JTG D50-2006 Specs For Asphalt Pavement

JTG
Trade Standard of the People’s Republic of China JTG D50-2006
Specifications for Design of Highway

Asphalt Pavement
Issued on 10th October, 2006 Implemented on 1st January, 2007
Issued by the Ministry of Communications of

the People’s Republic of China
Trade Standard of the People’s Republic of China
Specifications for Design of Highway

Asphalt Pavement
JTG D50-2006
Compiled by: China Highway Planning and Design Institute (HPDI)

Consultants, INC
Approved by: The Ministry of Communications of the People’s
Republic of China
Date of Implementation: January 1, 2007
The People’s Communications Press
Year of 2006 · Beijing

Contents
CONTENTS
1. GENERAL RULES .............................................................................................................................. 1
2. TERMS AND SYMBOLS .................................................................................................................... 3
2.1. TERMS ..................................................................................................................................................... 3

2.2. SYMBOLS ................................................................................................................................................ 5
3. GENERAL PROVISIONS................................................................................................................... 6
3.1. STANDARD AXLE LOAD AND DESIGN TRAFFIC VOLUME ......................................................................... 6

3.2. ROAD MATERIAL ..................................................................................................................................... 9
4. STRUCTURE COURSE AND COMBINATION DESIGN ............................................................ 13
4.1. STRUCTURE COURSE DESIGN ................................................................................................................ 13

4.2. STRUCTURE COMBINATION DESIGN ...................................................................................................... 16
5. SUBGRADE AND BED COURSE.................................................................................................... 19
5.1. SUBGRADE RESILIENCE MODULUS ....................................................................................................... 19

5.2. DESIGN FOR BED COURSE AND ANTI-FREEZING COURSE ...................................................................... 25
6. BASE COURSE AND SUBBASE COURSE .................................................................................... 28
6.1. SEMI-RIGID BASE AND SUBBASE COURSE ............................................................................................. 28

6.2. FLEXIBLE BASE COURSE AND SUBBASE COURSE .................................................................................. 33
6.3. RIGID BASE ........................................................................................................................................... 35
7. ASPHALT SURFACE COURSE ...................................................................................................... 36
7.1. ASPHALT MIXTURE SURFACE COURSE .................................................................................................. 36

7.2. ASPHALT PENETRATION TYPE PAVEMENT AND SURFACE TREATMENT ................................................... 40
8. THICKNESS OF NEW PAVEMENT STRUCTURE...................................................................... 42
9. RECONSTRUCTION PAVEMENT DESIGN ................................................................................. 50
9.1. GENERAL PROVISIONS........................................................................................................................... 50

9.2. ASPHALT PAVEMENT RESURFACING ...................................................................................................... 50
9.3. CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENT RESURFACING WITH ASPHALT ............................................................. 54
10. DRAINAGE DESIGN ........................................................................................................................ 58
11. BRIDGE DECK PAVEMENT AND OTHER WORKS .................................................................. 64
11.1. BRIDGE DECK PAVEMENT...................................................................................................................... 64

11.2. OTHER WORKS...................................................................................................................................... 66
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Contents
APPENDIX A VIBRATION MOULDING PROCESS FOR SAMPLES OF SEMI-RIGID BASE

MATERIAL AND ANTI-FREEZING TEST METHOD...................................................................................... 67
APPENDIX B RELEVANT DATA IN CLIMATIC REGION .................................................................. 74
APPENDIX C ASPHALT MIXTURE MINERAL GRADING AND SPECIFICATIONS AND

DOSAGE OF ASPHALT PENETRATION TYPE & ASPHALT SURFACE TREATMENT MATERIAL
TABLE C.1. MINERAL GRADING OF VARIOUS ASPHALT MIXTURES ............................................... 79
APPENDIX D GRADATION COMPOSITION OF NON-BINDER MATERIAL ................................. 83
APPENDIX E REFERENCE DATA FOR MATERIALS DESIGN PARAMETERS ............................ 85
APPENDIX F ESTIMATION OF RESILIENT MODULUS FOR EARTH FOUNDATION BY

