120°F could technically Lienau, P.; Agribusiness Geothermal Enerev Utilization
be sufficient to provide heat to sludge ranging in temperature Potential of Klamath and Western Snake River Basins,
from 90 to 100°F. Oregon, DOE Report, ID0/1621-1, Geo-Heat Center,
Oregon Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls, Oregon,
Sludge drying is usually accomplished by mechanical de- 1978.
watering with belt presses and drying beds. The use of heat
for drying may increase a plant's sludge handling capacity. In Lindal,B.; "Industrial and Other Applications of Geothermal
addition, if the sludge can be dried sufficiently, it may have Energy", Geothermal Energv: Review of Research and
commercialvalue as a fuel or fuel supplement. The dryer type Development (LC No. 72-97138. UNESCO), Paris,
that appears most compatible is the conveyor type using hot 1973, pp. 135-148.
water coils to heat drying air. The minimum practical drying
air temperature for sludge drying appears to be -
which would require geothermal fluid temperatures on the
170"F, Racine, W. C., et al., Feasibilitv of Geothermal Heat Use in
the San Bernardino MuniciDal Waste Water Treatment
order of 190°F or above. Using the 170°F air, - 2500 Btu -
Plant, DOE Report, Municipal Water Department, San
will be required to evaporate 1 Ib of water from belt press Bemardino, California, 1981.
paste (80% moisture) to a dried product (10% moisture).
Reed, M. J., editor; "Assessment of Low-Temperature Geo-
the& Resourcesof the United Sta&-1982", Geological
REFERENCES Survey Circular 892, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston,
Virginia, 1982.
Anderson, D.N. and Lund J.W., editors; "Direct Utilization
of Geothermal Energy: A Techuical Handbook", Geo- Rutten, P.; "Summary of Process - Mushroom Production,"
thermal Resources Council, Davis, California, 1979. Oregon Trail Mushroom Company, Vale, Oregon, 1986.
Chin; "Geothermal Energy in Taiwan, Republic of China", Talburt, W. F. and Smith, 0.; "Potato Processing," Third
Mining Research & Service Organization, ITRI,Taipei, Edition, The AVE hrblishing Company, Inc., Westport,
Taiwan, August, 1976. Connecticut, 1975.
Freeston, D.H. and van de Wydeven, F.; "Geothermal Energy Trexler, D. T.; Flynn, T. and Hendrix, J. L., "Preliminary
Savings for a New Zealand Alfalfa Drying Plant," Results of Column Leach Experiments at Two Gold
Proceedings of the New Zealand Geothermal Workshop Mines Using Geothermal Fluids", 1990 International
Part 21, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Svmmsium on Geothermal Energv. GRC Transactions,
Zealand, 1979. Vol. 14, Hawaii, 1990, pp. 351-358.
Guillen, H,; "A Feasibility Study on the Establishment of Trexler, D. T.; Flynn, T. and Hendrix, J. L., "Enhancement
Geothermal Food Dehydration Centers in the of Precious Metal Recovery by Geothermal Heat",
Philippines". Geo-Heat Center, Oregon Institute of Transactions, Vol. 11, Reno, NV, 1987, pp. 15-22.
Technology, Klamath Falls, OR, 1986.
VTN-CSL; "EconomicStudy of Low TemperatureGeothermal
Homburg, C. D. and Lindal,B.; Preliminarv Research on Energy in Lassen and Modoc Counties, California", State
Geothermal Energv Industrial Complexes, DOE Report, of California, Division of Oil, and Gas and the Energy
ID011627-4, DSS Engineers, Inc., Fort Lauderdale, Resources Conservation and Development Commission,
Florida, March, 1978. Sacramento, California, 1977.
Horii, S.; "Direct Heat Update of Japan", International Wilson, R. D.; "Use of Geothermal Energy at Tasman Pulp
Svmmsium on Geothermal Energv. International and Paper Company Limited New Zealand", in
Volume, Geothermal Resources Council, Davis, Multipurpose Use of Geothermal Energy, Oregon
California, 1985. Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls, Oregon, 1974.
348
CHAPTER 18
ENGINEERING COST
ANALYSIS
By Charles V. Higbee
OIT Geo-Heat Center
18.1 INTRODUCTION 1. Interest rates applying to real world problems are not
found in interest tables, and therefore, interpolation is
In the early 1970s, life cycle Costing (LCC) was adopted required. When trying to solve problems with
by the federal government. LCC is a method of evaluating all interpolation the assumption is made that compound
the costs associated with acquisition, construction and opera- interest formulas are linear functions. THEY ARE NOT.
tion of a project. LCC was designed to minimize costs of They are logarithmic functions.
major projects, not only in consideration of acquisition and
construction, but especially to emphasize the reduction of 2. Not only are real world interest rates difficult to find in
operation and maintenance costs during the project life. tables, but it is frequently difficult to find the required
number of interest periods for the project in a set of
Authors of engineering economics texts have been very tables.
reluctant and painfully slow to explain and deal with LCC.
Many authors devote less than one page to the subject. The 3. If the need arises to convert a frequently compounded
reason for this is that LCC has several major drawbacks. The interest rate to a weekly or monthly interest rate, it is
first of these is that costs over the life of the project must be almost certain the value of the effective interest rate will
estimated based on some forecast, and forecasts have proven not be in any interest table.
to be highly variable and frequently inaccurate. The second
problem with LCC is that some life span muSt be selected over 4. Renewable energy projects, especially those for district
which to evaluate the project, and many projects, especially heating systems, can run into hundreds of millions of
renewable energy projects, are expected to have an unlimited dollars. Although it is understood that this chapter was
life (they are expected to live forever). The longer the life written for preliminary economic studies, nevertheless,
cycle, the more inaccurate annual costs become because of interpolation of interest tables can cause an error many
the inability to forecast accurately. times larger than the cost analyst’s annual salary.
This chapter on engineering cost analysis is designed to 5. With today’s microcomputersand sophisticatedhand-held
provide a basic understanding and the elementary skills to calculators, interest tables are obsolete. Calculators
complete a preliminary LCC analysis of a proposed project. capable of computing all time value functions except
The time value of money is discussed and mathematical gradients are available for under $20. These calculators
formulas for dealing with the cash flows of a project are can also solve the number of interest periods and iterate
derived. Methods of cost comparisonare presented. Depreci- an interest rate to nine decimal places.
ation methods and depletion allowancesare included combined
with their effect on the after-tax cash flows. The computer
program RELCOST, designed to perform LCC for renewable 18.2 THE TIME VALUE OF MONEY
energy projects, is also presented. A discussion of caveats
reIated to performing LCC is included. No one should The concept of the time value of money is 8s old 8s
attempt to do a comprehensive cost analysis of any project money itself. Money is an asset, the same as plant and
without an extensivebackground on the subject, and consider- equipment and other owned resources. If equipment is
able expertise in the current tax law. borrowed, a plant is rented or land is leased, the owner should
receive equitable compensation for its use. If money is
borrowed, the lender should be reimbursed for its use. The
18.1.1 Use of Interest Tables rent paid for using someone else’s money is called interest.
Interest takes two different f o m : simple interest and
When performing engineering cost analysis, it is compound interest.
necessary to apply the mathematical formulas developed in this
chapter and avoid using interest tables for the following
reasons:
349
Throughout this chapter, the time value of money and Substituting present value (F%) for the amount of money
compound interest are used in the cost analysis of projects. loaned or deposited at time zero (beginning of the time period
Such things as risk and uncertainty are ignored, and the covered by the investment), and future value (Fv) for the
concept of an unstable dollar or the value of the dollar balance. In the account at the end of n periods, the formula
fluctuating in the foreign market are not considered. becomes:
However, in LCC analysis of renewable energy projects,
inflation rates for operation and maintenance, equipment Fv = Pv + F%(i x n).
purchases, energy consumed and the revenue from energy sold
for both conventional and renewable energy, will be Factoring out Pv, the formula becomes:
considered.
Fv = Pv(1 + i x n). (18.1)
The concept of the time value of money evolves from the
fact that a dollar today is worth considerably more than a Going back to the original values, if the $100 is left on
promise to pay a dollar at some future date. The reason this deposit for 5 years, the future value would be $130, and is
is true is because a dollar today could be invested and be written:
earning interest such that, at sometime in the future, the
interest earned would make the investmentworth considerably Pv = 100; i = 0.06; n = 5
more than one dollar. To illustrate the time value of money, +
FV = lOO(1 0.06 x 5)
it is convenient to consider money invested at a simple interest Fv = $130.
rate.
Remember, in simple interest problems, interest is earned
18.2.1 Simde Interest only on the amount of the original deposit. Consider the case
where interest is calculated more frequently than once per
Simple interest is interest accumulated periodically on a year. This would not change the amount of money earned in
principal mun of money that is provided as a loan or invested simple interest calculations.
at some rate of interest (i), where i represents an interest rate
per interest period. It is important to notice that in problems Suppose that $100 was deposited for 5 years at a rate of
involving simple interest, interest is only charged or earned on 6 9% simple interest, calculated every threemonths. Since there
the original amount borrowed or invested. Consider a deposit are four 3-month periods in a year, the simple interest per
of $100 made into an account that pays 6 % simple interest interest period becomes 0.06/4 = 0.015 and n becomes 4
annually. If the money is left on deposit for 1 year, the quarters per year x 5 y = 20 total interest periods. Therefore:
balance at the end of year one would be:
FV = lOO(1 + 0.015 x 20)
100 + 0.06(100) = $106. FV = $130.
If the money is left on deposit for 2 years, the balance at Applying this formula to the time value of money, it can
the end of year two would be: be shown that for any given rate of interest, $100 received
today would be much greater value than $100 received 5 years
100 + 0.06(100) + 0.06(100) = $112. from today. Consider:
If the money is left on deposit for 3 years, the balance at Proposal 1: A promise to pay $100 5 yevs from today.
the end of year three would be: Proposal 2: A promise to pay $100 today.
100 + 0.06(100) + 0.06(100) + 0.06(100) = $118. If proposal 2 is accepted over proposal 1, the $100
received today could be deposited into an account that earned
If n equals the number of interest periods the money is 9 % annually, and in 5 years the balance would be $145.
left on deposit and i equal the rate of interest for each period, Using this same theory, the present value of a promise to pay
the formula for calculating the balance at the end of n periods $100 5 years from today can be evaluated as:
would be:
Fv = 100; i = 0.09; n = 5 y
100 + 1OO(i x n). 100 = F%(l + 0.09 x 5).
Substituting6 % for i and 3 for n, the formula becomes: Solving for Pv, the equation becomes:
100 + lOO(O.06 x 3) = $118. Pv +

= 100/(1 0.09 x 5)
Pv = $68.97.
350
Throughcwt this chapter and in cost analysis texts in For example, (FA', i, n) is read, "To find the future
general, eash flow diagrams are normally drawn to illustrate value F, .given the present value, P at an interest rate per
monies flawing into or out of a project at some specific time period i for n interest periods. " This notation applies only to
period. The accepted convention is: a) money flowing out is compound interest.
indicated by a down arrow and b) money flowing in is
indicated by an up arrow. Compoqnd interest varies from simple interest in that
interest is eamed on the interest accumulated in the account.
Example 18.1: A $l,OOO loan to be repaid in two equal To illustrate:
annual payments, from the borrower's point of view, would
be drawn as: If $100 is deposited at 6 9% compound annually, at the end
of the first year the balance would be:
500 500 100(1 + 0.06) = $106.

and, from the lender's point of view, would be drawn as: This is the same as in simple interest. However, if the
money is allowed to remain on deposit for 2 years, the interest
So0 500
m
1.000
earned during the second year would be:
106(0.06) = $6.36
The examples below illustrate the application of cash
flow diagrams. giving a balance of $112.36 at the end of the second year. If
the money is left on deposit for 3 years, the interest earned
Example 18.2: A woman deposited $500 for 3 years at during the third year would be:
7 % simple interest per annum. How much money can be with-
drawn h m the account at the end of the 3-year period? The 112.36(0.06) = $6.74.
cash flow diagram below indicates money deposited into the
investment as 4, and money withdrawn from the investment Thus, the balance at the end of the third year would be:
as t ,
+ 6 + 6.36 + 6.74 = $119.10.
1
so0
; 3 3 yarrs
100
The mathematical function of compound interest for a

deposit of $100 earning 6% compounded annually left on
solution: deposit for 3 years is stated and described mathematically
below.
Fv = PV(1 + i x n)
FV = SWl + 0.07 x 3) Original deposit plus interest earned at the end of the first
FV = 500(1.21) year becomes:
Fv = $605.
Fv = 100(1+ 0.006)
Example 18.3: Assume $500 is deposited for 200 days
in an account that earn 6 % simple interest per m u m . What plus the interest earned during the second year:
is the balance at the end of the investment period? The
solution is:
Fv = PV(1 + i x n) plus the interest earned during the third year:

FV= S00(l -t 0.06[200/36SJ)
FV = 500(1.0329)
Fv = $516.45.
+o.w{loo(l + 0.06) f 0.06[loo(l + 0.06)D.
The formula becomes rather complex with only a 3iyear
18.2.2 ComDound Interest investment. The formula can be simplified through
mathematical manipulation. For purposes of this illustration,
All CDmpOund inkrest formulas developed will include i and the number of interest pe
the standard fusctional notation for those formulas b the right
of the &vetope& fomula. Functional notation is a shorthand + +
Fv = lOO(1 i) iflOO(1 + i)] + i(lOO(1 + i)
method of mpxenting a formula to he applied to a problem
or a portion of a problem, rather than having to write the
+ i [100(1 + i)]}.
formula in its entirety.
351
Factoring out $100 from the above equation: Fv = Pv(1 + i)”
Fv = 100(1 + 0.18)3
Fv = 100[(1 + i) + i(1 +i) + i(1 + i) + i(1 + i)] FV = lOO(1.6430)
FV = $164.30.
simplifying:
Example 18.5: Assume $100 is invested for three years
Fv = 100[1 + i + i + i’ + i(1 + i + i + i’>l in an account that earns 18% compounded quarterly. The
future value at the end of the 3-year period is:
simplifying further:
Fv = Pv(1 + i)”
Fv = 100(1 + i + i + i’ + i + i’ + i’ + i3)
where
and collecting terms:
i = 0.18/4 quarters/y = 0.045 per quarter
Fv = 100(1 + 3i + 3i’ + i’) n = 3 y x 4 quartersly = 12 interest periods.
then, this equation can be factored into: Solution:
Fv = l00[(l + i)(l + i)(l + i)] = lOO(1 + i)3. FV = lOO(1 + 0.045)’’

FV = lOO(1.6959)
Substituting n for the number of interest periods, which FV = $169.59.
in this case is 3, the result is:
Example 18.6: Suppose $100 is invested in an account
Fv = lOO(1 + i)”. that earns 185% compounded monthly. The future value at the
end of a 3-year period is:
Letting Pv = the amount of the investment, then:
Fv = Pv(1 + i)”
Fv = Pv(1 + i)” (F/P,i,n)(18.2)
where
This is the single payment compound amount factor.
i = 0.18/12 months/y = 0.015/mo
Solving Equation (18.2) for Pv gives: n = 3 y x 12 moly = 36 interest periods.
Pv= Fv
fp/F,i,n)(l8.3) Solution:
(l+i)
FV = lOO(1 + 0.015)”
which is the single payment present worth factor. FV = lOO(1.7091)
FV = $170.91.
With the development of the equation for hding the
future value of a lump sum investment at a compound interest Example 18.7 An amount of $100 is invested for 3
rate for n interest periods, it can be shown how more frequent years in an Bccounf that earns 18%compounded weekly. The
compounding increases the interest earned. future value at the end of the 3-year period is:
An interest rate of 3 116 mo would be stated in nominal Fv = Pv(1 + i)”

form as 6% compounded semia~ually.
where
Consider the followingexampleswith interest rates stated
as an annual percentage rate (MR),commonly referred to as i = 0.18/52 weeksly = 0.0034615/week
the “nominalinterest rate.” n = 3 y x 52 weeks/y = 156 weeks.
Example 18.4 An amount of $100 is invested for 3 Solution:

years in an account that earns 18% compounded annually.
The future value at the end of the 3-year period will be: FV = 100(1 + Q.0034615)’*
FV = lOO(1.7144)
FV = $171.44.
352
Example 18.8: If $100 is invested for 3 years in an The annual effective interest rate may be found for any
account that earns 18%compounded daily, the future value at nominal interest rate as shown below.
the end of the 3-year period is:
Fv = Pv(1 + i)” Table 18.1 Comparative Interest Rates
where
(APR) Nominal Interest Rate per Annual Effective
i = 0.181365 daysly = 0.00049315/d Interest Rate Interest Period Interest (AEI)
n = 3 y x 365 dly = 1095 d. (1896) (961 0
Solution: Compound . 18.00 18.00
annually
+
FV = 100(1 0.00049315)1095
FV = lOO(1.71577) Compounded 9.00 18.81
FV = $171.58. semiannually
Money invested today will grow to a larger amount in the Compounded 4.50 19.25
future. If this is true, then the promise to pay some amount quarterly
of money in the future is worth a smaller amount today.
Compounded 1S O 19.56
Example 18.9: What is the present value of a promise monthly
to pay $3,000 5 years from today if the interest rate is 12%
compounded monthly? This can be written: Compounded 0.346 19.71
weekly
Pv = Fv
(1 + i)” Compounded 0.04932 19.716
daily
where
Compounded 19.7217
i = 0.12/12 = 0.01 continuously
n = 5 x 12 = 60.
Solution:
Consider a dollar that was invested for 1 year at a
Pv = 3,000/(1 + 0.01)= nominal rate of 18 % compounded monthly. To calculate the
Pv = $1,651.35. balance (Fv) at the end of the year:
18.2.3 Annual Effective Interest Rates Fv = 1[1 + (0.18/12)]12

It is convenient at this point in the development of com- therefore,
pound interest to introduce annual effective interest’rates.
Annual effective interest (AEI) is interest stated in terms of an Fv = 1(1.015)12
annual rate compounded yearly, which is the equivalent of a FV = l(1.1956)
nominally stated interest rate. Table 18.1 illustrates the FV = $1.1956.
relationship between nominal interest, interest rate per interest
period, and annual effective interest. Because a dollar was invested originally, the annual
interest earned may be found by subtracting the original
Notice that the nominal interest rate remains the same investment:
percentage while the compounding periods change. The
interest rate per interest period is obtained by dividing the 1.1956 - 1 = 0.1956
nominal rate by the number of interest periods per year. The
annual effective interest rate is the only true indicator of the and the effective interest is 19.56%. Then, the formula for
amount of annual interest, and therefore, annual effective finding annual effective interest is:
interest provides a true measure for comparing interest rates
when the frequency of compounding is different. AEI = [1+5].- 1 (18.4)
353
where where
AEI = annual effective interest rate r = annual percentage rate

r = nominal interest rate/y m = number of compound periods/year
m = number of interest perioddy. c = number of compound periods for the time frame of
the effective interest rate.
The annual percentage rate is divided by the number of
compounding perioddy and raised to the power of the number Example 18.14 The present value of a promise to pay
of compounding periodsly, and 1 is subtracted from that $4,000 6 years from today at an interest rate that is
answer to arrive at the annual effective interest rate. compounded quarterly is $2,798. Find the nominal interest
rate and the annual effective interest rate.
The following examples are used to further illustrate the
differences between APR and AEI. Fv = h(l + i)"
where
Example 18.10: For an APR of 12% compounded
annually, the annual effective interest (AEI) is 12%. n = 6 x 4 = 24 quarters
Therefore,
and solving
AEI = 12% compounded annually. There is no
difference between the two. 4,000 = 2,798(1 + i)%
Example 18.11: For an APR of 12% compounded semi- dividing both sides by 2,798
annually, the semiannual effective interest rate is 0.1212 =
0.06 or 696,presented as: 1.42959 = (1 + i)24
AEI = (1 + 0.1212)' - 1 = 0.1236 or 12.36%. taking the 24th root of both sides
Example 18.12 For an APR of 12% compounded (1 .42959)0.w'67= [(I + i)upwlsl

quarterly, the quarterly effective interest rate is 0.03 or 3 96,
AEI becomes: 1.015 = 1 +i
AEI = (1 + 0.12/4)4- 1 = 0.1255 or 12.55%. i = 0.015,or 1.5%.
Example 18.13: For an APR of 12% compounded By definition, i is the interest rate per interest period.
daily, the daily effective interest rate is 0.12/365= 0.003288 Therefore, the answer, 1.5 9% , is the interest rate per quarter.
or 0.328896, giving: In order to find the nominal interest rate (or annual percentage
rate), it is necessary to multiply i times the number of quarters
AEI = (1 + 0.12/365)= - 1 = 0.12747 or 12.74%. per year. The nominal interest rate is 0.015 x 4 = 0.06,or
6% compounded quarterly. The answer would be incorrect if
When interest is compounded continuously (when n the frequency of compounding was not included. If the
approaches infinity), the annual effective interest rate takes the nominal rate is given as 696, this would indicate 6% com-
-
form of e 1, where e = the natural logarithm 2.7182818. pounded annually.
Therefore, an APR of 12% compounded continuously would
-
yield an AEI of (2.7182818)0.'2 1 = 12.749%. The annual effective interest rate, using Equation (18.4),
becomes:
Effective interest rates can be calculated for periods other
than annually.
To find a weekly effective interest rate of 12% com-

pounded daily, the weekly effective interest rate would be: AEX = (1 + 0.015)' - 1
(1 + 0.121365)' - 1 = 0.0023,or 0.23%. AEI = 0.0614, or 6.14%.
Therefore, The formulas developed for compound interest and the

similar formula for converting APR to AEI are logarithmic
M-[l + $Ic- 1 (18.5) functions (See Figure 18.1).
354
too
90 12%
/
80
70 -
1ox
8X
6%
4%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
YEARS
Figure 18.1 Exponential nature of compound interest rates.
When interest rates are extremely low, the number of $125 per month for 48 months. The first payment will be due
compounding periods is almost insignificant. For example, one month after the purchase of the car and the last payment
2% APR compounded annually is 2% MI; 2% APR com- will be due at the end of month 48. In order to derive a
pounded daily is 2.02% AEI while 40% APR compounded mathematical formula to evaluate ordinary annuities, it is
daily jumps to 49.15 % AEI. convenient to use the future value formula for compound
interest Equation (18.2).
In evaluatingprojects for nonprofitorganizations,interest
rates are usually kept rather low, but there are many private Consider three equal end-of-year payments of $100 each.
entities that evaluate alternatives at the corporation’s rate of
return, which can be a very high rate.
?
M
100 100 100
18.3’ ANNUITIES
18.3.1 Ordinary Annuities To find the future value of this payment series at the end
of year three, use the future value formula. Notice that the
The definition of an ordinary annuity is a stream of equal first payment is two interest periods before the end of the
end-of-period payments. Ordinary annuities are the most project. Therefore, the future value of the first payment is:
common form of payment series used in cost analysis. Loan
payments, car payments, charge card payments, maintenance Fv = Pv(1 + i)”
and operating costs of equipment are all stated in terms of Fv = lOO(1 + i)’.
ordinary muities. These payments are frequently monthly
payments, but they &n be weekly, yearly or any other uni- The future value of the second payment, which is one
form time period. The important thing is that they begin at interest period before the end of the project, is:
the end of the first interest period. For example, a person
purchases an automobile for $5,000 and is obligated to pay Fv = lOO(1 + i)I.
355
The third payment is zero interest periods away from the
end of the project. Therefore, the future value of payment
number three is simply $100. The future value of all three
payments is:
dividing both sides by (1 + i)" yields:
Fv = loo(1 + i)' + lOO(1 + i)' + 100.
(P/A,i,n)(l8.8)
Reversing the order of these terms and factoring out
$100, the equation becomes:
This is the uniform series present worth factor.
Fv = 100[1 + (1 + i)' + (1 + i)?.
Equation (18.8) is used to determine the present value of
Notice that with a 3-year project and three annual an ofdinary annuity.
payments, n does not get higher than 2. This is because the
payments are made at the end of each period. Letting A = Solving the above equation for A instead of Pv gives:
the amount of each payment, a general equation can be written
to find the future value of n payments as: (A/P,i,n)( 18.9)
Fv = A[l + (1 i)' + + (1 + i)' + (1 + i)3 + . . .

+ (1 + i)"']. This is the uniform series capital recovery factor.
Multiplying this equation by (1+ i) results in: Equation (1 8.9) is used for finding the payment series of
a loan or the annual equivalent cost of a purchased piece of
Fv(1 + i) = A[(1 + i)' + (1 + i)' + (1 + i)' equipment.
+ (1 + i)' +...+ (1 + i)"].
In calculating future value or present value of a payment
Subtracting the first equation from the second equation: series, i must equal the interest rate per payment period, and
n must equal the total number of payments. If an interest rate
Fv(1 + i) - Fv = A[-1 + (1 + i)"] is stated as 12%compounded monthly (APR), and the pay-
ment series is monthly, then i = 0.12/12 = 0.01 or 1 Wmo.
also
Complications can arise when the annual percentage rate
Fv + i(Fv) - Fv = A[(1 + i)" - 11 is stated in such a manner as to be incompatible with the
payment period. For example, assume a loan of $500 to be
and repaid in 26 equal end-of-week payments with an interest rate
of 10% compounded daily. Before this problem can be
i(Fv) = A[(1 + i)" - 11 solved, i must be stated in terms of 1 week. Therefore, the
weekly effective interest rate, (WEI) must be calculated as:
dividing both sides of the equation by i gives:
+ -
m=d (1 + i ) p
i
- 11 (F/A,i,n)(l8.6)
WE1 = (1 0.10/365)' 1
WE1 = 0.0019, or 0.19% per week.
When interest is compounded more frequently than the

This is the uniform series compound amount factor. payment, the amount of each payment (A) can be calculated in
the above example by:
Solving for A instead of Fv gives:
A = 5OO(A/P,19,26)
A=+
i
(1 + i) -1 1 (A/F,i,n)( 18.7) A = $19.73.
If the above problem had an interest rate of 10%com-

This the uniform series sinking fund factor. pounded quarterly, this would present a case where interest is
compounded less frequently than the payment period. There-
Returning to the future value formula, Fv = Pv(1 + i)", fore, between compomding periods the interest rate is zero.
and substituting the right side of this equation for Fv in The payment must coincide with the interest rate. Because 26
Equation (18.6) gives: weeks constitutes 6months, andtheinterest rate is com-
356
pounded quarterly, there are two quarters in a 26-week period. The cash flow diagram requires modifications as:
Therefore, to find the interest rate per quarter, find the
payment per quarter and divide that payment by 13 weeks to year: 0 1
I
2 3
I
4 5
arrive at a payment per week. The interest rate per quarter is: t &
a
1
1
a
1
a
1
a
1
a (a)
0.10/4 = 0.025 or 2.5%
A = 5OO(AIP,2.5,2) By inserting a payment (which does not exist) at the end
A = $259.41/quarter. of year 5, the cash flow diagram now looks like an ordinary
annuity of 6 payments. Therefore, using Equation (18.6):
Dividing the above answer by 13 gives $19.95 as the
payment per week.
Returning to the problem at the beginning of 18.3.1

Ordimam Annuities, $5,000 was financed on an automobile for However, the sixth payment does not exist. Therefore,
48 months at an interest rate of 9.24% compounded monthly. that payment, which is zero interest periods away from Fv,
Find the monthly paymenk must be subtracted from the above formula as:
where
i = 0.0924/12 = 0.0077
n = 4 x 12 = 48. Placing - 1 as the last value inside the brackets subtracts
the value of the last payment. Notice that n increased to 6
Solution with only 5 payments; therefore, the general formula for
finding the future value of an annuity due is:
A = 5,000(Aff,0.77,48)
A = $124.996 or $125lmo.
18.3.2 &n uities Due

To find the annuity-due, given the future value, the
The definition of an annuity due is a stream of equal, formula would be:
beginning-of-theperiod payments. Although this payment
series is not nearly as common as an ordinary annuity, it is
still found in many projects. Beginning-of-the-prihe-period
payments apply to such things as rents, leases, insurance
premiums, subscriptions, etc. Rather than attempt to derive In order to find the present value of an annuity due of 5
a formula to evaluate annuities due, it is much simpler to payments use the cash flow diagram:
modify the existing formulas that have already been derived.
Consider a 5-year cash flow diagram with payments made at year: 0 1
1
2
!
3
1
4
!
5
the beginning of each year. These payments will be 4. & 4. t
. I a & a &
designated as (a) to avoid confusion with an ordinary annuity.
The diagram is shown as:
The present value of this payment series exists at the
yrar: 0 same point in time as the first payment. Modifying the cash
:
a_1 4% 1 a a flow diagram, we have:
year: 0 1 2 2 4
The easiest approach is to find the future value of this
annuity due using a modification of Equation (18.6):
Ignoring the first payment, the cash flow diagram appears

as an o r d i i annuity of 4 payments, applying Equation
(18.8), we have:
357
This yields the present value of 4 of the 5 payments but than $100,000. In other words, the bond would have to be
does not consider the first payment, which is at time zxo, or sold at a discount price. To calculate the price to pay for the
the same point as the present value. Therefore, the first bond to make it yield 1096, the procedure would be:
payment, which is zero interest periods away from Pv, must
be added. By modifyiig the above equation and placing a + +
Price = 8k(P/A,10,10) lOOk(P/F,lO,lO)
1 as the last value inside the brackets adds the value of the Price = $49,156.54 + $38,554.33
first payment and gives: Price = $87,710.87.
To illustrate a premium paid for a bond, assume that the

buyer was willing to purchase the bond to yield 7%.
Therefore, to make the bond yield lower than 85%, the buyer
The general formula for finding the present value of an would have to pay a premium.
annuity due is:
Price = 8k(P/A,7,10) +
100k(P/F,7,10)
(1 + i)"-l - + 11. +
Price = $56,188.5 $50,834.93
i(1 + i1n-1 (P/a,i,n)(l8.12) Price = $107,023.58
To find an annuity due, given the present value, the Example 18.16 Bank Loans.
formula would be: A couple financed $50,000 on a home. The terms of the
home mortgage were 9.6% compounded monthly for 30 years.
a = p.f (1 + i 1 n - 1 - 1 + 1l-l. After making payments for 5 years, they want to calculate the
i(1 + i)"-l (a/P,i,n)(18.13) amount of money they will pay to principal and interest during
the 6th year.
18.3.3 Problems Involvine Multiple Functions Step 1 is to calculate the amount of the monthly loan
payment. Using Equation (18.9) gives:
Many problems in cost analysis involve the use of several
of the formulas presented thus far in this chapter.
Example 18.15: Bonds.

