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Cell
Human Anatomy And Physiology
D.Pharma 1st year notes According to PCI new Syllabus
10/6/2021
In this Notes we provide you Human Anatomy & Physiology Notes Chapter – 2
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Cell
The cell has been variously defined as the unit of structure and function in
animals and plants.
The smallest living unit capable of independent existence as a small mass of living
matter containing a nucleus or nuclear material.
History of cell
The cell was first discover and named by Robert Hook (1665) and first Saw living
cell by – Leeuwenhoek cell theory proposed by Schwann – 1839.
Electron Microscopic Structure of Cell
All the cells are made up of protoplasm a viscid granular substance which consist
of water, electrolytes, proteins, lipids and carbohydrates.
The protoplasm remain differentiated into an outer cytoplasm and the denser
inner nucleus. Surrounding the cytoplasm there is covering called Cell Membrane.
CELL MEMBRANE
Cell Membrane is thin elastic and has highly complex structure composed
of proteins and lipids. It is a semi – permeable membrane, containing
‘pores’ that allow the passage of water, oxygen, co2 & some solutes in and
out of the cell and plays a vital role in maintaining the homeostatic balance
of the cell.
The cytoplasm consists of a number of structures called the Organells.
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Fig of Cell
Mitochondria
It is largest cytoplasmic organelles and energy house of the cell as it consist
of enzymes which convert chemical energy of the food nutrients into usable
energy from (T.P.) which is internally available for cellular activity.
It is also known as Power house of the cell. ·
Mitochondria is discover by Albert von Kolliker
It appears like filamentous structure or rod shaped. It consists of oxidative
enzymes which convert chemical energy of the nutrients into form of A.T.P.
and this energy is available for cellular activity. The mitochondria supply
95% of cell energy and so called power house of the cell.
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Cytoplasm
It is the region lying between the cell membrane and nucleus. The
cytoplasm contain Cell organ like – Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies,
Mitochondria.
Endoplasmic reticulum
These are scattered in cytoplasm. They are two types of endoplasmic
reticulum depending upon the presence or absence of ribosomes which are
responsible for protein synthesis.
Endoplasmic Reticulum is two type
1. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: - Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum without
the presence of ribosomes. They found Lipid
2. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: - Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum with the
presence of ribosomes. They found Protein
Lysosomes
They are minute structures containing enzymes that digest or remove the
particles which are useless or may be harmful to the cell. ·
Lysosomes produce hydrolyzing enzymes such as phosphatase acid
ribonuclease.
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Golgi bodies
They are the double membranous vacuolar channels which traverse the
cytoplasm. The membrane appears to be formed of phospholipids,
proteins, and a number of enzymes.
Golgi bodies act as a sort of intercellular pump that regulates the
movement of fluids in the cell and expulsion of secretary products from the
cell.
Golgi bodies synthesise polysaccharide part of glycoprotein secretion.
Centrosome
This lies close to the nuclear and is made up of two centrioles, small
structures that play a major role in initiating cell division.
It is enveloped by a porous nuclear membrane that separates it from the
surrounding cytoplasm.
During cell divisions, it breaks up and soon after the mitosis it is
reconstituted.
Nucleus
It is a vital center of the cell.
It controls both chemical reactions and reproduction of cell.
Chromosomes
They are minute threads like structure within the nucleus and appear as a
mass of darkly-staining material called chromatin. ·
Chromosomes determine the specific characteristics of the cell and
hereditary characters pass from one generation to the next generation.
Cell Junction & Transport across Cell Membrane
Cell Junction
Cell Junction are the modified structure of the cell membrane which
communicate the Neirbouring cell.
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Cell Junctions are mostly abundant in Epithelial tissue and connect through
glycoproteins called cadherin
Cell junction is true for the animal cell because plasmodesmal connations
are found in plant for commenieeting the Neighboring cell.
Type of Cell Junction
1. Tight Junction
2. Adhering Junction / Desmosomes
3. Gap Junction / Communicating junction
1. Tight Junction :-
Adjacent plasma membranes are joined tightly together
This help to stop substances from leaking.
It is permeable in for many ions
Pass the ion through diffusion or active transport.
2. Adhering Junction:-
It performs cementing keep neighboring cells.
Adhering junction is defined as a cell junction whose cytoplasmic face is
linked to the actin cytoskeleton.
Protein forms the encircling bands and attach to the extracellular material
It stabilizes the surface of epithelia.
3. Gap Junction:-
Gap junctions facilitate the cells to communicate with each other, share
nutrients & transfer chemical / electrical signals
Proteins form holes between adjacent animal cells allows various ions and
molecules to pass freely between cells.
Abundant in cardiac muscle and smooth muscle where they transmit
electrical activity
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Assembly of six proteins that create gap between two plasma membranes
called Conn exons.
Regulation of Gap Junction communication
I. Intra Cellular Calcium
II. pH
III. Voltage
IV. Extracellular signals
Cell membrane
Cell Membrane is the universal structure present in both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes
Cell membrane possess lipid, Protein and carbohydrates
Cell membrane contain lipid bilayer which is directly attached to protein
layer
Total thickness of cell membrane is 75A.
Transportation through cell membrane-
Passive Transport
Active Transport
Passive transport
Many molecules can move across the membrane without any energy
requirement
Molecule transport higher concentration-> Lower concentration
Water transport through membrane called diffusion
Some carrier protein also help in the transportation and it is called facilitate
diffusion.
Active transport
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Few molecules ions can move across the membrane by using the Energy
(A.T.P)
Molecule move from lower concentration-> Higher concentration
Example-> Sodium potassium pump (Na+/K+ Pump)
Endocytosis
In this procedure bulk amount of solid & liquid material transports.