LOOKUP TABLE METHOD ............................................................................................................................ 88
APPENDIX G DESCRIPTION OF WORDS IN THE SPECIFICATIONS ............................................ 96
APPENDIX CLAUSES EXPLANATION OF “SPECIFICATIONS FOR DESIGN OF HIGHWAY

ASPHALT PAVEMENT” (JTG D 50-2006) ................................................................................................... 97
1. GENERAL RULES ............................................................................................................................ 99
2. TERMS AND SYMBOLS ................................................................................................................ 101
3. GENERAL PROVISIONS............................................................................................................... 103
4. STRUCTURE LAYERS AND COMPOSITION DESIGN ........................................................... 109
5. SUBGRADE AND BED COURSE................................................................................................... 113
6. BASE & SUB BASE .......................................................................................................................... 117
7. ASPHALT SURFACE LAYER ....................................................................................................... 137
8. THICKNESS OF NEWLY CONSTRUCTED PAVEMENT STRUCTURES ............................. 149
9. RECONSTRUCTION PAVEMENT DESIGN ............................................................................... 161
10. DRAINAGE DESIGN ...................................................................................................................... 169
11. DECK PAVEMENT AND OTHER WORKS................................................................................. 170
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General Rules
1. General Rules
1.0.1. The Specifications are made in order to adapt the development of highway
construction, make the asphalt pavement meet the requirements, guarantee the quality of
pavement and improve the durability of the pavement.
1.0.2. The Specifications are applied to construction and reconstruction design for asphalt
pavement of all classes of highway. For the construction of accommodation highway, refer to
the Specifications.
1.0.3. Design of asphalt pavement consists of the investigation, analysis and forecast of
the traffic volume, material selection, design of mixture blending ratio, test and determination
of design parameters, combination design of the pavement structure and thickness calculation,
design of pavement drainage system and the design of other pavement project, etc, put
forward the recommendable scheme based on the comprehensive comparison of technology
and economy of pavement structure scheme.
1.0.4. Asphalt pavement of expressway and class 1 highway is unsuitable to be

constructed by stages. Sections of highway which are possible to cause more settlement, such
as soft soil area or high fill subgrade and loess collapsibility area, etc., and highway with less
traffic volume at the beginning can be constructed “once design and execution by stages”.
1.0.5. The design of asphalt pavement meets the following principles:
1. Survey and collect the site information, analyze and predict the traffic loads and
design the pavement based on the concept of full period cycle cost.
2. Survey and master the characteristics of the subgrade along the line, the soil quality,
the dry/wet type of subgrade, perform the integrated design of the subgrade and
pavement based on the handling in the sections with poor geology.
3. Follow the principles of adjusting measures to local conditions, reasonably selecting

the material and saving the resources; choose the pavement structure scheme that
has advanced technology, reasonable economy, reliable safety and it is convenient to
construction.
4. Comply with the local conditions, actively and circumspectly generalize new
technique, new structure, new materials and new technology, and carefully pave the
test road, summarize the experience, improve continuously and generalize step by
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Specifications for Design of Highway Asphalt Pavement (JTG D50-2006)
step.
5. According to the related provision of the national environment protection, protect

the safety and health of the related personnel; pay much attention to the reuse of
materials and handling of wasted materials.
1.0.6. In the Specifications, the index has its certain use and application conditions, the
specific design should follow the real project, rationally using the index under the
preconditions to guarantee the quality of project.
1.0.7. For the pavement structure in special area, such as perennially frozen soil, desert,
saline soil and expansive soil, etc., many characteristics such as local climate, hydrology, soil
quality and materials, etc. should be taken into consideration, the pavement should be
designed according to the provision of the Specifications and in combination with practical
experience.
1.0.8. The design of pavement should not only conform to the Specifications, but also the
related provisions of current national and trade standards and specifications.
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Terms and Symbols
2. Terms and Symbols
2.1. Terms
2.2.1. Asphalt pavement

