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Theses and Major Papers Marine Affairs

Spring 1984

IXTOC I: Case Study of a Major Oil Spill

Peter G. Myer
University of Rhode Island

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IXTOC I: Case Study of a Major oil Spill

Peter G. Myer
Marine Affairs Program
Spring 1984
 INTRODUCTION

The most disastrous oil spill the western hemisphere has ever

witnessed occurred during the 10 months between June 1979 and March

1980, when the experimental well IXTOC I blew out off the coast of

Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula. The beaches of Mexico's eastern shore

suffered the heaviest contamination from the spill while containment

efforts and fortunate weather saved the united states' Gulf Coast from

the severe contamination many feared, but the combination of dirty

beaches and media coverage brought about many tragic economic impacts.

The disaster's effects on South Texas virtually destroyed a year's

earnings for the region's tourism industry and cut into the profits of

many commercial fishermen. On seeking to recover their losses through

legal actions, these businessmen and the governments of Texas and the

United States found themselves caught in the gap between domestic and

international legalities. The United States courts found their juris-

diction severely limited since the accident was brought about by

Mexicans, while the State Department found no adequate footing in

international law from which to claim financial liability against the

Mexican concerns involved. Though not entirely concluded, the litiga-

tion to date has left the marine interests of South Texas and the

United States Government badly under-compensated for their economic

losses. The case bears scrutiny both as an object lesson in the

sudden and dire consequences of even so little contamination and as an

indicator of major loopholes in our pollution liability laws that need

1
to be filled. The activities at the well that caused the blowout and

subsequent spill, the effects of the oil on Texas' Gulf Coast, and the

legal attempts to recover against losses suffered as a result of the

spill will be examined.

2
 I. At the weIll

The platform

The drilling platform designated Sedco 135 was built by the

Ingalls Shipyard of Pascagoula, Mississippi in 1965, under contracts

from the Southeastern Dr ill ing Company, Inc. (Sedco). I t was a 3,527

ton semi-submersible rig with 3 cylindrical caissons for buoyancy

while floating or columnar support while resting on the sea floor. A

drawing of the platform is provided as Figure 1.

Upon taking delivery of the platform, Sedco attained all licen-

sing and inspections required by the U.S. Coast Guard to place it in

service as a merchant vessel in the domestic trade. After 5 years'

service in the Gulf of Mexico, Sedco 135 was chartered by foreign

concerns, requiring a modification to its license, and towed to coas-

tal west Africa in late 1970 for extended drilling operations. with

the rig in foreign waters when the initial Certificate of Inspection

expired, re-inspection requirements were waived by the Coast Guard and

a temporary Certificate of Registry was issued for the platform in

1971. In 1975, Sedco 135 returned to the Americas and was placed in

service to a charterer drilling off Trinidad. In May 1978, a third

foreign charter was approved by the U.S. Department of Commerce, this

to Perferaciones Marinas del Golfo (Permargo), a Mexican drilling

concern under contract to Petroleos Mexicanos (pemex), the nation-

alized Mexican oil company. The bareboat charter went into effect in

the summer of 1978 and dri 11 ing commenced December 1 of that year on

the first exploratory well, designated IXTOC I by the Mexicans.

3
 Figure 1: Sedco 135

CAISSCl'l
..........e-r:

From Richard E. Ford, USCG, Investigation on "Semi-submersible

drill barge SEDCO 135, O.N. 298297; IXTOC-1 well blowout with
subsequent fire in the Bay of Campeche, Mexico, in position 19-24N,
92-12W, on 3 June 1979 without personnel injuries, but with major
oil pollution.", u.S. Coast Guard serial 16732/3104/REF of 23 April
1981, p.3 .
4
Drilling Operations

To fully understand the events leading to the blowout of IXTOC I,

a brief explanation of some procedures and terminology used in

offshore drilling will be required.

To drill a deep well, hollow piping is used as the stem between

the platform and the drilling bit. A bit with larger diameter than

the piping is attached to a collar, also of larger outside diameter,

at the lower end of the drill string. Ninety (90) foot sections of

pipe are added as needed by raising one end of the new section to the

crown block at the top of the platform's derrick and threading the

lower end into the drill string just above the rotary kelly table at

the platform's main deck. Piping of decreasing diameter is sunk into

the earth to various depths and drilling continues with a smaller bit

through the existing casing, making a telescoping drill string as

shown in Figure 2. To clean the cutting faces of the bit, a ready-mix

mud compound of proper consistency is pumped down the interior of the

pipe string, through openings in the center of the bit, and back up

the hole around drill string in a continuous flow, as illustrated in

Figure 3.

Notice that there is nothing but drilling mud blocking the escape

of oil through the drill string should it be encountered unexpectedly.

For this purpose, a Blowout Preventer stack is installed below the

kelly table; at the sea floor in the case of an offshore well. This

equipment has two basic elements, each provided in triplicate for U.S.

