Bioresearch Communications

Volume 05, Issue 02, July 2019

Journal Homepage: www.bioresearchcommunications.com

Original Article
Sustainable alternatives for producing biodegradable Sanitary Napkins
Rasel Siddiqe*
1
Dept. of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet-3114.

ABSTRACT: Sanitary Napkins ensue multiple implications on the Article History

agenda of Sustainable Development Goals. Comprising an Received: 18 February 2019
estimated 0.13% of the total solid waste turnout of Bangladesh, Accepted: 16 May 2019
sanitary napkins contribute little. Being a developing country —use
of sanitary napkins in Bangladesh is comparatively low. With
ensuing GDP growth, the use and disposal requirements will
increase inevitably. All sanitary napkins consist polyethylene,
polypropylene and superabsorbent polymer gels (SAP) making them
environmental hazards. This study aims to review biodegradable
polymers currently available that may produce sustainable Scan the QR code to see the online
alternatives to non-degrading components currently used. Lyocell™, version or,visit-
Sodium carboxymethyle cellulose (Na-CMC), Acrylate grafted www.bioresearchcommunications.com
Banana fiber, Combination of Chitosan (CTS) and Silicon Corresponding author
nanoparticles obtained from Rice husk ash (RHA), Crosslinked jute Rasel Siddiqe
pulp (JP) with polybutylacrylate (PBA) and Sodium Silicate (SS), Dept. of Biochemistry and Molecular
Biology, Shahjalal University of
Starch Bioplastic, and Polylactic acid –have shown promising Science and Technology, Sylhet-3114.
results as degradable biopolymers. Combining these compounds in a Bangladesh
single product could solve the degradability issues associated with Email: rasel.siddiqe@gmail.com
disposable sanitary napkins. Mobile: +880 194-2646953

Citation: Rasel Siddiqe; Sustainable

Keywords: Hygiene, Biodegradable, Disposable, Biopolymer alternatives for producing
biodegradable Sanitary Napkins Biores
Comm. V5-(2). (737-743)

INTRODUCTION
Sanitary napkins are a major source of plastic deemed the safest form of disposal, it requires
pollution, which is greatly overlooked compared to extensive resources rendering the method
other sources (i.e. plastic bottles, packaging). counterproductive.
Disposable napkins are used by about one‐tenth of WHO recommends incinerating all health-related
adolescents (rural: 10%, urban: 21%) and one quarter waste at temperatures over 800° C. Moreover plastic
of adult women (rural: 10%, urban: 33%) in polymer products incinerated at lower temperatures
Bangladesh1. Together they roughly consume 37000 release asphyxiants and irritant gases such as Dioxins
tons of disposable sanitary products annually. Majority and Furans. An assessment by Royal Institute of
of this vast sanitary waste is either dumped in landfills Technology, Stockholm concluded that, Low Density
and river banks, or is incinerated. In India the situation Polyethylene (LDPE) synthesis has the largest impact
is equally grim. A study conducted by UNICEF in on global warming3. Sanitary napkins employ varying
West Bengal concluded that 78% of the women forms of LDPE in myriad forms. Through thermal or
interviewed disposed sanitary waste either by burial or photochemical degradation, constituents of these
by discarding near a water body2. In North America products release Micro/Nano plastic particles in the
annual disposal of sanitary napkins in landfills reaches oceans4. Consequently via algal and microbial uptake,
an estimate of 55000 tons. Although incineration is these synthetic particles have a high probability of