The pavement is paved with asphalt surface course.
2.1.2. Semi-rigid base
The base is paved by inorganic binding agent stabilized aggregate or earth material.
2.1.3. Rigid base
The base is paved by the materials of common concrete, rolling concrete, lean concrete,
reinforced concrete, continuous reinforcing concrete, etc.
2.1.4. Flexible base
It is paved by hot or cold mixed asphalt mixture; asphalt penetration crushed stone and
granular material without any binder, etc. Granular material includes graded crushed stone,
graded gravel, natural sand gravel which accords with gradation, graded crushed gravels
which are made from part of gravels by rolling and mixing, clay-bound macadam, marl-bound
macadam and gap-filling crushed stone, etc.
2.1.5. Axle load spectrum
Probability distribution of different axle loads of all kinds of vehicles.
2.1.6. Equivalent single axle loads
Based on the principle of deflection equivalent or tension stress equivalent, different axle
loads for different types of vehicle are converted into the axle loads equivalent with the
standard axle load 100kN.
2.1.7. Cumulative equivalent axle loads
Within the design period, after taking the lane coefficient into consideration, it is the total
equivalent axle loads of one lane.
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2.1.8. Design period
Reference time in calculating the cumulative equivalent axle loads.
2.1.9. Freezing index
It is the cumulative value (℃) of daily average minus temperature in a year.
2.1.10. Design deflection
It is the design deflection of pavement determined according to the cumulative equivalent

single axle loads of one lane, highway classification and pavement structure type within the
design period.
2.1.11. Maximum grain size
Minimum standard sieve pore size for which the passing rate of mixture sieve pore is 100%.
2.1.12. Nominal maximum aggregate size
Minimum standard sieve pore size for which the passing rate of mixture sieve pore is between
90%~100%.
2.1.13. Seal coat
It is the asphalt thin course that is paved above the asphalt surface course or base or between
asphalt courses to prevent rainwater from seeping downward.
2.1.14. Slurry seal
Stone chips or sand and fillers (cement, lime, fly ash, stone powder, etc.) that have a certain
gradation are mixed with emulsified bitumen, admixture and water based on some ratio to
form flowing mixture, then, evenly spread the mixture onto the seal coat of pavement.
2.1.15. Micro-surfacing
Stone chips or sand and fillers (cement, lime, fly ash, stone powder, etc. ) that have a certain
gradation are mixed with polymer emulsified bitumen, admixture and water based on some
ratio to form flowing mixture, then, evenly spread the mixture onto the seal coat of pavement.
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Terms and Symbols
2.1.16. Tensile strength structural coefficient
Taking safety coefficient of the asphalt mixture and semi-rigid material fatigue damage
feature into account, it is the ratio of damage strength in one load function and fatigue damage
strength at the function of different stresses, and it is determined by considering the factors of
highway classification and difference between indoor and site, etc.
2.1.17. Allowable tension stress
It is the ratio of maximum tensile strength of the mixture to tensile strength structure
coefficient.
2.1.18. Deflection combined correctness factor
It is the ratio of the actually measured deflection value to theoretical deflection value.
2.1.19. Worst season
It is the season in which the subgrade pavement structure is in the worst situation.
2.1.20. Non-disadvantageous season
It is the season except the worst season.
2.2. Symbols
AC-- Dense gradation asphalt mixture
AC-C-- Dense gradation coarse asphalt mixture
AC-F-- Dense gradation fine asphalt mixture
SMA-- Asphalt mastic macadam mixture
OGFC-- Open gradation asphalt wearing course
AM-- Semi-open gradation asphalt macadam
ATB- Dense gradation asphalt stabilized macadam
ATPB-- Open gradation asphalt stabilized macadam
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3. General Provisions
3.1. Standard Axle Load and Design Traffic Volume
3.1.1. The design of pavement adopts two-tyre group single axle load 100kN as standard
axle load, shown in BZZ-100. The calculation parameters of standard axle load are
determined according to Table 3.1.1.
Table 3.1.1. Calculation Parameters of Standard Axle Load
Standard axle load BZZ-100 Standard axle load BZZ-100