5
 Figure 2: IXTOC I Casing Strings

SEA FLOOR
, 'I/~~/l~~
-~,1iS::: -e
.~ "' ~4 ~
~-

~ ~)
- ~
~

.
J

,-1 ~
"I, "(
/'-
I I
I I II ,

30" ,

/
,I
I

I
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v·
.1 V
(,
I J
~I
,l
"'~
.
'I
/1 n
I
,... {iOI.'2.'
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'/
..Ii J
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2.0
11 t: J ~~

.1
1/ {'
\
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iI
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1596.Z'
~~
"
~
jl
j

1 Y
L,
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~i
~ 1 4-835'

~~ u
. 8892.B'
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... .. . "583.9 '

7/ 1

I
From Ford, p.14
, ~
11791.9,'
~
~1't
"
TD 11900.2,'
- i'-~
6
Figure 3: Drilling Bit

t t l>R..I. LL
C.CllLA~

B~T

, MOD
A FLOW

.sIUbS

7
certification as in the case of Sedco 135. The ram shears cut through

the pipe string and seal it shut when their explosive propellant is

fired; the annular preventer wedges into the space between the drill

string and the outermost casing to block the oil's escape there, also

using explosive propellant. See Figure 4.

The Blowout

The IXTOC I well, as planned by Pemex, was to be a geological

exploration to a depth of 18,044 feet. The site was in the Bay of

Campeche, off Yucatan, at 19 0 24.5' N, 92 0 12.5' W, where the water

depth is approximately 160 feet. See Figure 5.

By the first of June, 1979, the drilling had reached 11,792 feet,

where a seven (7) inch diameter casing ended and a six (6) inch bit on

3 1/2 inch drill pipe was used to drill out the cement plug at the

bottom of the casing and continue to greater depths. During the June

1 drilling operations, three losses of mud circulation occurred,

requiring retraction to the bottom of the 7" casing at 11,792 feet.

After the first two losses, circulation was restored by adding mud and

some specially designed lost circulation materials. In trying to

stabilize the well after the third loss, the onboard supply of mud

compounds was exhausted. At this point, Mr. John Merrel, the senior

of seven Sedco advisors constantly on the platform, recommended that

the well be filled with sea water and observed for a period of several

days. Based on their experience in the vicinity of the site and

8
 Figure 4: Blowout Preventer (Schematic)

EX'PLOSI'lE
1'l2..0"PE.LLAHT Pll'E.
STR..l.N6

A1'lNU LAR.
PREVENTER.

EXPLOSIVE
?R.oPELLAN.T

9
Figure '-: IXTOC I Well Site

UNITED
STATES

MEXICO

"'~LL
)(
.sITE

10
geologists' assurances that no oil was expected in the formation that

had been reached, Pemex, the final authority on operational matters,

instead ordered the drill string withdrawn and the bit checked. On

the night of June 2, the extraction of the string began. pressure

readings in the string were carefully monitored and seemed to indicate

a dropping mud pressure and no building oil pressure in the well. At

approximately three o'clock in the morning on June 3, the last stand

(90 feet) of drill piping was being removed on the platform, placing

the outsized drill collar in the blowout preventer stack on the sea

floor. An unexpected surge of pressure from the well cross-threaded

the piping being removed and jammed the disconnecting wrenches in

place. A second, stronger surge blew mud followed by oil out the top

of the string at the crown block and through the cross-threaded joint.

with the wrenches jammed, the string could not be dropped back into

the hole to clear the blowout preventer stack of the drill collar and

the ram shears could not cut through the outsized collar when fired.

At 0315, the escaping oil and gas caught fire and by 0330 the platform

was abandoned as out of control.

Two supply vessels stood by for eight hours pumping water onto

the burning rig, but the flames enveloping Sedco 135 made attempts to

extinguish the fire futile. The derrick and much of the equipment

stored on the platform collapsed onto the blowout pre venter at mid-

morning, but the anchors held the floating caissons fast. At noon,

11
the anchor chains were ordered cut, a process that took 24 hours. The

platform was then towed 30 miles northwest of the well site and boar-

ded by 11 marine surveyors. After a week of inspections, Sedco 135

was declared a total loss, towed further into the Gulf of Mexico, and

scuttled.

The Spill

The initial rate of flow from the unattended well was estimated

by most creditable sources as 30,000 barrels/day (1,260,000

gallons/day) for the first two months of the spil1 2• Red Adair's

attempts to clear the blowout pre venter shears and reclose them

reduced the flow for only a few hours, as the collapse of the platform

had knocked over the Blowout preventer column. The flow rate was not

significantly reduced until mid-August, when Pemex pumped thousands of

steel and lead balls into the well, bringing the rate to 10,000

barrels/day.3 During this month, the U.S. Coast Guard lent its

support at Pemex's request and realized a maximum flow of 5,000

barrels/day through several weeks. In mid-September, the Coast Guard

withdrew when Pemex installed an inverted "sombrero" collector over

the well. 4 After the collector, as illustrated in Figure 6, was in

place, an engineering consultant from the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology, Mr. Jerome Milgram, visited the well and estimated the

device to be 90% effective in collecting natural gas, but only 10%

effective in controlling the escape of crude oil. He also placed the

12
leakage rate at that time as high as 50,000 barrels/day.5 By the end

of February, 1980, two relief wells had been completed and Mexican

authorities claimed the leakage rate to be less than 2,000

barrels/day,6 and on March 5, 1980, the New York Times reported the

flow rate as negligible and capping operations nearing completion.?

14
 II. On The Beach

The Slicks 8

Though light lines of tar balls appeared on Texas beaches on

August 6, 1979, they weathered away quickly. On August 13, however,

the oil coverage began building (see Figures 7-9). There was light

oiling as far north as Aransas Pass by August 17. The first heavy

oiling occurred on South Padre Island on August 24. By August 26, U.S.

