Module 1 – Introduction to Chemistry

Introduction to Chemistry
Module 1

EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES

1.1. Use properties of matter to identify substances and to separate them.

1.2. Use quantum numbers to describe an electron in an atom.
1.3. Draw an orbital diagram to represent the electronic configuration of atoms.

THE BIG IDEA

Think about the differences between different kinds of matter. Air is different from water, and
water is different from wood. One of our first tasks as we learn about matter is to identify the
similarities and differences among different kinds of matter. How are sugar and salt similar?
How are air and water different? Why are they different? Why is a mixture of sugar and water
[Grade 12 – General Chemistry II] 1
 Module 1 – Introduction to Chemistry

similar to a mixture of salt and water but different from a mixture of sand and water? As
students of chemistry, we are particularly interested in the similarities and differences between
various kinds of matter and how these reflect the similarities and differences between their
component atoms and molecules. We strive to understand the connection between the
macroscopic world and the molecular one.

DEEPEN YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Matter
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. It is composed of atoms, which
are often bonded together as molecules. Matter can exist as a solid, a liquid, or a gas. Solid
matter can be either amorphous or crystalline.

Matter: Everything is made of matter—

you, me, the chair you sit on, and the air
we breathe. The physical universe
basically contains only two things: matter
and energy. We begin our study of
chemistry by defining and classifying
these two building blocks of the universe.

Figure 1: Three states of Matter Water exists as

ice (solid), water (liquid), and steam (gas). In ice,
the water molecules are closely spaced and,
although they vibrate about a fixed point, they do
not generally move relative to one another.
In liquid water, the water molecules are also
closely spaced but are free to move around and past
each other. In steam, water molecules are separated
by large distances and do not interact significantly
with one another.

Classifying Matter According to Its Composition:

Elements,Compounds, and Mixtures

Classification of Matter:
Matter can be classified according to its composition. Pure matter is composed of only one type
of substance; that substance may be an element (a substance that cannot be decomposed into
simpler substances), or it may be a compound (a substance composed of two or more elements
in fixed definite proportions). Mixtures are composed of two or more different substances the
proportions of which may vary from one sample to the next. Mixtures can be either
homogeneous, having the same composition throughout, or heterogeneous, having a
composition that varies from region to region.

[Grade 12 – General Chemistry II] 2

 Module 1 – Introduction to Chemistry

EXAMPLE

Classifying Matter
Classify each type of matter as a pure substance or a mixture. If it is a pure substance, classify
it as an element or a compound; if it is a mixture, classify it as homogeneous or
heterogeneous.
(a) a lead weight (c) distilled water
(b) seawater (d) Italian salad dressing

Answer:
(a) Lead is listed in the table of elements. It is a pure substance and an element.
(b) Seawater is composed of several substances, including salt and water; it is a
mixture. It has a uniform composition, so it is a homogeneous mixture.
(c) Distilled water is not listed in the table of elements, but it is a pure substance
(water); therefore, it is a compound.
(d) Italian salad dressing contains a number of substances and is therefore a
mixture. It usually separates into at least two distinct regions with different
composition and is therefore a heterogeneous mixture.

Classifying Matter
Classify each type of matter as a pure substance or a mixture. If it is a pure substance,
classify it as an element or a compound. If it is a mixture, classify it as homogeneous or
heterogeneous.
(a) mercury in a thermometer
(b) exhaled air
(c) minestrone soup
(d) sugar

[Grade 12 – General Chemistry II] 3

 Module 1 – Introduction to Chemistry

DEEPEN YOUR UNDERSTANDING

How Matter Changes: Physical and Chemical Changes

Properties and Changes of Matter:
The properties of matter can be
divided into two types: physical and
chemical. The physical properties of
matter do not involve a change in
composition. The chemical properties
of matter involve a change in
composition. The changes in matter
can be divided into physical and
chemical. In a physical change, the
appearance of matter may change, but
its composition does not. In a
chemical change, the composition of
matter changes.

Figure 3:
Vaporization: a Physical Change If you
push the button on a lighter without turning the flint, some of the liquid butane vaporizes to gaseous butane. Since
the liquid butane and the gaseous butane are both composed of butane molecules, this is a physical change.

Burning: a Chemical Change

If you push the button and turn the flint to create a spark, you produce a flame. The butane molecules
react with oxygen molecules in air to form new molecules, carbon dioxide and water. This is a chemical change.