Single tyre transmission pressure surface
Standard axle load P (kN) 100 21.30
equivalent round diameter d (cm)
Earthing pressure of tyre p
0.70 Centre distance between two tyres (cm) 1.5d
(MPa)
For the highway, which is mainly used for large load vehicles carrying coal or construction
materials, etc., separately choose the design calculation parameter after proof based on the
reality.
3.1.2. Axle loads of different types of vehicles should be converted into equivalent single
axle loads of standard axle load BZZ-100.
1. When the design deflection and tension stress on the bottom of asphalt course are
regarded as indices, the axle load at each level should be converted into equivalent
single axle loads N of standard axle load P according to Formula (3.1.2-1).
Where:
N-- Equivalent single axle loads (loads/d) of standard axle load when the design
deflection and tension stress on the bottom of asphalt course are regarded as
indexes;
ni-- Function loads (axles/d) of axle load at each level for the converted vehicle type;
P-- Standard axle load (kN);
Pi-- Axle load (kN) at each level for the converted vehicle type;
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General Requirements
C1-- Axle number factor of the converted vehicle type;
C2-- Tyre group factor of the converted vehicle type, it is 1.0 for double-tyre group, it is
6.4 for single tyre group and it is 0.38 for four-tyre group;
K-- Level of axle load of the converted vehicle type.
When the distance between two axles is more than 3m, it should be calculated as single axle
load. When the distance between two axles is less than 3m, the axle number factor of double
axles or multi-axle is calculated according to Formula (3.1.2-2).
Where: m-- Axle number.
2. When the tension stress of semi-rigid material layer is regarded as the design index,
the axle load at each level should be converted into the equivalent single axle loads
N’ of standard axle load P according to Formula (3.1.2-3).
In which:
N′-- Equivalent single axle loads (loads/d) of standard axle load when the tension stress
of semi-rigid material layer is regarded as design index;
C′1-- Axle number factor of the converted vehicle type;
C′2-- Tyre group factor of the converted vehicle type, it is 1.0 for double-tyre group, it is
18.5 for single tyre group and it is 0.09 for four-tyre group.
For the meaning of other symbols, refer to Formula (3.1.2-1).
When the tension stress is regarded as design index, the axle number factor of double-axle or
multi-axle is calculated as Formula (3.1.2-4).
In which: m-- Axle number.
3. Above axle load conversion formula can be applied to the axle load conversion of
all kinds of vehicle type whose single axle load is less than or equal to 130kN.
3.1.3. The design period should be comprehensively determined according to the economy,
the development of traffic, the status of this highway in the highway network, environment
and investment conditions. It is not suitable for design period of asphalt pavement of each
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class highway less than the requirements in Table 3.1.3. If having special requirements, it can
be adjusted appropriately.
Table 3.1.3. Design period of Asphalt Pavement for Each Class Highway
Design period Design period

Highway classification Highway classification
(year) (year)
Expressway, class 1 highway 15 Class 3 highway 8
Class 2 highway 12 Class 4 highway 6
3.1.4. The design traffic volume of asphalt pavement should base on the investigation of
axle load spectrum of all related vehicle types, refer to the related traffic volume forecast
documents such as the project feasibility study report etc. take the constitution verification of
future vehicle types into account and determine the respective axle load of each vehicle type,
carry out the axle load conversion of different vehicle types, and calculate the two-way daily
average equivalent single axle loads N1 in the first year after the project is completed.
3.1.5. Based on the project feasibility study report, the average increasing rate γ of traffic
volume within the design period is determined by researching and analyzing.
3.1.6. Lane coefficient η is selected according to Table 3.1.6. If the highway is no median,
the high value is suitable for narrow lane while the low value is suitable for wide lane.
Table 3.1.6. Lane Coefficient
Lane feature η Lane feature η
Two-way one-lane 1.0 Two-way six-lane 0.3~0.4
Two-way double-lane 0.6~0.7 Two-way eight-lane 0.25~0.35
Two-way four-lane 0.4~0.5
If there is obvious difference between the traffic loads of two-way, the structure and thickness
can be designed respectively according to their traffic features.
3.1.7. Cumulative equivalent axle loads Ne in one lane within design period should be
calculated according to Formula (3.1.7) in design.
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In which:
Ne-- Cumulative equivalent axle loads in one lane within the design period (loads /lane);
t-- Design period (year);
N1-- The two-way daily average equivalent axle loads in the first year after the project is
put into operation (loads/d);
γ-- The annual average increasing rate of traffic volume within the design period %;
η-- Lane coefficient, see Table 3.1.6.
3.1.8. The traffic volume is suitable to divide into four classes according to Table 3.1.8.
Based on the cumulative equivalent axle loads Ne in one lane (loads/lane) or the traffic volume
of each lane, the daily average large bus and all kinds of trucks which are above
medium-sized [vehicle number/(d · lane)], choose a higher traffic class as design traffic class.
Table 3.1.8. Traffic Classification
BZZ-100 cumulative Traffic of large bus and all kinds of trucks