Coast Guard personnel had placed 11 oil-absorbant booms across Brazos-

Santiago Pass, six booms across Mansfield Pass, five booms across

Aransas Pass, and three across Cedar Bayou. The heaviest impacts were

felt between August 29 and September 1, when the levels of oil on

Texas beaches reached 3,900 metric tons. No new oil was observed

arriving on the beaches after September 1 and the pollution already

present began to weather. By September 14, coverage was uniformly

light and a tropical depression that hit during the next week reduced

it further. Mousse patches found along most of North and South Padre

Islands' beaches during October were broken up or buried by clean-up

crews. The oil-absorbant booms prevented any serious contamination of

the Laguna Madre, though minor impacts were observed at some sites.

Wi Idl ife Damage

Due to the relatively short period of heavy oiling, the protec-

tion of the Laguna Madre, and the natural resilience of the resources

of the area, damage to South Texas' marine wildlife from IXTOC I was

lighter than most had expected. In its 1981 summary of biological

studies, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

15
 Figure 6: Steel Sombrero System

Cl.L
l'I.vtl'l& 1!lUR.!'lER..
GWAR.TERS-
C.OLLE.'- To¥:'"
A.T
\olE LLH E.t>.t>

WATER.LI.NE.

SEA. FLOO~

SCALE
100 ....--.I
r~ fEET-~

From U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Commerce, Science,

and Transportation and Committee on Energy and Natural Resources,
Campeche Oil Spill. Hearings before joint committee. 96th Cong.,
1st Sess., sere 96-66, 5 December 1979, p.93

13
 F~gure 7: O~1~ng of south Texas beaches. 17-20 August 1979

17 AUG 1979 18 AUG 1979 20 AUG 1979

IN
,
S H 0 RELINE OIL OFFSHORE OIL

[,:::::1 VE.RY LIGHT I::::: MODERATE ~ SHEEN

1:<.:.:.':1 LIGHT • H~AVY ~~1'J MOUSSE.

b- BOOM c- CLEMWP OPERATlON5

From Craig H. Hooper, ed., The IXTOC I Oil Spill: The Federal
Scientific Response, NOAA Special Report (Washington~c.: U.S.
Government Printing Office, December 1981) p.42

16
 Figure 8: Oilihg of south Texas beaches, 21 Aug-1 Sept 1979

21 AUG /979 2~ AUG 1979 2.8 AUG \ 979

'""
'""......... r:
"-'

2.9 AUG 31 AU~ , SEPT

From Hooper, pp.43-44

17
 Figure 9: Oiliftg of south Texas beaches, 4 Sept-II Oct 1979

It SE.1>T 1979 ~ 5E..PT 12.. SEPT 1979

....~~~
::.: Ii ~
..': ?:j
:::: ~
::.:..:.~
.. :~ N

3b
o 30
IiiiI!5ii!!t
km
ILt SEP1 /97?

..,..".--.." ..
'"'-." .r , ..
II - MOUSSE PATCHES
From Hooper, pp.45-46

18
listed the results of survey after survey as minor or insignificant.

I nth e i n 1 e t san d 1 ago 0 n s, the 0 n 1 y s i g n i f i can t 0 i 1 imp act 0 b s e r ved

was the oiling of a marsh for 10 days, which " ••• did not immediately

inhibit photosynthesis or respiration of representative nearshore

plankton samples and seagrasses." 9 On the sand beaches, NOAA found

that the migratory birds instinctively avoided the more heavily oiled

beaches, and "Ground observations of wading and shorebirds indicated

that the oiled birds never exceeded 10%, peaking during periods of

heaviest oiling. 1I 1 0 Though populations of crabs and other beach

infauna were significantly reduced along the intertidal zones, it was

pointed out that lilt was difficult to distinguish the effects of the

oil spill from natural factors, especially storms and natural population

variations." l l Furthermore, " r e s ults of acute toxicity tests,

conducted on subtidal amphipods and zooplankton, suggested that IXTOC

I oil was not toxic to these species." l 2 Toxicity tests on redfish,

sea trout, and brown shrimp, the major fisheries species in the area,

indicated no acute toxicity' to adults, but high mortality and

deformity rates in juvenile and larval populations. 1 3 In the actual

fisheries, however, Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and National

Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) organoleptic tests did not find any

seafood unfit for the market in representative samples, both oiled and

clean. 1 4 Offshore populations renewed themselves quickly. Marine

biologist Henry Hildebrand, testifying before Congress, said that,

19
"These organisms (offshore species) have tremendous reproductive capa-

city. Nearly everyone we have on this coast does, because we have a

very severe environment in this part of Texas."15

Concern with long term subtoxic effects was expressed in all of

the studies reported and expert testimony before Congress, but most

would by now agree with Linda Garmon's sources in the October 25, 1980

Science News,

••• the overall environmental impact of IXTOC I will take

years to evaluate. Still, some researchers already say
the Gulf of Mexico seems back to normal. 'If you go to
the beaches of South Padre Island today' said ACS Oil spill
Symposium participant Edward B. Overton, 'you'll find good
swimming and good fishing.' Although it looks like 'the
end of the world' on the biiches during an oil spill, 'the
environment springs back.'

Economic Damages

The economic damages to South Texas from the spill are difficult

to quantify. As in any such disaster, the effects of the oil were not

confined to the sea. Governmental costs were assessed by totalling

monies spent to protect the Laguna Madre, clean the beaches, study the

spill, and assist the local maritime industries, but the costs to the

private sector were hidden in business losses.

