Chapter 1

Cells
- The basic structural unit of all life forms on Earth
- Contains several organelles (a specialised structure or compartment within a cell that has a specific
function)
- Each cell is surrounded by a membrane (a thin, pliable sheet or layer acting as a boundary)
- Cells sense and response to the environment
- Cells are organised into functional groups- organs or tissues
- Cells are classified as Prokaryotic cells or Eukaryotic cells depending on their internal structures
Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Prokaryotic cells
- Simplest cells
- Bacterial cells Unicellular
Mostly multicellular
Reproduce/divide Cell
- Lacks a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles membrane Reproduce/divide
through binary
- Asexual binary fission fission Ribosomes through mitosis
Nucleus
- Flagellum No nucleus DNA
Membrane-bound
No membrane- Cytoplasm
organelles
bound organelles
Eukaryotic cells
- Complex cells
- Animal and plant cells
- Contains nucleus and membrane-bound organelles that are suspended in cytosol (cytoplasm fluid)
- Mitosis rather than binary fission

Differences: eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles and are larger/more complex than prokaryotic
cells

The cell theory

1. The cell is the unit of structure of all living things
2. The cell exists as a distinct entity and as a building block for the construction of organisms
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells

All living things are composed of one or more cells and all cells come from pre-existing cells.
Before cell theory: Free cell formation/spontaneous

Within cells

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Differences: Animal cells don’t have a cell wall and have many temporary vacuoles. Plant cells only have
one permanent central vacuole with tonoplast. They also contain chloroplast and centrioles.

Cytoplasm
- Fluid material where activities of the cell occur
- Contains all organelles

- Made up of cytosol and cell organelles (they carry out specific functions within the cell)
Cytosol is the fluid part of the cytoplasm that contains dissolved substances

Nucleus
- The control centre of the cell and coordinates cell activities
- DNA is the main molecule found within
- Has a double membrane
- There is one or more nucleolus within the nucleus, composed of
densely packed protein and ribosomal RNA (a type of nucleic acid)
and is used for protein synthesis

- Involved in the manufacture of proteins within the cell

- Separated from the rest of the cell by the absorbable nuclear membrane, composed of lipid with
small holes within it. This allows ions (charged particles) and small water-soluble molecules to move
freely across it. The membrane keeps the DNA separate from the chemical reactions of the
cytoplasm.

Mitochondria
- Energy supply
- Are the sites of cellular respiration (opposite of photosynthesis)
Cellular respiration is a series of chemical reactions in which glucose
and oxygen react to produce carbon dioxide, water and heat energy.
During this, energy is released to form ATP molecules (energy storage
molecule that is used by the cell to power cellular processes)
- Each consists of a smooth outer membrane and cristae (folds of the
inner membrane)
The cristae have enzymes (a specific protein that increases the rate of a chemical reaction within
the cell) for cellular respiration and the folds provide a large surface area for the chemical reaction
to occur.
- The inner space is filled with mitochondrial matrix (a protein-rich fluid)

Ribosomes
- Very small; not able to be seen clearly with a light microscope
- All cell types contain ribosomes
- Location of protein synthesis
Ribosomes synthesise (build up) proteins from amino acids (a nitrogen-containing compound that is
the building block of proteins), therefore cells producing larger amounts of proteins have the
greatest amounts of ribosomes

Vacuole
- Stores water and soluble nutrients in cells
- Primarily found in plant cells
- Tonoplast: vacuole membrane that is selectively permeable
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Chloroplasts
- Has its own membrane and DNA
- Contains the chemical chlorophyll
- Responsible for photosynthesis
- Only found in plant cells

Endoplasmic reticulum
- A system of membranes within the cell
- Can be seen with electron microscope only

- Used to move nutrients and wastes in and out of the cell

- The membrane parts into vesicles (a small, membrane-bound sac in the cytoplasm that transports,
stores or digests substances) to deliver proteins to all parts within the cell
- Intracellular (occurring within a cell) transport system

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER)

- Covered in ribosomes
- Protein produced by ribosomes on the ER can move directly into the internal compartment, where
modifications can be added and then transported. Proteins such as enzymes and hormones can be
secreted from the cell
- Intercellular (occurring between cells) transport system

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER)

- Endoplasmic reticulum is not covered in ribosomes.
- Main role: transport proteins, synthesise lipids, assist in the production of plasma membranes,
storage of calcium ions (needed for muscle contraction and interactions between some membrane
proteins)

Golgi apparatus
- Packages and stores substances into vesicles in preparation
for their release from the cell
- Has large surface area
- Can be seen with electron microscope only

- Parts of the Golgi apparatus are able to part into vesicles.

These vesicles move to the plasma membrane, where they
join and discharge their contents to the outside of the cell.

Lysosomes
- Highly acidic and contain digestive enzymes
- Small membrane-bound sacs
- Enzymes break down fats, protein and other unwanted materials in the cell
- Can be seen with electron microscope only

- Formed by Golgi apparatus

- Found in animal cells and plant cells
- Lysosomes recycle and reuse organelles within the cytoplasm by breaking down complex chemical
compounds to simpler ones. The simpler compounds are used to make new compounds and
organelles.