Bonds are sold in order to obtain investment capital. where
Most bonds pay interest on the face value (the value printed
on the bond) either annually or semiannually, and pay back Pv = $50,000
the face value at maturity (the end of the loan period, or end n = 360
of the life of the bond). i = 0.096/12 = 0.008 or 0.8%
A = 50,000(A/P,0.8,360)
Consider a bond with a face value of $100,000, a life of A = $424.08.
10 years, that provides annual interest payments of 896. How
much should be paid for this bond to make it yield lo%? Now that the payment is calculated, Step 2 is to find the
Thus, the cash flow diagram becomes: balance of the loan at the end of year 5. Using Equation
lOOK
(18.8) gives:
8K 8K 8K 8K 8K 8K 8K 8K 8K 8K
1 : : : : : : : : : T
Purchase
price
where
The above diagram illustrates the cash flows associated
with the bond. The interest is paid out mually to the bond A = $424.08
holder. Because there is no opportunity to earn interest on i =0.008
that interest, the bond performs as though it were a problem n = 360 - 60 or 300 payments remaining to be made
in simple interest. The performance of the bond cannot through year 30.
deviate from the original cash flow diagram; that is, the bond Pv = 424.08(P/A,0.8,300)
will always pay $8,000 per year plus $100,000 at maturity. Pv = $48,154.90.
To make this bond pay lo%,the buyer would have to pay less
358
r
Step 3 is to calculate the loan balance at the end of year If this method is confusing, the problem could bave been
6 , letting n = 300 - 12 = 288 payments remaining to be solved using present value. This requires more calculations
made, and using the same process as in Step 2: and also modification of the cash flow diagram. To approach
the problem from a present value point of view, draw a 17-
Pv = 424.08(P/A,.8,288) year cash flow diagram as:
hr = $47,667.74.
10K 10K
Subtracting the loan balance, end of year 6,from the loan

balance, end of year 5, = $487.16, the amount that will be
paid to principal during year 6.
In order to solve the problem using present value
Step 4 is to calculate the amount of the payments that techniques, it is necessary to note that present value exists 1
will go to interest. The total amount paid during year 6 will year before the first payment. This is the reason for
be $424.08 x 12 or $5,088.96. Subtracting the amount that modification of the cash flow diagram. The first $lO,OOO
will go to principal, ($487.16), leaves the amount $4,180.86 payment must be discounted 15 years and the second $lO,OOO
that will go to interest during year 6. payment must be discounted 17 years. Using Equation (18.3)
we have:
Example 18.17: Investments.
A couple with two children, ages 2 and 4,want to invest Pv= Fv
a single annual payment series that will provide $lO,OOO to (1 + f)”
each child at the age of 18. The investment will earn interest
at 8.75%. If the annual payments sfart today and the last
deposit is made 16 years from today, what is the amount of Pv =
10,000 + 10,000
each annual payment? To solve this problem, begin by (1 + 0.0875)15 (1 + 0.O875)l7
drawing a cash flow diagram as:
10K 10K
Pv = $2,841.59 + $2,402.71
Pv = $5,244.30.
2
I I I I 181 t i l
Rf R: 0: & fl!~ d 4 & Flf6 ‘!7

This provides the total present value 1 year before the
first payment. Now the payment series can be calculated as an
The easiest approach is to find the future value of the ordinary annuity of 17 payments, using Equation (18.9) we
required monies and then solve for the annuity. Although it have:
is realized that the older child will withdraw $lO,OOO 14 years
from today, the equivalent value of that $lO,OOO can be
evaluated at the end of the 16th year. Using Equation (18.2)
gives:
FV = Pv(1 i)”+
Fv = 10,OOO(1 + 0.0875)’ -k 10,OOO
[
A = 5 , 2 4 4 . 3 0 0.0875(1 + 0 . 0 8 7 5 ) ’ ’
(1 + 0.0875)17 -1 1
FY = $21,826.56.
A = $604.00.
Then, using Equation (18.7), and making n = 17, the
amount of each payment is: Notice that, although the final answers are identical, it
required much more effort and calculation to solve the
A =
4-
i
i)” - 11
7 problem from a present value
It is advisable to spend some time evaluating

problems, drawingcash flow diagrams and considering the
A - 21,826.56
[
0.0875
(1 + 0.875If7 -1
simplest approach. Without a cash flow diagram, it would
have been very easy to make the error of assuming there were
only 16 payments. It is also doubtful that the problem solver
A = $604.00. could recognize that the easiest approach for this problem is
to work with future value. If there is any doubt regarding the
answer, it may be verified by working the problem backwards.
359
Suppose annual payments of $604.00 are deposited into 18.4.3 Annual Euuivalent Cost Method
an investment for 15 years. The balance in the Bccoullt, using
Equation (18.6) would be $17,389.40. At this time, the older The annual equivalent cost method of evaluating
child withdraws $10,000, leaving a balance of $7,389.40. alternativeprojects states all costs and revenues over the useful
This balance will earn interest for 2 more years, and using life of the project in terms of an equal annual payment series
Equation (18.2), will amount to $8,739.12. Meanwhile, two (an ordinary annuity). This is probably the most widely used
more payments of $604.00 will be made into the amunt. method in the industry, for several reasons:
These two payments, with interest, will amount to $1,260.85,
using Equation (18.6). The account balance, then, will 1. It q u i r e s less effort and fewer calculations.
amount to $9,999.97. The reason the answer is off by 3 cents
is that the actual value of each payment was $604.00081. 2. It eliminates the problem of alternatives with
Using that value as the payment, the answer would equal incompatible useful lives.
exactly $10,000.
3. It allows for much more sophistication when considering
inflation, increasing equipment cost, equipment
18.4 COST COMPARISON OF depreciation schedules, etc.
INVESTMENT ALTERNATIVES
The annual cost method assumes that the project will live
For the most part, cost analysis involves selection of the forever, and that, if Alternative A has a useful life of 10 years
minimum cost or maximum profit alternatives. There are and Alternative B has a useful life of 15 years, each alternative
basically four accepted methods of evaluating Alternative A as will be replaced at the end of its useful life. Therefore, the
compared to Alternative B as compared to Alternative C. alternativewith the minimum annual cost or maximum annual
profit is the alternative that will be chosen.
18.4.1 Present Value Method
Evaluate a piece of equipment that costs $10,000, has a
The first of these methods is the present value technique, 6-year useful life with a salvage value of $2,000, and annual
wherein all costs and revenues are discounted back to present operating c p t s of $5,000. The interest rate used for the pro-
value to arrive at a net present value for the project. This posed evaluation is 9% compounded annually. To calculate
method is very time consuming if performed manually and the cost of purchasing this equipment, operating it for 6 years,
presents problems when the alternatives have different and salvaging it at the end of 6 years for $2,000 at 9% inter-
economic lives. Alternative A may have an expected life of est, the procedure would be to draw a cash flow diagram as:
10 years, Alternative B may have an expected life of 15 years,
and Alternative C may have an expected life of 20 years. 2K
Therefore, in order to do any meaningful evaluation of these
three alternatives in terms of present value, it is necessary to
3
SK
1W SK SK 5K SK 5K
find a common denominator for their expected life, which, in
this case, would be 60 years, where Alternative A would be
replaced six times, B replaced four times, and C replaced three The typical approach would be to find the annual cost of
times. $10,000, subtract the annual cost of $2,000 salvage, and add
the annual operating cost of $5,000. The annual equivalent of
18.4.2 Future Value Techniaue the purchase may be found by using Equation (18.9) as:
The future value technique of evaluating alternatives is

almost identical to the present value method except that all
=[., i(1 + i)”
(1 + i)” -1
]
costs and revenues are stated in terms of future value. The
problem still arises of alternatives with incompatible useful
lives. The above techniques are self-explanatory, and because
they require such extensive calculations, they will not be
covered further. But, because they exist, when evaluating
alternatives using computers, it is convenient to indicate, Next, find the annual equivalent cost of the salvage value,
somewhere in the output data generated, the net present value using Equation (18.7), as:
(NFV) of each alternative. Many organizations base their
decisions on NFV, and governmental agencies, expect to i
evaluate benefitcost ratios. The benefitcost ratio is the ratio (1 + i)” -1
of benefits provided by the alternative versus cost incurred,
and will be discussed later in this chapter.
360
Using functional notation as symbols for these formulas
* = - [(1 + 0.09)6 - 1 ] 2K.
we have:
O.O9
[(A/P,9,6) - 0.091 = (AIF,9,6).

Finally, add the $5,OOO operating cost. The total
calculations appear as: Making this substitution, the annual cost formula
becomes:
*=[ (1+ 0.09)s - 1 A = (A/P,9,6)10K - [(A/P,9,6) - 0.0912K + 5K
A = $2,229.20 - $265.84 + $5K multiplying,
A = $6,963.36. A = (A/P,9,6)10K - (A/P,9,6)2K + 0.09(2K) + 5K

The value of Equation (18.9), wbich was used to find the factoring out (A/P,9,6),
annual equivalent cost of equipment purchased is 0.2229198.
A = (A/P,9,6)(10K - 2K) + 0.09(2K) +5K
The value of Equation (18.7), which was used to find the
annual equivalent cost of the salvage value, is 0.1329198. the general equation for the annual cost equation becomes:
Notice that the difference between 0.2229198 and

0.1329198 is exactly equal to the interest rate (i), 0.09. This
A= i;' + .* 'In- 1 ] ( c o s t - slvg) + i(slvg) + OC
1)"
is true for all interest rates, provided that these functions have
the same i and the same n. then
In calculating the annual equivalent cost of purchasing the A = (A/P,i,n)(cost salvage)- + i(salvage) + OC (18.14)
equipment and subtracting the annual equivalent cost of the
equipment salvage at some time in the future, this is always represents the annual equivalent cost formula
the case: i and n are equal; and Equation (18.9) i = -
Equation (18.7).
Figure 18.2 Annual Equivalent Cost.
361
where (2.528)O.l = [(l + i)'"p.'
oc = annual operating cost. 1.0972 = 1 + i
This modification of the annual cost formula greatly i = 0.0972.

reduces the amount of calculation necewary to arrive at the
annual equivalent cost. A ROR can also be calculated by evaluating the differ-
ence between alternatives that provide cost savings rather
Values can be produced by this formula as monthly than revenues.
equivalentcosts or weekly equivalent costs by simply changing
i to the interest rate per period and allowing n to equal the Example 18.19: Fire insurance premiums on a wam
total number of periods. Using the previous example, rmppose house are $5OO/y (Alternative A). The same coverage can be
the annual percentage rate was 9% compounded monthly. To purchased by paying a 3-year premium of $1,250 (Alternative
calculate the periodic costs in terms of monthly equivalent B). Find the ROR realized by purchasing a 3-year policy in
costs (as a monthly ordinary annuity): place of three l-year policies.
A = (A/P,0.75,72)(10K - 2K) + 0.0075(2K) + 5w12 To simplify this problem, notice that the 3-year insurance
A = $144.20 + $15.00 + $416.67 premium is 2.5 timesthe annual premium. The cash flow dia-
A = $575.81. gram for Alternative A appears below.
Stating costs as an ordinary annuity has nothing to do

with actual cost flows. It simply states all costs and revenues
i
1
-+
1
-+
1
+
as an equal payment series in order that one alternativemay be
compared with another (See Figure 18.2). The cash flow diagram for Alternative B appears below.
18.4.4 Rate of Retum Method lT-t+-+

2.5
The rate of return @OR) method of comparing alter-
natives calculates the interest rate for each alternative and To furthersimplify this problem, consider the differences
selects the highest ROR. A word of caution is necessary, between these two alternatives. If Alternative A is subtracted
ROR evaluates INVESTED capital and the costs of operation from Alternative B, the cash flow diagram becomes:
and maintenance as opposed to revenues or benefits received
from the project. Therefore, a project totally financed with
borrowed money has no rate of return because there is no
1.5 :_I
invested capital. The following examples assume 10096 equity
financing and are used to illustrate rate of return calculations. Although the insurancepremiums are an annuity due, the
cash flow diagram above makes the cash flows appear as an
Example 18.18: An investment of $7,000 is placed into investment of $1.5 providing an ordinary annuity of $1 at the
an Bccount for a 10-year period. At the end of 10 years, the end of each year for 2 years. The analysis has Simplified the
balance in the Bccounf is $17,699.30. What was the annual problem considerably and avoided using the more complex
interest rate earned? Using Equation (18.2): formulas associated with annuities due. Using Equation
(18.8):
Fv = Pv(1 + i)"
$17,699.30 = $7,000(1 + i)".
This problem can be solved by dividing both sides of the
equation by $7,000 giving: Entering values in this formula requires that the
mathematical signs be properly observed. If money flowing
17,699.30/7,000 = (1 + i)l0 out, below the time line, is considered positive (+) then
money flowing in, above the time line, or money saved is
2.528 = (1 + i)'O. considered negative (-). The calculation then becomes:
Extracting the tenth root of each side of the equation

gives:
362
Notice there is one equation and one unknown (i), but the must be entered by hand. Even with a computer program, if
unknown appears three times in the equation. Therefore, the the cash flows turn from negative to positive and back to
only solution would be by an iterative process. Continuing negative during the project life, i can take on the form of a
with Equation (18.8): quadratic equation and the computer is unable to determine
whether i is positive or negative. There are computer
spreadsheets and other software available for iterSting i, but
these have their limitations. One of the most popular and
widely used spread-sheets is designed to iterate i for a series
where of cash flows. However, this spreadsheet requires a rather
accurate guess for i; because, if it does not find i after 20
i = 0.21, or 21% iterations, the resultant answer is "Err" (error). The
PV = 1.5 RELCOST program developed to accomplish LCC analysis
A =-1. (copyright, Washington State Energy Office) will iterate i to
seven decimal places in a matter of seconds for projects with
The answer to this problem is - 0.00946,indicating that over 150 input variables and more than 500 inflation ram,
the first interest rate was too low. and evaluate the iterated i to determine whether it is positive
or negative. This program will be discussed in more detail in
Try i = 22% Subsection 18.7, entitled "LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS."
18.5 GRADIENTS
The answer, 0.00847, indicates the interest rate is too 18.5.1 Arithmetic Gradients
high. The actual interest rate is 21.525043%. Placing this
interest rate into the formula for i, the answer equals zero, Having developed formulas for equal payment series
indicating that the ROR realized by purchasing a 3-year policy involving both ordinary annuitiesand annuitiesdue, an end-of-
instead of three 1-year policies is 21.5%. There are many period payment series that increases by a fixed dollar amount
pocket calculators costing under $20 that are designed to at the end of each period can now be evaluated. Consider the
calculate financial functions and are capable of iterating i for folloying end-of-period payments:
problems involving a single financial function.
I I I
Consider the annual cost formula where: t I
J
100
4.
120
.L.
140
t
160
1
160
-
a = (AIP,i,n) x ( cost salvage)
+ (i) salvage + OC - revenues. As can be seen in the cash flow diagram above, the pay-
ment series started at $100 and increased by $20 per year.
Suppose it is required to find the ROR on such a project. Such a payment series is called an arithmetic gradient.
Once again, the solution to the problem is found by iteration. Although such a payment series is covered in detail by most
But in this case, there is more than one financial function. texts on engineering economics, it is highly unlikely that any
Choose an interest rate. Work the problem at that interest portion of a project will contain such a payment series.
rate, and find out if the answer comes out positive or negative.
With the mathematical signs we have used in this example, if The method used to solve for present value, future value
revenues exceed costs the answer would be negative; if costs or annual equivalent cost of such a payment series is to break
exceed revenues the answer would be positive. When the it up into a series of ordinary annuities.
exact i is placed into the formula that denotes the ROR, the
answer would be zero. That is, the interest rate that causes
revenues and costs to be exactly equal. Interest tables may be
c 100 100 100 100 100
used to help find an upper and lower range for i to reduce the 20 20 2Q 20
number of iterations necessary. 20 2Q 20
20 20
A much easier solution is to place all of the cash flows by * 20
year into a computer and write a simple program that can do
thousands of iterations in a matter of seconds to find i. This payment series now appears as five ordinary annui-
ties. Because the series is progressing in the direction of
Trying to iterate i for a problem with more than one future value, it is easiest to assume one annual payment series
function on a financial calculatornearly always results in error of $100 and find the future value of the sum of the remaining
becauseof the tremendous amount of time anddata that four annuities and string them out in the form of an annual
363
equivalent for the 5-year period. The formula to accomplish and the present value (Pv) for an assumed cost of capital of
this, where n = 5 and i = 955, is: 12% compounded annually (i) is:
A = 2 O [ A
0.09
- ( 1 + 0.09)' -1
The 5-year equivalent cost of an arithmetic gradient of
$20 that begins at the end of year 2 and increases through year
5 is $36.56. Therefore, the annual equivalent of the payment
series that began with $100 and increased by $20 for the next
+
4 years is $100 $36.56, or $136.56.
- the present value factor ( P / P , i , n ) .
0 (1 + i)'
Notice that when dealing with an arithmetic gradient, A,
becomes an ordinary annuity, and the amount of increase
starting at the end of the second period is considered to be the Let n equal the number of interest periods (years, in this
gradient. The gradient formula is based on the fact that the case). Then:
gradient always begins at the end of the second period and is
to be strung out as an equal payment series from the end of
the first period to the end of the cash flow. The general
formula for finding the equivalent annual cost of an arithmetic
gradient is:
Note that:
This is the arithmetic gradient uniform series factor
where G is the amount of increase beginning at the end of the
second period.
If the present value or future value of an arithmetic where g is constant.

gradient is required, one could simply multiply Equation
(18.15) by (P/A,i,n) or (F/A,i,n). %ere fore:
The most common use of arithmetic gradients is in

calculating the value of sum-of-yearsdigits (S-Y-D)
depnkiation, which takes the form of a negative arithmetic
gradient. This method of depreciation is no longer allowed
under the 1987 tax law. 0 Then, to find the mual equivalent cost (A), considering
inflation: annual cost = present cost x capital recovery factor
18.5.2 Geometric Gradients (A/P,i,n) and is written:
A geometric gradient is an end-of-period payment series A = PV x (A/P,i,n)

that increases by a fixed percentage each period. Consider a
5-year payment series that begins with $100 and increases by
9% every year thereafier. A cash flow diagram used for
calculation of the problem is shown as:
I ' I
i
100 169
1 1
IldBei 1E9!50
I
1
141.16
Multiplying by the capital recovery factor:
The cash flow diagram above illustrates a geometric

gradient with the first payment (A,) equal to $100 and each
subsequent payment increasing by 9 % in other words, a $100
payment inflating at a rate (g) of 9% annually. Then:
t I I I I
364.
Simplifying: Notice, by removing the capital recovery factor in
Quation (18. la), the equation becomes:
(P/A,g,i,n)(lS. 17)
whereg # i.
* . This is the geometric gradient present werth factor,
(A/Al,g,i,n)(18.16) whereg # i.
where g # i.
In the case where the discount rate equals the rate of
This is the geometric gradient uniform series factor, inflation (g = i), the equation becomes AI divided by zero,
whereg # i. which is undefined. If a geometric gradient is increasing by
exactly the discount rate, this has the same effect of an interest
Using functional notation: rate equal to zero; therefore, simply take AI, multiply it by the
total number of payments (n), which will yield a present value
at the end of year one. Because pment value represents the
dollar equivalent at time zero, the amount that was calculated
by multiplying AI by n is one interest period off. To bring it
Inserting the initial values in this example: to the proper time frame, time zero, simply discount it by one
time period. Therefore:
A= 'noo0 [(1.5386) (0.5674) - 11
0.09 - 0.12 P v = A1 -(n)
. (PIA,,g,i,n) (18.18)
(1+1)
(0.2774) = $117.38.
whereg = i.
The annual equivalent cost equals $117.38. Figure 18.3,
plots a geometric gradient increasing by 9 % for 20 years and This is the geometric gradient present worth factor,
indicates the annual equivalent cost at a discount rate of 12%. whereg = i.
MARS
Figure 18.3 Geometric gradient.
365
Nthough geometric gradients are rather common and are Figure 18.4 illustrates the total annual equivalent costs
found in many applications, they require that the rate of for operating this project for 1 year, 2 years, 3 years, etc.
increase remain amstant. Such is not the case in most energy The capital recovery line indicates the annual equivalent of
forecasts, where inflation rates are modified year by year. investing capital and salvaging the project at end of year 1,2,
This problem will be discussed later in Section 18.7 under the 3, etc. The operation and maintenance line shows the annual
heading, "LIFECYCLE COST ANALYSIS." equivalent cost of operating the project in years 1 through 20.
Notice that the minimum annual cost occurs in year 15, which
Figure 18.4 graphs a project with the following input is $38,486. That is to say, the annual equivalent stream of
variables: I
equal payments for operating the project with a 15-year life
would be $38,4861~.
2O-yearArmual
Eauivalealt Costs Table 18.2 provides annual equivalent values from year
Project life in years . 20 1 through year 18 for capitat recovery, operationand mainten-
Interest rate (APR) 12% ance costs, and total annual costs. Salvage values for any
Capital investment $120,000 $16,065 given year are indicated in the iast column. This analysis is
Salvage value 12,000 -167 beyond the scope of this chapter, but could be used to deter-
Annual costs mine the ecollomic life (minimum annual cost) of a project
Insurance 500 560 that had these cost characteristics. Table 18.2 provides
Fixed 2,250 2,250 answers for various costs that could be beneficial to those who
Arithmetic gradient 230 301 want to sharpen their expertise in calculatingcapital recovery,
Geometric gradient annuities due, ordinary annuities, geometric gradients, and
increasing at 10% 2,000 4,051 arithmetic gradients.
increasing at 6% 10,000 14,895
Depreciation method 200% declining balance
YEARS
Figure 18.4 Economic life.
366
Table 18.2 Economic Life Calculations 18.6.2 Sum-of-Years Dieits Denreciation
This depreciation method is an accelerated depreciation

Capital O&M Total Salvage schedule that recovers larger amounts of depreciation in the
-
Year Recovery costs Costs Values early life of the asset. The method of calculation is as
1 $38,400 $14,810 $53,210 $96,000 follows:
2 34,777 15,296 50,073 76,800
3 31,754 15,779 47,533 6 1,440 1. Find the hum of the years' digits of the life of the
4 29,224 16,259 45,483 49,152 equipment. Example: For a IO-year life, the sum of the
5 27,100 16,735 43,834 39,322 digits 1 through 10 is equal to 55. The easiest way to
6 25,311 17,207 42,517 31,457 make this calculation is:
7 23,800 17,674 41,473 25,166
20,133
life x (life + 1)
8 22,519 18,135 40,655 2
9 21,431 18,592 40,023 16,106
10 20,554 19,042 39,596 12,000
11 19,629 19,485 39,114 12,000 in this case,
12 18,875 19,922 38,797 12,000
10 x (10 + 1) = 55.
13 18,253 20,352 38,605 12,000 2
14 17,734 20,774 38,509 12,000
15 17,297 21,189 38,486 12,000
16 16,926 21,596 38,522 12,000 2. This unit of depreciation is then divided into cost
17 16,609 21,995 38,604 12,000 salvage to obtain one unit of depreciation, which is:
18 16,337 22,385 38,722 12,000
Example: Equipment cost = $60,000
Salvagevalue = $ 5,000
18.6 EQUIPMENT DEPRECIATION then,
A discussion of equipment depreciation is essential in -

6Qfooo ' * ' 0 °
55
= $l,OOQ = one unit of depxeciatiox
evaluating projects for taxable entities because equipment

depreciation significantly lowers the annual cost of a project. 3. This unit of depreciation is then multiplied by the years
This subject is also the area of constant change because it of life in descending order, that is:
changes as tax laws are revised. The amount of total capital
investment in a project and the reduction in tax liability caused year 1 = 10units = $10,000
by depreciation or investment and energy tax credits or both, year 2 - gunits= $9,000
all have a major bearing on whether or not the project is year 3 = gunits= $8,ooo
economically feasible. However, the 1986 tax law drastically -- - - I------- -- -------
reduced many of these incentives. Competent tax accountants y e a r l o = lunit = $1,000.
should be a part of the development team to ensure proper
utilization of these considerations. 3 The depreciation charge under this method performs like
negative arithmetic gradient where A, is $lO,OOO and G
18.6.1 Straight Line Deureciation is -$1,000.
Straight line depreciation is the simplest form of Although this method of depreciation is accepted
depreciation and has survived tax law changes for many accounting practice and may be used on equipment
decades and it is accepted by the 1987 tax law. The formula purchased before 1980, it is no longer allowed under
for straight line depreciation is: the 1987 tax law and is only discussed to illustrate an
- application of the arithmetic gradient.
= one unit of depreciation
life
i.3 Declining Balance Demeciation
Life can be expressed in years, months, units of This method of depreciation is also an accelerated form
production, operating hours, or miles. Under the 1987 tax may obtain even larger depreciation in the early life than
law, salvage values are set to zero. -D. With 200%declining balance depreciation, the mual
is 200% times the Straight line rate. As an example:
367
An asset with a 10-year life has a straight line rate of 18.6.4 Accelerated Cost Recoverv System (ACRS)
1/10. Therefore, the 200% declining balance rate would
be 2/10 or 20%. The Accelerated Cost Recovery System (ACRS) was
introduced in 1981, but underwent major revision in 1986,
This rate is applied to the book value of the asset, effective with the 1987 tax year.
where book value equals cost minus accumulated depre-
ciation. Any salvage value of the equipment was not The 1986 tax law provides that equipment with class lives
considered except that the tax code provided that the of 3,5,7, and 10 years can be depreciated using 200% de-
equipment could not be depreciated below its salvage clining balance, and 15 and 20 years property can be depreci-
value. The $60,000 piece of equipment in the example ated using 150% declining balance. The Internal Revenue
above would be evaluated using 200% declining balance Code specifies asset life under the Asset Depreciation Range
as shown in Table 18.3. (ADR). Table 18.4 lists the various classes of depreciable
property under the Accelerated Cost Recovery System.
Table 18.3 Declining Balance Depreciation

Using 200% Declining Balance Table 18.4 Classes of Depreciable Property
Book Value x Annual Book Value

Depreciation Rate Depreciation End of Year Property All personal property other than real estate.
year 000class
1 60,000 x 0.20 12,000 48,000
2 48,000 x 0.20 9,600 38,400 Special handling devices used in the manufactuhg
3 38,400 x 0.20 7,680 30,720 of food and beverages.
3-Year Special tools used in the manufacture of fabricated

Property metal products, motor vehicles, and finished plastic
products.
Property with an ADR midpoint life of 4 years or

Although this method of depreciation provides the maxi- less.
mum write-off in the early life of the equipment, the annual
depreciationcharge rapidly decreases to the point that it would Automobiles or light general purpose trucks.
be beneficial to switch to straight line after the 6th year. It is
interesting to note that the declining balance method of depre- Semiconductor manufacturing equipment.
ciation, whether it be 20096, 150% or 12596, takes the form
of a negative geometric gradient and the book value for any Aircraft owned by non-air-transport companies.
year can be calculated using Equation (18.2). In this example,
computers.
FV -
= $60,000(1 0.2013
Fv = $30,720 = book value end of year 3, 5-Year Computer-based telephone central office switching
Property equipment.
to calculate the depreciation for year 6,
Equipment used in research and experimentation.
FV = [60,000 (1 - 0.20511 0.20
FV = $3,932,16. Equipment qualifying as a small power production
facility within the meaning of Section 3(17)(C) of
In the example above, the book value is calculated for the the Federal Power Act (16 U.S.C. 7%(17)(C)), as
end of year 5, and multiplied by the depreciation rate, 0.20, in effect on 9-1-86.
to obtain the annual depreciation for year 6.
Petroleum drilling equipment.
Once again, although this method of depreciation is an
accepted aocounting method, declining balance depreciation Property with an ADR midpoint life of >4 and
was made obsolete with the 1980 tax law changes. How- e 10 years.
ever, a modified version of this method was reinstated with
the 1986 tax code revision and is discussed below.
368
Table 18.4 Classes of Depreciable Propehy (continued) Table 18.5 Depreciation Schedule
Book Value x Annual Book Value

Property All personal property other than real estate. Depreciation Rate Depreciation End of Year
Class year ($)($,A
1 60,000 x 0.10 6,000 54,000
AI1 property not assigned to another class. 2 54,000 x 0.20 10,800 43,200
3 43,200 x 0.20 8,640 34,560
Any single purpose agricultural or horticultural
structure.
7-Year
Property Officefurniture, equipment, and fixtures.
Any railroad track.

Table 18.6 Accelerated Cost Recovery System Depreciation
Property with an ADR midpoint life > 10 and < 16 ~~
pl.S. 3- 5- 7- 10- 15- 20-

Recovery Year Year Year Year Year Year
Equipment used in the refining of petroleum, the Year Class Class Class Class Class Class
manufacture of tobacco products and certain food 1 33.33 20.00 14.28 10.00 5.00 3.5
products. 2 44.44 32.00 24.49 18.00 9.50 722
10-Year 3 -
14.82 19.20 17.49 14.40 8.55 6fS
Property Railroad cars. 4 7.41 11.52 12.49 11.52 7.69 618
5 11.52 8.93 9.22 6.93 5.7l
Property with an ADR midpoint life of > 16 and 6 5.76 8.93 7.37 6.23 528
<20 years. 7 8.93 6.55 5.90 4.S
8 4.46 6.55 5.90 452
Any telephone distribution plant and equipment 9 6.55 5.90 @
used for 2-way exchange of voice and data 10 6.55 5.90 4.46
communications. 11 3.29 5.90 4.46
15-Year 12 5.90 4.46
Property Any municipal waste water treatment plant. 13 5.90 4.45
14 5.90 4.45
Property with an ADR midpoint life of >20 and 15 5.90 4.46
<25 years. 16 3.00 4A5
17 4.4s
20-Year Any municipal sewer. 18 4A5
Property Property with an ADR midpoint life of 25 years or 19 4A5
more. 20 4A5
21 225
Property Real property (real estate)
Class Notes: The table values are to be multiplied by the cost basis
of the equipment.
27.5-Year Residential rental property {excluding hotels and
Property motels). 3-year class through 10-year class property is depreci-
ated using 200% declining balance, converting to
31.5 Year Non-residential real property. straight line in the year underlined.
15-yearclass and 20-year class property is depreciated

using 150% declining balance and converting to
straight line in the year underlined.
One of the major revisions to the declining balance
method is that, in the year of purchase, only 0.5 y of depreci- The half-year convention treats all classes as though
ation is allowed and, in the year of disposal, only 0.5 y of they were placed in service in mid-year, allowing0.5
depreciation is allowed. Therefore, if the $60,000piece of y of depreciation in year 1 and 0.5 y of depreciation
equipment with a 10-year life is depreciated under ACRS, the when the property is disposed of, removed from
depreciation schedule would be as shown in Table 18.5. service, or in the last recovery year.
369
10
\ - 2002 OB
o+ I I I I I I I I I I
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
YEARS
Figure 18.5 Depreciation methods.
Under this system of depreciation, the user would switch 18.7 LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS
to straight line in year 7. Table 18.6 provides values for the
various classes of equipment and these values switch to Life cycle costing (LCC) evaluatesall the costs associated
straight line automatically in the year that straight line will with'acquisition, construction and operation of a project.
provide a larger annual depreciation. In year 7, 8,9, and 10, LCC is designed to minimize costs of major projects, not only
the depreciation on the $60,000 piece of equipment would be in consideration of acquisition and construction, but especially
$3,9301~.However, in year 11, which is considered the year in the reduction of operation and maintenance costs during the
of disposal (for tax purposes), the 1986 tax law half-year project life. LCC is the calculation of all annual costs and
convention would allow only $1,965 of depreciation. revenues over the life of the project. These values are totaled
by year and discounted back to time zero at some interest rate
Table 18.6 presents multipliers for accelerated cost to arrive at a net present value. This process is repeated for
recovery system depreciation. each alternative. The alternativesare then compared, based on
net present value or equivalent annual cost.
Figure 18.5 illustrates an asset costing $50,000 with zero
salvagevalue and a 10-yearlife depreciatedby all of the above When performing this analysis, it is important to do
methods. sensitivity analysis. Sensitivity analysis consists of changing
parameters or variables within the project to determine their
During years 7 through 10, ACRS and 200% declining effect on the feasibility of the project. Sensitivity analysis is
balance are almost identical. The asset is Mly depreciated at accomplished by substituting one type of construction for
the end of year 10 using 200% declining balance, but using another or evaluating various pieces of equipment with
ACRS the half-year convention applies in year 11. different operating costs, evaluating what effect a change in
the economic inflation rate would have on the project, and
It is important to note the tremendous amount of tax considering various financing scenarios to observe their effect
revenue generated in year one under the 1986 tax code. on the outcome.
370
Example 18.20: Table 18.7 provides the input data for at 8%/y is $13,019 more for System B than for System C.
evaluating three heating systems. As a very simple example Because the savings in operation and maintenancecosts exceed
of LCC, consider a 15-year LCC for three alternatives (A, B, the value of the initial investment, System C would be chosen
and C as shown in Tables 18.8, 18.9, 18.10, 18.11, 18.12, over System B.
and 18.13) to provide heat for a 30,000 ft* office building.
Table 18.8 Life Cycle Cost of Heating System (A)