737 Volume 5, Issue 2, July 2019

Siddiqe R. et. al. Sustainable alternatives for producing

becoming incorporated into the food chain5, 6. The research to establish environmental risk factors.
general design of sanitary napkins employs non- Research on Polyethene and Polypropylene provides
degradable materials in each component. Transitioning the only basis for the harmful effects of sanitary
to degradable raw materials is the preferred path to napkins –which is hardly adequate. Excerpts from
reduce the overall impact of sanitary napkins. In this reports on plastic pollution fail to address non-plastic
study current constituents of sanitary napkins along based components in sanitary napkins and their
with their sustainable alternatives have been reviewed. environmental impact.
Alternatives were selected on the basis of functional Biodegradation of LDPE has undergone a tremendous
characteristics and efficacy. amount of research. However, the majority of these
studies were conducted in in-vitro conditions –
COMPONENT OVERVIEW rendering the findings inconclusive with regard to
Low degradability and Non-recyclability of sanitary disposal conditions in nature (i.e. landfills, aquatic
napkins is due to the compounds employed in the systems). Biodegradability is highlighted in Table: 1.
general design. A typical sanitary napkin employs up General environmental impact of sanitary napkins is
to seven components. Functional layer design has not given below as associated with components.
undergone any noteworthy change since the first Superabsorbent polymers
production in 18967. Drastic improvement in napkin Superabsorbent polymer exposure increases soil
dimensions and absorption capability came with the moisture, while soil bulk density is reduced.
incorporation of superabsorbent gel particles in the Exchangeable acids/ions present in SAPs may
absorbent core8. Ordinarily a typical sanitary napkin is influence soil acidity and alkalinity, nutrient
devised in to the following layers; availability along with microbial activity20.
Top sheet Polyethelene fibers and films
Top sheets are water permeable layers designed to stay Accumulation of Polyethelene in soil results in
in contact with skin8. The functional purpose of this reduced soil aeration, increased soil temperature and
layer is to transfer fluids quickly to the layer beneath. inhibits absorption of water and nutrients22. Due to its
High wicking ability is a mandatory trait for functional non-degradability Polyethene prevents root
efficacy9. germination of plants and remediation of biomass into
Absorbent core soil. LDPE disposal in marine ecosystem has notably
Function of this layer is to absorb and store fluids affected 267 species globally, either by physical harm
passed from the top sheet10. Once absorbed, fluid is or by ingestion of micro/macro particles5, 23.
essentially locked into the core to prevent spillage Polypropylene non-woven
from applied pressure11. Absorbent compound may or Time extensive natural degradation of propylene
may not be enclosed in a layer of cellulose fluff to releases volatile organic compounds (i.e. Propene,
facilitate speedy absorption12. Compounds employed Dioxins). Air pollutants such as particulates, sulfur
in the core need to have a high rate of fluid retention. oxides, nitrogen oxides, and carbon monoxide are
Bottom sheet generated during polypropylene production24.
Bottom sheets function as a water impermeable barrier Laboratory analysis of random samples has detected
to ensure complete spillage prevention. chromium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc, which
Adhesives/winged appendages are provided with this indirectly affects agriculture, forestry, and biodiversity
layer for fastening purposes. Skin contact is negligible by production25.
due to localization10.
Miscellaneous ALTERNATIVE CONSTITUENTS
Emollients on top layer and an additional acquisition This study aims to review currently available
layer above the absorbent core may be present biopolymers as sanitary napkin components. Method
depending on product class. Emollients are applied to of synthesis is highlighted with emphasis on
protect skin from irritation12. Additional acquisition biodegradability of these compounds. Each compound
layers are provided to disperse fluids evenly onto reviewed has an established application along with the
absorbent core while preventing reflux13. potential for replacing one or more non-degradable
components in current sanitary napkins. Alternatives
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT according to associated layers and their laboratory
ASSESSMENT synthesis are as follows:
Risk assessment and regulation of sanitary napkins Top sheet
varies between countries. Some countries may employ Lyocell
legal enforcement while others may depend on Cellulose fiber containing form of Rayon. Cellulose
manufacturer’s control19. Whichever the case, risk fibers are produced from bleached wood pulp.
assessments are carried out with respect to human According to FTIR spectra fibers made from Lyocell
exposure only7, 10. There is a significant lack of contain crystalline cellulose II and amorphous