The fishing industry is very important to South Texas, with

commercial fishermen having landed $125 million worth of catches in

the region in 1978. The estimated value of the catch taken in bays

and estuaries within the spill region in 1978 was $4.5 million. 1 7

NMS and FDA programs worked through the fall of 1979 and the spring of

20
1980 to keep fishermen advised of the oil's whereabouts and to bolster

consumer confidence in the Gulf's seafood,18 but the small losses in

catch levels and wholesale prices came at the expense of relocation

and aggravation for many fishermen.

The deepest economic impact was felt by the area's tourist

industry. Expenditures for tourist-related activities on Texas' coast

were placed at $445 million in 1972,19 and the industry had certainly

grown since. Though South Padre Island was heavily oiled for only a

few weeks, the region's resort owners, charter boat operators, and

Chambers of Commerce fought tremendous public relations battles. The

media coverage of the spill simply did not create an image conducive

to beach vacations during the summer of 1979. As the New york Times

reported on August 11 of that year,

At South Padre Island itself, civic leaders have been angered

by what they say are misleading reports of the situation.
They especially criticize the television reports that, they
say, make it look as if the beaches here are the heavily pol-
luted Mexican beaches. They say that hurt more than the oil. 20

Although Representative Kika de la Garza quoted a partial list of

constituents' losses in his testimony before a subcommittee of the

House Public Works and Transportation Committee on September 26,

1979,21 the best indicator available is probably the legal claims made

by various private concerns for some $350 million in damages. Coupled

with suits from the governments of the United States and the State of

Texas, these claims boosted the costs of the spi 11 to South Texas, as

claimed in court, to nearly $400 million.

21
 III. Before The Courts

Domestic Legislation

The history of federal pollution liability and compensation

legislation in the united States shows an interesting progression.

See Table 1. In 1851, when the first law broaching the subject was

passed, little concern was felt for pollution. The encouragement of

seagoing commerce was the major concern of Congress and, as such, the

Limitation of Liability Statutes 2 2 stipulated that no vessel owner

would be liable for any amount greater than the value of his vessel.

By 1924, some interest in the preservation of our harbors and

waterways had surfaced, and the discharge of oil, intentional or

otherwise, was made illegal within the territorial waters of the

united States under the Oil Pollution Act 2 3 of that year. The only

liability assumed by a violator of that law, however, was a fine $500

to $2500. This prohibition was extended to 50 nautical miles from our

coasts by the 1961 Oil Pollution Act 2 4, but the concept of oil pollu-

tion prevention by simple prohibition lasted nearly 50 years. The

first provisions dealing with tort liabilities in marine pollution

appeared in the 1970 Water Quality Improvement Act 25, indicating a

change in federal policy. This law established the maximum liability

of a tanker owner at $100 per ton or $14 mi 11 ion and placed the

liability limit for offshore platforms at $8 million. Along with

amendments to the existing Federal Water Pollution Control Act 26, the

Water Quality Improvement Act (WQIA) established a liability on the

part of the tanker owner and the offshore dr iller for damage done to

22
 Table 1: Legislation Concerning Liability
and Compensation for Oil Pollution

Liabilitv Compensation
Offshore Tax Fund
Year Act Ship Platform Levied Limit

1851 Limitation of Vessel ---- ---- ----

Liability Act Value

1924 Oil Pollution Act $500 to ---- ---- ----

$2500

1948 Water Pollution ---- ---- ---- ----

Control Act

1961 Oil Pollution Act $500 to ---- ---- ----

$2500

1966 Oil Pollution Act $500 to ---- ---- ----

$2500
1970 Water Quality $100/ton $8m ---- $35m
Improvement Act to $14m
1972 Federal Water $100/ton $8m ---- $35m
Pollution Control to $14m
Act Amendments

1973 Oil Pollution Act $500 to ---- ---- ----

Amendments $2500

1973 Trans-Alaska $14m $100m 5¢/bbl $100m

Pipeline
Authorization Act

1974 Deepwater Port Act $150/ton ---- 2¢/bbl $100m

to $20m
1977 Clean Water Act $150/ton ---- ---- $35m
to $250k
1978 Outer Continental $300/ton $35m 3¢/bbl $200m
Shelf Lands Act
Amendments

1981 H.R. 85 (Proposed) $300/ton $50m 1. 3¢/bbl $375m

Condensed from: Neal Shapiro, "Oil Pollution Liability and

Compensation:, Marine Technology Society
Journal 16 (January 1982) 25

23
other marine activities or the environment. Monies were set aside for

compensation of damages exceeding the limits established under the

laws, with the funds, not to exceed $35 million, appropriated annually

from the federal budget. Yet another new concept found voice in three

further laws: the 1973 Trans-Alaska Pipeline Act 27, the 1974

Deepwater Port Act 2 8, and the 1978 outer Continental Shelf Lands Act

Amendments 29• The framers of these laws instituted taxes on the

petroleum products transported through their subject domains to fill

the coffers of the compensation funds. Though the taxes are only a

small percentage of the value of the oil, the maximum levy being $.05

per barrel, compensation limits rose to $200 million under this

scheme. A large fund also allows quicker compensation for damages, as

the government can be seen as an insurer, in effect, paying claims

from the fund and itself prosecuting for damages. Although the

concept of user fees has been highly praised by all concerned, no

comprehensive fund has been established to this day. Though an

accident in domestic drilling would have afforded some compensation

under the law, the lack of such a comprehensive law left South Texas'

damaged parties to their own devices in court.