Table 18.7 Heating System Cost Alternatives
Electric Electric Resistance Heat

Heating Resistance Beat Pump Geothermal Capital Cost $158,400
Capital cost ($) 158,400 180,OOO 233,100 Interest Rate 8%
Life (y) 12 12 12 Electric Power Cost $O.O5kwh
Salvage value ($) Q -0- -0-
Annual electricity Electric Prop. hual
requirement @Wh) 263,680 131,840 22,620 Power Ins. TaX Maint. Total Present
cost ($kwh) $ 0.05 $ 0.05 $ 0.05 Cost Cost Cost cost Cost Value
Annual maintenance ($) 1,584 2,650 2,33 1 Y e a r o f i 1$1 !$,A
0
Annual insurance ($) 554 630 816
Annual property tax ($) 238 270 350 0 -0- 554 -0- -0- 158,954 158,954
Compressor replacement 1 13,184 554 238 1,584 15,560 14,407
end of year 10 ($) -0- 750 -0- 2 13,184 554 238 1,584 15,560 13,340
3 13,184 554 238 1,584 15,560 12,352
4 13,184 554 238 1,584 15,560 11,437
5 13,184 554 238 1,584 15,560 10,590
Tables 18.8, 18.9, and 18.10 provide a 15-year LCC on 6 13,184 554 238 1,584 15,560 9,805
each system by year and evaluate these costs at 8% com- 7 13,184 554 238 1,584 15,560 9,079
pounded annually. Electrical power costs are assumed to be 8 13,184 554 238 1,584 15,560 8,407
$O.O5kWh. Notice each cost is entered in the year it occurs. 9 13,184 554 238 1,584 15,560 7,784
Insurance premiums k e paid annually and are in the form of 10 13,184 554 238 1,584 15,560 7,207
an annuity due. Based on the present value at an 8% rate of 11 , 13,184 554 238 1,584 15,560 6,673
interest over the 15-year life cylce, the heat pump has the 12 13,184 554 238 1,584 15,560 6,179
lowest cost, and based on the criteria of the lowest present 13 13,184 554 238 1,584 15,560 5,721
value, the heat pump would be the best selection. However, 14 13,184 554 238 1,584 15,560 5,298
when the cost of electricity is increased to $O.O7kWh, 15 13,184 -0- 238 1,584 15,006 4,730
presented in Tables 18.10 and 18.11, the geothermal system
becomes less expensive, having a lower net present value, and Total Cost , $ 391,800
lower annual equivalent costs. Net Present Value $291,965
A n n d Equivalent Cost $ 34,110
Although the annual equivalent cost accurately indicates
which alternative is the best choice, it has absolutely nothing
to do with actual expenditures per year. Although the Heat
Pump costs $6,592/y to operate and has higher maintenance ~ Another method of evaluation involves calculating the
costs than the Geothermal system, at $O.O5kWh it provides ROR of the savings versus the costs. This method is also
the lowest annual cost. The reason for this is the lower initial illustrated in Table 18.13. By iteration (trial and error), a rate
cost of the Heat Pump. of 11.7986 % causes the net present value of the savings to be
exactly equal to the net present value of the costs. Therefore,
Another approach to LCC analysis would be to examine
the difference in costs between System B and System C.
the ROR realized by selecting System C over System B is
12% annually. Often in this type of analysis, the actual
-
Table 18.13 illustrates this approach. Note that the cost of annual costs are not an equal stream of payments, and may
electricityhas been changed to $O.O7kWh. Although $53,100 frequently swing from positive to negative. Such detailed
additional is spent by purchasing System C over System B,the analysis on uneven cash flows can only be pedormed
net present value of the operating costs over a 15-year period efficiently with a computer program.
371
Table 18.9 Life Cycle Cost o f Heating System (E1 Table 18.11 Life Cycle Cost o f Heating System (61
Air t o Air Heat Pump Air to Air Heat Pump

capital cost $180,000 Capital Cost $180,000
Interest Rate 8Z Interest Rate 82
Electric Power Cost fO.OS/kWh Electric Power Cost $0.07/kWh
El ectri c Prop. Annual Electric Prop. Annual
Power Ins. Tax Maint. Total Present Power Ins. Tax Maint. Total Present
cost cost cost cost cost Value Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Value
-
Year ($1 ($1 ($1 ($1 ($1 ($1 -
Year ($1 ($1 ($1 ($1 ($1 ($1
0 -0- 630 -0- -0- 180,630 180,630 0 -0- 630 -0- -0- 180,630 180,630
1 6,592 630 270 2,650 10,142 9,391 1 9,229 630 270 2,650 12,779 11,832
2 6,592 630 270 2,650 10,142 8,695 2 9,229 630 270 2,650 12,779 10,956
3 6,592 630 270 2,650 10,142 8,051 3 9,229 630 270 2,650 12,779 10,144
4 6,592 630 270 2,650 10,142 7,455 4 9,229 630 270 2,650 12,779 9,393
5 6,592 630 270 2,650 10,142 6,902 5 9,229 630 270 2,650 12,779 8,697
6 6,592 630 270 2,650 10,142 6,391 6 9.229 630 270 2,650 12,779 8,053
7 6,592 630 270 2,650 10,142 5,928 7 9,229 630 270 2,650 12,779 7,456
8 6,592 630 270 2,650 10,142 5,479 8 9,229 630 270 2,650 12,779 6,904
9 6,592 630 270 2,650 10,142 5,074 9 9,229 630 270 2,650 12,779 6.393
10 6,592 630 270 3,400a 10,892 5,045 10 9,229 630 270 3.400a 12,779 6,266
11 6.592 630 270 2,650 10,142 4,350 11 9,229 630 270 2,650 12,779 5,481
12 6,592 630 270 2,650 10,142 4,028 12 9,229 630 270 2,650 12,779 5,075
13 6,592 630 270 2,650 10,142 3,729 13 9,229 630 270 2.650 12,779 4,699
14 6.592 630 270 2.650 10,142 3,453 14 9,229 630 270 2,650 12,779 4,351
15 6,592 -0- 270 2,650 9,512 2,999 15 9,229 630 270 2,650 12,149 3,830
Total Cost S 332,880 Total Cost f 372,432
Net Present Value t 267.589 Net Present Value f 290.159
Annual Equivalent Cost t 31,262 Annual Equivalent Cost S 33,899
a. Indicates compressor replacement. a. Indicates compressor replacement.
Table 18.10 Life Cycle Cost of Heating System (C) Table 18.12 Life Cycle Cost o f Heating System ( C )
Geothermal Heating System Geothermal Heating System

Capital Cost $233,100 Capital Cost $233,100
Interest Rate 82 Interest Rate 8%
Electric Power Cost fO.OS/kWh Electric Power Cost f0.07/kWh
Electric Prop. Annual E l ectri c Prop. Annual
Power Ins. Tax Maint. Total Present Power Ins. Tax Maint. Total Present
cost cost cost cost cost Value Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Value
-
Year ($1 (f) ($1 ($1 --- ($1 ($1 -
Year ($1 ($1 ($1 ($1 ($1 ($1
0 -0- 816 -0- -0- 233,916 233,916 0 -0- 816 -0- -0- 233,916 233,916
1 1,131 816 350 2,331 4,628 4,285 1 1,583 816 350 2,331 5,080 4,704
2 1,131 816 350 2,331 4,628 3,967 2 1,583 816 350 2,331 5,080 4,355
3 1,131 816 350 2,331 4,628 3,673 3 1,583 816 350 2.331 5,080 4,033
4 1,131 816 350 2,331 4,628 3.401 4 1,583 816 350 2,331 5,080 3,734
5 1,131 816 350 2,331 4,628 3.149 5 1,583 816 350 2,331 5,080 3,457
6 1,131 816 350 2,331 4,628 2,916 6 1,583 816 350 2,331 5,080 3,201
7
8
9
1,131
1.131
1,131
816
816
816
350
350
350
2,331
2,331
2,331
4,628
4,628
4,628
2,700
2,500
2,315
7
8
9
1,583
1,583
1,583
816
816
816
350
350
350
2,331
2,331
2,331
5,080
5,080
5,080
.
2,964
2 745
2,541
10 1,131 816 350 2,331 4,628 2,143 10 1,583 816 350 2,331 5,080 2,353
11 1,131 816 350 2,331 4,628 1,985 11 1,583 816 350 2,331 5,080 2,179
12 1,131 816 350 2,331 4,628 1,838 12 1,583 816 350 2,331 5,080 2,017
13 1,131 816 350 2,331 4,628 1.702 13 1,583 816 350 2,331 5,080 1,868
14 1,131 816 350 2,331 4,628 1,575 14 1,583 816 350 2,331 5,080 1,730
15 1,131 816 350 2,331 3,812 1,202 15 1,583 -0- 350 2,331 4,264 1,344
Total Cost f 302.513 Total Cost $ 309,299
Net Present Value S 273,268 Net Present Value S 277.140
Annual Equivalent Cost $ 31,962 Annual Equivalent Cost f 32,378
372
Table 18.13 Incremental Difference of System (C-B) the advent of the microcomputer and software designed to do
preliminary LCC analysis, the cost analyst can provide a
Geothermal minus Heat h p relatively g o d guess as to the economic feasibility of a
Incremental Cost $ 53,100 project.
Interest Rate 8%
Electric Power Cost $O.O7kWh The Renewable Energy Life Cycle COST program,
RELCOST, was designed for just this purpose. Any LCC
Electric Prop. Annual analysis of a project requires an extensive accompanying
Power Ins. Tax Maint. Total P report in order to explain in detail how values were calculated.
Cost Cost Cost Cost Cost Value RELCOST provides an output, at the option of the user, that
-
year ts,n 1$1 a ($,' A
will print all of the input data, the energy forecast, the
depreciation schedule, and all of the output data in tabular
0 -0- 186 -0- -0- -53,286 -53,286 form, minimizing the need for an accompanying report.
1 7,645 186 80 319 7,699 7,129 RELCOST also provides an output file accessible to Harvard
2 7,645 186 80 319 7,699 6,601 Graphics.
3 7,645 186 80 319 7,699 6,112
4 7,645 186 80 319 7,699 5,659 The program was developed through the Washington State
5 7,645 186 80 319 7,699 5,240 Energy Office using funds provided by the state energy offices
6 7,645 186 80 319 7,699 4,852 of Washington and Oregon, and form private sources. The
7 7,645 186 80 319 7,699 4,492 150 page user manual is supplied on a floppy disk. To obtain
8 7,645 186 80 319 7,699 4,159 copies of this program, contact the Washington State Energy
9 7,645 186 80 319 7,699 3,851 Office, 809 Legion Way SE, Olympia, Washington, DC
10 7,645 186 80 1,069 8,449 3,913 98504-121 1, telephone (206) 586-5000.
11 7,645 186 80 319 7,699 3,302
12 7,645 186 80 319 7,699 3,057 The RELCOST Program, Release 2.1, can accommodate
13 7,645 186 80 319 7,699 2,831 inflation rates for 13 different energies, and it is possible to
14. 7,645 186 80 319 7,699 2,621 change the inflation rate for each of these energies every year
15 7,645 -0- 80 319 7,699 2,486 throughout an energy forecast of up to 30 years. In addition,
RELCOST will accommodate up to five different classes of
Total Cost $ 63,134 equipment with varying useful lives and with different
Net Present Value $ 13,019 depreciation schedules. Inflation rates regarding equipment
Annual Equivalent Cost $ 1,521 replacement can vary for each equipment class.
Incremental Rate of Return on System (C) 11.7986%
RELCOST allows up to 5 years for comtruction and
acquisition. During this construction period, it allows any
combination of project financing to include bonds, bank loans,
les 18.8 through 18.1 contain any form of a and equity. It also allows capital investment during the con-
gradient. If any of the costs are allowed to inflate, the struction period for project funds that are in excess of project
problem would become much more complex. Furthermore, all costs for any particular year. The life of bank loans and bond
costs would not inflate at the same rate. The price of a issues can vary year by interest rates may differ for
replacement system 15 years from today would inflate at one bonds, bank loans, and ts €or each year of construc-
rate, electricity at a different rate, and insurance would tion. The program permits 12 different depreciationschedules
probably be a different rate. However, with the use of a for equipment, including the half-year convention, and these
microcomputer it would be possible to establish different rates may be altered by the user. The progxxm makes pro-
inflation rates for all cost data and perform the same analysis visions for percentage d wances, investment tax
as shown in Tables 18.8 through 18.13. credits, and energy tax can accept up to three
annual revenue streams, inflating at some userdefined rate per
are extremely sensitiveto the cost year over the life of the project. It also allows for a growth
of electrical power. the number of customers on-line in any given year.
RELCOST provides for four resident energy forecasts, up

18.8 RELCOST PROGRAM to 30 years in length. Once all the-input data has been
collected, and energy forecasts have been established, the
LCC on a major project requires thousands of calculati program requires less than 30 minutes to enter the data and do
involving every formula presented thus far in this chapter with the calculations for a major project.
e exception of arithmeticgradients. However, with
373
A complete run on a hypothetical heating district for a depletion, and if necessary, could change year by year, or as
taxable entity is provided in Tables 18.14 thru 18.22. The the tax code changes. The 1986 tax code changed percentage
same project for a non-taxable entity appears in Tables 18.23 depletion allowance from 20 to 2296, effective in 1987. The
thru 18.29. user must consult the current tax code to determine those
energies eligible for depletion allowance and the percent of
The typical life-cycle cost input data supplied considers depletion allowance. The program does not provide cost
the difference between an existing system and a proposed depletion, although the user could calculate such depletion in
system; the same type of analysis that was performed using the depreciation section. Depletion allowances are only
System B and System C in Table 18.13. That is, the program available for taxable entities.
considers the initial cost of the proposed system and evaluates
the annual savings provided by the proposed systemversus the Screen five on Table 18.15 presents five classas of equip-
capital investment required for the proposed system to deter- ment. This screen allows the user to group all equipment
mine whether or not the system is economically feasible. -It is associated with a project into five different classes depending
not necessary to have a present system. LCC analysis could upon economic life (the actual usable life of the equipment),
be accomplished on a proposed system only. However, in taxable life, actual expected salvage value, taxable salvage
order to perform this analysis, the program would have to value, and the method of depreciation to be applied against
consider the initial cost of the proposed system versus the that class of equipment. This portion of the input section also
revenues generated by the proposed system. allows inflation rates for subsequent purchaps of equipment
and inflation rates for actual salvage value to determiaeequip-
Table 18.14 illustrates input screen one, two, and three ment replacement costs throughout the life cycle of the pro-
of the RELCOST Program. Screen one consists of the report ject. The user should be aware that equipment is automatical-
title, location, date, and gives the user the option of ly replaced at the end of its economic life without any regard
choosing one of four forecast files or creating an energy for the life of the project. In other words, if a class of equip-
forecast for this report only. These forecast files must be ment had a five-year economic life, the project had a three-
created, maintained, and updated by the user. year construction period and a lifecycle cost analysis was
done for a 20-year period, that class of equipment would auto-
Screen two begins with capital investment data. Data matically be replaced at the beginning of year 9, 14, and 19.
entered on this sheet includes the beginning year of invest-
ment, construction period, economic inflation rate, discount There are 12 columns of depreciation schedulesavailable
rate or cost of capital selected for the project and all financing in the depreciation file. The data in these columns can be
data in the form of owner's equity, bonds, and bank loans modified by the user and hopefully will be adequate for-future
used to finance the project. changes to the tax law. Columns one through six, supplied
with the program, provide ACRS depreciation schedulesfor
Input screen three,which appears in the lower third of 3-, 5-, 7-, lo-, 1 5 , and 20-year lives, using the half-year
Table 18.14, includes all present costs of energy for the exis- convention. The user may also select straight line depreci-
ting and the propod system. The first five energies: nahual ation. selecting this option will cause the program to d c u -
gas, fuel oil, propane, coal, and electricity, are the convea- late the anuual depreciation charge for that class of equipment
tional fuels supplied for every project. "&e next five energies based on its cost basis minus any salvage that may be allowed,
included under the heading Other Energy" are user selectable. for either a full-year or half-year convention, dependingon the
The titles of these fuels are obtained from the energy forecast. option selected by the user. All depreciation schedules are
If no titles are supplied by the user, then they are listed as modifiable except for straight line.
"Other 1" through "Other 5. " The user may elect to use any
one or all of these fuels in the project under study. Column zero suppliesmultipliers for percentage depletion
allowances.
The last two items on screen three: property tax and
insurance, and operation and maintenance, have their own The last screen on Table 18.15 is screen six, which
independent inflation rates that are not in addition to the requires income tax and investment tax credit input data. This
economic inflation rate. However, if the user wanted these screen allows the user to select the marginal federal and state
rates to inflate differently year by year, they could be entered tax rates, the percentage of investment tax credit or energy tax
on an energy forecast as an energy, properly titled, and these credit available or both, and the amount of the capital
two items could be omitted at the bottom of screen three. investment eligible for these tax credits.
Screen four Table 18.15 presents energy sales for both the Table 18.16 is an example of a typical energy forecast.
present and proposed systems. This screen also allowspercen- The inflation rates by year and by type of energy appear in the
tages depletion allowance for energy sales under the proposed columns as decimal amounts and represent an inflation rate
system. The amount of the percentage depletion allowance is above or below the economic inflation rate for each fuel. In
determined by the user on the depreciation scheduleunder other words, if the inflation rate in the natural gas column was
374
Input Page 1 of 4 Table 18.14
LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS

for
The Horsefly Heating District
Klamath Falls, Oregon
April28, 1987
Energy forecast used for this report: 1986 SampleEnergy Forcast.* This report is for a taxable entity.
Dollar values rounded to the nearest: 1
Capital investment data:

Year Of Initial Capital Investment.. .................... .........(example: 1988)..........: 1988
Year Project Will Be In Production.. ...........................(example: 1990)..........: 1992
Project Life In Years..................... .(enter a whole number from 1 to 40). ..........: 20
Economic Inflation Rate.. ....................
.(enter as a whole number e.g. 7)...........: 4%
Discount Rate................................. (enter as a w number 3.g. w............: 10%
Financing:
BeeinninP of Year 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988
Pr Jt Cost ........... 500,000 300,000 700,000 500,000
Equity ........... a000 ........... ........... 250,000
Bank Loan ........... 400,000 ........... ........... 800,000
Life ........... 10 ........... ........... 15
(AW , ...........% 10% ...........% ...........% 9%
Bond Issue ........... ........... ........... ........... l,oo,OOo
Life ........... ........... ........... ........... 18
(APR) ...........% ........... % ...........% ...........% 6%
Invested ........... 1,157 241,366 642,765 1,390,752
(APR) ...........% 8.5 % 10% 9% 8%
Investment EOY 1992: 1,255 Total Project Cost (NPV): 1,759;954

Year Zero Annual Costs: Present Svstem Proposed Svstem
Conventional Energy:
Natural Gas ............................................................ 50,000 400
Fuel Oil............. ................................................ ........... ...........
Propane.. .............................................................. ........... ...........
................................................................ ........... ...........
‘ty............................................................. 150,Ooo 100,OoO
Other Energy:
Geothermal................... ....................................... ........... 10,000
.................................... ...........
.................................................... ........... ...........
Biomass................................................................ ........... ...........
Waste Heat.. .......................................................... ........... ...........
Property Tax and Insurance; ........................................... 2,500 3,000
Inflation Rate.......................................................... 1.51
Operation and Maintenance............................................ 15,000 25,OOO
Inflation Rate.......................................................... 4%
375
Input Table 18.15
Page 2 of 4
w
Year Zero Annual Costs: Present System Proposed Svstem
Sales of Energy:
Steam.. .............................................................. ........... ...........
Hot
. Water..
. ......................................................... ........... 220,000
Tipping Fees........................................................ ........... ...........
Percentage Depletion Allowance (for proposed system only):
(See column 13 of Depreciation Schedule for rate.)
Indicate sales eligible steam.............................. : No

for percentage depletion Hot Water.. ...................... : YeS
allowance: (Y/N) Tipping Fees.. ...................: No
Taxable income limitations for depletion allowance.. ............................ : 50%

(Based on income resulting from sales eligible for depletion.)
Equipment Purchases: Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5
Initial Cost: 500,000 250,000 120,000 90,000 ...........

Yr. Purchased: 1988 1989 1990 1990 ...........
Inflation/yr: 4% ..........% 5% ..........% 6%
Actual Slvg.: 50,000 .......... 20,000 .......... ..........

Economic Life: 10 25 18 20 ..........
Taxable Slvg. : 1,000 ......... .......... .......... ..........
Taxable Life: 5 10 7 12 ..........
Dpren. Method: STLN ACRS ACRS STLN STLN
Half Yr. Rule: No No No Yes No
Fed. Tax Credits:

Business: (Y/N) Yes No Yes No No
Energy: (Y/N) No No Yes No No
Adjust Equipment
Cost Basis By: 5% ..........% 12.5% ..........% ..........%
Income Tax and Investment Tax Credit Information: Federal state
Marginal Tax Rate....................................................... 40% 10%
Business Investment Tax Credit:
Amount Eligible.. ....................................................... 500,000 100
Rate. ....................................................................... 10% 10%
Energy Tax Credit:
..
Amount Eligible.. ....................................................... 200,000 100
Rate......................................................................... 15% 15%
375
Input Table 18.16
Page 3 of 4
Sample Energy Forecast*
Forecast Energy Inflation Rates
1986
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Natu Fuel .Prop Coal Elec Geot Sola Nucl Biom Wast
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Yr
_.
86 0.020. -0.019 0.019 0.020 0.009 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 . 0.023
87 0.020 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.009 0,015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
88 0.020 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.009 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
89 0.020 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.009 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
90 0.022 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.009 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
91 0.022 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.009 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
92 0.022 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.009 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
93 0.022 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
94 0.022 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
95 0.030 0.019
0.030 0.019
.
0 019 0.020
0.020
0.021
0.021
0.015
0.015
0.004
0.004
0.001
0.001
0.005
0.005
0.010
0.010
0.002
0.002
0.023
0.023
0.023
0.023
96 0.019
97 0.030 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
98 0.030 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.091 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
99 0.030 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
00 0.032 0.018 0.018 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 6.023
01 0.032 0.018 0.018 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
02 0.032 0.028 0.018 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
03 0.032 0.018 0.018 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
04 0.032 0.018 0.018 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
05 0.032 0.018 0.018 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
, f ' ;
G,
4
4
Input Table 18.17
Page 4 of 4
Equipment Depreciation Schedule
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Method ACRS ACRS ACRS ACRS ACRS ACRS ACRS ACRS
Life 3-Yr 5-Yr 7-Yr 10-Yr 15-Yr 20-Yr 3-Yr 5-Yr
DPLTN
-
Yr
1 22.00 33.33 20.00 14.28 10.00 5.00 3.75 33.00 20.00
2 22.00 44.44 32.00 24.49 18.00 9.50 7.22 45.00 32.00
3 22.00 14.82 19.20 17.49 14.40 8.55 6.68 22.00 24.00
4 22.00 7.41 11.52 12.49 11.52 7.69 6.18 16.00
5 22.00 11.52 8.93 9.22 6.93 5.71 8.00
6 22.00 5.76 8.93 7.37 6.23 5.28
7 22.00 8.93 6.55 5.90 4.89
8 22.00 4.46 6.55 5.90 4.52
9 22.00 6.55 5.90 4.46
10 22.00 6.55 5.90 4.46
11 22.00 3.29 5.90 4.46
12 22.00 5.90 4.46
13 22.00 5.90 4.46
14 22.00 5.90 4.46
15 22.00 5.90 4.46
16 22.00 3.00 4.46
17 22.00 4.46
18 22.00 4.46
19 22.00 4.46
20 22.00 4.46
21 22.00 2.25
22 22.00
23 22.00
24 22.00
25 22.00
26 22.00
27 22.00
28 22.00
29 22.00
30 22.00
31 22.00
32 22.00
33 22.00
34 22.00
35 22.00
36 22.00
37 22.00
38 22.00
39 22.00
40 22.00
41
Output Table 18.18
Page 1 of 5
for
April%, 1987
Project Cost (Pv) 1,759.954 Benefit Cost Ratio 0.39 to 1

Equity Financing (Pv) 295,078 Return on Equity 14.825%
Debt Financing (Pv) 2,100,526 Simple Payback 8years 5months
Net Present Value -1,068,686 Discounted Payback 12 years 2 months
1 2 3 4 5
Natural Gas Electricity property Tax O&M Hot Water
Present Present & Insurance Present Revenues
System System Present System Ropsed
System System
YEAR ZERO
AMOUNT 50,500 150,000 2,500 15,000 220,000
1988 0 0 0 0 0
1989 0 0 0 0 0
1990 0 0 0 0 0
1991 0 0 0 0 0
1992 67,964 190,532 2,693 18,250 298,599
1993 72,177 202,155 2,734 18,980 317,411
1994 76,652 214,486 2,775 19,739 337,408
1995 82,018 227,570 2,816 20,529 358,665
1996 87,759 241,452 2,858 21,350 381,261
1997 93,902 256,180 2,901 22,204 405,280
1998 100,476 271,807 2,945 23,092 430,813
1999 107,509 2138,3137 2,989 24,015 457,954
2000 115,250 305,979 3,034 24,976 486,805
2001 123,548 324,644 3,079 25,975 517,474
2002 132,443 344,447 3,126 27,014 550,075
2003 14€ ,979 365,458 3,172 28,095 584,729
2004 152,201 387,751 3,220 29,219 621,567
2005 163,160 411,404 3,268 30,387 660,726
2006 174,907 436,500 3,317 31,603 702,352
2007 187,501 463,126 3,367 32,867 746,600
TOT- 1,879,446 4,931,880 48,296 398,293 7,857,719
379
output Table 18.19
Page 2 of 5
for
April28, 1987
6 7 8 9 10
Natural Gas Electricity Geothermal PropertyTax O & M
Present Present Proposed & Insurance Present
System System System Proposed System
System
YEAR ZERO
AMOUNT -400 -100,000 -10,000 -3,000 -25,000
1988 0 0 0 0 0
1989 0 0 0 0 0
1990 0 0 0 0 0
1991 0 0 0 0 0
1992 538 127,022 13,070 3,232 30,416
1993 572 134,770 13,788 3,280 31,633
1994 607 142,991 14,547 3,330 32,898
1995 650 151,713 15,347 3,379 34,214
1996 695 160,968 16,191 3,430 35,583
1997 744 170,787 17,081 3,482 37,006
1998 796 181,205 18,021 3,534 38,486
1999 852 192,258 19,012 3,587 40,026
2000 913 203,986 20,058 3,641 41,627
2001 979 216,429 21,161 3,695 43,292
2002 1,049 229,631 22,325 3,751 45,024
2003 1,125 243,639 23,553 3,807 46,825
2004 1,206 258,501 24,848 3,864 48,698
2005 1,292 274,269 26,215 3,922 50,645
2006 1,385 291,000 27,656 3,981 52,671
2007 1,485 308,751 29,178 4,041 54,778
TOTALS: 14,887 3,287,920 322,050 57,955 663,822
380
output Table 18.20
Page 3 of 5
LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS I
for
April28, 1987
11 12 13 14 15
Equipment Equipment Debt Service Interest Net
Replacement Depreciation Bank Loan Charges on Operating
PrOpOSed Proposed and/or Financing Income
System System Bond Issue
YEAR ZERO
AMOUNT
1988 0 0 159,247 132,000 -132,000

1989 0 0 159,247 129,548 -129,548
1990 0 0 159,247 126,875 - 126,875
1991 0 0 224,345 163,961 -163,961
1992 0 138,544 224,345 158,276 106,346
1993 0 173,015 224,345 152,276 104,346
1994 0 156,664 224,345 145,243 154,780
1995 0 144,215 224,345 137,790 204,289
1996 0 134,727 224,345 129,633 253,454
1997 0 35,301 224,345 120,705 395,362
1998 0 33,252 224,345 110,932 442,907
1999 0 28,558 224,345 100,236 496,326
2000 0 23,875 224,345 88,528 553,416
2001 0 23,875 159,247 75,713 609,576
2002 735,962 179,888 159,247 68,195 507,242
2003 0 171,663 600 60,Ooo - 572,823
2004 0 167,913 ~,OOo aoO0 628,930
2005 0 164,163 1,060,o0o a000 688,439
2006 0 164,163 0 0 807,822
2007 0 0 0 0 1,035,22
TOTALS: 735,962 1,739,815 4,219,688 2,019,688 7,009,498 .
381
output Table 18.21
Page 4 of 5
for
April28, 1987
16 17 18 19 20
Percentage Net Income Federal Net Income Add
Depletion Before Taxes and State M e r Taxes Depreciation
Allowance Income Tax & Depletion
YEAR ZERO
AMOUNT
1988 0 -132,000 0 -132,000 0

1989 0 -129,548 0 - 129,548 0
1990 0 - 126,875 0 -126,875 0
1991 0 - 163,961 0 - 163,961 0
1992 53,471 53,470 0 53,470 192,015
1993 52,173 52,173 0 52,173 225,187
1994 74,230 80,550 0 80,550 230,894
1995 78,906 125,383 0 125,383 223,121
1996 83,877 169,576 0 169,576 218,604
1997 89,162 306,200 37,460 268,741 124,463
1998 94,779 348,128 174,064 174,064 128,030
1999 100,750 395,576 197,788 197,788 129,308
2000 107,097 446,319 223,160 223,160 130,972
2001 113,844 495,732 247,866 247,866 137,719
2002 121,016 386,226 193,113 193,113 300,904
2003 128,640 444,183 222,091 222,091 300,303
2004 136,745 492,185 246,092 246,092 304,658
2005 145,360 543,079 271,540 271,540 309,523
2006 154,517 653,305 326,652 326,652 318,680
2007 164,252 870,977 435,488 435,488 164,252
TOTALS: 1,698,819 5,310,679 2,575,315 2,735,365 3,438,634
382
output Table 18.22
Page 5 of 5
for
Apnl28, 1987
21 22 23 24 25
Net Cumulative Discounted Cumulative Discounted
Operating Cash Flow Cash Flow Discounted Cash Flow
Cash Flow Cash Flow at ROR
After Taxes
YEAR ZERO
AMOUNT
1988 '-159,247 - 159,247 -144,770 -144,770 -138,687

1989 -159,247 -318,494 -131,609 -276,379 -120,782
1990 - 159,247 -477,741 -119,645 -396,024 -105,188
1991 -224,345 -702,087 -153,231 -549,255 -129,056
1992 179,416 -522,671 111,403 -437,852 89,885
1993 205,068 -371,603 115,756 -322,096 89,473
1994 232,342 -85,260 119,228 -202,868 88,285
1995 261,949 175,688 122,201 -80,667 86,684
1996 293,468 470,156 124,459 43,792 84,576
1997 289,563 759,720 111,639 155,431 72,677
1998 188,681 948,401 66,132 221,563 4 1,243
1999 202,987 1,151,388 64,678 286,24 1 38,641
2000 218,315 1,369,702 63,238 349,479 36,194
2001 302,051 1,671,753 79,539 429,018 43,611 .
2002 -332,998 ~ 1,338,756 -79,717 349,301 -41,872
2003 522,395 ' 1,861,150 113,688 462,990 57,206
2004 550,750 2,411,900 108,963 571,953 52,525
2005 -418,938 1,992,963 -75,350 496,603 -34,736
2006 645,333 2,638,296 105,517 602,120 46,679
2007 599,740 3,238,036 89,148 691,268 37,781
TOTALS: . 3,238,036 691,268 295,078
383
Input Table 18.23
Page 1 of 3
for
April28, 1987
Energy forecast used for this report: 1986 Sample Energy Forcast. * This report is for a taxable entity.
Dollar values rounded to the nearest: 1
capital investment data:

Year Of Initial Capital Investment.. ..................... ........(example: 19881.. ........: 1988
Year Project Will Be In Production............................. (example: 1990)..........: 1992
Project Life In Years...................... (enter a whole number from 1 to 40) ...........
: . 20
Economic Inflation Rate....................... (enter as a whole number e.g. 7)...........: 4%
Discount Rate............................... ..(enter as a whole number 3.g. 12)............: 10%
Financing:
Beginning; of Year 1992 . 1991 1990 1989 1988 .
Pr Jt Cost ........... 500,000 300,000 700,000 500,000
Equity ........... aoO0 ........... ........... 250,000
BankLoan * ........... 400,000 ........... ........... 800,000
Life ........... 10 ........... ........... 15
(Am ...........% 10% ...........% ...........% 9%
Bond Issue ........... ........... ........... ........... 1 , ~ , W
Life ........... ........... ........... ........... 18
(Am ...........% ...........% ...........96 ...........% 6%
Invested ........... 1,157 I 241,366 642,765 1,390,752
(APR) ...........% 8.5% 10% 9% 8%
Investment EOY 1992: 1,255 Total Project Cost (NPV): 1,759,954
Year Zero Annual Costs: Present System Pro-msed Svstem

Conventional Energy:
Natural Gas............................................................ 50,500 400
Fuel Oil ................................................................ ........... ...........
Propane.. .............................................................. ........... ...........
coal. ................................................................... ........... ...........
Electricity. ............................................................ 150,000 100,OOO
Other Energy:
Geothermal............................................................ ........... 10,OOo
Solar.. ................................................................. ........... ...........
Nuclear.. .............................................................. ........... ...........
Biomass.. .............................................................. ........... ...........
Waste Heat ............................................................ ........... ...........
Insurance.. ................................................................ 2,500 3,000
. Inflation Rate.......................................................... 1.5%
Operation and Maintenance............................................. 15,000 25,OOO
Inflation Rate.......................................................... 4%
384
Input Table 18.24
Page 2 of 3
Year Zero Annual Cost: Present Proposed
System System
Sales of Energy:
steam ............................................................. a: ........... ...........
Hot #Water..
. . Fees ....................................................... : ........... 200,000
'hpping ...................................................... : ........... ...........
Equipment
Purchases: Class 1 Class 2 !ad Class 4 Class 5
G
Initial Cost: 5oo,oO0 250,000 120,000 90,000 .........
Yr. Purchased: 1988 1989 1990 1990 .........
Inflation/Yr: 4% .........% 5% .........% 6%
Actual Slv.: 50,000 ......... 20,000 ......... .........