Traffic
standard axle loads Ne which are above medium-sized
classification
(load/lane) [vehicle number/(d · lane)]
Light traffic <3×106 <600
Medium traffic 3×106~1.2×107 600~1500
Heavy traffic 1.2×107~2.5×107 1500~3000

Super heavy
>2.5×107 >3000
traffic
3.2. Road Material

3.2.1. Asphalt pavement should be paved by road petroleum asphalt or its processing
products. The selection of bitumen mark is determined according to the highway classification,
climate conditions, traffic volume and its configuration, line alignment, surface course
structure and course number, construction technology and the local practice.
The asphalt technical index of all the roads should meet the requirements of national standard
& specification and trade standard & specification.
3.2.2. Liquid petroleum asphalt is suitable to be the bound materials of prime coat, surface
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course treatment and cold mixing asphalt mixture, whose type and mark shall be selected
according to its usage, climate conditions and construction situation.
3.2.3. Emulsified bitumen is suitable for prime coat, binding course, slurry seal, cold
mixing asphalt mixture and surface coat treatment.
Modification emulsified bitumen is applied to binding course, slurry seal coat, binding course
of bridge deck pavement, surface course treatment, cold mixing asphalt mixture and
micro-surfacing, etc. of more traffic volume road or important road.
3.2.4. Modification emulsified bitumen can be used for super heavy traffic, heavy traffic,
important highways or areas in which have obvious temperature variety and special climate
condition, or special structure layer, continuous length and steep longitudinal slope section,
etc.
The modification agent of modification emulsified bitumen should be determined after the
technical economy is compared with the factors of modification purpose and practice effect,
easy or difficult extent of processing technology and quality stabilization, etc.
The technical index of modification emulsified bitumen should meet the requirements of
national standard & specification and trade standard & specification.
3.2.5. Reasonably select the type and mixing dosage of fiber stabilization agent according
to the type and application requirement of mixture. Fiber stabilizing agent includes xylogen,
synthetic fiber and mineral fiber, etc.
The technology index of fiber stabilizing agent should meet the requirements of national
standard & specification and trade standard & specification.
3.2.6. Asphalt pavement should select the coarse aggregate (consists of rolling crushed
gravel), fine aggregate and mineral powder whose qualities meet the requirements of trade
technical standard.
3.2.7. Coarse aggregate of asphalt pavement should select the crushed stone or rolling
crushed gravel. Asphalt course of class 3 & 4 highways can select the sieved gravel.
3.2.8. Coarse aggregate used for the asphalt pavement of expressway, class 1 & 2
highways should select hard and high abrasion resistance crushed stone, the grinding value of
stone should meet the requirements in Table 3.2.8, it also can be applied to other highways.
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Table 3.2.8. Technical Requirements of Stone Grinding Value
Highway classification
Expressway and
PSV Class 2 highway
class 1 highway
annual rainfall(mm)
>1000 >42 >40
500~1000 >40 >38
250~500 >38 >36
<250 >36 -
3.2.9. Coarse aggregate and asphalt should have good viscosity. For expressway and class
1 highway in the area where the annual average rainfall is above 1,000mm, the viscosity of
aggregate and asphalt for surface course is suitable to be class 5. For other highways, the
viscosity is not suitable to be below class 4. If the viscosity can not meet the requirement,
properly add the break resistance agent with good stabilization in high temperature or select
the modified asphalt to improve the viscosity of coarse aggregate and asphalt.
3.2.10. For fine aggregate in the asphalt mixture, the machine-made sand, natural sand and
stone chip can be selected. Fine aggregate should have some characters of edges & corners,
clean, dry, without weathering and in-impurity. The natural sand should be medium grain size
sand and coarse grain size sand. The mass of natural river sand is not more than 20% of the
total mass of aggregate. The natural sand is not suitable for asphalt mastic macadam mixture
and the mixture of open gradation antiskid surface course.
3.2.11. The mineral powder shall be the grinded stone powder from the alkali stone
materials such as limestone, etc. The mineral powder should be dry, clean and it cannot be
conglomeration. If needing to recover the powder dust with mixing machine, its adding ratio
should not be more than 25% of the total weight of mineral powder, and the plasticity index of
mineral powder can not be more than 4% after mixing.
3.2.12. Cement for semi-rigid base should meet the requirements of national technical
standard, the initial setting time should be more than 4 hours and the final setting time should
be more than 6 hours.
3.2.13. The total content of SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 in the semi-rigid base, subbase fly ash of
lime, fly ash stabilized soil and lime stabilized soil should be more than 70%, the ignition loss
should not be more than 20%, specific surface area should be more than 2,500cm2/g or
passing rate of sieve pore 0.075mm should be more than 60%.
The lime grade is suitable to be higher than grade III and the technical index should meet the
related requirement in Table 3.2.13.
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Table 3.2.13. Technical Index of Lime
Calcium Magnesium
Material type Calcium Magnesium
lime lime
Technical index quick lime quick lime
hydrate hydrate
Efficient content (%) of calcium and
70 65 55 50
magnesia is not less than
Content of non-assimilation residue
(5mm round pore sieving, %) is not 17 20 - -
more than
Content of water (%) is not more than - - 4 4
0.71mm square pore sieving
- - 1 1
(%) is not more than
Fine
Accumulative 0.125mm square
degree
pore sieving (%) is not more - - 20 20
than
Classifying limitation of calcium and
magnesium lime, content of magnesia ≤5 >5 ≤4 >4
(%)
3.2.14. The aggregate crushing value for base course and subbase course should meet the
requirement in Table 3.2.14.
Table 3.2.14. Aggregate Crushing Value for Base Course and Subbase Course (%)
Highway classification Expressway Class 2 Class 3 & 4