In summary, domestic legislation does not provide suffi-

cient relief from the damage caused by a blowout on the
high seas. The Limitation of Liability Act remains in
effect, arguably vitiating the provisions of more recent
statutes such as the FWPCA and the OCSLA. Although the
latter acts are intended to compensate victims of oil
spills, they overlap, and their jurisdiction is restric-
ted to two hundred miles offshore ••• hence, none of ~he
parties can rely on existing legislation for relief O.

24
International Law

The body of international law agreed upon between the united

States and Mexico unfortunately provides little recourse to claimants

of damages from transnational pollution. Gerhard von Glahn, in his

book, Law Among Nations, takes the direction of the Statute of the

International Court of Justice in defining the sources of

international law, stating that,

Article 38 of the Statute directs the International Court

of Justice to apply: (1) international conventions, whether
general or particular, establishing rules expressly recog-
nized by the contesting states; (2) international custom,
as evidence of a general practice accepted as law; (3) the
general principles of law recognized by civilized nations;
and (4) subject to the provisions of Article 59, judicial
decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified
publicists (writers) of various na5ions as subsidiary means
for determination of rules of law.

The International Maritime Organization of the United Nations

maintains two international conventions dealing with vessel source

pollution liability: the 1969 International Convention on civil Lia-

bility for Oil Pollution Damage 32 and the 1971 Convention on the

Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation of Oil Pollu-

tion Damage 3 3, which provide liberal compensation for such damages as

were suffered in Texas. The IXTOC I platform, however, did not fall

under their definitions. "Ship" as subject to these conventions,

••• means any sea-going vessel of any type whatsoever, and

any seaboarne craft carrying oil in bulk, but does not
include any warship or other ship owned or operated EY ~
State a~d used ~or ~~e time being only on government non-
cornrnerclal serVlce.

25
 The issue of pollution liability is contemporary and formative

enough that few questions were raised of customary international law

to cover u.s. claims.

The concept of sic utero tuo (" o n e must so use his own as not to

do injury to another") as elaborated in the 1972 stockholm Declaration

of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment 3 5 and tort

liability provisions in the Federal Civil Code of the Republic of

Mexic0 3 6 were cited as applicable principles of law by claimants, but

no specific compensation requirements appear in either reference,

allowing Mexico an out.

As for judicial decisions, many writers cited the 1905 Trail

Smelter Arbitration 3 7 between the united states and Canada, wherein

Canada was held liable for damages to u.s. interests as a result of

air pollution from a privately owned and operated smelter located in

British Columbia, as a precedent 38• The analogy to the IXTOC claims

was, in fact, a very good one but Mexico responded by reiterating

previous claims against the United states for salt-spoiled farmlands

on the southern shores of the Rio Grande.

It is important to note that, though a case may be made for

Mexican liability on the strength of general principles of law and a

previous International Court of Jus~ice decision, the lack of specific

treaty law and the absence of a specifically agreed upon compromis

between the United States and Mexico made adjudication by the Inter-

national Court of Justice impossible. Few wondered that Mexico did

26
not agree to such. As Karl E. Meyer pointed out in his October, 1979

editorial "What Mexico Remembers,"

••• the Mexican president says there will be no compsenation.
Did the United States, he wonders, compensate Mexico for the
ruination of the Mexicali Valley by the Colorado River's saline
water? It did not.
A less recent episode, however, yields deeper explanation
for Mexico's resentment. American and European oil companies
once made huge compensation claims against Mexico. The Mexi-
can government was eventually forced to pay about $130 million
for assets it had seized-but only after enduring a punishing
boycott by the oil companies 3 9 •

The settlement to which Mr. Meyer refers was paid in 1941, but its

memory returned with a vengeance in 1979.

Litigation

The attempts to recover losses suffered as a result of IXTOC I's

blowout were initiated in the united States District Court for the

Southern District of Texas, where the first suits were filed during

September and October of 1979. On September 13, a class action suit

was filed by a group of fishermen seeking $155 million in damages. 40

This suit was joined by other private commercial interests through the

next year and by early 1983 the claims had risen to $350 million. 4 1
The State of Texas filed suit on October 19 to recover $10 million in

clean-up costs and public expenditures. 4 2 The united States govern-

ment sued on October 24, setting its claim at $6 million. 4 3 The

respondants named in all three suits were Sedco, Permargo, and Pemex.

The obvious and overriding obstacle to u.S. claims was

jurisdiction. The accident occurred in Mexican waters; the drilling

27
was financed entirely by a Mexican corporation (and a nationalized

one, at that); and the purpose of the project was exploration, not

production. Sedco 135 was owned by a Texas corporation, but Sedco,

Inc. quickly moved to limit its liability under the 1851 Limitation of

Liability Act. The motion by plaintiffs seeking jurisdiction over

Permargo and Pemex in District Court was based on Texas' long-arm

statute 44, which provides in part that,

Any foreign corporation, association, joint stock company •••

that engages in business in this State ••• and does not main-
tain a regular place of business in this state or a desig-
nated agent upon whom service of process may be made upon
causes of action arising out of such business done in the
State, the act or acts of engaging in such business ••• shall
be deemed equivalent to an appointment ••• of the Secretary
of State of Texas as agent upon whom service of process may
be made in any action, suit or proci~dings arising out of
such business done in this State •••

Pemex immediately moved for exemption, claiming itself an agent of the

Mexican government and thereby immune from tort liability under the

Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act of 1976 4 6• Permargo also attempted to

deny the jurisdiction of the U.S. courts, claiming that its business

ties with Texas were insufficient to satisfy the long-arm statute.