Economic Life: 10 - 25 - 18 20 .........
385
Input Table 18.25
Page 3 of 3
Sample Energy Forecast*
Forecast Energy Inflation Rates
1986
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Natu Fuel Prop Coal Elec Geot Sola Nucl Biom Wast Stea Hot TiPP
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (1) (2) (3)
86 0.020 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.009 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
87 0.020 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.009 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
88 0.020 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.009 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
89 0.020 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.009 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
90 0.022 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.009 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
91 0.022 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.009 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
92 0.022 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.009 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
93 0.022 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
94 0.022 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
95 0.030 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
96 0.030 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
97 0.030 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
98 0.030 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
99 0.030 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
00 0.032 0.018 0.018 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
01 0.032 0.018 0.018 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
02 0.032 0.018 0.018 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
03 0.032 0.018 0.018 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
04 0.032 0.018 0,018 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
05 0.032 0.018 0.018 0.020 0.021 0.015 0.004 0.001 0.005 0.010 0.002 0.023 0.023
,Output Table 18.26
Page 1 of 4
for
Klamath Falls, Orego
April28, 1987 .
Project Cost (I%) 1,759.954 Benefit Cost Ratio 0.72 to 1

Equity Financing (Pv) 295,078 Return on Equity 18.737%
Debt Financing (pr) 2,100,526 Simple Payback 8years 5months
Net Present Value -500,433 Discounted Payback 11 years 0 months
Discount Rate 10.00%
1 2 3 4 5
Natural Gas Electricity Insurance 0&M Hot Water
Present Present Present Present Revenues
System System System System Proposed
System
YEAR ZERO
AMOUNT 50,500 150,m 2,5QO 15,Ooo 220,000
1988 0 0 0 0 : o
1989 0 0 0 0 0
1990 0 0 0 0 0
1991 0 2) - 0 0 0
1992 67,964 190,532 2,693 18,250 298,599
1993 72,177 202,155 2,734 18,980 317,411
1994 76,652 214,486 2,775 19,739 337,408
1995 82,018 227,570 2,816 20,529 358,665
1996 87,759 24 1,452 2,858 21,350 381,261
1997 93,902 256,180 2,901 22,204 405,280
1998 100,476 271,807 2,945 3,092 430,813
I999 107,509 288,387 2,989 4,015 457,954
2000 115,250 305,979 3,034 24,976 486,805
2001 123,548 324,644 3,079 25,975 517,474
2002 132,443 344,447 3,126 27,014 550,075
2003 141,979 365,458 3,172 28,095 584,729
2004 152,201 387,751 3,220 29,219 621,567
2005 163,160 411,404 3,268 30,387 660,726
2006 174,907 436,500 3,317 31,603 702,352
2007 187,501 463,126 3,367 32,867 746,600
TOTALS: 1,879,446 4,931,880 48,296 398,293 7,857,719
387
output Table 18.27
Page 2 of 4
for
April28, 1987
6 7 8 9 10
Natural Gas Electricity Geothermal Insurance O&M
Present Present Proposed Proposed operating
System System System System Cash Flow
YEAR ZERO
AMOUNT -400 -100,OOO -10,000 -3,000 -25,000
1988 0 0 0 0 0
1989 0 0 0 0 0
1990 0 0 0 0 0
1991 0 0 0 0 0
1992 538 127,022 13,070 3,232 30,416
1993 572 134,770 13,788 3,280 31,633
1994 607 142,991 14,547 3,330 32,898
1995 650 151,713 15,347 3,379 34,214
1996 695 160,968 16,191 3,430 35,583
1997 744 170,787 17,081 3,482 37,006
1998 796 181,205 18,021 3,534 38,486
1999 852 192,258 19,012 3,587 40,026
2000 913 203,986 20,058 3,641 41,627
2001 979 216,429 21,161 3,695 43,292
2002 1,049 229,631 22,325 3,751 45,024
2003 1,125 243,639 23,553 3,807 46,825
2004 1,206 258,SO1 24,848 3,864 48,698
2005 1,292 274,269 26,215 3,922 50,645
2006 1,385 291,000 27,656 3,981 52,671
2007 1,485 308,75 1 29,178 4,041 54,778
TOTALS: 14,887 3,287,920 322,050 57,955 . 663,822
388
output Table 18.28
Page 3 of 4
for
April28, 1987
11 12 13 14
Eiquipment Debt Service Net Cumulative
Replacement Bankhan Operating Cash Flow
Proposed and/or Cash Flow
System Bond Issue
YEAR ZERO
AMOUNT
1988 0 159,247 - 159,247 -159,247

1989 0 159,247 - 159,247 '. -318,494
1990 0 159,247 ~. -159,247 -477,741
1991 0 224,345 -224,345 -702,087
1992 0 224,345 179,416 -522,671
1993 0 224,345 205,068 -3 17,603
1994 0 224,345 232,342 -85,260
1995 0 224,345 261,949 176,688
1996 0 224,345 293,468 470,156
1997 0 224,345 327,023 797,179
1998 .o 224,345 362,745 1,159,924
1999 0 224,345 400,775 1,560,699
2000 0 224,345 441,474 2,002,174
2001 0 159,247 549,917 2,552,W 1
2002 735,962 , 159,247 -183,177 2,368,9 14
2003 0 60,000 744,486 3,113,400
2004 0 60,OOo 796,843 3,910,243
2005 0 1,060,000 -147,398 3,762,844
2006 0 0 971,985 4,734,830
2007 0 0 1,035,229 5,770,05 8
TOTALS: 735,962 4,219,688 5,770,058
389
output Table 18.29
Page 4 of 4
for
April28, 1987
15 16 17
Discounted Cumulative Discounted
Cash Flow Discounted Cash Flow
Cash Flow at ROR
YEAR ZERO
AMOUNT
1988 - 144,770 - 144,770 -134,118

1989 -131,609 -276,379 -1 12,954
1990 -1 19,645 -396,024 -95,130
1991 - 153,231 -549,255 -112,870
1992 111,403 -437,852 76,022
1993 115,756 -322,096 73,180
1994 119,228 -202,868 69,829
1995 122,201 -80,667 66,304
1996 124,459 43,792 62,561
1997 126,081 169,874 58,713
1998 127,140 297,O14 54,850
1999 127,699 424,7 13 51,037
2000 127,879 552,592 47,349
2001 144,810 697,403 49,673
2002 -43,851 653,552 - 13,935
2003 162,022 815,574 47,699
2004 157,651 973,225 42,997
2005 -2631 1 946,714 -6,698
2006 158,927 1,105,641 37,201
2007 153,880 1,259,521 33,369
TOTALS: 1,259,521 295,078

0.02 and the economic inflation rate was 0.06, this would Comprehensive LCC should be performed by qualified
indicate that natural gas was expected to inflate at 8% in year persons who have a thorough knowledge of the subject,
OF. Inflation rates entered in the forecast may be positive, including expertise in the current tax law.
negative or zero. A zero indicates that the energy is expected
to inflate at the same rate as the economic inflation rate.
18.10 RECOMMENDATIONS
Table 18.17 illustrates the depreciation and depletion
allowance schedule. All values in these tables may be Based on the experience gained by the author in
modified by the user. However, the energy forecast is limited completing over 150 economic analysis for renewable energy
to 30 years. If the project life goes beyond 30 years, the projects, the following recommendations are offered.
inflation rate for year 30 is chosen as the inflation rate for the
last 10 years of the project. 18.10.1 Take the Time to Understand the Basics
Tables 18.18 through’18.22 provide the output data for Preliminary LCC requires that the user understand certain
the project. Total project cost, equity financing and debt basic concepts regarding interest, taxes, the time value of
financing are all stated in terms of net present value; that is, money, and economic decisioa techniques for even the simp-
all monies flowing into the project during the construction lest analysis. If you have’no experience in these areas,
period are brought back to time zero at the discount rate. carefully read this chapter and proceed with extreme caution.
If certain concepts remain unclear, consult the references
The benefitcost ratio evaluates the net present value of appearing at the end of this chapter.
the annual savings or revenues associated with the proposed
system or both, and divides this number by the net present 18.10.2 Use Ultraconservative Forecasts
value of the total project cost.
During the petroleum crisis in the mid 197Os, forecasters
The net present value calculates the present value of the were predicting inflation rates for fossil fuels ranging from 5
total project costs and subtracts the present value of the annual to 15%above the economic inflation rate. Many of these
savings or revenues associated with the project or both, to energy forecasts were 20 years in length. Using hindsight, it
arrive at a net present value for the total project, or a net turns out that within the last 10 years petroleum prices have
present value for the life cycle of the project. actually deflated when compared to the consumer price index.
Any forecast that projects inflation rates higher than those that
A RELCOST user developed a scenario on a renewable occur provides a favorable LCC picture, gives a green light to
energy project with equipment that required replacement every the project, causes thousands and even millions of dollars to
6 months and he wished to evaluate this with equipment be spent in acquisition and construction, only to find that
replaced every 18 months. In order to accomplish this, all when the project goes into production, competing fuels have
that was necessary was to state replacementcosts, all operating not inflated as projected and the project either operates at a
costs, all inflation rates, the economic inflation rate, capital continual loss or is abandoned.
investment costs and financing in terms of 1 month rather than
1 year, respectively, and complete a 36-month life cycle cost 18.10.3 Keep Proiect Life as Short as Possible
analysis. There are numerous ways to modify the input data
in order to provide for unusual circumstances. It is dangerous to try to do even a 20-year study on a
major project. It is absolutely ridiculous to go beyond 20
years. And yet, many projects have required 50-year LCC
18.9 CAVEATS analysis. The successful projects are those that-useextremely
low inflation rates and have a very short payback (4 years or
As was stated in the introduction, LCC has several major less).
drawbacks. One of these is that increasing or decreasing costs
over the life of the project must be estimated based ov’some LCC analysis on a large project is a very complex pro-
forecast, and forecasts have proven to be highly variable and cedure. Many projects require equipment with widely varying
frequently inaccurate. Another problem with LCC is that useful lives. Pipe lines may last 25 years. Electric motors,
some life span mpst ,be selected .over which to evaluate the turbines, or pumps may have useful lives of 5 to 10 years.
and many, projects, especially repewable energy Replacement costs must be forecast, major repair costs have to
projects, are expected to have an unlimited life; they are be incorporated, and competing alternatives should be as
expected to live forever. The longer the life cycle, the more accurately evaluated as possible. If the project is owned bya
inaccurate annual costs become because of the inability to private entity, depreciation schedules, depletion allowances,
forecast accurately. investment tax credits, energy tax credits, and in some cases,
intangible drilling costs enter the picture.
391
It is not possible to predict future changes in the tax law. 18.10.7 Be Aware of the Limitations of Pavback
In the early 1980s, many renewable energy projects enjoyed
as much as a 55% tax credit. Later (5 years), many of these Simple payback compares the values in the cumulative
tax credits were removed. Therefore, any equipment replaced cash flow column (Table 18.22 column 22) with the equity in-
could not provide the reduced tax liability that was forecast at vested in the project to determine when these two values are
the beginning of the project. equal. This practice makes no distinction between present and
future values. Note that the simple payback cash flows are not
18.10.4 Minimize Total Proiect Cost evaluated at any interest rate and that a negative cash flow
occurring subsequent to the payback period has no effect. If
As observed in the LCC analysis of the three heating the cumulative cash flows indicate that the equity in a project
systems, initial cost probably has the greatest impact on the is recovered in year 12, and year 13 has a balloon payment on
feasibility of a project and the developer should make every a bond that causes the cash flow to turn negative, this may
effort to minimize the project cost without sacrificing quality cause the simple payback to be in error.
and reliability. For example, in the development of geother-
mal projects, drilling costs, and pipeline costs are two of the The discounted payback compares the equity in the pro-
major components. In an attempt to minimize drilling costs, ject with the cumulative discounted cash flow (Table 18.22
quality, performance and longevity of the production well may column 24) and indicates a discountedpayback when these two
be sacrificed. It may be advisable to move the user on-site to are equal. Once again, this method does not evaluate s u b
minimize the length of transmission lines without sacrificing quent negative cash flows that may occur. Nonetheless, it is
any other aspect of the project. The end result is a reduction a more accurate measure of payback because the accumulated
of pipeline maintenance and pumping costs. cash flows are discounted at the discount rate stated in the
input section.
18.10.5 Carefullv Evaluate Financing ODtions
The reason the simple and discountedpayback periods are
The method of financing, the interest rate, and the annual evaluated in this manner is because it is the accepted calcula-
debt service can have a major impact on renewable energy tion method in the industry. Because these values may be in
projects. These projects are capital intensive and experience error, the program RELCOST also evaluates cash flows be-
very high costs during the construction period. In addition, yond these payback periods and prints a warning in the output
many projects come on-line gradually, which causes very low section if negative cash flows occur beyond the payback
revenues in the early years of the project life. In such cases, period.
it may be advisable to seek long-term bond financing. Such
financing requires only interest payments during the early The LCC analysis is a very powerful tool. It can be used
years of the project, and a high balloon payment when the to rank projects in the order of feasibility and to determine
bond matures. As the project reaches full capacity in the later which projects are most likely to be successful. At best how-
years, revenues may be able to accommodate such a balloon ever, it is only an educated guess and the values calculated
payment. Such financing can be especially helpful to munici- should be treated only as rough estimates.
palities experiencing low or negative cash flows during the
beginning years of the project.
GLOSSARY OF ENGINEERINGCOST ANALYSISTERMS
18.10.6 Avoid Distorting the Rate of Return
Accelerated Cost Recovery System (ACRS) The current-
This author discourages using financial leverage to make system of depreciation for various classes of assets that
a project appear feasible. Financial leverage is the practice of provides more rapid cost recovery than straight line
iinancing large sums of money at extremely low interest rates depreciation.
in order to reduce the equity invested in the project and in-
crease the ROR. For example, a project costing $100,000 re- Annual effective interest rate - The actual or true annual
turns $15,000 in revenues every year for 10 years. The ROR interest rate that indicates the exact amount of interest paid per
on this project would be about 8%. In an effort to make the year by converting nominal or annual percentage rates to the
project appear more attractive, the developer borrows $90,000 actual dollar amount of interest annually.
at 6% interest, which requires an annual payment of $12,228.
Subtracting the debt service from the income provides a net -
Annual equivalent cost The amount of an equal end-of-year
annual income of $2,772. Now, the project is evaluated as a payment series that is equivalent to present or future value
$10,000 investment providing $2,772 of income per year for when the interest rate is considered.
10 years and the ROR jumps to nearly 25%. Once project
feasibility is determined, it is up to the developer to use any -
Annual percentage rate (Am) The interest rate per year
accepted method to increase the project’s ROR; but, such without consideringthe effect of compounding followed by the
practices should be avoided in determining whether or not the number of compounding periods per year.
project is economically feasible.
392
Annuity due - An equal series of beginning-of-the-period Discounted payback period - The time period required
payments. (considering the time value of money) for the revenues or
benefits of a project equal the capital investmknt and operating
-
Arithmetic gradient An end-of-period payment series that costs of that project.
increases each period by a constant mount.
Discount rate - The interest rate used to evaluate the cash
-
Asset Depreciation Range (ADR) The life of an asset as flows resuIting from the operation of a project.
fixed by the Internal Revenue Code.
Double declining balance depreciation - A method of
Benefit-cost ratio - The ratio that results in dividing the accelerated depreciation that applies twice the straight line rate
present value of all benefits of a project by the present value multiplied by the book value of the asset.
of all the costs of that same project.
Economic life - The period of time from installation to
Book value - The cost basis of an asset less the accumulated retirement of an asset that minimizes the cost of buying,
depreciation. installing, operating and salvaging that asset.
Business tax credit - A direct credit to the tax liability of a Energy b x credit - A direct credit to the tax liability of a
lirm because of the purchase or operation of assets that are firm because of the purchase or operation of assets that are
eligible for business tax credits under the current tax law. eligible for energy tax credits under the current tax law.
-
Capital recovery The process of charging periodic end-of- Equipment cost basis - The adjusted cost of an asset due to
period payment series that is equivalent to the initial asset cost additional installation costs or subtracted tax credits claimed
less the expected salvage value at the end of its economic life. which alter the amount of depreciation which may be claimed.
-
Capital recovery factor The factor used to calculate the end- Equipment replacement life - The period of time that will
of-period payment series that is equivalent to the cost of an elapse from initial installation until a piece of equipment is
asset less its future salvage value based on the compounded either obsolete or worn out and requires replacement.
interest rate.
-
Future valuelfuture work The equivalent value at a
Cash flow - 1. The actual flow of dollars into and out of the designated future date of previous cash flows evaluated over
operation of a capital venture. 2. The flow of revenues less time at a compound interest rate.
operating costs plus depreciation from a given capital venture.
-
Geometric gradient An end-of-period payment series that
Compound amount factor - 1. The future value of a lump increases each period by the exact same percentage.
sum considering time and the compound interest rate. 2. The
future value of a payment series considering time and the -
Inflation An increase in prices in general usually caused by
compound interest rate. a decline in the purchasing power of a monetary system.
-
Compound interest Interest that is calculated and added to Interest - The periodic cost charged for borrowing money.
the initial amount such that future interest earnings will be
accumulated based on the total amount including interest. -
Internal rate of return The interest rate earned by investing
in a particular venture and receiving cash flows as a result of
-
Cost of capital The costs incurred because of borrowing that investment without regard to any other investments.
money. Normally expressed as an interest rate.
Investment tax credit - A direct credit to the tax liability of
Depletion - A method of depreciation applying to depletable a firm because of the purchase of assets that are eligible for
resources such as geothermal, coal, timber, oil, and natural investment tax credits under the current tax law.
gas.
-
Marginal cost The amount -of cost associated with an
-
Depreciation A method of expensing the decrease in value increase in output or with a particular project.
of an asset over its life span and charging these costs to
operations. Marginal tax rate - The amount of taxes (expressed as a 96)
because of an increase in output ,or h e income of a particular
Discounted cash flow -
Eviiluating the annual costs and project.
revenues associated with a venture over the years of its life at
same interest rate to arrive at a present value of these cash
flows.
393
-
Net present value The equivalent value at time zero (today) -
Straight line depreciation A method of depreciation in
of the net difference between future cost and revenue cash which the equipment cost basis of an asset is recovered in
flows evaluated (discounted) over time at a compound interest equal amounts over its taxable life based on time, units of
rate. output, miles driven, or hours of operation.
-
Nominal interest rate The interest rate per year without -
Sum-of-theyeandigits depreciation (SYD) A method of
considering the effect of compoundingfollowed by the number accelerated depreciation in which the equipment cost basis of
of comunding periods per year. an asset is multiplied each year by the remaining years of life
divided by [(n times n+l) divided by 23 to arrive at a
Ordinary annuity - A stream of equal end-of-period depreciation charge for that year (where n equals the taxable
pay-&- life of the asset).
-
Opportunity cost The cost of not taking advantage of an Sunk cost - A capital cost already incurred that cannot be
investment opportunity because of limited capital, resources, recovered and is not to be Considered or evaluated in making
or other conflicting circumstances and thereby losing the current decisions.
eamings or benefits associated with that investment.
Time value of money - The future, present or annual
Present value/present worth - The equivalent value at time equivalent value of cash flows considering the compound
zero (today) of future cash flows evaluated (discounted) over interest rate of borrowed money, the expected rate of earnings
time at a compound interest rate. on invested capital, or the required rate of return on the
capital investment required for a project.
Rate of return (ROR) - The compound interest rate that will
cause the present value of a l l the costs and benefits associated
with a project to equal exactly zero. REFERENCES
salvage value - 1. The value obtained from an asset when Anderson, D. N. and Lund, J. W., editors, Geothermal
sold, scrapped or retired from service. 2. The current fair Resources Council S k a l R m r t No. 7: Direct
market value of a piece of equipment. Utilization of Geothermal Enerev -
A Techuical
Handbook, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington,
-
Sensitivity The amount of effect or impact experienced by DC, 1979.
changing one of the input variables of a project undergoing an
engineering economic study in order to alter the acceptability Lienau, P. J., et al., Aeribusiness Geothermal Enerpv Utili-
or rejectability of that project. zation Potential of Klamath and Western Snake River
Basins. Oreeon, U.S. Department of Energy,
Simple interest - Interest that is accrued periodically on only Washington, DC, 1978.
the original amount of a loan or investment, and that is not
compounded. Newman, D.G., Engineering Economic Analvsis, 3rd eition,
Engineering Press Inc., San Jose, CA, 1988.
-
Simple payback period The time period required (without
considering the time value of money) for the revenues or Riggs, J. L. and West, T.M., Enpineering Economics, 3rd
benefits of a project to equal the capital investment and edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co., NY,1986.
operating costs of that project.
Thuesen, G. H. andFabryclq, W. J., Engineering Economy,
Sinking fund - A stream of equal end-of-period payments set 6th edition, Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ,
aside in an investment fund for the purpose of replacing an 1984.
asset or making a balloon payment on a debt.
394
CHAPTER 19
REGULATORY AND
COIMIMERCIAL ASPECTS
By Gordon Bloomquist
Washington State Energy Office
Olympia, WA 98504
19.1 INTRODUCTION 19.3 RESOURCE DEFINITION
To a large ex&, the regulatory and commercial aspects Geothermal resources are related to water, gas, and
of geothermal development have been addressed by the U.S. minerals, to both the surface and subsurface estates, and to
Congress and by the legislatures of each of the states h o w to both water rights and mineral titles. How g e o t h d
posses geothermal resources. Often the conclusion reached, resourcesam defined affects other resourcedefinitions as well
and the direction given by these agencies, has been as all aspects of regulation.
significantly different. Too often legislation adopted has left
as many questions unanswered as answered, or created as There are, therefore, two basic tasks in defining
many new problems as were resolved. In some unfortunate geothermal resources. First, describe the physical properties
cases, legislation has, in fact, proven to be more of an that distinguish geothermal resources from other nahual
obstacle toward development than an aid. This chapter resources and thus clearly establish what is subject to
provides an overview of the various regulatory and geothermal leasing, ‘ taxation, and development regulations.
commercial aspects that affect the development of geothermal Second, a definition must relate geothermal resources to
direct use projects. Appendix A provides pertinent geothermal groundwater, subsurface minerals, and other established
definitions, ownership, leasing information, injection resources. An ideal resource definition should, therefore, be
requirements and the agencies involved. Information is both anticipative and retrospective. It must look forward to
provided for the federal government, Alaska, Arizona, future leasing, exploration, and development activities while,
California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho,Montana, Nevada, New at the same time, looking at past experiences in order to place
Mexico, North and South Dakota, Oregon, Texas, Utah, geothermal resources into the framework of leases,
Washington, and Wyoming. reservations, and property titles inherited from the past
(Sacarto, 1976).
1 LEASING How well legislation accomplish these two tasks will