Material type class 1 highway highway highways
Cement, lime fly-ash stabilization type ≤30 ≤35 ≤35
Base course - ≤30 ≤35
Lime stabilization type
Subbase course ≤35 ≤40 ≤40
Gradation crushed Base course ≤26 ≤30 ≤35
stone Subbase course ≤30 ≤35 ≤40
Gap filling crushed Base course - - ≤26
stone Subbase course ≤30 ≤30 ≤30
Gradation or natural Base course - - ≤35
sand gravel Subbase course ≤30 ≤35 ≤40
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Structure Course and Combination Design
4. Structure Course and Combination Design
4.1. Structure Course Design
4.1.1. Asphalt pavement structure course can consist of multi-structure such as surface
course, base course, subbase course and bed course, etc.
1. Surface course can be single course, double course or three-course. Double course
structure can be divided into surface course and lower surface course. Three-course
structure can be divided into surface course, middle surface course and lower
surface course. Surface course shall have the merits of flatness and density, antiskid
and wear resistance, crack resistance and durability; middle course and lower course
shall have the merits of rutting resistance in high temperature, shearing resistance,
density and basic waterproof; Lower course shall have the performance of fatigue
crack resistance.
2. Base course is the major bearing course, it shall have stable, durable & higher
bearing capability, it can be divided into single course or double course. Either the
asphalt mixture and grains type flexible base or semi-rigid base and rigid base, they
all have higher physical mechanics performance index relatively.
3. Subbase course is the sub-bearing course under the base course, together with
surface course and base course to take on the repeat function of tyre load.
4. Bed course is structure course set up between subbase course and earth foundation,
it has the functions of drainage, impermeability and frost-resisting, etc..
According to the specific circumstances, the necessary structure course should be set for all
the classes of highway.
4.1.2. Surface course type should be in conformity with the highway class, operation
requirement and traffic classification.
1. Hot mixing asphalt concrete can be used for surface course of the classes of
highway.
2. Penetration type asphalt macadam and upper mixing & lower penetrating asphalt
macadam can be used for the surface course of class 3 & 4 highways.
3. Asphalt surface treatment and slurry seal can be used for the surface course of class
3 & 4 highways.
4. Cold mixing asphalt mixture can be used for the surface course of class 3 & 4
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highways with light traffic.
4.1.3. The thickness of each asphalt course should match for the nominal maximum grain
size of mixture, the minimum thickness of one layer compaction of asphalt mixture should not
be less than 2.5~3 times of the nominal maximum grain size of mixture, the minimum
thickness of one layer compaction of OGFC or SMA should not be less than 2~2.5 times of
the nominal maximum grain size of mixture.
Design thickness of all the structure courses should be determined according to the gradation
type, structural combination and construction conditions. The minimum thickness and
appropriate thickness of compaction of asphalt mixture is suitable to conform to the
requirements in Table 4.1.3-1. The minimum thickness and appropriate thickness of
compaction of penetration type asphalt macadam and asphalt surface treatment is suitable to
conform to the requirements in Table 4.1.3-2.
4.1.4. The base course and subbase course design principle of "using local materials" shall
be carried out, perform serious survey of local materials, select the technically reliable and
economically reasonable structure course according to the traffic volume and its composition,
climate conditions, road building materials and subgrade hydrological condition, etc.
Table 4.1.3-1. Minimum Thickness and Appropriate Thickness of