In a preliminary ruling on March 30, 1982, District Court Judge

O'Conor delineated liabilities in the face of these motions and

virtually dashed the plaintiffs' hopes of recovering their full

losses. Pemex's plea of sovereign immunity was upheld over attempted

invocation of exceptions listed in the Foreign Sovereign Immunities

Act, as Judge O'Conor held that,

28
 Pemex, in this case, was executing a national plan formu-
lated at the highest levels of the Mexican government by
exploring for Mexico's natural resources. Any act perfor-
med by a subordinate of Pemex in futherance of this explor-
ation plan was still discretionary in nature and immune from
suit under the FSIA. To deny immunity to a foreign state
for the implementation of its domestic economic policies
would be to completely abrogate the doctrine of foreign
sovereign immunity b~ allowing an exception to swallow the
grant of immunity ••• 7

In the matter of Permargo's liability, Judge O'Conor denied the motion

for dismissal due to lack of jursidcition, stating that,

Here, the Court has determined that Permargo has availed it-
self of the benefits and laws of this forum and that Court
may constitutionally exercise personal jurisdiction with
respect to the private and public plaintiffs' direct claims
against Permargo. Sedco, like the direct plaintiffs, has
served Permargo pursuant to (the long-arm statute). Since
Sedco seeks to recover over against Permargo for claims
arising from the alleged maritime tort made the basis of
the direct plaintiffs' claims, this Court finds that it is
amenable to service of process under the Texa~ long-arm
statute for the reasons previously discussed. 8

As for Sedco's liability, Judge O"Conor upheld the motion seeking

exoneration under the Limitation of Liability Act. To plaintiffs'

complaints that the law was outmoded, Judge O'Conor replied that,

"Whether the Act retains vitality within the sphere in which it has

traditionally applied is a matter for Congress, not the courts, to

decide."49 These rulings effectively denied the plaintiffs access to

the "deep pocket" defendants since Permargo's assets simply would not

cover any reasonable settlement.

The case stalled at this juncture for a year. In February of

1983, Judge O'Conor held a closed meeting with the litigants and Sedco

offered to settle out of court with the plaintiffs shortly thereafter.

29
The federal government and the private interests accepted this offer

and in March 1983, Sedco made payments of $2 million and $2.14 million

respectively to the U.S. government and the businessmen who had joined

in the suit. 5 0 As agreed in the settlement, these parties immediately

dropped their suits against Permargo and Pemex. Sedco, however,

retained its actions against both Mexican companies. The State of

Texas, not having accepted the settlement with Sedco, also remains in

litigation at this writing.

Effects and proposals

In view of the settlements made in this case to date, the

tremendous disparity between the damages suffered by private industry

and the monies received by them in compensation must concern any

maritime businessman. The U.S. government has concerned itself, also,

and several proposals have emerged in the aftermath of the spill.

On the domestic front, bills have been introduced in both Houses

of Congress since 1979 to provide a "superfund" for the compensation

of victims of oi 1 pollution. The money would be drawn from a tax on

oil imports and refinery products and the definitions would be

expanded to include pollution from incidents on the high seas or in

foreign waters. In effect, the federal government would be providing

insurance against future spill damages in a single compensation fund.

H.R. 85, A Bill to Provide ~ Comprehensive of System Liability and

Compensation for Oil ~! Damage and Removal Costs, passed the House

30
of Representatives in late 1981, but was not acted upon by the Senate

before adjournment. Though reintroduced with each succeeeding

Congress, the proposal has yet to be passed into law. The major

obstacles to passage of such a law are the preemptive provisions of

the federal act over state-administered funds, the relation of such

domestic legislation to international treaties, and the administrative

details of liability limits and ancillary uses of the fund. These

concerns, though valid, pale before the need to close the loopholes in

our laws and protect our maritime businessmen. As Congressman E.

(Kika) de la Garza of South Texas stated before a Congressional

subcommittee hearing,

Simply stated, the measure is long overdue. The tragic

effects of the Padre Island oil spill would have been
sharply diminished had the measure been acted on affir-
matively ••• the effects of this spill illustrate poignan-
tly the helplessness of the small businessman to cope
financially with the forces of matters over which he has
no control. 51

In the international arena, regulation by law-making treaty is

winning support within the community of nations. In an interesting

proposal, William N. Hancock and Robert M. Stone suggest in a Hastings

International and Comparative Law Review article that,

The problem of oil well blowouts, however, could be addres-

sed at a more 'local' level. Oil rig platforms generally
operate in a narrow band along a nation's continental shelf
or in relatively shallow seas. Therefore, an agreement be-
tween only two or three nations may prove effective in pro-
viding a scheme of liability for offshore blowouts. For
example, an agreement between the united States and Mexico,
or among the united Kingdom, France, and Belgium, may be on
a scale sUffi~ient to provide true protection to the contrac-
ting states. 5

31
 Hancock and stone point to an existing agreement among 13 oil

companies operating in the North Sea, but an accord on the subject

with Mexico seems a hopeful ideal at this point. with the animosity

to u.S. claims felt south of the border, the only treaty that could be

negotiated in IXTOC's aftermath is the Agreement of Cooperation

between the united States of America and the United Mexican States

regarding Pollution of the Marine Environment ~ Discharge of

Hydrocarbons and Other Hazardous Substances of June 24, 1980. 5 3 The

Harvard I nternat iona 1 Law Rev iew noted that "The agreement ••• fa i 1 s to

establish procedures or mechanisms for determining liability and

compensation for marine pollution damage, leaving most victims without

adequate remedy.,,54 Even at such a regional level, much remains to be

negotiated.