have a profound influence upon the reduction of hture
Providing access and a secure right to the resource for conflicts of ownership.
exploration and development is provided for through leasing.
The California Geothermal Resources Act of 1967 made ~
The development of statues for on of geo- the first attempt at defining geothermal resources and reads as
thermal leasing in the U.S. began with the passage of the follows:
California Geothermal Resources Act of 1967, and the Federal
Geothermal Steam Act of 1970. A majority of the states ‘Geothermal resources’ shall mean the natural heat
possessing geothermal resources followed suit during the of the earth, the energy, in whatever form, below
ften modeled their statutes after either the the surface of the earth present in, resulting from,
federal Acts. However, a number of state or created by, or which may be extracted from,
leasing statutes differ considerably from the California and such natural heat, and all minerals in solution of
federal models, and this divergence can be attributed to the other products obtained from naturally heated
complexity of dealing with this new resource, or to historical fluids, brines, associated gases, and steam, in
differences in how the states formally dealt with the whatever form, found below the surface of the
disposition and protection of its natural resources. earth, but excluding oil, hydrocarbon gas, or other
hydrocarbon substances.
The major differencesin the statutes can be t r a d to how
geothermal resources are defied and characterized.
395
The Federal Geothermal Steam Act of 1970 (Public Law 'Geothermal resources' means the natural heat of the
91-581) defined geothermal resources thus: earth at temperatures >12o"C, measured at the
point where the highest temperature resources
'Geothermal steam and associated geothermal encountered enter or contact a well shaft or other
resources' mean (i) all products of geothermal r e s o m extraction device.
processes, embracing indigenous steam, hot water,
and hot brines; (ii) steam and other gases, hot The definite temperature cut off tends to take the guess
water, and hot brines resulting from water, gas, or work out of where an applicant should apply for a resource or
other fluids artificially introduced into geothermal drilling permit and allows for a distinct separation of agency
formation; (iii) heat or other associated energy responsibilities. This also clarifies whether or not the fluids
found in geothermal formation; and (iv) any by are available through appropriation as groundwater or lease as
products derived from them. geothermal.
The federal definitiondefined byproducts so as to exclude By excluding resources of <250°F from the definition of
oil, hydrocarbon gas, and helium. geothermal, the Alaska legislature has facilitated their use,
because regulation meant for l a r g d e c o m i a l use of
Both the California and the federal definitions provide a high temperature resources need not be observed for most
detailed description of the physical properties that distinguish direct use applications (Basescu, 1980). Although this was
geothermal resources from other natural resources, but fail to also the objective of the Washington State Legislators at the
relate geothermal to such things as groundwater, and minerals. time the Geothermal Resources Act of 1974 was passed, no
one could anticipate that rapid developments in technology
A somewhat different approach to dehing geothermal would, in time, completely change the definition and possibly
sources was taken by Washington State: place an undue burden upon both the developer of direct use
projects, as well as the developer of moderate-temperature
'Geothermal resource' means only that natural heat resources for electrical generation where neither high temper-
energy of the earth fiom which it is technologically ature or high pressures present the degree of risk associated
practical to produce electricity commercially and with the development of high temperature resources.
the medium by which such heat energy is extracted
from the earth, including liquids or gases, as well The Oregon definition, which, for the most part, is based
as minerals contained in any natural or injected on the federal model, provides additional restrictions based
fluids, brines, and associated gas, but excluding oil, upon temperatures and depth. Hot water from wells <2,000
hydrocarbon gas, and other hydrocarbon substances ft with bottom-hole temperatures <25o"F, must be developed
(RCW 79.76) (Emphasis added by author). according to state water law. It is not necessary, however,
under Oregon law to know the bottom-hole temperature of
The principal difference in the Washington State wells before they are drilled as all geothermal prospecting is
definition is that it restricts geothermal resources to those regulated under the geothermal statutes. However, if a water
"from which it is technologically practical to produce! well should, in the course of development, encounter tempera-
electricity commerCially." Geothermal resources were so tures approaching 25o"F, a geothermal permit must be
defined in Washington State to provide for a clear division of obtained (Justus, 1980).
responsibilities for purposes of regulation. The Department of
Natural Resources,which normally regulates oil and gas drill- The state of Idaho has defined "geothermal resources"to
ing, was by this mechanism, given the responsibility for the mean the natural heat energy of the earth, the energy in
regulation of the high temperature and pressure resources, whatever form, below the surface of the earth present in,
while the Department of Ecology, which normally regulates resulting from, or created by, or which may be extracted from
groundwater, was given the responsibility for low temperature the natural heat, and all minerals in solution or other products
and pressure resources. Unfortunately, because no definite cut obtained from naturally heated fluids, brines, associated gases,
off temperature was set, but instead left to float, the and steam, in whatever form, found beIow the d a c e of the
Department of Natural Resources could now be expected to re- earth,exclusive of helium or of oil, hydrocarbon gas, or other
-
gulate resources with temperature as low as 212°F or below. hydn>carbon substances, but including, specifically:
This is because advances in technology have made the gener-
ation of electricity possible at temperatures much below that a. All products of geothermal process, embracing
which was anticipated at the time the Act was passed into law. indigenous steam, hot water, and hot Wes;
b. Steam and other gases, hot water, and hot brines
Alaska also desired to separate the regulation of its resulting from water, gas, or other flujids
resources, but unlike Washington, adopted a definite tempera- artifically introduced into geothermal formations;
ture cut off (Basescu, 1980). The Alaska definition reads as c. Heat or other associated energy found in
follows: geothermal formations; and
d. Any by-product derived from them.
396
"Geothermal well" includes any excavation made for courts to decide the issue and to characterize the resource. It
producing geothermalre~~urces
and any geothermalreinjection wasn't until the case Pariani versus California was decided in
well or derived from geothermal resources into an 1981 (California Court of Appeal, 1981) that geuthermalwas
underground reservoir. declared to be a mineral resource for purposes of ownership
and leasing of lands in California.
In all of the above examples, the definition accomplishes
the task of describing the physical properties that distinguish Like California and the federal government, the state of
geothermal resources from other natural resources, but gener- Oregon has also avoided the question of characteMon.
ally fail to characterize geothermal resources in relation to Although some states have chosen to characterizegeothennal
groundwater, subsurface minerals, and other established resources. They have seldom done so in a manner that has
resources. resulted in a clear understanding of ownership or leasing
rights.
The failure to so characterizegeothermal resourcesmakes
the establishment of ownership difficult and has led to con- In Washington State, the legislature declared that
flicts with owners of other resources. It also leaves many "notwithstanding any other provisions of law, g e o t h e d
unanswered questions as to regulatory authority over resoums are found and hereby determined to be sui genet-%
exploration and development. being neither a mineral resource nor a water resource"
(Bloomquist, 1980).
19.4 RESOURCE CHARACTERIZATION In Idaho, the state declared that geothermal resourcesare
sui generis, being neither a mineral tesoufce nor a water
As recognized in the legal definitions, geothermal ..
resource, but. closely related to, and possibly affecting and
resources are similar in some respects to water, minerals, and affected by, water and mineral resources in many instances
gas; the result has been considerabledisagreement-including (Renwick and Lewis, 1976).
litigation-over the essential M ~ U Rof the resource and
corresponding ownership rights. Such uncertainty has Montana, like Idaho and Washington,has adopted thesui
impeded geothermal development, and makes resource generis characterization; but, other Montana statutes lead to
characterization a major issue that must be dealt with in order the conclusion that geothermal tesources are considered to be
to ensure that geothermal exploration and development can water and regulated as such (Perlmutter, 1978).
proceed in a timely fashion.
The sui generis chiuacterhtion of geothermal fesoulces
The federal government, in passage of the Geothermal serves only to cloud the ownership issue and is, for all
Steam Act of 1970, avoided the question of how geothermal practical purposes, meaningless because it fails to clearly
resources should be characterized. The Steam Act chose characterize the resource, and therefore, does not clarify the
instead to direct the Justice Department to bring suit to quit question of ownership, access to the resource, and regdatory
title to geothermal resources ownership. The courts were authority.
asked to decide whether or not geothermal fesources had been
reserved to the federal government as part of the mineral The states of Wyoming and Utah have characterized
estate. The action brought by the Justice Department (US. of geothermal resources as water, while the state of Hawaii has
America versus Union Oil Company of California) began in chosen to characterizegeothermal resources as mineral.
1971, and a verdict in favor of the U.S. was not reached until
October 1977 under the title Ortobonie versus the U.S. qf In many other states, it is unclear exactly how geothermal
America. This delay resulted in a moratorium on leasing all is characterized. For example, in New Mexico it is stated that
landspatented under the Stock Raising Homestead Act of 1916 geothermal is not water (Renwich and Reid, 1976), but it is
until the case was decided. It resulted in a loss of unclear as to whether or not the legislature inhded that
considerable revenue to the U.S. as well as slowing geothermal be considered to be a mined. In Alaska,
development by several years in prime areas such as The geothermal is characterized as being similar to oil, gas, coal,
Geysers in northern California. The delay and problems of ores, and minerals, but no clear assignment is made (Basescu,
revenue lost could have been avoided if Congress, in passing 1980).
the Geothermal Steam Act of 1970, had simply characterized
the resources as mineral and, therefore, belonging to the Characterization of the resource can accolllplish the
owner of the mineral estates. second task and allows for the placement of geothermal
resources into the framework of historical leasing, reservation,
The California Legislature, in the passage of the and property titles, and thus, clarifies the questions related to
California Geothermal Resources Act of 1967, also avoided ownership, access, and regulatory authority.
this very important question, and again it was left up to the
397
19.5 OWNERSHIP In Idaho, the state cIaims ownership of all geothermal
resources underlying state and school lands. However, state
By clearly defining geothermal resources to be either lands are those in which the state of Idaho owns either the
water or mineral, the problems associated with the surface rights, the mineral rights, or both (Idaho, 1978).
establishment of ownership will be greatly reduced. High-temperaturegeothermaloperationsdeveloped in Idaho as
an energy source, a mineral fesourceor a material medium do
Mineral ownership derives from an estate in land, which not require a valid water right permit, but such operations can
may be severed from property rights to the overlying surface. acquire such a permit. A prudent operator would be wise in
Groundwater, at least in the west, is generally held in the obtaining both p e d t s for a d d i t i d protection from third-
public domain while being an aspect of surface ownership in party intervention and to avoid potential conflicts with state
most eastern states. In the case where the resource has been agencies. A problem with applying for both permits is that
determined to be sui generis, the state may assign the resource performance bonds, and applications fees, are required for
to the owner of the surface estates or the mineral estate or each.
may, in fact, claim the ownership of all geothermal resources
in the state regardless of ownership of the surface or mineral In Utah and Wyoming, geothermal resources are also in
estate, and separate from existing water rights. the public domain because of their characterization as water.
The federal government claims geothermal ownership Montana statutes involving ownership of geothermal
wherever it holds the mineral estate, either jointly with the resources are also unclear. Section 81-2602(1) of Title 81 of
surface estate or as a mineral reservation where the estates the Montana law as it relates to the management of state-
have been severed. This claim was upheld in the Ottobonie owned lands states: "No rights to seek, obtain, or use
versus the U.S. case that was mentioned earlier. Absent geothermal resourceshas passed or shall pass with any existing
implied, or explicit reservation of water pursuant to the or further lease of state or school lands" (Perlmutter, 1979).
establishment of a federal enclave, the states have primary Perlmutter continues, "Thus, at least with respect to the
control over groundwater resources. leasing of state lands, it is clear that geothermal rights are
reserved, unless included explicitly within a geothermallease.
The states have taken a number of approaches to the However, the question remains open with respect to lands
assignment of ownership and the approach taken reflects how which have been sold by the state, or are proposed for sale. "
the resource was characterized as to water, mineral, or sui Are geothermal rights included in the mineral reservstiOn, or
generis. do they pass with ownership of h f a c e ? The final sentence of
81-2602(1) just quoted lends weight to the contention that
In Alaska, the state claims ownership of all geothermal geothermal resources are included in general mineral rights.. .
resources, including those under private lands, and is in-line however, the declaration in Section 81-2602(1) "areneither a
with the state's claim to all subsurface resources in the state. mineral nor a water resource" leads to the oppositeconclusion.
The state of Alaska does, however, give the surface owner a
preferential right to a prospecting permit or lease. It must be While it may seem reasonable to assume that the same
remembered that by definition, geothermal resources in Alaska definition applies, in general, to private lands in Montana, the
are limited to those above 25O"F, while ownership of final sentence dealing with state leases will not apply. Thus,
geothermal resources below that temperature would fall under with respect to private lands, the sui generis characterhtion
water law statute and ownership would be assigned is left, and consequently, there is little guidance for the
accordingly (Basescu, 1980). resolution of disputes between surface and subsurface owners.
In Utah,Wyoming, and Montana, geothermal resources Montana's water laws also apply to all geothermal
are also in the public domain because of their characterization development involving production and diversion of geothermal
as water. fluids. Geothermal Water is, in fact, included in the Montana
Water Use Act definition of water, although geothermal is not
Washington Statehas declared geothermal resourcesto be defined. Thus, regardless of ownership, the developer of
the property of the surface owner (Bloomquist, 1980); but, it geothermal resources in Montana would be best advised to
is presently unclear, because of the way that the state has secure the necessary water rights.
delined geothermal resources, what is truly included in this
assignment, and what remains available for appropriation as The state of Oregon in the Oregon Geothermal Resources
groundwater. The state does, however, claim ownership of all Act of 1975 grants geothermal owners rights to the surface
groundwater underlying state and school lands. In order to owner. The Act states:
gain access to low-temperature geothermal resources below
these lands, a commercial lease would have to be obtained.
398
"Ownership rights to geothermal resources shall be however, be rejected at anytime up to when the lease is issued
in the owner to the surface property underlain by if the area is declared a KGRA by the Bureau of Land
the geothermal resources unless such rights have Management.
been otherwise reserved or conveyed. However,
nothing in this section shall divest the people or the A majority of the states have also adopted the two or
state of any rights, title, or interest they may have three tiered access system. Oregon, California, and Alaska all
in geothermal resources (ORs 522.035). " have provisions for the issuance of exploration or prospecting
permits in addition to having both competitive and non-
It is unclear what the latter part of this section means in competitive leases available. Oregon, in addition to
terms of ownership because of the failure of the legislature to competitive cash bonus bidding, provides for simultaneous
characterize the resource so that ownership can be clearly filing of applications, with the successful qualified applicant
assigned. selected by random public drawing (Oregon Administrative
Rules, Chapter 141).
Summarizingthe situation, it is extremely important that
geothermal r e s o u m be defined so as to be easily distinguish- Washington State and Montana lease all lands through a
able from other ~ t k resources,
l so that a clear assignment competitive bidding process (Sacarto, 1976; Washington
to an estate can be accomplished, and ownership determined. Department of Natural Resources, 1982). In Montana, how-
ever, if only one person or company bids for the tract offered,
an applicant may negotiate a lease with the Department of
19.6 RESOURCE ACCESS Natural Resources and Conservation. The Department may,
however, choose to reject all bids and applications(perlmutter
Providing reasonable access and priority rights to public and Birkby, 1980). Washington State has under consideration
lands for g e o t h e d exploration and development is crucial if a leasing system based upon the Montana model that would
geothermal resources are to become an important additional allow for the negotiation of a lease if no bids a= received.
energy resource. Idaho employs a two-tiered leasing system with non-
competitive leases being available to the first qualified
There are a number of ways private developers can be applicant. Lands within KGRAs are leased through public
provided access to public resources. Resource rights may be auction on a cash bonus basis.
simply applied for and conveyed at little or no charge, i.e.,
federal mining claims and noncompetitive oil and gas leases, Exclusive or nonexclusive exploration or prospecting
or made available through competitive permits can effectively attract developers to wildcat areas.
(Sacarto, 1976). Such permit can be even more effectivein encouraging explor-
ation if developers are given preference to convert a permit to
Bidding may take the of cash bonuses, annual a noncompetitive lease or the right to match the highest bid
rentals, production royalti rofit shares, or work if the leases are awarded through competitive bidding.
commitments. Regardless ther the resource is
transferred by competitive or noncompetitive means, Non-competitive leases provide a mechanism by which
developers may be required to pay annual rentals, production developers can secure rights to a resource with little cash out-
royalties, and diligent1 re for and develop the resource. lay, and are extremely important in attracting developers to
unproven areas. The filing of a non-competitive lease applica-
Access can be ptovided through two or tion should provide protection for the applicant against reclass-
including the issuance of exploration or prospecting permits or ification of the area as a KGRA before the lease is granted.
noncompetitive leases or both for lands of unknown potential Such protection can guarantee that the applicant will be gran-
while requiring competitive bi ted a lease on a noncompetitive basis if work performed by
resource areas. the applicant resulted in the reclassification or the applicant
can be given the right to match the highest bid if the reclassifi-
The federal govement has adopted a three tier approach cation is the result of work performed by another applicant or
to providing access to public lands. Prospecting permits, the both.
first tier, are available to developers and allow for geological,
geochemical, and geophysical surveys, as well as the drilling Although competitive leasing results in the greatest initial
of exploration holes. These permits are nonexclusive and are monetary benefit to th ic, it can discourage or prevent
not convertible to leases. Such prospecting permits are also certain developers (e. utilities) from gaining access
available on leased lands. Noncompetitive leases are to public lands. This is most detrimental where leases are
available on lands of unknown potential to the first qualified only offered on a competitive basis. For example, the lower
applicant. Competitive leases, the third tier, are available in economic value of low-to-moderate temperature resources
Known Geothermal Resource Areas, or KGRAs to the highest (<300°F) seldom warrants large outlays of money. This can
qualified bidder. A noncompetitive lease application can, severely inhibit exploration and development if the state is
399
unwilling to negotiate a lease with an applicant. Competitive up a great deal of acreage with accompanying rentals, for
leasing can also provide great difficulties for public bodies applications of geothermal energy which often can be
which cannot expend large sums of money on high-risk successfully undertaken on less acreage.
ventures. This is a problem for public entities because they
must obtain approval of expenditures through a public forum,
which provides other bidders advance knowledge of bids 19.8 RENTALS AND ROYALTIES
which are to be submitted.
Annual lease rentals are normally assessed for the
Several possible solutions to these problems exist. First, opporhmity to explore on public lands and serve primarily to
competitive areas might be limited to those areas where a cover the cost of regulation and administration. Rentals may
significant high temperature discovery has been made so that also provide the lessor with a tool for ensuring diligent
the value of the resource may be accurately determined by exploration because required expenditureson exploration must
both the lessor and potential lessees. It is important that such equal a set amount or increased rentals will be assessed.
areas be limited to those possessing high temperatureresources
capable of being utilized to generate electricity as the Rentals on federal and state lands usually begin at
economicvalue of resources for direct applications seldom can $1.OO/acre/year. The minimum rental on federal KGRA lands
justify the additional expenditures and risk required by is $2.00/acre/year.
competitive bidding.
On federal lands, the rental increases to $3.00/acre,
Second, the use of noncash bonus bidding, i.e., royalties beginning with the sixth year, but with the provision that
or profit sharing, allows for maximum return to the public expenditures on exploration may be deducted from the
without tying up needed exploration dollars for cash bonuses. increased amount. Exploration expenditures, in order to
This also allows for full participation by public entities. qualify, must equal $4.00/acre in year six, $6.00/acre in year
seven, $8.00/acre in year eight, $IO.OO/acre in year nine, and
Third, work commitments instead of cash bonuses or $12.00/acre in years 10 through 15.
royalty bids can speed development by k i n g needed capital
for exploration activities, but will not provide maximum The states of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho have also
return to the public from the exploration of public resources adopted increasing rentals as a means of encouraging diligent
if not tied to royalties or profit-sharing. (Work commitments exploration. Other states, such as Ariz~naand Colorado, have
are agreements made by the potential lessee to conduct no set rental fee; but instead, the rental is negotiated along
exploration activities at a specified rate, including drilling of with other lease terms (Sacarto, 1976). Royalties, unlike cash
temperature gradient and deep exploration wells.) bonuses and rentals, involve no risk for the developer and,
therefore, appear to treat equitably both large and small
developers as well as public and private entities. However,
19.7 ACREAGE LIMITATIONS the manner in which royalties are calculated may significantly
penalize a developer engaged in the direct utilization of
The federal government has set limits on the size of geothermal resources. Although royalties on both electrical
leases and limitations upon holdings in any one state. The and direct use products range from 10 to 15%for state as well
Geothermal Steam Act of 1970 limited lease size to a maxi- as federal leases, the way in which the royalty is calculated
mum of 2,560 acres with a minimum of 640 acres. In addi- can and does make a significant difference in the amount
tion, the Steam Act limits individual holdings to 51,200 acres different developers will pay. In the case of electrical
per state (United States, 1970). generation, the royalty is based upon the selling price of the
steam or electricity. On direct use projects, the royalty is
Size limitations have also been adopted by many states. based upon the value of the heat energy available, as deter-
In most cases, the minimum size has been set at 40 acres, mined by the cost of equivalent fuels, Le., well head gas or
while maximum ranges from 640 to 2,560 acres and above. mine mouth coal. However, if a direct use project involves
Alaska and California have set maximum state acreage the sale of that energy, the royalty is based on gross sales.
limitations of 51,200 acres and 25,OOO acres, respectively.
Idaho has taken another approach by limiting the holding of The following example clearly illustrates how differences
leases to a maximum 50 townships (Sacarto, 1976). Oregon, in royalty calculations can seriously affect the economic
Washington, and Montana have all set the minimum lease size viability of direct use projects. If developer A leases and
at 40 acres, but none have established a maximum number of develops a geothermal resource 011federal lands and sells the
acres that can be held. Oregon, unlike Washington and energy to user B, the 10%federal royalty is assessed against
Montana, has not set a maximum lease size. Setting limits on gross sales. If the developer and the user are the same entity,
minimum lease size has drawn criticism from small developers and no sale takes place, then the royalty is based on the
of low temperature resources. The minimum requires typing equivalent cost of the cheapest conventional fuel in the area.
400
The royalty is then inflated at the same inflation rate as that of lease carry reasonable diligence requirements to minimize
the conventional &el. If the lessee happens to be a wrpora- having public lands locked up by land speculators. It is also
tion inTa 48% effective federal inwme tax bracket, the royalty extremely important that the lease term be of sufficientlength
would be subtracted from sales and reduce the company’s tax to ensure that the developer has a reasonable opportunity to
liability by 48% of the royalty. n e net effect would be a fully evaluate the leased area.
5.2% royalty. If the royalty is gssessed against a non-taxable
entity such as a public utility or a municipal heating district, Most leases & clauses that ensure an extension of the
it can become one of the major annual costs of the geothermal primary lease term if the developer is actively engaged in
project. For example, the Klamath Falls, Oregon, Business explorationor drilling or both, and all state and federal 1-
&re Heating District was projected to pay itself back .in 7 provide for the extension of the lease once production of
years. If it had been necessary to drill the production wells on geothermal resources in commercial quantities begins. Such
federal lands and pay a 10%royalty on the energy consumed, an extension is usually limited to 40 to 50 years. California
this same project would suffer a $3,6oO/y loss for the first 10 allows for a lease term of up to a maximum of 99 years so
years in terms of annual equivalent costs. If the annual cost long as production continues (California. 1970), and several
of operating the Klamath Falls system included a federal states, including Montana, Wyoming, and New Mexico, allow
royalty of lo%,the breakdown of the annual costs for the first for the continuation of the lease so long as geothemal
year of operation would be as follows: resources are produced or are capable of being produced
(Sacarto,1976; Perlmutter, 1978). In the event that leases are
PERCENT renewable beyond the end of the primary term, they should
provide for a preference to the lease holder.
Electrical pumping costs 24.8
Maintenance costs 19.7 Readjustment of terms during the period of the lease &
Federal royalty payments 55 5
L extremely important, and must take into consideration what
100.0 effect frequent renegotiations will have upon compounding the
risks already inherent to geothermal development and in
deterring investment.
19.9 LEASE ,TERMS,
ADJUSTMENTS AND RENEWALS The Federal Geothermal Steam Act of 1970provides for
a readjustment of lease terms and conditions at not < 10-year
Geothermal energy is unique because it must be used on intervals after the date the geothermal steam is produced.
site, whether it be for-electrical generation or direct utili- However, readjustment of rentals and royalties is restricted to
zation, and it often involves substantial outlays requiring not <2O-year intervals beginning 35 years after the date
amortization periods of 20 to 30 years for utilization facilities, geothermal steam is produced (United States, 1970).
pipelines, or electrical transmission lines or both. Because of
these factors, the effective lease life, adjustments of lease Alaska provides for B renegotiatibn of rentaIs and
provisions during the life of the lease, and lease renewals are royalties payable on geothermal leases 20 years after the
of great importance to developers. Equally important from the 9 initiation of commercial production and at‘ 10-year intervals
government’s side is the prevention of land speculation on the thereafter (Basescu, 1980). A number of other states,
part of the lessee, the ability to make adjustments in lease including California, Montana, and New Mexico, provide for
provisions to ensure compliancewith state and federal environ- 10-year renegotiation of ‘rentals and royalties beginning 20
mental regulations, and assurancesthat a reasonable portion of years after the lease date while other states negotiate all such
the revenue generated from public lands is returned to the lease clauses at the time the lease is granted (Sacarb, 1976).
public treasury.
Frequent readjustments in rentals and royalties deter
The use of explorationor prospecting permits that require investments in geothermal development, and appear to be
work commitments, and which gre granted for periods of 1 to unnecessary because if royalties are based upon the price for
3 years, is an excellent way to prevent speculation. But it which the energy is sold, revenues will increase at a rate
may discourage exploration if permits ,are not convertible to proportional to the rate at which the value of the energy is
leases, or if such permits do not provide the holder of the inflating;
permit with a preference to a lease if and when leases m
offered. Leases should also provide preference to lease holdem in
the event that leases are to be renewed. Most renewal clauses,
Non-competitive and competitive leases are normally however, cany provisions for the renegotiation of lease terms
issued for periods of 5 to 20 years (Sacarto, 1976). The. (Sacarto, 1976).
longer the primary lease term, the more important it is that the
401
19.10 DILIGENCE REQUIREMENTS resoutces have become subject to groundwater law and
development regulations and not geothermal leasing and
One of the most controversial provisions of leasing development regulations.
statutes is the requirement for diligent exploration. Diligent
exploration can be encouraged through the use of escalating Groundwater is treated as a public resource in most
rentals (discussedin Subsection 19.8) or diligent operation can western states. The exceptions are Arizona, California, and
be mandated by requiring that specified sums of money be ex- Hawaii, in which, like most eastern states, groundwater is
pended on exploration, or that certain activities, such as deep attached to the surface unless critical groundwater areas have
drilling, begin after a specified number of years. The require- been designated requiring water rights to be adjudicated
ments are necessary to ensure that lands are not held for spec- (Sacarto, 1976).
ulation. Diligence requirements, however, should not be
structured to force industry to expend large sums of money Because historicaluses of groundwaterincludeddomestic,
inappropriately. For example, drilling should not be required agricultural, and industrial purposes, but not heat extraction,
before the use of other less expensive exploration steps have conflictsbetween existing uses and the needs of the geothermal
been completed. energy industry have become a serious considerationand one
that can serve to severely limit geothermal development,
especially in critical groundwater areas.
19.11 SUMMARY
In Idaho, although geothermal is characterized as sui
The preceding review of legal and institutionalaspects of generis, an application for groundwater appropriationmust be
leasing is not a comprehensive treatise on the subject, but made if a geothermalwell will yield water that can be used for
rather an attempt to highlight those issues that may have the beneficial purposes. In addition, any consumptiveuse of geo-
greatest impact on geothennal resource development. Many thermal water requires appropriation. Only in those cases
geothermal tesources utilized directly for industrial processes, where a geothermal well yields water that is used as a
space heating, and in agriculture and aquaculture applications "mineral source, an energy source, or as a material medium,"
will not be subject to state and federal leasing laws, but and does not involve CoIlSuLllptive use, is an appropriation of
instead will be affected more directly by local permitting and public water not required (McClain, 1979).
land use ordinances, groundwater law, and the availability of
water rights. Although Idaho has attempted to minimize conflicts
between geothermal and groundwater usage by differentiating
Gaining access to lands through leasing and the provis- between waters that have a beneficial use (groundwater that
ions of the lease are only two of the many areas where legal must be appropriated) and those that cannot be used for pur-
and institutional requirements can have a profound influence poses other than for their energy or mined content (and
upon a developer's ability to rmccessfully complete a geother- require a geothermal permit), it is advisable to obtain both a
mal project. Other subjects that must be evaluated include geothermal and water permit to protect and secure the
groundwater law, envimmental reviews, exploration and developer's interests.
development permits, facility siting requirements, and utility
regulations. These subjects are examined in the following In Washington, as long as the resource is used solely for
Sections. electrical generation, a water right is not required. However,
if the resource is cascaded for other uses, a water right must
also be obtained. Resources incapable of commercial elec-
19.12 GROUNDWATER LAW tricity production are umsidered groundwater resoufces in
Washington State, and are regulated as such.
Groundwater is an integral part of any geothermal
resource being the medium by which the heat energy of the Montana has attempted to minimize conflicts through its
earth is conveyed to the surface. Most states have recognized claim that geothermal resou~cesare water and must be regu-
the importance of groundwater in their definitions or lated accordingly. A permit for appropriation is tepuired for
characterizations of geothermal resources. In some states, any use of water over 100 gallmin (Montana Water Use Act
such as Montana and Wyoming, geothermalhas been declared 85-2-101, et. seg. M.C.A.; Petlmutterand Birky, (1980), and
to be a groundwater resource (Sacarto, 1976). In other states, must be issued when the following criteria are met:
such as Washington, Oregon, and Alaska, geothermal
resoufces are divided into high and low t e m p e m regime@) 1. Unappropriated water in the supply source is available,
for purposes of regulation, with high-tenjperature resoutces in the amounts and at the time of year required by the
being consideredgeothermaland the low-temperature(<250°F applicant.
in Alaska and Oregon) geothermal murces being considered
to be groundwater (Basescu, 1980; Justus, 1980). By making 2. The rights of prior appropriations will not be affected
such a distinction based on temperature, the lower teniperature adversely.
402
3,. The proposed means of diversion or constmction are voir, adversely affect their own geothermal energy supply.
adequate. Because of these fears, a citizen's initiative, organized by the
e Geothermal Development (CRGD);.
4. The proposed use of the water in a beneficial use'. was successful in gathering over 1,500 signatures within the
city. When the initiative measure was voted 0x1in 1981, the
5. The proposed use will not interfere unreasonably with future of the city's geothermal system received a serious
other planned uses or developments for which o,pemit setback. The initiative, which passed 788 to 567, forbid
has been issued or for which water has been reserved. 'persons, cooperatives,organizations,municipalcorporations,
a. Montana considered heat extraction as a beneficial or any political subdivision of the state of Oregon from
use. withdrawing geothermal water 'from a well unless it is
returned' undiminished in volume to the same well"
In Oregon, this issue is addressed in Chapter 522.255 of (Emphasis added). The effective result of the initiative was to
the Oregon Revised Statute. The statute reads as follows prevent the city from using either of the two wells (even
(Oregon, 1983): though the entire system was completed and ready to begin
operation in 1982), and forced the city to consider alternative
"Resolution of conflicts between geothermal and heat sources (United States Conference of Mayors, 1982).
water uses. If intederence between an existing The future of the system was in limbo. However, in 1983
geothermal well permitted under this chapter andlor long-term mewoir tests were completed indicating that
existing water appropriation permitted under ORs existing wells would be only marginally affected by the
Chapter 537 is found to exist by either the State operation of the city's district heating system, and the
Geologist or the Water Resources Director, the initiative was amended by the City Council in early April
State Geologist and the Water Resources Director 1984, allowing for testing of the system (Eliot Allen, 1984 b).
shall work Cooperatively to resolve the conflict and On November 9, 1984, the city began a Eull-OperatiOn test of
develop a cooperative management program for the the system with the intent of operating throughout the 1984 to
area. In determining what action should be taken, 1985 heating season. At the end of the test, a determination
they shall consider the following goals: was made by the Klamath Geothermal Advisory Committee to
allow the city to continue operating the system, based on a
1. Achieving. the most beneficial use of new city geothermal ordinance (Geothermal Resources
the water and heat rasources. Management Act) that requires the elimination of.surface
disposal of geothermal fluids by 1990.
2. Allowing all existing users of the
tesource to continue to use those
fesources to the greatest extent
-
In Pagosa Springs, Colorado, 30 well owners and the
owner of a hot springs resort-featful that the construction of
possible.. a proposed district heating system would"adverse1y effect'the
availabilityof geothermalresoufcesfor existinguse-succeeded
3. Ensuring that the public interest in in delaying the start of the city's g e o t h e d district heating
efficient use of water and heat system by more than 2 years. And, although the city began
resourcesis protected." operation of the system in late 1984, it m y be some time
before the CoUTts settle the water right issues that have been at
However, despite all attempt to minimize conflicts the heart of the conflict.
resulting from competing use, and to ensure that geothermal
resources could be developed, conflicts have arisen and often The Klamath Falls example, as well as the problems
with devastating results. Perhaps the best example can be experienced by the city of Pagosa Springs, Colorado, only
found in the experience of Klamath Falls, Oregon- serve to emphasize the importance of groundwater to geother-
mal development (Eliot Allen, 1984a). The Oregon court
The city of Klamath Falls, Oregon, began evaluating the decisions are extremely important to the developmentof I d
feasibility of constructing a dowtown geothermal district geothermal district heating systems as it provides a means by
heating system in 1977, and by the late that year received which local jurisdictions, at least in Oregon, can control the
notification from the U.S. Department of Energy that it would development of geothermal resources for such purposes.
receive demonstration funds under a federal USDOE grant
program. The city began by drilling two successful produc-
tion wells, and after confirmingthe resources,construction of 19.13 ENVIRONMENTAL REVIEWS
the system began in m e s t . Klamath Falls, however, is an
area where geothermal energy has been utilized by a few Providing adequate protection for the envirommt is
hundred homeowners and commercial establishments since the undeniably a major responsibilityof government that balances
early 1900s. These users began to worry that the city system the relative priorities of the developers' rights against the
would, in spite of injection of the fluids back into the reser- rights of the general public embodied in National
403
Envhnmental Protection Act (NEPA), state environmental Protection Act before the plan may be approved. The EIS will
statutes, resoutCemanagement laws, and management plans for be prepared by the BLM and, in addition, must be approved
the lands involved. How that protection is structured and by all other responsible land management agencies.
administered by responsible state and federal agencies will
have a profound impact upon a developer's ability to success- Production permits are issued by states for all lands
fully complete a geothermal project in an economical and where the state claims ownership of geothermal resources,and
timely fashion. Federal and state environmental statutes may require unit operation of lands of mixed ownership if
require that all major activities proposed be subjected to a necessary for the conservation of natural resources that
review of possible environmental impacts. Environmental underlay in common state, private, and federal lands.
aspects are discussed more fully in Chapter 20.
19.15 UTILITY EASEMENTS

19.14 EXPLORATION, DRILLING
AND PRODUCTION PERMITS The culminationof any successfulgeothermalexploration
and development project is to deliver the energy to the user.
Permits for exploration, drilling, and production on However, the ability to deliver the energy to market, either in
available f&ral lands are issued by the Department of the the form of hot water or steam, is dependent upon the
Interior, Bureau of Land Management (BLM),pursuant to the developer's ability to obtain easements across federa, state,
Geothermal Resource Operational Orders (U.S. Geological local, or private lands or both for the umstruction of
Survey, 1979). Permits to conduct surface exploration and to pipelines.
drill temperature gradient holes are issued to the applicant
after finding of no significant environmental impact by the The ability to obtain easements to cross both public and
BLM. Application for such permits, entitled a "Notice of private lands is simplifiedif such easementsare for public use.
Intent to Conduct Geothermal Resource Exploration The public use requirement is satisfied by most definitions of
Operations," can be filed by developers on all federally a public utility, and thmfore, a closer examination of utility
managed lands, including lands in KGRAs and land that is law is needed in order to determine the utility status of
under lease application by another developer. Federal permits geothermal direct use projects.
may also be issued to non-lease holder to drill exploration
holes upon the approval of a Plan of Operation filed by the Public utilities are entities (individuals, corporations,
applicant. All post-lease exploration activities are carried out ~ssociations,etc.) that supply services considered indispens-
under a Plan of Operation approved by the BLM. Permit app- able to the public and are thus "affected with a public interest'
lications for all such post-lease exploration activities require (Nimmons, 1979). Although services is defined differently
the completion of an environmental review by the surface from state to state, suppliers of heat, water, electricity, and
management agency before permit issuance (Fujimoto, 1984). natural gas are commonly considered to be subject to public
utility statutes.
The states of Oregon and Alaska have entered into agree-
ments with the proper federal agencies and regulate and issue "In Idaho, the term public utility includes. . .
permits for well drilling regardless of land ownership, while every common carrier, pipeline corporation, gas
the state of Washington regulates drilling on all state and corporation, electrical corporation, telephone
private lands, but claims no authority to issue permits related corporation, telegraph corporations, motor corpor-
to exploration, drilling, or production on federal lands. The ation, and wharfinger, as those t e r n are defined in
state of Montana issues permits for drilling and seismic this chapter and each thereof is hereby dec- to
exploration on all land (perlmutter and Birkby, 1980). be a public utility and to be subject to the juris-
diction, control, and regulation of the commissions
Resource production on all federal lands is regulated and to the provisions of the act: provided that the
through a Plan of Production approved by BLM. Before such term public utility as used in the act shall cover
a Plan of Production can be approved, the applicant must cases both were the &ce is performed and the
gather envhnmental baseline data describing the existing commodity delivered directly to the public or some
envkonment for one year. No Plan of Production can be portion thereof, and where the service is performed
approved by the BLM until after the completionof an environ- on the commodity delivered to any corporation or
mental review and such approval must have the concurrenceof corporationsor any person or persans, who in turn,
the surface management agency if other than the BLM. A either directly or indirectly or mediately or
finding of significant enviromtal impact during the review immediately, perform the service or delivers such
process will require the preparation of an Envhmmental commodity to or for the public or some portion
Impact Statement pursuant to the Nationalhvironmental thereof (C.61-104)."
404
California's Public Utilities Code defines public utility to use is an authorized public use, and establish the amount of
include "every common Cartier, toll bridge corporation, pipe- property to be taken. The court may also determine the
line corporation, gas corporation, electrical cornration,water appropriate compensation to be paid by the petitioner.
cornration, sewer systemcorporation,wharfinger,warehouse-
man, and beat cornration, where the serviceis performed for, It i s clear that district-sizeddirect application geothermal
or the commodity delivered to, the public or any portion projects may be included under utility law, and a
thereof." (Emphasis added.) W determination that such projects built for public use are
assured that utility easements can be secured. However, the
..
In Colorado's statute "the term public utility. includes benefits obtained in acquiring easements through utility status
every common carrier, piueline comration,gas corporation, may be offset by other aspects of utility law and developers
electric cornration, telephone corporation, telegraph corpora- may choose to fight utility status because of the adverse effects
tion, water cornration, person or municipality operating for of regulation. A complete discussion of the utility regulations
the purpose of supplying the public for domestic, mechanical is unfortunately beyond the scope of this report.
or public uses and every corporation, or person declared to be
a public utility and subject to the jurisdiction, control and
regulation of the commission. . ." (Nimmons, 1979). 19.16 DISTRICT HEATING
(Emphasis added.) AUTHORIZATION AND REGULATION
The state of Washington Revised Code 9 80.04.010 19.16.1 Introduction