Bulk structure are formed vesicles or bag like structures
Easily diffuse to cell membrane
Exocytosis
Removal of waste material from Cell through plasma membrane
Maintain the Electrolytic balance
Cell Division
Cell division is a very important process in all living organism.
It is induce due to disturbing the ratio between the nucleus and cytoplasm
The sequence procedure follow by the cell and eventually divides into two
daughter cells is termed cell cycle
During the cell division DNA replication and cell growth also takes place.
On the basis of chromosome number cell follow two path for divisions
o Mitosis
o Meiosis
Mitosis
The cell cycle is devided into two basic phases
1. Inter Phase
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2. M Phase / Mitosis Phase
Inter Phase Cell is metabolically active
Cell growth also takes place
Also called synthesis phase because DNA synthesis or
Inter Phase Inter Phase replication takes place in nucleus
Centriole duplicate in cytoplasm
Inter Phase Mitosis preparation phase.
Protein synthesized during this phase
M-Phase (Mitosis Phase)
During M-Phase equal distribution of chromosome occurs in progeny cells
M.Phase divided in Four Stage (On the basis of Chromosomal arrangement)
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Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Prophase
Initiation of condensation of chromosomal material.
Centrosome move towards opposite poles of cell & radiates out
microtubules called asters.
End of Prophase Golgi complex, endoplasmic reticulum, nuclear envelope
disappear.
Metaphase
Easily study the morphology of chromosome
Chromosome made up of two sister chromatids and join together by the
centromere.
Small disc shaped structure present on the centromere called kinetochores.
Spindle fiber attaches to the kinetochores and arranged the chromosome
at equator and forms the metaphase plate.
Anaphase
Centromere split and chromatid separate with each other
In the microscope single chromatid chromos structure appear on the
opposite poles.
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Telophase
Chromosome lost their identity and form the cluster of chromatin
Nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex reform
Also called opposite of prophase.
Cytokinesis
After the distribution of genetic material all form the furrow in the plasma
membrane.
The furrow gradually deepens and ultimately divide the cell into two
daughter cell.
Meiosis
• Cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half results in
the production of haploid daughter cells.
• Into phase of this division some as mitosis division
M.Phase of this division divided into two parts
• Meiosis-I
• Meiosis-II
Meiosis-I :- further divided into four parts.
Prophase-I
• It is drvided into 5-steps.
• Leptotene
• zygotene
• Pachytene
• Diplotene
• Diakinesis
It this stage crossing over occurs between non-sister chromatids of the
homologous chromosomes.
Site of crossing over form the x-shaped structure are called chiasmata.
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Metaphase-I
• Anaphase-I
• Telophase-I
Cytokinesis occur at the end & form the two cells.
Meiosis-II :- Further Meiosis-II start after cytokinesis. If is also divided into four
stage.
Mitosis
Mitosis
Human Cell
Daughter cell
Chromosome =46
Chromosome =46
Meiosis
Human Cell
Chromosome =46
Only germ cell Daughter cell
Chromosome = 23
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General principle of Cell communication
Signal Molecule Generate (Hormone, Neural effect)
Attach to the cell membrane receptors
Transducer -> Activate transcription Factor
Activate the Gene
Finally response generate (Protein Synthesis)
All cells have some ability to sense and respond to specific chemical, Neural signals.
Signal transmitted through chemical messenger and receptor which are located on
the surface of cell.
Two main types of chemicals signals generate in the cells-
Cytoplasmic connection between cells
Hormones communication
Receptors are molecule generally made up of protein, that recieues the signal for cell
Chemical messenger are bind to the cell receptors and perform the function
Mainly three types of Receptors are present on the cell
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Ion-Channel linked receptors/Ligand gated ion channels Inotropic receptors
Receptors
Hormone
Cytoplasmic Connection
Receptors are directly bound with legend (Specific)
Then receptors are activated (Conformational change)
Then signal molecule bind with the receptor
Finally signal reaches to cell nucleus
Signal molecule bind to the receptor
To Activated receptor bandito the G-Protein
Then G-Protein also activate and conformational change occurs
Then Signals receiver by cell Nucleus and give
response
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Initially two receptor domain are separated to each other
When signal molecule comes to contact then it form dimer
And finally conformational change occurs (activated enzymes)
Then signal receive by cell nucleus and give response
Forms of intracellular signaling
In the cell communication intracellular signaling is known as very important
expect for living organisms.
There are four basic types of signaling found in the organisms.
(1)Paracrine signaling.
(2)Autocrine signaling.
(3)Endocrine signaling.
(4)Direct contact signaling.
1. Paracrine signaling— In this signaling , cell are cordinated with the
neighbouring cell by generating the potential gradient and altering the
behaviour of those cells.Chemical which are involved in the signaling
process is known as paracrine factors and it is transfer by diffusion process.
Once a signaling molecule binds to its receptor it causes a conformational
change in it that results in a cellular response.
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• The same ligand can bind to different receptors causing different
responses (e.g.. acetylcholine). On the other hand, different ligands
binding to different receptors can produce the same cellular
response (e.g. glucagon, epinephrine).
• Example - Nerve and muscle signaling.
2. Autocrine signaling— It is also called as self signaling. Cell secrete the chemical
known as autocrine factors which co-ordinate the self cell and give the response.
• Example - Growth factors.
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3. Endocrine signaling— Hormone is required for this signaling. Hormones are
binding to the cell receptors and give the response.
4. Direct contact signaling — Cell are fuse to each other by the plasmodesmetal
connections in plant and transfer the signal from one cell to another cell. It is
mainly found in the plants.
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