32
 CONCLUSIONS

There is a range of conclusions that may be drawn from the

aftermath of IXTOC I's blowout, from the deepened conviction within

the oil industry that offshore drilling will not permanently degrade

our beaches to the dread real ization on the part of many resort

operators and fishermen that the economic nightmares of transnational

pollution may next be theirs. By any standard, however, the

importance of the conclusion drawn is found in the changes made as a

result. Whether by using the scientific data on spill effects to

justify further offshore operations or by working to plug the legal

loopholes that cost South Texas so much, the lessons of IXTOC I must

be used to further our management of the nation's marine resources.

33
 ENDNOTES

1Except as noted otherwise, all facts and figures from:

Richard E. Ford, USCG, Investigation on "Semi-submersible drill
barge SEDCO 135, O.N. 298297; IXTOC I well blowout with subse-
quent fire in the Bay of Campeche, Mexico, in position 19-24N,
92-12W, on 3 June 1979 without personnel injuries, but with
major oil pollution," U.S. Coast Guard serial 16732/3104/REF of
Apri 1 23, 1981.

2" We l l Blows Out Off Yucatan; oil Find Hinted," New York
Times, 9 June 1979, p.1; and U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee
on Commerce, Science, and Transportation and Committee on Energy
and Natural Resources, Campeche Oil spi1~ Hearings before
joint committee. 96th Cong., 1st:Sess., sere 96-66, 5 December
1979, p. 13.

3"Mexico's Gains on Oil Well May Save Beaches of Texas,"

New York Times, 28 February 1980, p. 18.
4 U.S. Congress, Campeche Oil ~l, p. 16.
5 I b i d., pp. 95, 99.

6"Mexico's Gains," p. 18.

7"Mexico Caps Runaway Oil Well; Loss is Put at 3.1

Mi 11 ion Barrel s," New York Times, 25 March 1980, p. A4.

8Facts and figures from Craig H. Hooper, ed., The IXTOC I

Oil Sri1ll The Federal Scientific Response, NOAA Special Report
(Washlngton, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, December
1981) pp. 41-54.

9 I b i d., p. 166.

10 I b i d., p. 167.

11 I b i d., p, 169.
12 l b i d•

13 l b i d•

14 I b i d., p. 114.

15 U•S• Congress, House, Committee on Merchant Marine and

Fisheries and subcommittee of Committee on Public Works and
Transportation, Blowout of Mexican Oil Well IXTOC ~ Hearings
before joint committee. 96th Cong., 1st Sess., sere 96-19, 8-9
September 1979, p. 235.

34
 16Linda Garmon, "Autopsy of an Oil Spill, Science News 118
(25 October 1980) 269-270.

17Hooper, p, 100.

18 I b i d., pp. 113-115.

19 I b i d., p, 99

20"Texas Surviving Worst Oil Spill, but Experts Say Harm

May Not Be Known for Years," New York Times, 11 August 1979, p,
6.
21 U•S• Congress, House, Subcommittee of the Committee on
Public Works and Transportation, H.R. 85: A Bill to Provide a
Comprehensi ve System of Liabi 1 i ty for Oi 1 Spi 11. -Damage and
Removal Costs. Hearing before the Subcommittee ~ Water
Resources. 96th Cong., 1st Sess., sere 96-26, 26 September
1979, pp. 397-400.

22 4 6 USC 9~ 183-189 (1851).

23 Ac t of 7 June 1924, en. 316, 43 Stat. 604.

24 3 3 USC 9§ 1001-1015.

25 8 4 Stat. 91-107.
26 3 3 USC 1151 e t , seq. (1970) •
99
27 4 3 USC 99 1651-1655.
28 3 3 USC § ~ 1501-1524; 43 USC 9 1333.
29 4 3 USC
9 9 1801 e t , seq. (1978) •

30Hilde D. Preston, "Domestic and International Liability

for the Bay of Campeche Oi 1 Spi 11," International Trade Law
Journal 6 (Fall/Winter 1980-1981) 67.

31Gerhard von Glahn, Law Among Nations: An Introduction

to Public International Law, 4th ed , (New York: MacMillan
Publishing Company, 1981~. 16.
32"International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil
Pollution Damage," American Journal of International Law 64
(Apr i 1 1970) 481-490.

35
 3311Convention on the Establishment of an International
Fund for Compensation for oil pollution Damage," International
Legal Materials 11 (March 1972) 284-302.

34"Civil Liability Convention," p. 454.

35" Th e U.N. Conference on the Human Environment held at

Stockholm," Department of State Bulletin LXVII (24 July 1972)
105-118.

36Federal Civil Code of the Republic of Mexico, Art. 1910

and 1913; and Regulations for the Petroleum Operations, D.O.
en, I, Art. 94, 358-29 and Art. 32, 358-61.
37"Trail Smelter Arbitration," American Journal of
International Law 35 (1941) 684-736.

38Cited by Preston, pp. 70-71; and William N. Hancock and

Robert M. Stone, "Liabtlity for Transnational Pollution Caused
by Offshore Oi 1 Rig B~owouts,.. Hastings International and
Comparative Law Revie 5 (Spring 1980) 378-380.