defines public service companies to include gas, electric, and
water companies, among others. One of the primary uses of geothermal teso~llcesis for
district heating. It is thus extremely important to give
Thus, under most utility statutes, district-sizeddirect use consideration to what entities logistically would be involved
projects would be considered to be public utilities entitled to in the development of district heating systems, what the legal
apply for easements across federal and state lands for the status of district heating systems is, and how development of
construction of needed pipelines. This does not imply in any such systems can be expected to be regulated.
way, however, that geothermal developers should desire to be
regulated as public utilities. However, utility law clearly Geothermal district heating development logically could
indicates that geothermal developers would be eligible for be considered to be actively pursued and developed by the
utility status should it be necessary to gain easement. following participants:
Applications for such easements across federal and state 1. Energy companies.
lands are made through the appropriate office of the respons- 2. Industrial and commercial users.
ible land management agency. Applications require the p r e 3. Utilities.
paration of environmental reviews, and if there is a finding of 4. Municipalities.
significant environmental impact, an envimhental impact
statement will be required and prepared under provisions of Energy companies, including major oil and gas
the appropriate state or ~ t i environmental
d protection act. exploration companies, have shown a great deal of iaterest in
If the easement is granted, the applicant will usually be high-temperature geothermal resources for generating
required to pay annually the fair market value of the interest electricity. However, these same companies have expressed
in the land being aquired. very little interest in exploring for or developing low-to-
moderatetemperature geothermalresources for districtheating.
Easements are also required to cross city or county pro- This can be attributed to a relatively low rate of rem on
perties, and may be granted as a public use by the city or such projects in relationship to the high cost and high risk
town councils, boards, or county commissioners. If pipelines associated with exploration and drilling.
or other facilities for developing or using a geothermal
resource must cross privately owned lands, the geothermal Industrial and commercial users willingly would use
developer must negotiate with the landowner@)for the neces- geothermal heat if it were delivered to them by a district
sary easements, and if that fails, seek to acquire such an heating supplier much as conventional energy supplies are, but
easement through the right of eminent domain. Eminent are generally unwilling to take the risks of exploring for or
domain is the right of the state of other entities operating in developing geothermal resources themselves because of their
the public interest to take private property for public use lack of expertise in the development of energy projects (Ring,
(Perlmutter and Birkby, 1980): In order to use eminent 1980).
domain, the developer must file a complaint in court
describing the proposed public use, the source of the right to Investor-ownedutility companiesare generally unwilliig
such use, the property interest sought, and the present to engagein high-risk geothermalexplorationand development
ownership@). The court must determine whether the proposed activities because utility commissionsare reluctant to refuse to
405
allow the inclusion of drv holes in the rate base or the within their jurisdictions. Such authorization served as an
allowable rate'of return would be too low because of important step toward furthering developmentof district heat-
regulation. ing systems by the public sector. However, another major
impediment to local government development of geothermal
Publicly-owned utilities are often statutorily pmvented district heating systems. The lack of funds to engage in
from engaging in high-risk geothermal ventum or are unable exploration and resource development continues to delay or
to assume the risks of geothermal exploration and impede public sector participation.
development.
One possible way in which such funding could be made
Finally, municipalities have shown much reluctance to available was adopted by the state of Minnmta. The
engage in high risk ventures because of a lack of available Minnesota legislature a u t h o M the sale of $lOO,OOO,OOO
funds for such projects, a lack of in-house expertise to worth of bonds that will be used for assisting communities
successfully undertake such a project, and because they often engaged in the study, design, and construction of district
lack clear legislative authority to become involved in district heating systems. And, although no other state has adopted a
heating activities. similar funding mechanism, the Washington State Energy
Office is looking into the need and desirability of requesting
Although some entities have been historically unwilling that legislation similar to that passed in Minnesota be
or unible to become involved in the development of district introd&.
heating systems, there are small, independent geothermal
resource companies who are involved in the exploration for, Another mechanism for municipalitiesto obtainnecessary
or development of, geothermal resources. These projects funding may be provided through private sector participation
usually involve the development of minidistrict systems such in the design and construction of district heating systems.
as industrial and office parks, shopping centers, hotels, However, as mentioned earlier, the public utility implication
condominiums or townhouse complexes, and single-family of such projects and the risks of becoming a regulated public
residential tracts. And although these companies have also utility have discouraged such participation.
expressed an interest in installing city-wide district heating
systems that use geothermal resources, the public utility 19.16.3 Private Sector Regulation
implication of such projects and the risks of becoming a
regulated public utility have increasingly been voiced as a Because most conventional financing institutions are
profound disincentive to the development of these types of reluctant to fund high risk ventures, and because federal and
projects by small, independent g e o t h e d developers. In state funding is, to a large extent unavailable, most geothermal
spite of these problems, the developmentof geothermaldistrict district heating projects will have to be financed largely by
heating systems has begun to accelerate, and with the aid of equity investors whose primary inducement will be return on
fedend funding, systems are now in operation in Boise, Idaho; investment. Investors must, therefore, have assurance that if
Klamath Falls, Oregon; Pagosa Springs, Colorado; Pierre, economically exploitable resources are confirmed through
South Dakota; Eko, Nevada; Susanville, California; Reno, high-risk drillixig ventures that applications can be developed
Nevada, and Ephrata, Washington to mention but a few. that yield a rate of return commensurate with the risk. At
Others are being d d e r e d for Boulder, Mon-, Stanley, present, private developerscannot confidently predict whether
Idaho; Vale and Lakeview, Oregon; and North Bonueville, the most likely geothermal applications actually will result in
Yakima, Grandview, and Sunnyside, Washington. public utility status under current law and practice if the
application requirestesource distribution as would be the case
To fully understand the increased interest in geothermal with a district system. Another major concern is the prospect
district heating we must examine the legal changes that have that cost-based rate regulations probably will yield at most a
occurred in the states to make such development possible and 1596 return on investment-far below the 35 to 4096
attractive to public as well as private sector developers, and to mhun generally considered necessaty to attract investors to
examine whether or not a framework conducive to the high-risk geothermal projects. Other consequences of
development of district heating has been adequately traditional utility regulation include possible disallowance of
established. the cost of unsuccessful wells, denial of federal investment
credit, and the imposition of administrative and financial
19.16.2 Public Sector Particimtion burdens that may be disproportionate to the benefits that the
developer and its investors might anticipate from relatively
One of the biggest impediments to public sector partici- small-scale heating operations dictated by load or resowce
pation in district heating was removed when, over the past limitations. Recent legislative initiatives directed toward
several years, many s t a b such as Oregon and Washington removing the disincentives that traditional public utility
passed legislation to guarantee the rights of local governments regulations impose may, however, provide a way through
to engage in district heating and clarified their right to which the private sector can become actively involved in
finance, construct, own, and operate district heating systems district heating.
406
The state of California legislated a total exemption from Allen E.; HEATPLAN User Manual, Account of Work, by
utility regulations for those engaging in geothermal district Eliot Allen and Associates, Jnc., for the Washington
heating. The states of Nevada (Nevada State Energy Office, Olympia; WA, 1984b.
534A.010) and Washington (Engrossed Substitute House Bill
114, 1983) have adopted a much simplified operating permit Basescu, N. et al., ,jllaska: A Guide to Geothermal Energy
system in place of traditional regulations. Under the permit Develommt, Oregon Institute of Technology, Geo-Heat
system, g e o t h d sales are conditioned only on Utility
Commission issuance of a permit thak
,J. T. and Rafferty, K.;District
1. Specifies a geographic service area. Heating Develoument Guide. Legal. .Institutional, and
Marketinn Issues, Washington State:Energy office, 1987.
2. Authorizes non-exclusive services Within that a!ea,
whether or not served by another utility. Bloomquist, R. G., et al.; Washineton: A Guide to Geother-
mal Enerw Develoument, Oregon Institute of
3. Provides for Utility Commission review and approval of Technology, Geo-Heat Utilization Center, pp. 134,1980.
basic system design, and of essential tenus in the
suppliers' proposed form of customer contract, including Derrah, H.; Personal communication, city of Klamath Falls,
length of term, a maximum rate or rate formula (unre- 1984.
lated to cost of service), and a streamIined dispute
resolution procedure. Department of Agriculhue, Termination of Contingent Right
Stipulation Test, Federal Register, Vol. 49, No. 73, pp.
Such a system eliminates the major barriers to develop- 14775, 1984.
ment described earlier, while still affording geoheating
customers basic protection against supplier abuses that could Freihofer, D.; Personal communication, 1984.
arise once customers have been induced to make the initial
investment needed to use the re~~urce.Other states should Fujimoto, R.; Personal communication, 1984.
seriously consider exempting district heating systems from
tradtional utility regulationsespecially in light of a 1985 study Higbee, C. V.; "AnArgument for Eliminating Federal Royal-
released by the National Research Council in which utility ties on Low Temperature Geothermal Energy", Hearbgls
regulation of district heating was singled out as one of the before the Committee on Enerm and Natural Resoum:
major disincentives to the widespread development of district U.S. Senate on S. 1330 and S.1388, U.S. Government
heating (National Research Council, 1985). For a more com- Printing Office, Publication No. 96-50, pp. 113-114,
plete dissertationon the legal and institutionalfactors affecting 1979.
geothermal district heating see Bloomquist, 1987.
Idaho; Rules and Regulations Governing the Issuanceof%*
thermal Resource Leases, Idaho State Board of Land
19.17 CONCLUSIONS Commissioners, 1978.
The maze of federal, state, and local legal and institu- Idaho Department of Water Resources; Waste Dimom1 and
tional requirements c8n.sorely test the endurance and patience -
Injection Wells Rules and Rermlations, State of Idaho,
of most developers of geothermal energy. The problems, Department of Water Resources, pp. 115, 1980.
however, have diminished over the years as federal and state
legislatures and regulatory agencies have striven to establish Justus, D. L., et al.; Oregon: A Guide to Geothermal Enern
a legal and institutional framework conducive to geothermal Develmment, Oregon Institute of Technology, Geo-Heat
development. The above examples of the legal and institu- Center, pp. 115, 1980.
tional framework are meant to make the reader aware of the
issues that may be critical to a successful project; however, Lienau, P. J.; Personal communication, Geo-Heat Center,
before commencing any project, the responsible federal, state, 1984.
or local authorities should be contacted in order to ensure that
all applicable regulations are compliedwith (see Appendix A). King, D.; Nimmons, J. T. and Henaman, W.M.; The Role
of Gas and Electric Utilities in Direct Amlications of
Geothermal Resource, Earl Warren Legal Institute
REFERENCES . Publication, pp. -213, 1980.
Allen, E.; Personal Communication, Eliot Allen and Asmi- McClain, D. W.; Personal communication, 1979.
ates, Inc., 1984a.
407
Mcclain, D. W.; Personal communication, 1984. U.S. Conference of Mayors; Groundwater and Geothermal,
Urban District Heating Applications,U.S. Conference of
Mohorich, L.; Personal communication, 1985. Mayors, Office of Development Progress, pp. 91,1982.
National Research Council; District Heating and Coolinp in U.S. Department of Energy; Geothermal Streamlining Recom-
the United States, Prospects and Issues, Library of mendations, a Report to the Interagency Geothermal
Congress 85-60286, pp. 115, 1985. coordinating Council from the Streamlining Task Force
on Streamlining the Federal Leasing and Envinmmental
NimmonS, J. T.; Ross, L. and Metzger, J.; Overview of Review Procedures, 1979.
State Public Utilitv Redation Immct on Geothermal
Direct Heat ADdications, the Earl Warren Legal U.S. Geologial Survey; Geothermal Steam Act of 1970 and
Institute, University of California, Berkeley, pp. 20, Redations on the Leasine of Geothermal Resources,
1979. Title 30, Chapter 11 of the Code of Federal Regulations
and Title 43, Chapter II of the Code of F e d d
Oregon; Geothermal Resources. OrezonRevised Statutes, Regulations, U.S. Department of the Interior, pp. 51,
-
Chapter 522 (522.005 522.990), 1983. 1979.
Perlmutter, S.; Lena1 and Institutional Framework for Geo- Untied States, Geothermal Steam Act of 1970, Public Law 91-
thermal Resource Develonment in Montana, Montana 581 (84 State. 1566-1574) (30 U.S.C. 1001-1025), 1970.
Energy and MHD Research and Development Institute,
pp. 65, 1978. U.S. Senate, “First Session on S.558, A Bill to Amend the
Geothermal Steam Act of 1970 (30 U.S.C. 1001Et Seg.)
Perlmutter, S. and Birkby, J.; Montana Geothermal Hand- to Expedite Exploration and Development of Geothermal
book-A User’s Guide toAgencies. Regulations. Permits, Resources,and S.883, A Bill to Amend the Geothermal
and Aids For Geothermal DeveloDment, Montana Steam Act of 1970 (30 U.S.C. 1001 Et Seg.) to Expedite
Department of Natural Reso- and conservation, Exploration and Development ofGeothermalResources:,
Renewable Energy Bureau, pp. 93, 1980. Hearing before the Subcommitteeon Enernv and Mineral
Resources of the Committee on En- and Natural
Renwick, E. S. and Reid, L. E.; Natural Resources Lawyer, Resources. United States Senate Ninety-Eighth Conmess,
Annual Review of Significant Activities, Vol. 1, pp. 69- pp. 150, 1983.
101, 1976.
Washington State Department ofNatural Resources; Draft
Rogers, C.; Personal communication, 1984. Rules and Regulations for Geothermal Resource Leasing,
1982.
Sacarto, D. M.; State Policies for Geothermal Develmment -
Uncovering a Maior Resource, National Conference of
State Legislatures, pp. 94, 1976.
408
AF'PENDIX A
Regulatory Information for the

Federal Government an& States
Note: F3ecause state and federal legislated regulations change over time, those
contained in this guidebook may not be up-to-date. Please check with
the appropriate state and federal agencies in order to verify the
information contained herein before initiating any project.
- For leasing lands in cities and counties, contact the appropriate local
officials in the jurisdiction of interest.
409
FEDERAL
DEFINITION OF GEOTHERMAL: Statute and NO.: Geothermal Steam Act of 1970 (Public Law 91-581)
"Geothermal steam and 8ssociated resources" means (i) all products of geothermal processes, embracing indigenous
steam, hot water, and hot brines; (ii) steam and other gases, hot water, and hot brines resulting from water, gas, or
other fluids artificially introduced into geothermal formation; (iii) heat or other associated energy found in geothennal
formation; and (iv) by-products derived from them.
GEOTHERMAL IS CHARACTERIZED AS: Mineral
OWNERSHE Statute and No.: U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, Ottobonie vs the United States of America,
549F .2d 1271 (9th Circ.) The federal government claims ownership of all geothermal resources underlying federal
lands or where mineral rights have been maintained.
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR LEASING Statute and No.: Geothermal Steam Act of 1970 (Public Law 91-581)
Bureau of Land Management, State Office.
Indian Lands 25 CFR Parts 131.171, 172, 173. For idormation concerning the leasing of Indian Lands, contact the
Bureau of Indian Affairs or the governing body of the Indian Nation.
LEASING. Competitive leases are available on Known Geothermal Resource Areas (KGRA) lands. Non-Co-tive
leases are available on all other lands. Exploration permits are also available on all lands including those under lease.
For leasing state, county, or municipal lands, contact the appropriate officials in the jurisdiction of interest.
LEASE TERMS: Bureau of Land Management, State Office

Primary: 10 years, 5-year extension available if drilling or have power purchase agreement.*
Renewable: For as long as producing in commercial quantities, 40 year maximum.
Rentals: $2/acre KGRA lands, $l/acrenon-KGRA lands but increasing in year 6-10 and $12/acre in years 10-15.
Royalties: (96 of sales): 10 to 15%plus UP to 5%of by-products.
DILIGENCE REQUIREMENTS: Bureau of Land Management, State Office
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR GROUNDWATER REGULATIONS: Groundwater regulation is the responsibility of

the surface management agency or, in most instances, the state agency responsible for groundwater regulation.
AGENCY RESPON!DLE FOR REGULATING DRILLING Statute and No.: Geothermal Steam Act of 1970 (Public
Law 91-581). Bureau of Land Management, State Office
INJECTION REQUIREMENTS: Statuteand No.: Geothermal Steam Act of 1970 (Public Law 91-581). Bureau of Land
Management, State Office
E " M E N T A L STATUTE PERTAINING TO EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT, AND INJECTION

National EnvironmentalPolicy Act 42 U.S.C. 4321 et. seg., and Geothermal Steam Act of 1970,43 C.F.R., Part 3200
and 30 C.F.R., Part 270
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION Environmental Protection Agency, Bureau of

Land Management, State Office
ADDlTIONAL INFORMATION For the regulation of geothermal leasing, exploration, and development contact the
appropriate state office of the Bureau of Land Management or see 30 U.S.C., 1001 et. seg., 43 C.F.R., Part 3200,
and 30 C.F.R., Part 270.
* Legislation passed and signed into law in 1988 (P1100.443)provides for three 5-year extension of the primary lease
term if special circumstances exist. P1 100.443 also extended protection for units of the National Park System.
410
ALASKA e
DEFINITIONOF GEOTHERMAIA Statute and No.: Alaska Administrative Code (AAC) Title 41, Chapter06,
Section 060.
"Geothermal ~ e s o u n ' ~ smeans

" the natural heat of the earth at temperatures greater than 120"C, measured at the point
where the highest temperature encountered enter or contact a well or other tesource extraction device and includes:
a. The energy including pressure, in whatever form present in, resulting from,created by, or that may be extracted
from the natural heaG
b. The material medium, including the geothermal fluid naturally present, as well as substancesartificiallyintroduced
to serve as a heat transfer medium; and
c. All dissolved or entrained minerals and gases that may be obtained from the material medium, but excluding
hydrocarbon substances and helium.
"Geothermal Fluid" means liquids and steam at temperatures greater than 120°C naturally present in a geothermal
system. All waters below 120°C are available for appropriation as groundwater.
GEOTHERMAL IS CHARACTERIZED AS: Water
OWNERSHIP: Statute and No.: Public Lands, Alaska Lands Act, Title 38, Chapter 5, Section 135. All geothermal
are owned by the state of Alaska. However, the owner of the d a c e has a priority right to a lease.
resoun'~s
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR LEASING: Department of Natural Resources, Division of Oil & Gas
LEASING Leasing is by competitivebid in areas desighated by the Commissionerof the Department of Natural Resources.
Noncompetitive prospecting permits are available in nondesignated areas and may be converted to a lease upon
. discovery.
LEASE TERMS: Department of Natural Resources

Primary: 1oyears.
Renewable: 5 years if engaged in drilling and thereafter for duration of commercial production.
Rentals: $3/acre.
Royalties: (96 of sales): 10 to 15%of gross revenues derived from production, sale, or use.
DILIGENCE REQUIREMENTS: NIA
AGENCY RESPON!W3LE:FOR GROUNDWATER REGULATIONS: Division of Land & Water Management:

South Central Area Northern Area southwestem Area
P.O. Box 107005 4420 Airport Way 400 Willoughby Avenue
Anchorage, AK 99518 Fairbanks, AK 99701 Juneau, AK 99801
AGENCY RESPONSIBLEFOR REGULATING DRILLING Statute and No.: Title 41, Chapter 06, Section 040 and
1lAAC 87.070, llAAC 87.180. Department of Natural Resources, Division of Oil & Gas
INJECTION REQUIREMENTS: Statute and No.: AS 41.06.010. Department of Natural Resources
S I ' A T E E " M E N T A L STATUTEPERTAININGTOEXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT, AND INJECTION:

Statute and No.: AS 46.15.010, AS 46.03, and AS 16. Department of Environmental Quality, Permitting Office,
and/or bmmissioner's Office.
AGENCY RESPONSIBLEFORENVIRONMENTALPROTECTION Departmentof EnvironmentalQuality, Permitting

Office, and/or Alaska Geophysical & Geochemical Surveys
411
ADDITIONALINFORMATION Al& Geophysical and Geochemical Surveys, andlor Geothermal Regulations &Statutes
as cuntained in the Alaska Administrative Code and the Alaska Statutes, Department of Natural Resources, December
1987. Also, Alaska: A Guide to Geothermal Energy Developments, Neil Basescu, et al., Oregon Institute of
Technology, 1980.
Department of Natural Resources Department of Environmental Quality cormnissianers mce

Division of Oil & Gas, and/or Permitting office P.O. Box 0
Alaska Geophysical & Geochemical Surveys P.O.Box 2420 Juneau, AK 99811
794 University Avenue, Suite 200 Juneau, AK 99803
Fairbanks, AK 99709
412
ARIZONA
DEFINITION OF GEOTRERMAL: Statute and No.: Arizona Revised Statutes ( A R S ) 27-651-666

a. "Geothermal resource" means all products of geothermal processes embracing indigenous steam, hot water, and
hot brines;
b. Steam and other gases, hot water, and hot brines resulting from water, other fluids, or gas artificially introdud
into geothermal formations;
c. Heat or other associated energy found in geothermal formations including any artificial stimulation or induction
thereof; and
d. Any mineral or minerals, exclusive of fossil fuels and helium gas, which may be present in solution or in
association with geothermal steam, water, or brines.
GEOTHERMAL IS CHARACTERIZED FOR LEASING AS: Steam,hot water, heat, or mineral
OWNERSHIP: The geothermal resource is included in the ownership of the land.
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR LEASING Statute and No.: ARS 27-668-678. State Lands Department
LEASING Leasing is on a competitive basis.
LEASE TERMS: State Land Department

Primary: 1oyears
.Renewable: As long as production is maintained.
Rentals: $l.OO/acre/year
Royalties: (9% of sales): Not less than 12.5 9% of gross value at the wellhead.
DILIGENCE REQUIREMENTS None
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR GROUNDWATER REGULATIONS: See Art. A R S 27-667. Department of Water
Resources
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR DRILLINGlREGULATING: Statute and No.: ARS27-651-667. Oil and Gas
Conservation Commission
INJECTION REQUIREMENTS: Statute and No.: AACR 12-7-245
STATEENVIRONMENTAL !STATUTEPERTAINING TO EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT, AND INJECTION

None specific to geothermal. Contact Department of Water Resources
,AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR E " M E N T A L PROTECTION: Department of Environmental Quality
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION REGARDING PERMITTING, REGULATING, OR MONJTORING
State Land Department Department of Water Resources

1616 W.Adams, Room 329 99 E. Virginia
Phoenix, AZ 85007 Phoenix, AZ 85004
Oil and Gas Conservation Commission Departmat of Environmental Quality

3110 N. 19th Avenue, Suite 190 2005 N. Central
Phoenix, AZ 85015 Phoenix, A2 85004
413
CALIFORNU
DEFINITION OF GEOTHERIMAL. Statute and No.: Public Resources Code (PRC), Section 6903.
For purposes of this chapter, 'geothermal resources"shall mean the natural heat of the earth. The energy in whatever
form below the surface of the earth present in, resulting from,or created by, or which may be extracted from,such
as natural heat, and all minerals in solution or other products obtained from naturally heated fluids, brines, associated
gases and steam, in whatever form, found below the surface of the earth, but excluding oil, hydrocarbon gas or other
hydmarbon substances.
"Low-temperatureg e o t h e d well" meam a well drilled for the purpose of providing geothermal resources as deiined
in Section 6903 from which fluids can be produced which have value by vi.tUe of the heat contained therein and have
a temperature that is not more than the boiling point of water at the altitude of the occurrence.
0W"Ip: Statute and No.: PRC, Paragraph 6904. Also see Pariani vs California
(CA Court of Appeals, 1981)
The state claims ownership whenever it owns the mineral estate, otherwise the resource is the p&xxty of the owner
of the mineral estate.
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR LEASING. Statute and No.: PRC, Paragraph 6904,6911,and 6916.
California State Lands Commission
LEASING Leasing in Known Geothermal Resource Areas (KGRA) is by competitivebid. Exploration permits are available
in non-KGRA areas.
LEASE TERMS: State Lands Commission

Primary: 10 years and so long as geothermal resources are being produced or utilized or are capable of being
produced or utilized in commercial quantities but not to exceed 99 years.
Renewable: Yes
Rentals: Not less than $l/acreon up
Royalties: (96 of sales): Minimum of 10% of gross revenue and not higher than 16-21396.
DILIGENCE REQUIREMENTS: California Lands Commission
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR GROUNDWATER REGULATING Division of Oil and Gas
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR REGULATING DRILLING Statute and No. : PRC, Paragraph 691 1. Division of Oil
and Gas
INJECTION REQUIREMENTS: Statute and No.: PRC, Paragraph 6921,Chapter 4,commencing with Section 3700 of
Division 3. Division of Oil and Gas
STATEENVIRONMENTAL SI'ATUTEPERTAININGTOEXPLORATION,DEVELOPMENT, AND INJECTION

Statute and No.: PRC, Section 3715.5. Division of Oil and Gas
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION: Division of Oil and Gas
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
California State Lands Commission Division of Oil & Gas California Energy Commission
1807 13th Street 1416 9th Street, Room 1310 Mail Station 43
Sacramento, CA 95814 Sacramento, CA 95814 1516 9th Street
Sacramento, CA 95814
414
COLORADO
DEF'INITION OF GEOTHERMAL: Statute and No.: Colorado Geothermal Resources Act, Section 1, Chapter 100,
Article 10, Colorado Revised Statutes (CRS) 1986 as amended. CRS 37-90.5-103
"Geothermal resource" means the natural heat of the earth and includes:
a. The energy that may be extracted from the ~ t u r aheac
l
b. The material medium used to extract the energy from a geothermal resource; and
C. G e o t h d by-products.
"Geothermal fluid" means ~ t u r a l l yOccurring groundwater, brines, vapor, and steam associated with a geothermal
resource;.
"Geothennal by-products" means dissolved or entrained mineds and gases that may be obtained from the material
medium, excluding hydrocarbon substances and carbon dioxide.
GEOTHERMAL IS CHARACTERIZED A S Water
OWNERSHIP. Statute and No.: Colorado Revised Statutes 37-90.5-104

Where a geothermal resource is found in association with geothermal fluid which is tributary groundwater, such
geothermal resource is declared to be a public tesoutceto which usufructuary rights only may be established according
to the procedures of this article. No correlative property right to such a geothermal resoutce in place is recognized
as an incidence of ownership of an estate in land. The property rights to a hot dry rock resource is an incident of the
ownership of the overlying surfaces unless severed, reserved, or transferred with the subsurface estate expressly.
Nothing in this section shall be deemed to derogate valid, existing property rights to geothermal resource which has
vested prior to July 1, 1983. However, such property rights shall not be deemed vested absent the award of a decm
for an application filed prior to the effective date of this article pursuant to existing water law or the entering into a
geothermal lease prior to the effective date of this article or unless utilizing facilities are actually in existence prior to
July 1, 1983. A facility for utilization of geothermal resources shall be considered to be in existence if it is in actual
operation or is undergoing significantconstruction activitiesprior to operation. Nothing in this section shall be deemed
to derogate the rights of a landowner to nowtributary groundwater.
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE EOR-LEASING Statute and No.: "SpecialRules and Regulation Relating to Geotheimal
Reswrce Leases," (Form248-1)1972, Lease Form (Form 248-2)1972. State Board of Land Commissioners
LEASING Leases may be awarded by the State Board of Land Commissioners for lands under its jurisdiction through
negotiation or by competitive bidding.
LEASE TERMS: State Board of Land Commissioners

Primary: Set in the lease.
Renewable: As long as production continues; if no production, State Board of Commissioner decides.
Rentals: Set in the lease.
Royalties: .(% of sales): Set in the lease.
DILIGENCE REQUIREMENTS: Water Quality Control Commission of the State Board of Land Commiss..mers
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR GROUNDWATER REGULATIONS: Department of Natural Resources, Division of

Water Resources
AGENCY RESPONSIBLEFORREGULATING DRILLING Statuteand No.: Colorado Revised Statutes37-90-138,

37-90.5-105, 37-91 and 37-92602. Department of Natural Resources, Oil & Gas Conservation Commission andor
Division of Water Resources
INJECTION REQUIREMENTS: Statute and No.: Colorado Geothermal Resources Act 37-90.5-106. Department of
Natural Resources, Oil & Gas Conservation Commission and/or Division of Water Resources
415
!3TATEENVIRO"TAL STATUTE PERTAININGTOEXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT,ANDINJECTION
I
Title 37, Colorado Revised Statutes, Article 90.5
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PR0"ECTION Water Quality ControlCommission,Departplent

of Health
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
Department of Natural Resources Department of Natural Resources Water Quality Control Commission
Oil & Gas conservation Commission Division.of Water Resources Department of Health
1580 Logan Street 818 Centennial Building 4210 E. 11th Avenue
Denver, CO 80203 1313 Sherman Street Denver, CO 80220
Denver, CO 80203
I 416
HAWAII
DEFINITION OF GE and No. : Rules on Leasing and Dril of Geothermal Resources, Title 13,
Sub-Title 7, Chapter 183-3.
l of the earth, the energy, in whatever form, below the surface of the
"Geothermal resources" means the ~ t u r aheat
earth present in, resulting from, or created by, or which may be extracted from the ~ t u r aheat,
l and all minerals in
solution or other products obtained from naturally heated fluids, brines, associated gases and steam, in whatever form,
found below the surface of the earth, but excluding oil, hydrocarbon gas or other hydrocarbon substances.
OWNERSHIP: Statuteand No.: Rules on Leasing and Drilling of Geothermal Resources, Title 13, Sub-Title7, Chapter
183, Paragraph 13-183-19. State claims ownership on all state and reserved lands.
"Reserved lands" means those lands owned or leased by any person in which the state or its predecessors in interest
has reserved to itself, expressly or by implication the minerals or right to mine minerals, or both.
"State lands" includes all public and other lands owned by or in possession, use and control of the state of Hawaii or
any of its agencies.
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR LEASING Statute and No.: HRS, Paragraph 182-14 and Sub-Paragraph 13-183,
Department of Land and Natural Resources
LEASING: Leases on state lands are granted on a competitive bid basis. Leases on reserved lands may be granted on a
competitive bid basis by public auction or without public auction to the occupier or to his assignee of the rights to
obtain a mining lease.
LEASE TERMS: Department of Land and Natural Resources

Primary: 1oyears.
Renewable: Not to exceed 65 years.
Rentals: $l/acre per year. '
. Royalties: (96 of sales): 10% for steam, 5% for by-products.
DILIGENCE REQUIREMENTS Statute and No.: HRS, Paragraph 182-14 and 13-183-61. Department of Land and
Natural Resources
AGENCY RESPC)NSIBLE5@ORGROUNDWATER REGULATIONS: Department of Land & Natural Resources
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR REGULATING DRILLlNG: Statute and No.: HRS, Paragraph 182-14 and Paragraph
13-183-57 to 75, Department of Land & Natural Resources
GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE PERMITS: HRS, Paragmph 205-5-7. Geothermal development activities, whether for
research or commercial purposes, means exploration, development - waste disposal. Production of electrical energy
from geothermal resource is governed by the Planning Commission of the County of Hawaii.
INJECTION REQUIREMENTS: Statute and NO.: HRS, Paragraph 13-183-77-79 and HRS, Paragraph 182-14,
Department of Land & Natural Resources
STATE ENVIRONMENTAL!B'ATUTE PERTAINING TO EXPLORATIQN, DEVELOPMENT, AND INJECTION

Statute and No.: HRS 343, HRS 205-5.1, and $ 13-183-87
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION Department of Health, Environmental Section
417
ADDITIONAL.INFORMATION
Department of Land Department of Business Deparclnent of Health PlanningCommission

& Natural Resources & Economic Development Environmental Section county of Hawaii
P.O. Box 373 state Permit counter 1250 Punchbowl Street 25 Allpuni street
Honolulu, HI 96809 P.O. Box 2359 Honolulu, HI 96813 Hilo, HI 96720
Honolulu, HI %804
418
IDAHO
DEFINITION OF GEOTHERMAL: Statute and No.: Geothermal Resource Act, Idaho Code, Paragraph ;12-4002.
“The-naturalheat energy of the earth,’ the energy, in whatever form, which may be found in any positim and at any
depth below the surface of the earth present in, resulting from, or created by, or which may be extracted from, such
natural heat, and all minerals in solution or other products 0btaiued:fiom the material medium of any g e o t h d
resource. Ground water having a temperature of two hundred twelve (212) degrees Fahrenheit or more in the bottom
of a well shall be classified as a.geothermal resource. Geothermal resources are found and hereby declared to be sui
generis, being neither a m i n d resource nor a water resource, but they are also found and hereby declared to be
closely related to and possibly affectingand affected by water and mineral resources in many instances”(IC 0 42-4002).
Section 42-230 Idaho Code

(a) ”ground water“ is all water under the surface of the ground what ever may be the geological structure in which
it is standing or moving.
(1) All ground water having a tekperature of greater than eighty-five (85) degrees Fahrenheit and less than two
hundred twelve (212) degrees Fahrenheit in the bottom of a well shall be classified and administered as a low
temperature geothermal resource pursuant to section 42-233, Idaho Code.
(2) All ground water having a temperature of two hundred twelve (212) degrees Fahrenheit or more in the bottom
of a well shall be classified as a geothermal resource pursuant to section 42-4002, Idaho Code, and shall be
administered as a geothermal resource pursuant to chapter 40,title 42, Idaho Code.
Section 42-233 Idaho Code

Low temperature geothermal resource. The right to the use of low temperature geothermal resources of the state
shall be acquiredby appropriation. The appropriationmay be perfected by means of the application, permit and
license procedure as provided for in chapter 4.
GEO’l’HERMAL IS CHARACTERIZED AS: Sui generis
OWNERSHI€? Statute and No.: Idaho Code,Chapter 16, Section 47-1602. State claims ownership of all geothermal
resources underlying state and school lands.
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR LEASING SGtute and No.: Idaho Code, Chapter 16, Section 47-1603. Idaho%tate
Board of.Land Commissioners
LEASING Leasing is by competitivebid in areas designated by Director of the. Department of State Lands .or where
competitive interest. Other areas are available for a lease upon submittal of application to the Department of State
Lands.
LEASE TERMS: Idaho State Department of Lands

Primary: 1oyears.
Renewable: So long as commercialproduction or drilling continues to minimum of 1,O00 tt, maximum 40 years with
preferential right to renew.
Rental: $l/acre first 5 years, $2/acre second 5 years, $3/acre thereafter.
Royalties: (% of sales): 10%
DILIGENCE REQUIREMENTS: N/A
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR GROUNDWATER REGULATIONS: Idaho Department of Water Resources
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR REGULATING DRILLING Statute and No.: Idaho Code, Chapter 40, Sec. 42-4001
through 424015. See Drilling for GeothermalResources Rules & Regulations and Minimum Well ConstructionStandardr,
, andlor contact the Idaho Department of Water Resources.
INJECTION REQULREMENTS: Statute and No.: Idaho Code, Chapter 40, Section 42. See A Guide to thc Idaho Well -
Program and Rules and Regulations, Drilling for Geothermal Resources, andor contact the Idaho Department of Water
ResourceS.
STATE ENVIRONMENTAL STATUTE PERTAINING TO EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT,AND INJECTION

Statute and No.: Idaho Code, Chapter 40,Section 42-4003 through 42-4009
AGENCY RESPONSIBLEFOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION: Idaho Department of H d t h & Welfare,

Environmental Division, and/or Idaho Department of Water Resources
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION Drillingfor GeothermalResourcesRules & Regulationsand Minimum Well Cbnstruction

Standardr, November,1982. A Guide to the Idaho Injection Well Program,April 1986; Rules and Regulatwns, Cbnstructwn
and Use of Injection Wells, August 1984; Rules and Regulations, Water Well Driller's Licenses, March 1985 Geothermal
Energy Development: A Guide to the Federal and State Regulating Process in Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington,
1991, GeothermulEnergy Development,A Guide to the Federal and State Regurclting Process in Idaho, Montana,Oregon,
and Washington, 1991.
Idaho State Department of Lands Idaho Department of Water Resources

Statehouse statehouse
Boise, ID 83720 Boise, ID 83720
Idaho Department of Health & Welfare Idaho Department of Water Resources