738 Volume 5, Issue 2, July 2019

Siddiqe R. et. al. Sustainable alternatives for producing

cellulose26. Wood-pulp (collected from responsible Polylactic acid

remediation of forest output) is dissolved in a solution Synthesis is carried out in 3 steps: Polycondensation,
of heated N-methyl morpholine oxide (NMMO). The obtainment of lactide and ring opening polymerization
prepared solution is then extruded (spun) into fibres (ROP). Lactic Acid (LA) combined with Stannous
while excess solvent is extracted. The fibres pass octoate (used as catalyst). Polycondensation removes
through a washing process as the final step27. Lower water from the LA yielding lactide. Lactide is distilled
mechanical strength is observed due to fibre-matrix at 220 °C temperature and reduced pressure of 200
adhesion after wetting while wicking and fluid transfer mmHg. Extracted lactide is then mixed with the
rates are comparable to polypropylene28. catalyst to form PLA via ROP35.
Absorbent core
Sodium carboxymethylcellulose DISCUSSION
The formation of superabsorbent polymer (NaCMC-g- Lyocell is one of the strongest contenders in reducing
PAA) uses NaCMC and polyacrylic acid/sodium the use of polypropylene fibers in textiles. Grafting
acrylate as raw material. The process requires N,N’- Sodium carboxymethyle cellulose, Banana fibres, Jute
methylenebisacrylamide (MBA) and K2S2O8 (KPS) as pulp and Rice husk on to polyacrylates yields a
a free radical initiator. NaCMC are treated to yield standard form of biodegradable superabsorbent that
reactive NaCMC macroradicals. The macroradicals fulfils the necessary criteria of water absorption, water
initiate monomer graft copolymerization (acrylic acid retention and reflux resistance from mechanical stress.
and sodium acrylate). MBA cross-linkers facilitate the Polylactic acid and Starch Bioplastics have already
formation of crosslinked NaCMC-g-PAA29. been proven to be equally water resistant to their
Acrylate grafted Banana fiber petroleum derived counterparts. Combining these
A mixture of toluene/ethanol is used to extract banana substances has the potential of give birth to safe,
pseudo-stem fiber (BP). Banana pseudo-stem based biodegradable alternatives for conscious consumers
carboxymethyl cellulose (BPCMC) was produced by while also creating awareness in the general mass.
stirring cellulose with NaOH (40%) in isopropyl Currently available sanitary napkins are up to 90%
alcohol. BPCMC-g-poly (NaAc-co-AM) was prepared plastic rendering them immune to degradation for as
by free radical graft copolymerization of BPCMC with long as 800 years. Because these compounds persist in
Sodium acrylate and acrylamide (NaAc-co-AM). the environment –they provide a breeding ground for
Ammonium persulfate (APS) was used as initiator and blood borne pathogens (i.e. Hepatitis B, HIV,
MBA acts as crosslinker30. Salmonella etc.). Bangladesh’s waste management
Crosslinked Jute pulp (JP) and Polybutylacrylate system depends largely on its informal barrage of
(PBA) waste collectors. Through sanitary napkins they are at
Jute pulp (JP) is prepared from harvested jute by an immediate risk of severe infection of said pathogens
alkaline sulfite process31. The pulp is first soaked with which may develop to epidemic proportions36. Such an
appropriate quantities of Butyl acrylate (BA) event is highly plausible due to the fact that Southeast
monomer. Potassium persulfate (KPS), Histidine, Asian countries classify sanitary napkins under
CuSO4, and other solvents are added to the reaction municipal solid waste instead of biomedical waste.
vessel. KPS provides grafting equilibrium. Ice bath Analytics of biodegradable SAP given in Table: 2
followed by addition of a small amount of provide a strong basis for applying them in
hydroquinone (as quencher) is used to terminate commercial products. Components reviewed in this
polymerization reaction32. study have an established degree of biodegradability in
Combination of Chitosan acrylate and Silicon in-vitro studies. Although laboratory synthesis has
nanoparticles been completed, commercial production is only
Chitosan-graft-polyAA/RHA SAP was produced by available for Starch Bioplastics. Extensive research is
mixing CTS-solution with AA. KPS generates free yet to be undertaken regarding industrial
radicals on CTS surface. Later, a solution of acrylic manufacturing methods. Industrialization of complete
acid, MBA and RHA (rice husk previously calcined) is biodegradable products is a major milestone on the
added to yield final product33. agenda of Sustainable Development Goals. As the
Bottom sheet world enters the age of renewable energy, reducing
Strach Bioplastic dependence on petroleum based products may prove to
Starch acetate plastics are synthesized without the use be a clear advantage for developing countries like
of solvents. The process includes a low temperature, Bangladesh.
staged addition of catalyst mixture (methanesulfonic
acid, concentrated sulfuric acid or a mixture of sulfuric
and hydrochloric acid) along with an acetylation agent.
Biodegradable plasticizer and other polymers maybe
added according to function of product34.

739 Volume 5, Issue 2, July 2019

Siddiqe R. et. al. Sustainable alternatives for producing

Table 1. Constituent compounds, their chemical nature and biodegradability factors 8, 9, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 21.

Functional layer Compound Chemical nature Biodegradability Organism

Organisms with

Isotactic; Non oxidizing known metabolic

Top Polypropylene fiber Acid, Alkaline and flexibility can Microaerophilic

Organic solvent resistant degrade in microbial

specific community

conditions

Polypropylene/ Isotactic; Non oxidizing Nondegradable in Microaerophilic

Acquisition Polyethylene Acid, and Bleach natural form. microbial

nonwoven resistant Specific microbes community

may facilitate

White-rot

fungi and Soil

Core Super absorbent Water insoluble, Capable microbes P. chrysosporiurn

Polymer gel (SAP) of water retention synergistically

cooperate in

degradation

Reduce molecular

weight, Aspergillus niger,

Bottom Polyethylene/ Isotactic; Non oxidizing Time extensive Penicillium

Polypropylene film Acid, Alkaline and erosion of surface. funiculosum, &

Organic solvent resistant Complete Paecilomyces

degradation is variotii

absent.