Compacting Asphalt Mixture
Max. Min. Appropriate

Nominal
grain thickness of thickness of
Asphalt mixture type Max. grain Symbol
size compaction compaction
size (mm)
(mm) (mm) (mm)
Sand grain
9.5 4.75 AC-5 15 15~30
type
Fine grain 13.2 9.5 AC-10 20 25~40

Dense gradation type 16 13.2 AC-13 35 40~60
asphalt mixture
(AC) Medium 19 16 AC-16 40 50~80
grain type 26.5 19 AC-20 50 60~100
Coarse grain
31.5 26.5 AC-25 70 80~120
type
Dense gradation Coarse grain 31.5 26.5 ATB-25 70 80~120

asphalt macadam type 37.5 31.5 ATB-30 90 90~150
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Max. Min. Appropriate

Nominal
grain thickness of thickness of
Asphalt mixture type Max. grain Symbol
size compaction compaction
size (mm)
(mm) (mm) (mm)
(ATB) Super coarse
53 37.5 ATB-40 120 120~150
grain
31.5 26.5 ATPB-25 80 80~120
Open gradation Coarse grain
asphalt macadam 37.5 31.5 ATPB-30 90 90~150
(ATPB) Super coarse
53 37.5 ATPB-40 120 120~150
grain type
Fine grain
16 13.2 AM-13 35 40~60
type
Medium 19 16 AM-16 40 50~70

Semi-open
gradation asphalt grain type 26.5 19 AM-20 50 60~80
macadam (AM)
Coarse grain 31.5 26.5 AM-25 80 80~120
Super coarse
53 37.5 AM-40 120 120~150
grain type
Fine grain 13.2 9.5 SMA-10 25 25~50

Asphalt mastic type 16 13.2 SMA-13 30 35~60
macadam mixture
(SMA) Medium 19 16 SMA-16 40 40~70
grain type 26.5 19 SMA-20 50 50~80
Open gradation 13.2 9.5 OGFC-10 20 20~30
Fine grain
asphalt wearing
type 16 13.2 OGFC-13 30 30~40
course (OGFC)
Table 4.1.3-2. Minimum Thickness and Appropriate Thickness of Compacting

Penetration Type Asphalt Macadam and Asphalt Surface Treatment
Min. thickness of Appropriate thickness of

Structure course type
compaction (mm) compaction (mm)
Penetration type asphalt macadam 40 40~80
Upper mixing & lower penetrating
60 60~80
asphalt macadam
Asphalt surface treatment 10 10~30
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Base course can adopt the inorganic binder stabilized aggregate or asphalt mixture, grains,
lean concrete and other materials, subbase course should fully use the local materials along
the line and the inorganic binder stabilized fine grained soil or grains can be adopted.
4.1.5. Thickness of base course and subbase course should be in accordance with traffic
volume and material property. The function of compaction equipment should be brought into
full play. Thickness of structure course should be selected after considering the factors in
favor of construction, etc. In order to be convenient for organization and management of
construction, the materials of all the structure courses should not be changed frequently. The
minimum thickness and appropriate thickness of compaction for each structure course should
conform to the requirements in Table 4.1.5 and the semi-rigid material layer should not be
less than 150mm.
Table 4.1.5. Minimum Thickness and Appropriate Thickness

of Compacting Each Structure Course
Minimum thickness of Appropriate thickness of