39 Ka r 1 E. Meyer, "What Mexico Remembers," New York Times,

4 October 1979, p. A 30.

40"Sedco, Mexico Firms Sued by Fishermen for Oil Spill

Losses," Wal..!. Street Journal, 14 September 1979, p. 18.

41"sedco Settles Oil Spill Suit; Amount Represents

Fraction of Sum Sought," Da..!.las Morning News, 24 March 1983, p.
A 7.

42"Texas Sues Sedco, Inc. and Mexican Concern for Oil

Spi 11 Damages," Wal..!. Street Journal, 19 October 1979, p. 34.

43 ..U•S• Seeks to Recover $6 Million from Sedco for Oil

Spi 11 Cleanup," Wal..!. Street Journal, 24 October 1979, p. 2.

44Texas Revised Civil Statute Art. 2031b (Vernon 1975 and

s u pp, 1982).
45 I b i d., 9 4.

46 2 8 USC 99 1602 et. seq. (FSIA).

47 5 4 3 Federal Supplement 561 (1982) p. 567.

48 I bid., p. 570.

36
 49 I bid., p. 572.

50"Sedco Agrees to Pay $2 Million to Settle '79 Oil Spill

Claims," Wall Street Journal, 3 March 1983, p. 3; and "Judge
Finalizes Accord with Sedco in Oil Spill Suits," oil Daily, 16
June 1983, p. 3.
51 u• s . Congress, H.R • .!!2, p. 397.

52Hancock and Stone, p. 393.

53"Agreement of Cooperation between the united States of

America and the united Mexican States Regarding pollution of the
Marine Environment by Discharge of Hydrocarbons and Other
Hazardous Substances," International Legal Materials 20 (May
1980) 696-710.

54Barry C. Barnett, "Transnational Pollution: Agreement

Regarding Marine Pollution Incidents," Harvard International Law
Journal 23 (1982) 184.

37
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

"Agreement of Cooperation between the united States of America

and the united Mexican States Regarding Pollution of the
Marine Environment by Discharge of Hydrocarbons and Other
Hazardous Substances." International Legal Materials 20
(May 1980) 696-710.

Barnett, Barry C. "Transnational Pollution: Agreement Regarding

Marine Pollution Incidents," Harvard International Law
Journal 23 (1982) 177-184.

"Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for

Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage," International
Legal Materials 11 (March 1972) 284-302.

Ford, Richard E. USCG. Investigation on "Semi-submersible drill

barge SEDCO 135, O.N. 298297; IXTOC I well blowout with
subsequent fire in the Bay of Campeche, Mexico, in posi-
tion 19-24N, 92-12W, on 3 June 1979 without personnel
injuries, but with major oil pollution." u.S. Coast Guard
serial 16732/3104/RE~ of April 23, 1981.

Gorman, Linda "Autopsy of an Oil spill," Science News 118 (25

October 1980) 267-270.

Hancock, William N. and Stone, Robert M. "Liability for Trans-

national Pollution Caused by Offshore Oil Rig Blowouts."
Hastings International and Comparative Law Review 5
(Spring 1980) 377-395.

Helfrich, James C. "Problems in Pollution Response Liability

Under Federal Law: FWPCA Section 311 and the Superfund."
Journal of Maritime Law and Commerce 13 (July-October)
455-479.-- ---- ----

Hooper, Craig H. ed. The IXTOC I oil Spil~ The Federal

Scientific Response, NOAA Special Report (Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, December 1981).

"International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution

Damage." American Journal of International Law 64 (April
1970) 481-490.

Leventhal, F. Daniel. "The Bay of Campeche oil spill:

Obtaining Jurisdiction Over Petroleos Mexicanos Under the
F0 7eign Immunities Act of 1976." Ecology Law Quarterly 9
(WInter 1980-1981) 341-377.

Preston, Hilde D. "Domestic and International Liability for the

Bay of Campeche o i 1 Spi 11," International Trade Law Jour-
nal 6 (Fall/Winter 1980-1981) 67.

38
Shapiro, Neal. "oil Pollution Liability and Compensation."
Marine Technology Society Journal 16 (January 1982) 23-28.

"Trail Smelter Arbitration," American Journal of International

Law 35 (1941) 684-736.

"The U.N. Conference on the Human Environment held at Stock-

holm," Department of State Bulletin LXVII (24 July 1972):
105-118.
U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries
and subcommittee of Committee on Public Works and Trans-
portation, Blowout of Mexican Oil Well IXTOC I. Hearings
before joint committee. 96th Cong~rst Sess~ sere 96-
19, 8-9 September 1979.

U.S. Congress, House, Subcommittee of the Committee on Public

Works and Transportation, H.R. 85: A Bill to Provide a
Comprehensi ve System of Liab"ll ft"Y for Oi 1- Spi 11. Damage-and
Removal Costs. Hearing before the Subcommittee on Water
Resources. 96th Cong., 1st Ses~ sere 96-26, 2~Septem­
ber 1979.

U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Commerce, Science, and

Transportation and Committee on Energy and Natural Resour-
ces, Campeche Oil spil~ Hearings before joint committee.
96th Cong., 1st Sess., sere 96-66, 5 December 1979.

Glahn, Gerhard von Law Among Nations: An Introduction to Public

International Law, 4th ed , (New York: MacMillan Pub-----
lishing Compan~1981).

West, James M. "The IXTOC I Oil Spill Litigation:

Jurisdictional Disputes at the Threshold of Transnational
Pollution Responsibility." Texas International Law Jour-
n a 1 16 (Summer 1981) 475 - 532.

39