740 Volume 5, Issue 2, July 2019

Siddiqe R. et. al. Sustainable alternatives for producing

Table 2. Characteristic evaluation and mechanisms involved of SAP alternatives 29, 30, 31, 32, 35.

Compound Characteristics Result Mechanism

NaCMC-g-PAA Swelling capacity 544.95 gg−1 Enhanced

hydrophilicity

Electrostatic

BPCMC-g-poly Dye adsorption and 333.3 mgg−1 attraction between the

(NaAc-co-AM) recovery surface of the

absorbent and the

cationic dye was

reduced

CTS-g-polyAA/RHA Water uptake (Weq) Weq increased by Increased pore size

capacity 5% wt. and hydrophilic

interactions

Increased porosity

JP-g-PBA/SS Water absorbance 358gH2O/g which facilitates

water

absorption

REFERENCES 5) Galgani, L., & Loiselle, S. A. 2019. Plastic

Accumulation in the Sea Surface Microlayer: An
1) Bangladesh National Hygiene Baseline Survey Experiment-Based Perspective for Future Studies.
2014. Geosciences, 9(2), 66.
2) Exploring Menstrual Hygiene Management in 6) Cole, M., Lindeque, P., Halsband, C., & Galloway,
Schools: Water for people India & Sanhita Gender T. S. 2011. Microplastics as contaminants in the
Resource center, West Bengal, India UNICEF, Slide 7. marine environment: a review. Marine pollution
3) Mazgaj, M., Yaramenka, K., & Malovana, O. 2006. bulletin, 62(12), 2588-2597.
Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Sanitary Pads 7) Farage, M. A. 2006. A behind‐the‐scenes look at the
and Tampons. Royal Institute of Technology safety assessment of feminine hygiene pads. Annals of
Stockholm, p1-24. the New York Academy of Sciences, 1092(1), 66-77.
4) Smith, M., Love, D. C., Rochman, C. M., & Neff, 8) Ajmeri, J. R., & Ajmeri, C. J. 2010. Nonwoven
R. A. 2018. Microplastics in seafood and the personal hygiene materials and products. In
implications for human health. Current environmental Applications of nonwovens in technical textiles (pp.
health reports, 5(3), 375-386. 85-102).