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Cell wall
- Found in plant cells, fungi cells and unicellular organisms
- Gives structure to the cell

Membrane
- Surrounds the cell and some other organelles
- Selectively permeable
- Allows substances into and out of the cell
- Can be seen with electron microscope only

Cell Size
- Unicellular organisms can survive as an independent single cell
- There are no big unicellular organisms because they don’t have enough surface area to obtain
nutrients and remove waste product

Surface area to volume

- The area of the membrane surrounding a cell: volume of its cytoplasm
- (3:1)
- The bigger the cell, the lower the SA:V ratio will be
- The volume grows at a faster rate than the surface area
- When the cell is too big, the intake and outtake of the cell is not fast enough through diffusion to
service the increasing volume.
- The higher the SA:V ratio, the greater efficiency of two-way exchange
- To cope with low SA:V ratio some cells have large vacuoles, pushing the cytoplasm towards the
edge of the cell, making the distance shorter for materials to be taken in and out.
- Spherical cells have the least surface area for the amount of volume it encloses.
- Long, thin or flat cells have a relatively higher SA:V ratio

Chloroplast
Ribosomes
Cell wall
Lysosomes Endoplasmic
Reticulum
1 large permanent
Many small Cell membrane
vacuole
temporary vacuoles Vacuole
Cytoplasm
Mostly
Nucleus is mostly at Golgi Apparatus
rectangular
the centre Mitochondria
Nucleus
Nucleus is mostly
towards the side

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Plasma Membrane
- Outermost barrier of the cell
- Selectively allows some substances to pass through it
- Made up of lipid (fatty substance) molecules that are interspersed with tiny protein channels
- Contains proteins, cholesterol and carbohydrates
- Maintains concentration gradient
Fluid mosaic model
Membrane Structure
- All cells have similar cell membrane structures
- Fluid mosaic model explains cell membranes as a lipid
bilayer (double layer) with the ability to flow/change shape
(like fluid)
- Specialised protein molecules are embedded in the lipid in
a mosaic pattern
- Proteins and phospholipids help to control the exchange of
materials in and out of the cell

Phospholipid bilayer
- The lipid bilayer is made up of subunits phospholipids, represented by two tails and a head
- The head is hydrophilic (able to absorb water or dissolve in water)
- The tails are fatty acids and are hydrophobic (water avoiding or unable to dissolve in water)
- Heads are attracted to water and the tails avoid water, forming a bilayer

Membrane proteins
- Different proteins are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer
- Cell-cell interaction and communication
- Adhesion proteins link cells together to maintain structure
- Transport proteins are passageways that allow specific substances to move across the membrane
- Receptor proteins bind hormones and other substances that cause change to the cell’s activities
- Recognition proteins are antigens (markers) which allow the immune system to distinguish
between the body’s own cells and foreign cells.

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Transport into and out of the cell
PASSIVE
Diffusion
- Net movement of particles from a region of high particle concentration to a region of lower particle
concentration.
- Concentration gradient: the difference in particle concentration between two regions
- Always takes place when a concentration gradient exists until equilibrium is reached (particles are
evenly distributed throughout the system)
- Particles move randomly, but when equilibrium is reached, the particles move at equal rates in all
directions
- Takes place in gases and liquids
- Increasing the concentration gradient or heating the particles will make diffusion faster

Across membranes
- Small uncharged particles (ex. oxygen, water, carbon dioxide) move through the plasma membrane
by simple diffusion
- Oxygen always tends to diffuse into cells because their use of oxygen in cellular respiration leaves
them with a low concentration of oxygen in the cytoplasm

Facilitated diffusion
- Charged particles (ex. sodium, chloride ions) and large molecules (ex. glucose, amino acids) need
help to pass the bilayer
- Carrier proteins change shape by binding to a specific molecule/ion and change shape to move the
molecule across (ex. glucose transporter protein)

- Channel proteins form narrow passageways which specific ions (ex. aquaporin) can diffuse rapidly
from high to low ion concentration.

Osmosis
- The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high-water
concentration (low solute concentration) to low water concentration (high solute concentration)
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 - No energy required because it moves down the concentration gradient

Types of solutions/extracellular environments

1. Isotonic: When fluids inside/outside the cell have equal solute concentration
- No net movement into/out of the cell
2. Hypotonic: A solution with a lower solute concentration compared with another solution
- Water diffuses into the cell
- Hypo: lower
3. Hypertonic: A solution with a higher solute concentration compared with another solution (less
water)
- Water diffuses out of the cell
- Hyper: higher

Reduces the
amount of
oxygen being
transported
to the
tissues.

The cells tend to stick together,

making blood clots, preventing
oxygen to reach tissues.

Cell that is tight and rigid from

absorbing water

Plasma membrane pulls

away from the cell wall

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ATIVE

Active Transport
- Membrane transport proteins (similar to those in facilitated diffusion) use energy from ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) to move molecules or ions against (up) their concentration gradient
across the cell membrane

Bulk Transport
The movement of macromolecules (large molecules) into/out of the cell, using vesicles and requiring
energy (ATP)

Endocytosis: The process of taking molecules

from outside, into the cell
- Phagocytosis: taking in solids (cell-eating)
- Pinocytosis: taking in liquids (cell-drinking)
- Endo: in

Exocytosis: The process of secreting/exporting

substances out of the cells
- Exiting the cell
- Opposite of endocytosis
- Exo: out

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