EXAMPLE

Physical and Chemical Changes

Determine whether each change is physical or chemical.
(a) the rusting of iron
(b) the evaporation of fingernail-polish remover (acetone) from the skin
(c) the burning of coal
(d) the fading of a carpet upon repeated exposure to sunlight
ANSWER
(a) Iron rusts because it reacts with oxygen in air to form iron oxide; therefore,
this is a chemical change.
(b) When fingernail-polish remover (acetone) evaporates, it changes from liquid
to gas, but it remains acetone; therefore, this is a physical change.
(c) Coal burns because it reacts with oxygen in air to form carbon dioxide; this is
a chemical change.
(d) A carpet fades on repeated exposure to sunlight because the molecules that
give the carpet its color are decomposed by sunlight; this is a chemical change..

[Grade 12 – General Chemistry II] 4

 Module 1 – Introduction to Chemistry

Physical and Chemical Changes

Determine whether each change is physical or chemical

(a) Copper metal forming a blue solution when it is dropped into colorless nitric acid
(b) A train flattening a penny placed on a railroad track
(c) Ice melting into liquid water
(d) A match igniting a firework

DEEPEN YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Electron Configuration
To write an electron configuration for an element, first find its atomic number from the periodic
table—this number equals the number of electrons in the neutral atom. Then use the order of
filling from Figure 9.23 or 9.24 to distribute the electrons in the appropriate orbitals. Remember
that each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons. Consequently:

• the s subshell has only 1 orbital and therefore can hold only 2 electrons.
• the p subshell has 3 orbitals and therefore can hold 6 electrons.
• the d subshell has 5 orbitals and therefore can hold 10 electrons.
•the f subshell has 7 orbitals and therefore can hold 14 electrons.

EXAMPLE

Electron Configurations
Write electron configurations for each element.

(a) Mg (b) S (c) Ga

Electron Configurations
Write electron configurations for each element.

(a) Al (b) Br (c) Sr

[Grade 12 – General Chemistry II] 5

 Module 1 – Introduction to Chemistry

DEEPEN YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Writing Orbital Diagrams

Write an orbital diagram for silicon.

SOLUTION
Since silicon is atomic number 14, it has 14 electrons. Draw a box for each orbital, putting
the lowest-energy orbital (1s) on the far left and proceeding to orbitals of higher energy to the
right.

Distribute the 14 electrons into the orbitals, allowing a maximum of 2 electrons per orbital and
remembering Hund’s rule. The complete orbital diagram is:

Question: Writing Orbital Diagrams

Write an orbital diagram for Argon.

[Grade 12 – General Chemistry II] 6

 Module 1 – Introduction to Chemistry

DEEPEN YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Valence Electrons
Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost principal shell (the principal shell with
the highest principal quantum number, n). These electrons are important because, as we will
see in the Module 4, they are involved in chemical bonding. Electrons that are not in the
outermost principal shell are called core electrons. For example, silicon, with the electron
configuration of has 4 valence electrons (those in the n=3 principal shell)
and 10 core electrons.

Write an electron configuraton for selenium and identify the valence electrons and the core
electrons.

SOLUTION:Write the electron configuration for selenium by determining the total number of
electrons from selenium’s atomic number (34) and then distributing them into the appropriate orbitals.

[Grade 12 – General Chemistry II] 7

 Module 1 – Introduction to Chemistry

The valence electrons are those in the outermost principal shell. For selenium, the outermost principal
shell is the n=4 shell, which contains 6 electrons (2 in the 4s orbital and 4 in the three 4p orbitals). All
other electrons, including those in the 3d orbitals, are core electrons.

DEEPEN YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Periodic Table

The Periodic Table of the Elements

The Periodic Table:

Elements within the same column of the periodic table have similar outer electron
configurations and the same number of valence electrons (electrons in the outermost principal
shell), and therefore similar chemical properties. The periodic table is divisible into blocks (s
block, p block, d block, and f block) in which particular sublevels are filled. As you move

[Grade 12 – General Chemistry II] 8

 Module 1 – Introduction to Chemistry

across a period to the right in the periodic table, atomic size decreases, ionization energy
increases, and metallic character decreases. As you move down a column in the periodic table,
atomic size increases, ionization energy decreases, and metallic character increases.

[Grade 12 – General Chemistry II] 9

 Module 1 – Introduction to Chemistry

LEARNING RESOURCES

Books
Bauer,R. et al (2016). General Chemistry. Mc Graw Hill
Tro, N. (2017). Introductory Chemistry 6th Edition. Pearson Education Inc.
Bayqueen A. and Pena G. (2017) Exploring Life Through Science: General Chemistry 2
Senior High School. Phoenix Publishing House
Hein M. et al. (2016) Foundation of College Chemistry 15th Edition. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.

ABOUT THE MODULE

Module Author/ Creator: Dr. JED C. TOLENTINO

Template and Layout Designer: Mr. FLORENCE SOMORIA

[Grade 12 – General Chemistry II] 10