741 Volume 5, Issue 2, July 2019

Siddiqe R. et. al. Sustainable alternatives for producing

9) Dey, S., Kenneally, D., Odio, M., & Hatzopoulos, I. characteristics of agricultural land. Journal of Research
2016. Modern diaper performance: construction, in National Development, 8(2).
materials, and safety review. International journal of 23) Browne, M. A., Crump, P., Niven, S. J., Teuten,
dermatology, 55, 18-20. E., Tonkin, A., Galloway, T., & Thompson, R. 2011.
10) Woeller, K. E., & Hochwalt, A. E. 2015. Safety Accumulation of microplastic on shorelines woldwide:
assessment of sanitary pads with a polymeric foam sources and sinks. Environmental science &
absorbent core. Regulatory Toxicology and technology, 45(21), 9175-9179.
Pharmacology, 73(1), 419-424. 24) Boyce, J. K. 1995. Jute, polypropylene, and the
11) Dey, S., Purdon, M., Kirsch, T., Helbich, H., Kerr, environment: a study in international trade and market
K., Li, L., & Zhou, S. 2016. Exposure Factor failure. The Bangladesh Development Studies, 49-66.
considerations for safety evaluation of modern 25) Pearce, D. W., Cline, W. R., Achanta, A. N.,
disposable diapers. Regulatory Toxicology and Fankhauser, S., Pachauri, R. K., Tol, R. S., &
Pharmacology, 81, 183-193. Vellinga, P. 1996. The social costs of climate change:
12) Farage, M. A., Berardesca, E., & Maibach, H. greenhouse damage and the benefits of control.
2009. Skin moisturization and frictional effects of an Climate change 1995: Economic and social
emollient-treated menstrual pad with a foam core. dimensions of climate change, 179-224.
Cutaneous and ocular toxicology, 28(1), 25-31. 26) Carrillo, F., Colom, X., Sunol, J. J., & Saurina, J.
13) Kosemund, K., Schlatter, H., Ochsenhirt, J. L., 2004. Structural FTIR analysis and thermal
Krause, E. L., Marsman, D. S., & Erasala, G. N. 2009. characterisation of lyocell and viscose-type fibres.
Safety evaluation of superabsorbent baby diapers. European Polymer Journal, 40(9), 2229-2234.
Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology, 53(2), 81- 27) White, P. 2001. Lyocell: the production process
89. and market development. Regenerated cellulose fibres.
14) Kaiser, W. 2015. Kunststoffchemie für Ingenieure: Ed. C. Woodings, Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge,
von der Synthese bis zur Anwendung. Carl Hanser 62-87.
Verlag GmbH Co KG. 28) Cordin, M., Griesser, U. J., & Bechtold, T. 2017.
15) Zohuriaan-Mehr, M. J., & Kabiri, K. 2008. Analysis of moisture sorption in lyocell-polypropylene
Superabsorbent polymer materials: a review. Iranian composites. Cellulose, 24(4), 1837-1847.
polymer journal, 17(6), 451. 29) Klinpituksa, P., & Kosaiyakanon, P. 2017.
16) Stahl, J. D., Cameron, M. D., Haselbach, J., & Superabsorbent polymer based on sodium
Aust, S. D. 2000. Biodegradation of superabsorbent carboxymethyl cellulose grafted polyacrylic acid by
polymers in soil. Environmental Science and Pollution inverse suspension polymerization. International
Research, 7(2), 83-88. Journal of Polymer Science, 2017.
17) Cacciari, I., Quatrini, P., Zirletta, G., Mincione, E., 30) Bello, K., Sarojini, B. K., Narayana, B., Rao, A.,
Vinciguerra, V., Lupattelli, P., & Sermanni, G. G. & Byrappa, K. 2018. A study on adsorption behavior
1993. Isotactic polypropylene biodegradation by a of newly synthesized banana pseudo-stem derived
microbial community: physicochemical superabsorbent hydrogels for cationic and anionic dye
characterization of metabolites produced. Appl. removal from effluents. Carbohydrate polymers, 181,
Environ. Microbiol., 59(11), 3695-3700. 605-615.
18) Weiland, M., Daro, A., & David, C. 1995. 31) Sahoo, P. K., Swain, S. K., & Debsarkar, N. L.
Biodegradation of thermally oxidized polyethylene. 2002. Preparation, characterization, and properties of
Polymer degradation and Stability, 48(2), 275-289. unbleached, bleached, and grafted pulps from JRC‐321
19) Bae, J., Kwon, H., & Kim, J. 2018. Safety variety jute fiber. Journal of applied polymer science,
Evaluation of Absorbent Hygiene Pads: A Review on 83(9), 1963-1969.
Assessment Framework and Test Methods. 32) Sahoo, P. K., Sahu, G. C., Rana, P. K., & Das, A.
Sustainability, 10(11), 4146. K. 2005. Preparation, characterization, and
20) Bai, W., Zhang, H., Liu, B., Wu, Y., & Song, J. biodegradability of jute‐based natural fiber composite
2010. Effects of super‐absorbent polymers on the superabsorbents. Advances in Polymer Technology:
physical and chemical properties of soil following Journal of the Polymer Processing Institute, 24(3),
different wetting and drying cycles. Soil use and 208-214.
management, 26(3), 253-260. 33) Rodrigues, F. H., Fajardo, A. R., Pereira, A. G.,
21) Shah, A. A., Hasan, F., Hameed, A., & Ahmed, S. Ricardo, N. M., Feitosa, J. P., & Muniz, E. C. 2012.
2008. Biological degradation of plastics: a Chitosan-graft-poly (acrylic acid)/rice husk ash based
comprehensive review. Biotechnology advances, superabsorbent hydrogel composite: preparation and
26(3), 246-265. characterization. Journal of Polymer Research, 19(12),
22) Ayinla, A. I., & Eleke, P. 2010. Effect of Low 1.
Density Polyethylene (LDP) waste on physical 34) U.S. Patent No. US5205863A. (1993-04-27)
Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.

742 Volume 5, Issue 2, July 2019

Siddiqe R. et. al. Sustainable alternatives for producing

35) Lopes, M. S., Jardini, A., & Maciel Filho, R. 2014.

Synthesis and characterizations of poly (lactic acid) by
ring-opening polymerization for biomedical
applications. Chemical Engineering Transactions, 38,
331-336.
36) Bhor, G., & Ponkshe, S. 2018. A Decentralized
and Sustainable Solution to the Problems of Dumping
Menstrual Waste into Landfills and Related Health
Hazards in India. European Journal of Sustainable
Development, 7(3), 334-344.

743 Volume 5, Issue 2, July 2019