Environmental Division 2148 4th Avenue E
Statehouse Twin Falls, ID 83301
Boise, ID 83720
420
MONTANA
DEFINITION OF-GE-: Statute and No.: State Lands Leasing Statute 77-4-102(
Montana Code Annotated (M.C;A.).
"Geothermal resource" means the natural heat energy of the earth, including the energy, in whatever form,.which may
be foundh m y position and at any depth below the surface of the earth, either present in, resulting h m , created by,
or which may be extracted from, such natural heat, and all minerals in solution or other products obtaiued fiom the
material medium ofmy geothermal resource.
GEOTHERMAL IS CHARACTERIZED AS: Sui generis but governed bylaw as to groundwater.
OW"I[p: Statute and NO.: State Lands Leasing Statute 7-4-102(1) M.C.A.
On state lands geothermal iesourcesare owned by the state as part of their mined reservation. However, state water
laws also apply to all geothermal development involving production and diversion of geothermal fluids.
AGENCY RESPONSIBLEFOR LEASING Statuteand No.: AdministrativeRules of Montana (ARM)26-26(2)-%0120,

State Board of Land Commissioners
LEASING: All leasing is by competitive bid. However, if only one bid is received, the applicant may negotiate a lease
with the Department of State Lands.
LEASE TERMS: State Board of Land Commissioners

Primary: 1oyears.
Renewable: As long as resources are produced in paying quantity.
Rentals: Minimum of $l/acre; $2/acre after discovery.
Royalties: (9% of sales): 10%of gross revenue from the sale ofheat energy, steam, brine, or associated gas on the
fair market value of such heat energy or steam.
DILIGENCE REQUIREMEIWS: Department of State Lands
AGENCY RESPONSIBLEFOR GROUNDWATER'REGULATIONS:Departmentof Natural Resources&Conservation,

Water Resources Division
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR REGULATING DRILLING: Statute and No.: 37-43-101 et. seg., and ARM
40.3.106(6)-S10620 et. seg. Department of Natural Resouqx and Conservation
INJECTION REQUIREMENTS: Department of Health
STATE ENVIRONMENTAL STATUTE PERTAININGTOEXF'LORATION,DEVELOPMENT, ANDINJECTXON

a. Air Pollution Discharge Permit 75-2-101 et. seg. M.C.A. Regulation at 16-2.14(1)-S1400 et. seg.;
b. Water Pollution Discharge PermitMre-treatmentstandards for waste water discharged into municipal sewer system:
40 C.F.R. Parts 128,403;
c. Permit requirements for discharge into state water: 75-5-101 et. seg. M.C.A. Regulation at ARM 16-2.14(10)-
S14460 et. seg.;
d. Underground Injection Control/Standardfor geothermal injection well permits: 40 C.F.R. Parts 122, 123, 124,
146; 44 Fed. Reg. 34267 et. seg. and'44 Fed. Reg. 23738 et. seg.; and
e. Environmental Impact Statements, Montana Environmental Policy Act: 75-1-101 et. seg. M.C.A.
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION Department of Natural Resources & Conser-
vation, Water Resources; Health & Environmental Science, Air Quality Bureau; and/or Fish, Wildlife, and Parks
421
1
I
II
ADDITIONAL~I"ORMATI0N Montana Geothermal Institutional Handbook "A User's Guide of Agencies, Regula-
tions,Permits, and Aids for Geothermal Development," 1980. Geothermal Energy Development, A Guide to the
Federal and State Regulating procesS in Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington, 1991.
I
I
State Board of commissioners andor Department of Natural Resources & Conservation
Department of state Lands Water Resource Division andor Department of Health
1625 11th Avenue -
Cogswell Building 32 S. Ewing
Helena, MT 5%20 Capital Station, Helena, MT 59620
i Health & Environmental Science

Air Quality Bureau
Fish,Wildlife, and Parks
1420 E. 6th
Cogswell Building, Room 116 Helena MT 59601
32 S. Ewing, Capital Station
I Helena, MT 59620
I
I Department of Natural Resources
I & conservation
Energy Division
1520 E. 6th Avenue
Helena, MT 59620-2301
422
NEVADA
DEFINITION OF GEOTHERMATA Statute and No.: Nevada Revised Statute (NRS) 534A.010
Geothermal tesources are defined as the natural heat of the earth and the energy associated with that natuxal heat,
pressure, and all dissolved or entrained minerals that may be obtained from the medium used to transfer that heat, but
excluding hydrocarbons and helium. In addition, geothermal resources are divided into classes for purposes of
regulation as follows:
Domestic Class: This type of geothermal resoufce is developed for dwellings with common ownership on a Single
parcel of land, and uses not more than an annual average of 18,000 gallons per day. A geothermal resoulcedeveloped
for a community's usage that does not produce geothermal heat for sale or for the generation of pbwer is also
considered as a domestic well.
Communitv Class: This type of geothermal resource is developed primarily to provide for a community, non-power
generating operation. Requirements for this class of well would also apply to a well developed as a domestic well but
exceeding any one of the parameters for that class.
Industrial Class: This type of geothermal resource is used primarily to generate power. Requirements-ofthis class
of well would also apply to wells developed for other uses but which exceed the parameters for a community class well.
GEOTHERMAL Is CHARACTERIZED A S Mineral if use is only for heat content. For low temperatureuses and where
there is consumptive use, the resource would be characterized as both water and mineral and would fall under the
jurisdiction of the State Engineer, Division of Water R e s o u ~ .(water)
~s and the State Department of Minerals (heat).
OWNERS": Statute and No.: NRS 534A. Geothermal resourcesin Nevada belong to the owner of the surface estate.
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR LEASING Contact Office of State Lands
LEASING Leases are negotiated.
LE- TERMS: Office of State Lands

Primary: N/A
Renewable: N/A
Rentals: N/A
Royalties: (% of des): N/A
DILIGENCE REQUJREMENTS: Nevada Administrative Code (NAC) 534A.210
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR GROUNDWATERREGULATING Departmentof Conservationand Natural Resources,

Division of Environment Protection
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR REGULATING DRILLING. Statute and No.: N R S 534A. Department of Minerals
INJECTION R?EQUIREMENTS: Statuteand No.: NAC 534A.410 and Chapter 445 Nevada Administrative Code, Section
2596 inclusive. State Department of Conservationand Natural Resources, Division ofEnvironmentid Protection and/or
Department of Minerals
STATEENVIRONMENTALSTATUTE PERTAINING TO EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT, AND INJECTION

NRS 534A, Department of Minerals
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION State Department of Conservation and Natural
Resources, Division of Environmental Protection .
423
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
office of state Lands Departmeat of cwservatiOn Department of Minerals Div. of Eaah sciences
Kinkead Building and Natural R e ~ ~ u r c e s 400 w.King St., ste. 106 255 Bell St., ste. 200
505 E. King St., Rm. 300 Division of Environment Carson City, NV 89710 Reno, NV 89503
Carson City, NV 89710 protection, Capital Complex
201 S. Falls Street
Carson City, NV 89710
424
NEW MEXICO
DEFINlTION OF GEOTBERMAL: Statute and No.: New Mexico StatutesAnnotated (NMSA) 1978,71-5-3 arid NMSA
1978, 72-2-17.
'Geothermal resource" means the ~ t u r aheat

l of the earth, or the energy, in whatever form, below the d a c e of the
earth present in, resulting from, creating by or which may be extracted from, this natural heat, and all minerals in
solution or other products obtained from naturally heated fluids, brines, associated gases and steam, in whatever form,
found below the surface of the earth, but excluding oil, hydroarbon gas and other hydrocarbon substances.
"Geothermal fluid" means naturally occufting steam or hot water which is at a temperature of at least 95°F in the
natural state of free-flowing springs or pumped from wells.
OWNERSHIP. Statute and No.: NMSA 1978, 19-13-3 and NMSA 1978, 71-5-2. The state claims ownership of
geothermal resources whenever it holds the mineral rights.
AGENCY RESPONSD3LE FOR LEASING Statute and No.: NMSA 1978, 19-13-5. State Land Office
LEASING: Leasing is competitive in geothermal resoutce fields and noncompetitive in all other areas.
LEASE TERMS: NMSA 1978, 19-13-7 and 19-13-11. State Land Office
Primary: 5years.
Renewable: 5 years and for so long as resources are produced.
Rentals; $l/acre for first 5 years or when in production. $5/acre second 5 years and no production.
Royalties: (5% of sales): 10%of gross revenues minus transportation costs or royalty of 8% of the net revenue
received from the operation of an energy producing plant.
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR GROUNDWATER REGULATIONS: Office of the State Engineer
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR REGULATING DRILLING: Statuteand No.: NMSA 1978, 71-54,714-8,72-12-3,
72-12-26. Oil Conservation Division and/or Office of the State Engineer
INJECTION REQUIREMENTS: Statute and No.: NMSA 1978,7l-5-6. Oil Conservation Division and/or Office of the
State Engineer
STATE ENVIRONMENTALSTATUTE PERTAINING TO EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT, AND INJECTION

NMSA 1978, 71-56 and 74-6-1 through 12
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION: Environmental Improvement Division
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: New Mexico Research and Development Institute
StateLandsOffiW . Oil Conservation Division Environmental Improvement Division

P.O. Box 1148 P.O. Box 2088 Health and Environment Department
Santa Fe, NM 87504 Santa Fe, NM 87504 P.O. Box 968
Santa Fe, NM 87054-0968
Office of the State Engineer New Mexico Research & Development Institute
Bataan Memorial Building, Suite 101 Pinon Building, Suite 358
Smta Fe, NM 87503 Santa Fe, NM 87501
425
NORTH DAKOTA
DEFINlTION OF GEOTHERMAL: Statute and No.: Geothermal Resource Development Regulation, North Dakota
Century code (NDCC), Chapter 38-19-02.
"Geothermalresource" means the recoverable stod heat of the earth.
GEOTHERMALISCHARACTERIZEDAS: Heat
OWNERSRIP: Statute and No.: Chapter 38-10-03NDCC
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR LEASING: Statute and NO.: NDCC 38-19-04and chapter 4342-08-06. I n d d
Commission, Office of the State Geologist
LEASING: Leasing is by application and terms are negotiated. 4
LEASE TERMS: Office of the State Geologist
DILIGENCE REQUIREMENTS: NIA
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR GROUNDWATER REGULATIONSs Office of the State Geologist
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR REGULATINGDRILLING Statute and No.: NDCC Chapter 38-19-03.Industrial
Commission, Office of the State Geologist
INJECTION REQUJREMENTS: Statute and NO.: NDCC 38-19-03and Chapter 43-02-07-14.Industrial Commission,
Office of the State Geologist
STATE E " M E N T A L STATUTE PERTAINING TO EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT, AND INJECTION

NDCC 38-19-03
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR E " M E N T A L P R O T E C T 1 0 N Industrial Commission, Office of the State

Geologist
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION North Dakota Geologist Survey
Industrial Commission North Dakota Geological Survey

Office of the State Geologist University Station
University Station G m d Forks, ND 58202-8156
Grand Forks, ND 58202-8156
426
SOUTH DAKPTA
DEFINITION OF GEOTHERMAL: Statute and NO.: South Dakota compiled Laws (SDCL) 5-1-2
"Anact to define geothermal mumy and to provide for leasing of geothermal resources on state lands."
"Geothermal resources" the use of the natural heat of the earth or the Aergy, in whatever form, below the surface of
the earth for commercial or industrial heating or electrical generating purposes.
GEOTHERMAL IS CHARACTERIZED AS: Water m u r w and subject to all the provisions of SDCL, Chapter 46-5
and 46-6 inclusive.
"Geothermal use" is classified as "beneficial use"'by both the Secretary of the Department of Water and Natural
Resources and the Board of Water Management.
0W"W: Statute and No.: SDCL Chapter 46-5. Appropriated as water.
AGENCY RESPONSIBLEFOR LEASING Statute and No.: SDCL Chapter 5-7. Department of Schools and Public
Lands
LEASING Leasing is on a competitive basis by public auction.
LEASE TERMS: Statute and No.: SDCL Chapter 507. Department of Schools and Public Lands.
Primary: 1oyears.
Renewable: So long as murces are produced from the leased lands.
Rentals: Minimum of $1/acre.
Royalties: (96 of sales): Not less than 10% of the gross revenue, exclusive of school and public lands that were
made or incurred with respect to transmission of their services or process, received from the sale of
steam, brine, and gases at the point of delivery to the purchaser.
DILIGENCE REQUIREMENTS: Department of Schools and Public Lands
AGENCY RESPONSIBLEFOR GROUNDWATERREGULATIONS: Department of Water & Natural Resources,

Division of Water Rights
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR INJECTION REQUIREMENTS,

DILIGENCE REQUIREMENTS, AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION Department of Water & Natural
Resources, Division of Environmental Quality
STATEENVIRONMENTAL STATUTEPERTAINING TO EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT, AND INJECTION

Department of Water & Natural Resources, Division of Environmental Quality
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION Department of Water & Natural Resources, Division of Water Rights
Dmartment of Water & Natural Resources DeP t of Schools & Public Lands
Diiision of Water Rights andlor 500 E. Capital Avenue
Division of Environmental Quality Pierre, SD 57501
523 E. Capital Avenue
Pierre, SD 57501
427
OREGON
\
DEFINITION OF GEOTHERMAL: Statute and No.: Oregon Revised Statute (ORs) 522.055(11); ORs 577.090
"Geoth&d resources"means the natural heat of the earth;the energy in wh&teverform, below the surface of the earth
l and all ininerals in solution
present in, resulting from, or created by, or which may be extracted from the ~ h u aheat,
or other products obtained from naturally lieated fluids, brines, associated gases, and steam, in whatever form, found
below the surface of the earth, exclusive of helium or of oil, hydrocarbon gas or other hydrocarbon substances, but
including, specifically:
a. All products of geothermal process, embracing indigenous steam, hot water, and hot brines;
b. Steam and other gases, hot water and hot brines resulting from water, gas, or other fluids artificially introduced
into geothermal formation; *
c. Heat or other assoCiated energy found in geothexmal formations; and
d. Any by-product derived from them.
"Geothermal well" includes any excavation made for producing geothermal resources and any geothermal reinjection
well as defined in subsection (10) of this subsection.
"Geothermal reinjection well" means any well or converted well constructed to dispose of geothermal fluids derived
from geothermal resources into an underground reservoir.
GEOTHERMAL IS CHARACTERIZED AS: Water if the temperature is less than 250°F;and under the jurisdiction of
the Department of Water Resources. If it is above 25W, it is considered mineral and under the jurisdiction of the
Department of Geology and Mineral Resources.
0w"Ip: Statute and No.: ORs 522.035; ORs 537.090. Owner of the surface estate.
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR LEASING Statute and No.: ORs 273.551; Oregon Administrative Rules, Chapter 141
75-010 through 141-75-575. Division of State Lands
LEASING: Leases are available on a non-competitive as well as Competitive basis.
LEASE TERMS: Division of State Lands

Primary: 1oyears.
Renewable: 5 years if discovery has been made or is imminent. Leases are renewable every 10 years. No lease shall
exceed 50 years except the lessee shall have a right of first r
em if the Division decides to continue
leasing.
Rentals: $l/acre (lst, 2nd, & 3rd year); $3/acre (4th year); $5/acre all subsequent years.
Royalties: (96 of sales): 10%of production value of tesource produced.
DILIGENCE REQUIREMENTS: Division of State Lands
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR GROUNDWATER REGULATIONS ORs537, Department of Water Resources

(C25PF) andlor ORs 522, Department of Geology & Mineral Industries (>BOT)
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR REGULATING DRILLING Same as above.
INJECTION REQUIREMENTS: Same as above, plus Oregon AdministrativeRules, Chapter 690, Division 65-055-Water
Resources Departmentkow Temperature Geothermal Effluent Disposal.
STATE ENVIRONMENTALSTATUTEPERTAINING TO EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMEN", AND INJECTION:

Statute and No.: ORs 522 and Oregon Administrative Rules, Chapter 141-75-265. Department of Geology and
Mineral Industries; Department of Water Resources andlor Department of Environmental Quality
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL F'ROTECTION: Department of Environmental Quality
428
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Oregon Department of E&rgy and Department of Water Resources. See Low
Tempmature Geothermal Resource Management, by Lauren S . Forcella, Oregon Water Resources Department of
Energy, 1984, Oregon: A Gusde to Geozhennal Energy Devebpment, D&ra Justus, et d., 1980, Oregon institute of
Tecblogy, and/or Geothennai Emm Development, A Guide to the Federal and State Regulating ‘Promsin Idaho,
M~nrana,Oregon,.and Washington, 1991:
Division of State Lands Department of Water Resources

1600 state street 3850 Portland Road NE
Salem, OR 97310 Salem, OR 97310
Department of Geology and Mind Industries Department of Environmental Quality

I
I 910 State Office Building 811 S.W.6th Street
I
I
Portland, OR 97201 Portland, OR 97204
I
Oregon Department of Energy
625 Marion Stfeet NE
Salem, OR 97310
(503) 378-2778
429
TEXAS
DEFINITION OF GEOTHERMAL: Statuteand No.: Geothermal Resoutces Chapter, Texas Natural Resources Code
(TNRC), Title 5, Chapter 141.003. Geuthermal Resources Act of 1975:
"Geothermal energy and associated resources* means:

a. Products of geothermalprocesses, embracingindigenoussteam, hot water, and hot brines, and geopressured w,
b. Steam and other gases, hot water and hot brines d t i n g from water,gas or other fluids artificially introduced
into geothermal f o ~ t i o n s ;
c. Heat or other associated energy found in geothermal formations; and
d. Any by-product derive from them.
GEOTHERMAL IS CHARACTERIZED As: Mineral
OWNERSHIP Statute and No.: Texas Natural Resources Code (TNRC), Title 5, Chapter 141
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR LEASING Statute and No.: TNRC 141.003. General Land Office,Mineral Division
LEASING: N/A
LEASE TERMS: Railroad Commission

DILIGENCE REQUIREMENTS N/A
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR GROUNDWATER REGULATIONS Texas Water Commission
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR DRIUING/REGULATIONS Texas Railroad Commission, Oil and Gas Division
INJECTIONREQUIREMENTS Statute and No.: Texas Administrative Code (TAC), Section 16, 9 3.9 and TAC,
Section 16, 0 3.46
STATEENVIRONMENTAL STATUTE PERTAINING TO EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT, AND INJECTION:

TNRC 141.003
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR ENViRONMENTAL PROTECTION Water Commission
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION Texas Bureau of Eumomic Geology
General Land office Texas Water Commission

Mineral Division Steven Austin Building
Steven Austin Building 1700 N. Congress
1700 N. Congress Austin, TX 78711
Austin, TX 78711
-
Texas Bureau of Eumomic Geology Texas Railroad Commission
William B. Travis Building Pennits Division and Oil & Gas Division
1701 N. Congress William B. Travis Building
Austin, TX 78711 1701 N. Congress
Austin, TX 78711
430
UTAH .
DEFINITION OF GEOTHERMAL: Statute and No.: Geothermal Resource Conservation Act, Section 73-213, Utah
Code Annotated (VCA) 1953.
"Geothermal resources" means:

a. The natural heat of the earth at temperatures.gfeater than 120°C; and
b. The energy, in whatever form, including pressure, present in, resulting from, created by, or which may be
extracted from the natural heat, directly or through a material medium. Geothermal resource does not include
geothermal fluids.
"Geothermal fluid" means water and steam at temperaturesgreater than 120°Cnaturally present in a geothermal system.
OWNERSIP: Statute and No.: Geothermal Resource Conservation Act, UCA, Section 73-21-4.
Ownership of a geothermal wurce derives from an interest in land and not from an appropriated right to geothermal
fluids. This chapter shall apply to all lands in the state of Utah, including federal and Indian lands to the extent
.
allowed by law. . In effect, the right to geothermal resource is based on ownership of the mineral rights or surface
rights, which are usually obtained by direct ownership or by leasing. Because of the potential relationship between
geothermal fluids and groundwater resource, however, an approved application to appropriate geothermal fluids is
required prior to the production of geothermal fluids from a well (UCA, Section 73-21-8). The appropriations process
for geothermal fluids is similar to that of water appropriations, and includes provisions for advertisement of the
application and the filing of protests. Utah Division of Water Rights
AGENCY RESPONSIBLEFOR LEASING Statute and No.: UCA, Section 65-1-18. Board of State Lands, Division
of State Lands, Utah Division of Water Rights.
Hydrothermal resources at low and mbderate temperatures (< 120°C) are regulated by the Division of Water Rights
under Utah Water Law.
LEASING: Competitive leasing involves lands which have newly become available for lease because of new purchase,
relinquished leases, or any other reason and are leased under the simultaneousfiling pmcedures. Applications for non-
competitive leases are fled with the Board of State Lands, Division of State Lands.
LEASE TERMS: Board of State Lands

Primary: 1oyears.
Kenewable: For as long as land is in production.
Rentals: $1/acre per year.
Royalties: (96 of sales): 10%of gross proceeds received from sale of those products, or 10%of the fair market
value when the products are utilized but not directly sold.
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR GROUNDWATER REGULATIONS Utah bivision of Water Rights
AGENCY RESPONSIBLEFOR REGULATING DRIUING: Statute and No.: UCA, Section 73-21-5. Utah Division
of Water Rights
INJECTION REQUIREMENTS: Statute and No.: UCA, Section 73-21-5. Utah Division of Water Rights and/or Bureau
of Water Pollution Control; injection may be required in order to maintain water levels in heavily used aquifers.
STATE E " M E N T A L STATUTEPERTAININGTOEXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT, AND INJECTION

Statute and No.: UCA, Section 73-21-2 and UCA 26-11, Section 1-20
431
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR ENWR0"TAL PROTECTION Department of Envhmental Health;Bureau
of Water Pollution control; Bureau of Air Quality; the Resource Development coordinating Committee (acts as a
clearinghouse for environmental permits).
ADDlTIONAL INFORMATION Utah Geothermal Handbook: A User'sGstide of Agencies, Regularions, Permits and
Aids for Geothermal Development, 1982 andlor State Engineer, Division of Water .Rights.
Utah Division of Water Rights - DepartmentofEn-tdHdth

1636 W. North Temple 288N. 1460 W
Salt Lake City, UT 84116 Salt Lake City, UT 84116
Bureau of Water Pollution Conrol Board of State Lands

160 W. North Temple, Room 410 Division of state Lands
Salt Lake City, UT 84103 3100 State office Building
Bureau of Air Quality

150 W. North Temple, Room 420
432
WASHINGTON
DE%"HON OF GECYIWE-. Statute and No.: Geothermal Resources Act, Revised code Washington (RCW),
Chapter 79.76(3).
"Geothermal resource" means only that ~ t heat d of the earth from which it is technologically practical to
~energy
produce electricity commercially and the medium by which such heat energy is extracted from the earth, including
liquids or gases, as well a s m y mheral contained in any ~ t u r aor
l injected fluids, brines, and associated gas, but
excluding oil, hydrocarbon gas, and other hydrocarbon substances.
GEOTHERMAL IS CHARACTERIZED AS: Sui genetis.
OWNERSHIP: Statute and No.: GeothermalResource Act, RCW, Chapter 79.76. Geothermal resourcesare the property
of the d a c e ower.
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR LEASING Statute and No.: Geothermal R e s o u ~ .Act,

~ s RCW, Chapter 79.76.
Department of Natural Resource% Division of Lands
LEASING: At the present time all leases are negotiated.
LEASE TERMS: Department of Natural Resources, Division of Lan+
DILIGENCE REQUIREMENTS: Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Earth R e s o u ~ . ~ s
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR GROUNDWATER REGULATIONS: Department of Ecology
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR REGULATING DRILLING Statute and No.: Geothermal Resources Act, RCW,
Chapter 79.76. Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geology & Earth Resoutces
INJECTION REQUIREMENTS Statute and No.: Geothermal Resources Act, RCW, Chapter 79.76. Department of
Ecology and/or Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geology & Earth Resources
STATEENVIRONMENTAL STATUTE PERTAI"GT0 EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT, AND ZNJECTION

State Environmental Policy Act 1971 and Geothermal Resources Act, RCW, Chapter 79.76
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION: Department of ~coiogy
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION. "Geothermal Energy Development in Washington, A Guide to the Federal, State and
Local Regulatory Process," 1986 and "Geothermal Energy Development, A Guide to the Federal and State Regulating
Process in Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington, 1991."
Department of Natural Resources

Division of h d s Dept. of Ecology andlor
202 John A. Cherberg Building Rowe Six, Building 1
Olympia, WA 98504 Olympia, WA 98504
Washington State Energy Office Department of Natural Resources

809 Legion Way SE, FA-11 Department of Geology & Earth Resources .
Olympia, WA 98504-1211 powe Six, Building 1
Olympia, WA 98504
433
WYOMING
DEF'INlTIONOFGEOTHEW Statute and No.: Wyoming Statutes (WS) Chapter XI Rules and Regulations
Goveming the Issuance of Geothermal Permits and Leases.
"Geothermal resources" shall mean the natural heat in the subsurface of the earth, its energy, in whatever fonn,
resulting from,or created by, or which may be extracted from, such natural heat and all minerals in solution or other
products obtained from naturally heated fluids, brines, associated gases, and steam, in whatever form, found below
the surface of the earth, but excluding oil, hydrocarbon gas, other hydrocarbon substances or miscellaneousminerals.
O W " : Statute and No.: Natwe ofWater Rights and Beneficial Use,Article 1,941-3-101Wyoming Statutes (WS).
Geothermal is a public resource available for appropriation.
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR LEASING Article 1. 8 41-3-101: Rules and Regulations Governing the Issuance of
Geothermal Resource Permits and Leases, Wyoming State Lands Office
LEASING: LeasinginKnownGeothermalResourceAreas (KGRA)is by competitive bid. Other lands are available

through a non-competitive permit which may be converted to a lease within 50 days should the area be classified as
a KGRA.
LEASE TERMS: Wyoming State Lands Office

Primary: 1oyears.
Renewable: As long as geothermal tesoutces are being produced or utilized, or are capable of being p r o d d or
utilized in commercial quantities.
Rentals: $2/year.
Royalties: (96 ofsales): 10%ofgross revenue as determined by a reasonable value received from the sale of steam,
brine, from which no minerals have been extracted, and associated gases at the point of delivery to
purchaser thereof. In such a case where the resourceis used by the lessee and not sold, the gross revenue
therefrom to be determined as those said geothermal resoutceshad been sold to a third person and then
primarily market price in the same market area and under the same market conditions.
DELIGENCE REQUIREMENTS Drilling must commence within two (2) years. State Board of Land Commissionen
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR GROUNDWATER REGULATIONS State Engineer
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR REGULATING DRILLING Statute and No.: Rules and Regulations Governing the
Issuance of Geothermal Resource Permits and Leases. State Board of Land Commissioners and State Engineer
INJECTION REQUIREMENTS: Surfacedisposal may be approved by the Wyoming Game and Fish Department, State
Engineer or Department of Environmental Quality.
~ATEENVIRO"TAL~ATUTEPERTAI"GTOEXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT,ANDINJECTION
State Engineer or Department ofEnvironmental Quality, Section 12, Board of Land CommissionersPermit to prospeCt
for Geothermal Resources
AGENCY RESPONSIBLE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION Department of Environmental Quavty
434
DDlTIONAL HWOl2MA~ON State Engineer’s Office and/or Universiw of Wyoming and Rules and Regulations
govembg the Issuance of Geothermal Resource Permits and Leases, November 1, 1975 and Permit to’Prospect for
Geothermal Res6um.
Wyoming State Lands Office

andlor State Board of Land
. Department of Eiwiromental Quality
4th Floor West
University of Wyoming
Department of Geology
State WS
OEce
4th Floor West
Commissioners Herschler Building P;O. Box 3006 Herschler Building
4th Floor West Cheyenne, WY 82002 Laramie, WY 82071 Cheyenne;WY8~
Herschler Building
Cheyenne, WY 82002
435
CHAPTER 20 - _
ENVIR0"TAL
CONSIDERATIONS
By Ben Lunis and Robert Breckenridge
EG&G Idaho, Iac.
20.1 INTRODUCTION Table 20.1 Probability and Severity of Potential

EnvironmentalImpactsof Direct Use Projects
The degree to which geothermal development affects the
environment is, in most cases, proportional to the scale of
such development. For example, the environmental impacts Probability Severity of
associated with g e o t h e d direct me projects are often ImDact ofOccurrind conmend
minimal compared to those associated with large-scale
electrical generationprojects. The direct use projects are often Air quality pollutionb L M
designed as closed-loop systems where the low- or moderate-
temperature geothermal fluids are circulated through a heat Surf' water pollution M M
exchanger or heat pump (or flow naturally around downhole
heat exchangers). The spent geothermal fluids are then Underground pollutionc L M
injected into or near the production aquifer, or surface
discharged into nearby drainage and waterways or both. The Land subsidence L LtoM
surface discharge approach normally produces greater
environmental concern than injection. These and other High noise levels H MtoH
environmental considerations are addressed in this chapter.
Regulations that may apply are also discussed. Well blowouts L LtoM
conflicts with cultural & -

20.2 ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS archeological features LtoM MtoH
Various federal, state, local laws, and regulations may be Social economic problems L L
directly or indirectly applicable to geothermal energy project
siting,. development, and operation. However, the rules Chemical or thermal
generally apply more to electrical generation projects than to pollution M MtoH
direct use projects. No single set of regulations applies to all
types of geothermal applications, and lesser attention is given Solid waste disposal M
to low- and moderate-temperature tesources. However, the
appropriateregulating agencies must be contacted to determine
what requirements may apply to a specific project. Table 20.1
summarizes the probability and relative severity of potential a. L = Low; M = Moderate;,H = High.
environmental impacts as the result of the development of
geothermal direct use projects. It is best to discuss the b. Hydrogen sulphide odors may be objectionable, but
envhmental Considerations of the project early with all are not significant enough to be a problem.
applicable regulatory agencies, and obtain the necessary
permits so that the project is not because of some c. Pollution concern may increase
overlooked environmental regulati g e o t h e d fluid injection requirements.
Following is a brief discussion of the major regulations

that may apply to direct use projects. Table 20.2 rmmmafizes
the areas of applicability. 4
Table 20.2 Regulations Affecting G e u t h d Energy DeJelopment (Zimmemm, 1984)
~~
Principal Pollution Surface Geothenmal Solid Liquid SLlbSidelld

JAWS and Reeulatims & Water Fluids Waste waste Noise . Seismicitv
Federal Water Pollution X X

Control Act (NPDES)
Safe Drinking Water Act - X - X
(Underground Injection
Control Regulations (UIC))
clean Air Act X

Resource Conservationand - - X X
Recovery Act
Toxic Substance Cantrol Act - - X X I -

National Environmental Policy X X X X X X X
Act @TEPA)
Noise Control Act - X -

G e o t h d Resource X x - X X X X X
Operations Order #44
Occupational safety 4% X - - X X X -
Health Act
.
20.2.1 Federal Water Pollution Control Act. as Amended are structured more by the end product than by the energy
(Zimmerman, 1984) source used. Thus, geothermal effluents from various
processes will not be treated in a consistent manner.
The 1977 Federal Water Pollution control Act, as
Amended, established the National Pollutant Discharge 20.2.2 Safe drink in^ Water Act. as Amended .
Elimination System ("DES) and effluent guidelines and is -( , 1984)
aimed primarily at the protection of surface waters through a
permitting process. A primary precept of this law is to The W e Drinking Water Act (SDWA) was designed to
provide for state umtrol of water pollution if the states safeguard the primary and seumdary safe drinking water
develop a program that enmmpasses the standardized permit supplies of the nation. The primary intention of this act is
system developed under NPDES. Permits are based on that state governments implement programs to ensure
industry-specified effluent guidelines or 011 more stringent compliance. The major regulation that directly affects
standards for receiving-water quality. No specific geothermal geothermal energy recovery are those for underground
guidelines or standads have been established to date, but injection control (UIC) designed to protect groundwater
emphasis in the law is placed on control of toxic pollutants aquifers. The UIC regulations establish five disposal well,
(including heavy metals, many of which are found in categories based on well ctmstmction technology, practices,
geothermal fluids and waste). and fluids to be injected. Geuthermal energy was placed in
two categories. Wastes from electric power generation were
Under this NPDES system, discharge quantities, htes, placed in Class III, which includes 'all special process
pollutant concentrations, and fluid discharge temperatures are injection wells; for example, those involved in solutionmining
regulated by permits issued by either the EPA or states with and minerals, in situ gasification, oil shale, coal, etc., and the
EPA-approved programs. No specific geothermal category recovery of geothermal energy for electric power generation. '
exists intheNPDES regulations, because theclassifications Direct-use geothermal injection wells were placed in Class V,
iI 43 8
which includes: All other injection wells (not included in 20.2.5 Toxic Substances Control Act (Zimmerman, 1984)
Classes t to IV), includingg e o t h e d direct-appkationwells"
(EER, .Inc?1981; EER, Inc., 1982 b]. The EPA proposed The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) was
that electric power geothermal wells be changed from Class III established "to regulate commerce and protect human health in
to Class V (EER, Inc., 1982 b) and- this change in the environment by requiring testing and necessary use
classificationwas adopted in February 1982. Under Class V, restrictions 0x1 certain chemical substances, and for other
wells are not regulated with regard to CoflStNcfion criteria, purposes" (EER, hc., 1982b). The main impact of TSCAon
maintenance, or testing UIC, if the EPA determines that geothermalenergy developmentaffects the sale for c o d
contamination of a drinking water source is possible, more use of by-products rcixOvered from either liquid or solid waste
stringent monitoring, construction, testing, and operational streams. The EPA administrator is authorized to determine
standards can be imposed. the environmental, economic, andsocial impacts of the sale of
any such material. Under the act, by-products require
20.2.3 Clean Air Act, as Amended (Zimmerman, 1984) certification of their make-up. If these by-products are
determined to be toxic, regulations for their mtrol, flows,
This 1963 act has undergone many major changes, the and use must be developed (Hartley, 1978; Galabi, 1980;
,most recent being the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 EER, Inc., 1982 b).
(EER, Inc., 1982 b; Hartley, 1978; Galabi, 1980). As in the
Clean Water Act, the intent of the law was for the states to 20.2.6 Noise Control Act of 1971 (Zimmerman,1984)
administer the programs through state implementation plans
approved by the EPA. The Noise Control Act of 1971 gives primary control of
noise to the state and local governments (Hartley, 1978;
There are four major provisions under the law that may Kestin, 1980; Beeland, 1978; Morris and Hill, 1980). Under
affect development of geothermal energy. These are New this act, the federal government retains regulatory authority
Source Performance Standards (NSPS), Prevention of over low-level noise produced by construction equipment,
Significant Deterioration (OSD), National Primary and transportation equipment, any motor or engine, and electrical
Secondary Ambient Air Quality Standards, and National or electronic equipment. When a new class of products is
Emission Standards for Hazardous Pollutants. The NSPS are regulated by the EPA, state and local noise emission levels for
a primary control mechanism that is set on a m industry-by- that product must be identical tothose established by the EPA.
industry basis and requires the applicationof the best available Primary control of noise from geothermalenergy development
technology to reduce emissions. At the time of this report, fall under the OccupationalSafety and Health Act (OSHA)and
the Clean Air Act is undergoing major revisions. The Geothermal Resource's Operational Order (GRO) No. 4.
revisions are mostly being focused on emissions of C, N and
S sources. Although these are only usually emitted in 20.2.7 National Environmental Policv Act
significant quantities by larger scale power facilities. All Zimmerman, 1984)
developmentsshould check with their regional EPA and state
air permitting agencies to ensure compliance. The National hvironmental Policy Act (NEPA) requires
environmental impact statements to be completed and filed for
20.2.4 Resource Conservation and Recoverv Act of 1976 all federally funded geothermal actions significantly affecting
the quality of human environment (Beeland, 1978; Galabi,
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 1980; EER, hc., 1982 a).
(RCRA)provides: (a) technical and financial assistance for
the safedisposal of discarded materials and (b) regulates 20.2.8 Geothermai Resource ODerational Order No. 44
lhazardouswastes. (Zimmerman, 1984). Solid wastes that are (Zimmerman, 1984)
not hazardous wastes am currently exempt from the hazardous
waste regulations under RCRA. This exclusion includes This legislation allows the U.S. Geological Survey to
drilling fluids, produced waters, and other wastes associated apply EPA's and its own requirements to geothermal
with the exploration, development, or production of crude oil, development on federal lands. In addition, the order sets
natural gas or geothermal energy (40 CFR, Ch. 1, 7-1-86 noise criteria for of federal lands. In
Edition). This exemption can be removed in the future, addition, the orde eothermaloperations
however, depending on the characteristicsof the solid wastes on federal lands not to exceed 65 dBA at the lease boundary,
resulting from geothermal energy development (Zimmerman, QT 0.5 ,mi from the source, whichever is greater (Hariley,
1984). 1978).
439
20.2.9 OcCuDational Safety and Health Act of 1970 should be treated accordingly. A unique and remote potential
(Zimmerman, 1984) exists for venting gases containing hydrogen sulfideand other
toxic material during well drilling operations. This could pose
The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSHA) an immediate health threat to nearby workers. Table 20.3
authorized the Secretary of Labor to set mandatory standards presents information on H$ and its effects on the human
to protect the occupational safety and health of all employees. body. It is important to note that even at low concentrations
The act deals specifically with toxic materials and other s 0.196, H$ can be a fatal gas. Thus, proper drilling
harmful agents (Beeland, 1978; Galabi, 1980; Kestin, 1980; procedures prepared by qualified safety personnel should be
Moms and Hill, 1980). developed to address this concern.
20.2.10 Endangered SDecies Act of 1973

Table 20.3 concentration of H$ in Air and Its
The Endangered Species Act of 1973 provides executive- Physiological Effects (Burgess, 1964)
branch regulators with significant powers to guide energy
(geothermal) exploration and production. This act protects
endangered wildlife species and their critical habitats from Concentration of HS
exploration and development (Beeland, 1978; Galabi, 1980; ( 9 6 ) Phvsioloeical Effects
EER, Inc., 1982 b) (Ummerman, 1984). The U.S. Fish &
Wildlife Services should be contacted to determine if this act . 0 . m Just detectable by smell
applies to r e s o w around the propolsed project. 0.002 Maximumallowableconcentration
for prolonged exposure; at this
203.11 State and Local Laws and Repulations concentration, causes eye
irritation
State and local regulations may be more stringent than 0.007-0.015 Slight symptoms
federal laws. It may be necessary to contact the appropriate 0.017-0.03 Can be inhaled for 1 hr without
agencies regarding a specific project. Chapter 19, serious lasting effect
Institutional, Legal and Permit Requirements, identifies 0.04-0.06 Dangerous if inhaled for *hto 1hr
specificstateagenciesresponsible for environmentalprotection 0.06 Fatal after 'A hr
and drilling. That chapter also addresses state groundwater 0.1 Paralyses sense of smell and
laws, permits, easements, district heating regulation, and causes instant unmnsciousness
injection requirements.
20.3 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 20.3.2 Water Pollution
The main environmental factors to be considered during Water pollution can occur during any stage of g e o t h d
geothermal exploration, development, and operation of direct development whether it be field exploration and testing,
use projects include: production well drilling, .construction, or facility operation
(Hess, 1984).
1. Airborne effluents
2. Water pollution Muds commonly used for drilling may be harmful to
3. Land subsidence water quality if they are allowed to enter either surface waters
4. Induced seismicity or groundwater aquifers. Some of these muds contain
5. Noise petroleum-based additives or metals that can jeopafdize the
6. Water availability environment if accidentally leaked into surface water or
7. Solid waste groundwater aquifers. To prevent contamination of surface
a. Land use waters, these substances,together with rock dust and the water
9. Vegetation and wildlife used in the drilling operation, must be isolated from the
10. Economic .and culhual factors. surface as well as groundwaters. Wells should be cased
through potable groundwater horizons to prevent mixing of
A brief discussion of these.factorsfollows. drilling fluids with groundwater. Blowouts can also pollute
water, and blowout protection equipment should be required
20.3.1 Airborne Effluents during the drilling of all geothermal wells where high temper-
ature or pressure are anticipated. Sumps with an impermeable
Airborne effluents that may be released during the lining or steel tanks should be used to store drill cuttings and
development of a geothermal direct use project are generally drilling fluids during drilling operation to ensure that these
the same as those from normal construction activities, and materials do not contaminate surface water (FERC, 1981).
440
Erosion and sedimentationassociatedwith constytion of extend to the land surface or affect the regional aquifers or
drilling pads, roads, pipelines, and utilization fac induce subsidence or seismicity, regulators and the public
effect the quality of nearby surface water becomes involved. Before this occurs, long-term monitoring
associatedwith erosion and sedimentationcan be data should be available to describe and quantify the changes
careful site selection and engineeringdesign, and the adoption ly occurred and to document that operational
of erosion and runoff prevention control measures. practices are in compliance with all applicable regulations
, 1980) (Zimmerman, 1984).
AU subsurface disposal of geothermal fluids is regulated
by the EPA's UIC regulation and by state drinking water
programs developed pursuant to the Safe D w g Water Act
mess, 1984). The removal of large quantities of geothermal fluid from
- a geologic formation may result in land surface subsidence.
Water pollution problems can be' associated with the Permanent and non-recoverable subsidence d t s from slow-
management of spent disposal fluids. However, low-to- and long-term iemoval of fluids and from the compression of
moderate temperature geothermal fluids used in most direct aquitards-such as clay, silt-like materials, or shale-above or
use applications generally contain low levels of dissolved below a reservoir. Such subsidencehas been common follow-
volatile compounds and dissolved solids and the discharge of ing the withdrawal of water and oil. At the present, however,
spent geothermal fluids is seldom a major problem. Some of subsidence has not been observed as a significant concern for
these fluids can often be discharged to surface waters after low- and moderate-temperaturereservoirs. If subsidencedoes
cooling (if needed). However, high concentrations of such OCCUT, injectionwells may be utilized to mitigate the problem.
chemicals as boron, fluoride, or arsenic in spent geothermal
fluids may require that the fluid;: be treated, injected or both. 20.3.4 Induced Seismicity
Again, the variable nature of geothermal fluids requires that
each resourcebe evaluated on a site-by-site basis to determine Many hydrothermal reservoirs are located in regions with
the most environmentally sound disposal program. The a high fresuency of naturally occurring seismic events. An
disposal methods selected will depend upon the quality of the environmental concern may be raised as to whether or not the
wastewater, local hydrological conditions, environmental withdrawal or injection of geothermal fluids or both may
regulations, and in some cases, local requirements. enhance the rate of microseismic events, or even trigger a
major earth movement. FERC (FERC, 1981), however, con-
It may be necessary to demonstrate to governing cluded that "it is extremely unlikely that major seismic events
authorities that there will be a lack of adverse effects upon could be triggered in this way. " Experience with fluid injec-
local groundwater supplies through the disposal of spent tion in a number of non-geothermal situations has demon-
geothermal fluids. Injection of the spent geothermal fluids is strated that induced seismicity can be minimized or prevented
considered by some to be the most advantageous when the by regulating injection pressures (FERC, 1981; O'Bairion arid
disposal well is properly constructed to prevent polluting Layton, 1981).
groundwater aquifers. In addition, injection may help to
maintainthe long-term productivity of the reservoir and lessen 20.3.5 Noise
the potential for subsidence. However, because many
geothermal low-to-moderate temperature reservoirs are fault Noise associated with the operation of direct use projects
and fracture controlled, there is concern about where to locate is generally insignificant. However, drilling rigs and
an injector well, and ,at what depth. If the spent fluids are constructionequipment, pumps, and compressorsare principal
injected into the producing aquifer, t h e d dilution can occur, noise sources for direct use projects. In the event higher
reducing the life of the reservoir. Reservoir testing and temperaturefesourcesare encountered, significantnoik can be
analysis, with the attendant expense, may be required to expected from accidental unmuffied well venting, as in the
whether or not injectors are required. case of a well blowout (Webb, 1984). Construction site noise
may lead to public annoyance and complaint, and noise
Surface discharge of spent geothermal fluids into a shielding may be needed to reduce sowce noise levels to
navigable river requires a National Pollutant acceptable regulatory levels.
Elimination System (NPDES) permit. Western
laws may play a role in selecting the method used for surface 20.3.6 Water Availabilitv
discharge (Zimmennan, 1984). Geothermal fluids, in some
cases, are of adequate purity to be used for other surface One of the major potential problems in geothermalenergy
applications such as irrigation. development is the definition of water rights for low-salinity
. fluids. Historical interpretations in the western states bave
Generally, subsurface changes caused by geothermal placed industrial uses, of which geothermal energy extraction
developments are of serious concern if the impact reaches appears to be one, at a much lower priority than water for
beyond the g e o t h e d reservoir. As soon as the effects municipal and agricultural p u q k e ~(Zimmerman, 1984).
441
As noted in Chapter 19, Paragraph 19.11 Groundwater difficult to detect ex&t near the production well field. For
Law, groundwater is treated as a public resource in most more distant locations, changes may not be detectable except
western states, except Oregon; California and Hawaii are like after long periods of full-scale fluid withdrawal. Similarly,
most eastern states where groundwater is attached to the the effects of deep fluid injection may be difficult to measum,
surface unless critical groundwaterareas have been designated, particularly if the changes caused by injection are super-
requiring the water rights to be adjudicated. Because imposed on changes caused by fluid withdrawal,-(
historical users of groundwater included domestic, 1984).
agricultural, and industrial purposes, but not heat extraction,
conflicts between existing uses and the geothermal project If the quantities of fluid withdrawn from the geothermaI
developer have become a serious consideration and can reservoir system exceed the quantities of fluids injected, a net
severely limit development, especially in critical groundwater drawdown or decline in reservoir pressures will OCCUT. Fluids
areas. injected into formations in the drawdown area would migrate
toward the producing wells and would not Contaminate the
Most geothexmal systems are directly connected regional aquifer system. Only when poorquality fluids are
hydraulically with adjacent groundwater aquifers; others are injected into formations where the flow gradients are directed
poorly comected or separated from circulating groundwaters toward the regional aquifer system($) containing water of
(for example, the dry-steam geysers field of California and the usable quality will groundwater umtamhationoccuT. In
geopressured reservoirs of the Texas-Louisiana gulf coast). systemswhere flow gradientsare subtle, travel times are slow,
The extent to which hydrothermal changes are transmitted to and volumes of fluids in transit are great, a long delay in the
djacent aquifers depends in part on the characteristicsof the identification of contamination or overdraft might give
geothermal reservoir system and the hydraulic communication unjustified comfort to environmentally concerned observers
with the adjacent aquifers, and also on the rate and cumulative (catnpbell, 1977; DiPippo, 1980; U.S. Envinmmental
volumes of fluids extracted and injected, the time since these Protection Agency, 1977; Galabi, 1980; Summer, 1980)
changes began, and the size and regional extent of the (Zimmerman, 1984).
reservoir (Zimmerman, 1984).
Where geothermal systems are presumed or known to be
The recharge parameters of a geothermal system are intimately umnectedhydraulicallyto hydrothermal springsand
usually difficult to evaluate under natural conditions. Until vents on the surface or critical aquifers of limited recharge and
hydrodynamic stresses are imposed on the system and closely extent, these features should be closely monitored to detect
monitored long-term flow testing of production wells is possible effects of geothermal production. Changes in
performed, the hydrothermalparametersand resource potential hydraulic head and water quality in observations wells in
of the reservoir system and the impacts that developments strategic locations and depths, sometimes years after
might have on regional aquifers remain in the realm of geothermaldevelopmentbegan, can be used to detect incipient
speculation. The apparenthydrothermalrelationshipsobserved effects of these geothermal developments (Galabi, 1980;
under natural low-flow conditions are sometimes very Summer, 1980) (Zimmerman, 1984).
misleading (Zimmerman, 1984).
Many direct heat projects use heat exchangers with
Three of the principal types of adverse effects of secondary loop distribution providing heat to the end use.
geothermal developments on regional aquifers are Accordingly, the need for makeup water for the secondary
(Zimmerman, i984): loop is minimal for replacement of system losses.
1. Depletion of the regional water supply by induced. 20.3.7 Solid Waste

recharge to the geothermal reservoir or the direct
pumping of non-thermal waters for cooling or plant uses Solid waste treatment, handling, and &spot&, are
from shallow aquifers. mandated by state or fedetal regulations. Solid waste is
classified either as hazardous or nonhazardous, depending
2. Chemical or thermal contamination of regional aquifers upon its constituents. Nonhazardous solid waste requires
by planned injection or unplanned migration of injected proper disposal, but no special facilities, and has a relatively
geothermal fluids. minimal disposal cost. The disposal cost of hazardous solid
waste can, however, be significant, due primarily to the
3. ContaminatiF of shallow aquifers caused by inliltration specialized nature of licensed disposal facilities and the cost of
of poorquality fluids from surface ponds or spills. transporting wastes to appropriate disposal facilities. s n
ic e
1978,considerableresearch has been performed to chatacterize
Because of the large volume of fluids generally stored in geothermal solid wastes and provide a firmer basis for
a geothermal reservoir and the m u n d i n g regional aquifer classification within existing regulatory guidelines; this
system, the effects of geothermalwithdrawal can be subtle and classification is essential to ensureproper management of solid
longdelayed. Changei because of these withdrawals may be waste (Zimmerman, 1984). .
442
The general character of for solid waste The most current information on classification of
control remains constant for high-, moderate-, and low- gqthermal waste can be found in Federal Register of July
temperature geothermal resources.. In general, both the 6, 1988, starting on page 25446. f specific interest is the
dissolved solids content and the energy tent of geothennal section on page 25453 (section l(b).to 3001(B)) that
fluids increase with fluid temperature. For a constant level of discusses those wastes considered hazardous and those exempt.
energy extraction, the relative amount of solids bat will be In general, geothermalproduction fluids are consideredexempt
recovered from high-, moderate:, or under RC may be subject to regulations under the
geothermal fluid is dependent on the conc Clean Wa If a develdper is interested in obtaining
temperature-solubility characteristics of each dissolved more information, they should refer to the Report to Congress
compound. Options for solids control and recovery remain the that discusses this in detail. The Report titled 'Report to
same for all geothermal fluids, but the size and capital cost of Congress on Management of Waste from Exploration,
'control equipment may increase as temperature decreases Development, and Production of Crude Oil, National Gas, and
because of the greater flows 'required per unit of energy Geothermal Energy" is available from the National Technical
extraction (Zimmerman, 1984). Information Service (1-800-336-4700)in a I-vohme set. The
portion specific to geothermal development is covered in
The principle solid wastes associated with the use of low- Volume I1 (order number PB-88146238). This document
and moderate-temperatureresources for direct projects are the discusses and compares the state and federal classification of
residues associated with well drilling. geothermal wastes.
Drilling wastes include drill .cuttings, drilling mud, and Solid wastes containing hazardous substances should be
possibly lostcirculation control agents. Drill cuttings are contained and isolated' from possibIe leaching to ground or
chips of the rock that were displaced during well drilling. surface water, or the leachate may be treated in order to
Alluvium, basalt, rhyolite, and sandstone and other sedimen- remove hazardous elements and materials. Most wastes Will
tary rock typically, make up these cuttings. Drilling mud is have to be de-watered before they are removed to an approved
a combination of water, chemicals, and mineral constituents disposal area. Toxic solid wastes may not, in most instances,
used to lubricate the drill bit and to transport cuttings to the be disposed of on-site, but have to be taken to an approved
surface during drilling operations. Lost-circulation control hazardous waste treatment and disposal facility.
agents, if used, mriy result in additional drill wastes
(Zimmerman, 1984). 20.3.8 Land Use
The regulatory status of geothermal solid wastes is The most significant land use issues related to direct use
complex. Three materials have been categorically excluded exploration and developmentcan be expected when g e o t h e d
from RCRA by .Congress via-a ruling by EPA on July 6, reservoirs are located-in, or adjacent.&,.amas designatalas
1988. Thus, on the federal level, geothermal solid wastes are critical habitat areas, -or in heavily -urbanized areas, e.&,
defined as nonhazardous wastes that may be disposed of in single family residential neighborhoods. Areas used for
unsecured landfills (EER, Inc., 1983 b). However, the State intensive agriculture may also present land-use impedimentsin
of California, which contains within its boundaries the only terms of displaced crop lands although suzh displacement C B I ~
long-term commercially operating geothermal power facilities be expected to be short term and be of significance only so
in the U.S., has defied most .geothermal solid wastes as long as the land is neceSSary during drilling (O'Banion and
hazardous-wastes that require disposal in a hazardous waste Layton, 1981).
disposal (secured) landfill. Current literature characterizing
geothermal solid .wastes provides empirical evidence of geo- gating measures to reduce adverse impacts on land
thermal sold wastes that fulfill one or more of four federal U geothermal developmentsinclude actionssuch as land
criteria that define a hazardous waste (corrosivity, radio- use planning, environmental evaluation, the use of buffers
activity, toxicity, and bio-accumulation potential) as specified around critical habitats, sound engineering and construction
in the Toxic Substance Control Act (Zimmerman, .1984). processes, and the restriction of certain activities to noncritical
periods.
In order to obtain. the most current information,
developers,should discuss their projects with the local, state, 20.3.9 Vegetation and Wildlife
and federal agencies responsible for developing forcing
environmental regulations. In addition, EPA The effectsof most direct-use geothermal developmenton
RCWSuperfund hotline can be contacted toll free at 1-800- wildlife and vegetation should be minimal because of the fact
424-9346 or 202-382-3000 in the local area around that nearly all direct use development will occur in cJose
Washington, DC. Business hours for the Hotline are 8:30 proximity to urban centers where natural vegetation and
8.m. to 7:30 p.m. EST. To avoid a major wait, the'best4ime wildlife will have been significantly altered before the
to call is either at 8:30 a.m. EST or after 6:30 p.m. EST. introduction of geothermal development.
443
The effects of geothermal energy development on Culturaleffectsof geothermaldevelopmentincludevisual,
biological resources can involve direct loss of habitat, and archaeological impacts.
disruption of fish spawning and nursery habitats, fisheries
danger from water contamination, and habitat dishubances Visual impacts are extremely difficult to evaluatebecause
from noise and human intrusion. the natural scenic value of the area must be judged, as must
the desirability of altering that value.
Direct loss of habitat will result from the comtruction of
facilities such as roads, drilling pads, pipelines, and utilization A major but very short-termsource of visual impact will
for utility. Loss of habitat would be most significant if it be drilling rigs.
involves the loss of habitat of rare, threatened, or endangered
organisms. Loss of fish habitat can result from erosion and If geothermal developers are required to take visual
increase in the amount of sediments in stream beds. This can impacts into account during planning aad design, facilitiescan.
adversely affect fish spawning and nursery habitat (Brownell, be designed to meet applicable architectural S. Thus,
1981). facilities could be made to blend harmoniously with the
surrounding environment and have a d l y pleasant
Damage to aquatic life can occur from the discharge or appearance (U.S. Deparhnent of the Interior, 1973).
spill of geothermal fluids, or drilling fluids containing such
potentially hazardous substances as NH3, H$, heavy metals, Archaeological or historic sites or both frequently are
or fluoride into surface water (FERC, 1981). found either on or in the vicinity of many potential geothermal
developmentsbecause of intensive use of t h d and mineral
Human intrusion, and accompanring noise and springs sites by both Indians and early settlers. Where such
disturbances that are necessarily the result of geothermal sites have not been adequately surveyed, and where a State
exploration and development activities, can adversely affect Historic preservation officer (SHPO)deterrnines that there is
wildlife use of adjacent habitat. Species such as nesting a high probability that an archaeological site exists, it is
raptors and some predators may be particularly sensitive to extremely important that an archaeological resouiceinventory
these factors. Many other species,however, seem to adapt to be conducted before site development begins.
the noise and disturbance (FERC, 1981).
If a potential archaeological site is found, work s h d d
20.3.10 Economic Effects stop and test pits should be dug by archaeologists to determine
the significanceof the site. If it is determined that the site is
Economic impacts of geothermal development consist not of significant historical importance, g e o t h d develop-
primarily of effects on employment and income, and can be ment may proceed as originally planned. If initial studies
divided into permanent effects caused by the creation of confirm that the site is of significant importance, the site
permanent jobs and temporary effects caused by the influx of should be fully explored, documented,and possibly excavated
temporary employees involved in well drilling and facility and curated, a very costly and time-consuming process. There
ConStruCtion. is a also a significant risk in that if a site is determined to be
of great importance that development will not be dowed
In terms of construction and operation, the economic (FERC, 1981).
effects of direct use projects can be expected to have little
impact upon a community. Few new permanent jobs would Buildings or other structures at a historic site should be
be created by the introduction of a district heating system. examined by a historical architect before any actions are taken
However, the direct use of a g e o t h d energy structure can that might adversely effect them. Proper mitigation measure
involve moving the structure to be used as an economic tool for a structure can involve moving the structure to another
to encourageindustrial or agriculturalexpansionin an area and site, leaving and protecting the structure or, in some cases,
could, in this way, result in a considerable number of new tearing down after a photographic record and measured
jobs. drawings have been made. If the structure is torn down, the
site should be excavated xs described above (FERC, 1981).
20.3.11 Cultural b c t s
Areas of high geothermal potential may also be placed of
Although the direct use of geothermal energy can be high religious significance to various Indian p u p s and are
expected to have substantially less cultural effects than protected through provisions of the American Indian Religious
electrical generation, many direct use projects occur near hot Freedom Act (Public Law No. 95-341,vnited States Forest
springs, and the historic use of the springs may be Service, 19813). If development is contenq>latedon federal or
significantly altered by new development. Conflict with state lands, appropriate land management agencies must be
American Indian Religious sites can, however, be expected to contacted concerning the existance of American Indian
be minimal as most such sites are located in remote areas, at Religious Freedom Sites. If such sites exist in the immediate
considerable distances from population centers. vicinity of the proposedwork, representativesoftheIndian
444
!
!
people should be contacted so that location of such sites can 20.4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
be determined and significanceand usage patterns established.
Appreciation is extended to Dr. Gordon -Bloomquist,
i The use of such sites is guaranteed to the Indians by Washington State Energy Office, for his significaut umtribu-
statutes and only through closely working with Indians can tion to the preparation of this chapter. Thanks are given to
conflict be avoided or minimized. Robert Breckenridge, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory,
for his technical review and input.
I
I
20.4 CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
The development of geothermal direct use projects is
considered to be generally benign in comparisonwith geother- Brownell, J. A., "Cumulative Biological Impacts of The
j mal electricity plant development and with most other energy Geysers Geothermal Development," Staff Report,
I
producing technologies. However, there are many regulations California Energy Commission, pp. 149, 1981.
i that apply to direct use projects that must be complied with.
Burgess,S.G. and L. B.Wood, "The properties and
I
Geothermaldevelopment, aswith any major development, Detection of Sludge Gas", Inst. Sewage Purification,
1 can pose serious threats to the environment. Among these are pp. 1-24, 1964.
the release of air and water effluents, induced seismicity, and
subsidence, water supplies, solid waste, noise, and land use. FERC, "Rule-Making for Small Power Production and
The geothermal industry has, however, benefitted from the Cogeneration Facilities," Western Reaional Final
fact that most geothermal development postdates the passage SupplementEnvironmentalImpact Statement, Docket No.
of the National Environmental Protection Act, and the new RM 81-2, 1981.
geothermal industry has had to meet the challenge of growing
up in a period of high environmental awareness. B e u s e of Hess, J. W.; Wheatcraft, S. W.; Edkins, J. E.; Jacobson,R.
this, regulatory agencies, as well as geothermal developem, L., and D. E. Zimmerman, et al., "GeothermalEnviron-
have been forced to adopt poficies and procedures that ensure mental Impact Assessment: An Approach to Ground-
a high level of environmental protection. water Impacts From Development, Conversion, and
Waste Disposal." Water Resources Center, Desert
Providing such protection, however, has not always been Research Institute, University of Nevada System, Las
easy. The site-specific nature of geothermal resources does Vegas, NV,pp. 270, 1984.
not allow for broad generalizations about the environmental
risks of geothermal development. The way in which geother- O'Banion, K., and D. Layton, "Direct Use of Hydrothermal
mal resourcesare developed, however, from surface geological Energy: Review of Environmental Aspects. " Lawrence
and geophysical exploration to drilling, to field development, Livermore National Laboratory, University of California,
to facility construction, provides the regulatory agency as well Livermore, CA, pp. 55, 1981.
as the developer the flexibility that is needed in order to
provide adequate environmental protection in a cost-effective U.S. Department of the Interior, "Final Environmental
manner. Experience has shown that early environmental Statement for the Geothermal Leasing Program,"Vol. 1,
planning, baseline data gathering, monitoring of ongoing 1973.
activities, and the timely use of mitigation measures are
essential in making a successful project (Webb, 1984). U.S. Forest Service, "Inventory of Native Americans
Religious Use, Practices, Localities and Resources,"
Technological advances also have played a major role in study area on the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest,
ensuring that geothermal development meets environmental Washington State, pp. 1-50, 1981.
standards. Silencers and mufflers continue to reduce noise
emitted from drilling operations. Proper injection practices Webb, J. W.; Edleman, G. K., and A. W.Reed, Retrospec-
can greatly reduce land subsidence and the risk of fouling tive Examination of Geothermal Environmental
surface water or near d a c e groundwater (Webb, 1984). Assessments," Oak Ride National Laboratory, prepared
for the U.S. Department of Energy, March 1984.
If greater protection is deemed to be necessary,regulatory
agencies and the geothermal industry have established a sound Zimmennan, E. R.; Dewey, J.; Bender, M., and B. Lofgren,
w e w o r k upon which to build. In all cases, early contact "Environmental Control Technology for Geothermal
should be made with all applicable regulating agencies to Energy," ESCOR, In., prepared for the U.S. Department
ensure the project is in compliance with the most recent of Energy, September 1984.
regulations.
445

Geothermal Direct Use-2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Geothermal Direct Use-2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Geothermal Direct Use-2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DOE/ID/13040--T3

GEOTHERMAL DIRECT USE ~ ~ 008686

Prepared under the sponsorship of the

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an

Portions of this document may be illegible in

GEOTHERMAL DIRECT USE

Comments, criticisms and suggestions regarding

Printed in the United States of America.

Geothermal Energy: A Key Element o f the National Energy Strateqy

Since the early 1970s, our Nation has been subjected t o a s e r i e s of

The development of the NES represents a significant departure in scope,

John E. Mock, Director

May 17, 1991

The Guidebook is directed at understanding the nature of geothermal ~ e s o u n ' and

Bloomquist, R. Gordon, Geothermal Specialist, Washington State Energy Office,Olympia, WA 98502 -

Barrow, Jeff, Water Development Corporation, Woodland, CA 95695 - Chapter 6

CHAPTER 2 DEMONSTRATION PROJECTS LESSONS LEARNED.................................................... 7

CHAPTER 3 NATURE OF GEOTHERMAL R E S O ~ ..................................................................

CHAPTER 4 EXPLORATION FOR DIRECT HEAT RESOURCES........................................................ 55

CHAPTER 5 GEOTHERMAL FLUID SAMPLING TECHNIQVES........................................................ 99

CHAPTER 6 DRILLING AND WEU CONSTRUCTION................................................................... 115

CHAPTER 7 WELL TESTING AND RESERVOIR EVALUATION........................................................ 153

CHAPTER 8 MATERIALS SELECI'ION GUIDELINES..................................................................... 171

CHAPTER 9 WELL PUMPS....................................................................................................... 191

CHAPTER 10 PIPING................................................................................................................. 229

CHAPTER 11 HEAT EXCHANGERS............................................................................................ 247

CHAPTER 12 SPACE HEATING EQVIPMENT................................................................................ 263

CHAPTER 13 HEAT PUMPS...................................................................................................... 283

CHAPTER 14 ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION............................................................................... 295

CHAPTER 15 GREENHOUSES.................................................................................................... 305

CHAPTER 16 AQUAT.URE ................................................................................................... 319

CHAPTER 17 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS.................................................................................. 325

CHAPTER 18 ENGINEERING COST ANALYSIS.............................................................................. 349

CHAPTER 19 REGULATORY AND COMMERCIAL ASPECTS............................................................ 395

CHAPTER 20 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS..................................................................... 437

Padorm Final Deslgn Oblaln EnrfronmenlalPermltS

1.3.2 Geothermal Heat Pumps Greenhouse heating can be accomplished by several

REFERENCES Reed,M., Editor, "Assessment of Low Temperature

Anderson, D. N. and J. Lund, Editors, "Direct Utilization

2.1 LNTRODUCTION 2.2 BACKGROUND

Table 2.1 PON Projects Administered By USDOE

6. The THS Hospital in Marlin, Texas, continued to operate

7. The Navarro College operated successfully for about a

8. A project in El Centro, California, had an inadequate

2.3.2 District Heating

The following rmmmafizesexperiencewith district heating

1. The district heating system in~Ellco,Nevada, initially

2. Pagosa Springs, Colorado, has a fine closed-loop system,

Wann Springs State 1,498 60 154 1.8 757

Projects utilizing geothermal fluids directly to provide

2.6.3 Agribusiness 2.6.3.2 Diamond Ring Ranch. Haakon Countv. South

Goering, S. W.,et al., Couryand Associates, Inc., 'Direct

. principal investigator for each PON project, and subsequently

U.S. Department of Energy, Division of Geothermaland

U.S. Department of Energy, Division of Geothermal and

3.1 INTRODUCTION geologic processes. Earth energy is thermal energy at the

3.1.1 Current Contribution of Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is here today-it is not merely a hope

3. TechoIogy is not yet available for ecmodc use of

3. Heat released from the sinking of abundant, heavy metals