Structure course type
compaction (mm) compaction (mm)
Gradation macadam 80 100~200
Cement stabilization type 150 180~200
Lime stabilization type 150 180~200
Lime fly ash stabilization type 150 180~200
Lean concrete 150 180~240
Gradation gravel 80 100~200
Clay-bound macadam 80 100~150
Gap-filling macadam 100 100~120
4.2. Structure Combination Design
4.2.1. Selection of appropriate pavement structure combination and determination of

asphalt course thickness should be based on the factors of hydrogeology, climate feature,
highway classification and operation requirements, traffic volume & traffic composition and
the local practical experience.
4.2.2. For structural course combination design of semi-rigid base asphalt pavement, the
modular ratio between base course and asphalt surface course is suitable to be within 1.5~3;
the modular ratio between base course and subbase course is not suitable to be more than 3.0
and the modular ratio between subbase and earth foundation is suitable to be within 2.5~12.5.
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4.2.3. For rigid base asphalt pavement, the measures should be taken to strengthen the
combination of asphalt course and rigid base and increase the shear strength of asphalt
mixture.
4.2.4. To prevent rainwater and snow water from seeping into the pavement structure
course and earth foundation, the asphalt surface course should adopt dense gradation asphalt
mixture. When the drainage base course is used, the waterproof layer under it should be set up
and arrange the drainage system inside the structure for draining water from subgrade.
4.2.5. To drain free water retained in pavement and subgrade, ensuring pavement structure
is in dry or moderate-wet state, the bed course shall be set for the subgrade in the following
cases.
l. Sections with high ground water level, impeded drainage, or where the subgrade is
often in wet and over-wet state.
2. Soil cutting with poorly drained, rock excavation section with imperfect hydrology
where there is fissure water and spring water, etc.
3. Moderate-wet and wet sections in seasonal frost zone, the sections where frost
resistance bed course due to frost heaving may be set.
4. Sections where the base course or subbase course may be polluted or the subgrade is
weak.
4.2.6. For semi-rigid base asphalt pavement, the following measures should be taken to
reduce the shrinkage crack and reflection crack.
1. Select the skeleton density type semi-rigid base, strictly control the fine material
content, binder dose, water content and timely perform maintenance and curing.
2. Properly increase the thickness of asphalt course, set up the flexible base with
asphalt macadam or gradation macadam onto the semi-rigid material course.
3. Lay the modified asphalt stress absorbing film, the stress absorbing layer or
effective geotextile, etc. onto the semi-rigid base.
4.2.7. In design, the technical measures should be taken to strengthen the combination
among all the structure courses of pavement, increase the integrity of pavement structure and
avoid displacement of intercourse.
1. Tack coat should be set between the asphalt courses. Tack coat asphalt can adopt the
emulsified asphalt, modified emulsified asphalt or hot asphalt. The distributing
quantity is suitable to be properly 0.3~0.6kg /m2.
-17-
2. Prime coat asphalt is suitable to be laid onto all kinds of base courses. Prime coat
asphalt should have good permeability. The liquid asphalt (diluted asphalt) and
emulsified asphalt, etc. can be adopted.
3. Lower seal coat should be laid onto the semi-rigid base.
4. Tack coat asphalt should be distributed between new and old asphalt courses, the
asphalt courses and existing cement concrete slabs. The hot asphalt or modified
emulsified asphalt and modified asphalt are appropriately used.
5. When the pavement is widened, the joint area of new and old pavement is suitable
to be sprayed with binding asphalt.
6. For double course type semi-rigid material base course, the process of continuous
spreading and rolling technology is suitable to be adopted to enhance the
combination between courses and form an integrated course.
4.2.8. For lower seal coat, asphalt single course surface treatment or sand grain type, fine
grain type dense gradation asphalt mixture and slurry seal, etc. can be adopted. The
Specifications and requirements of materials is suitable to conform to the relevant regulations
in the Specifications.
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Subgrade and Bed Course
5. Subgrade and Bed Course
5.1. Subgrade Resilience Modulus
5.1.1. Subgrade shall be compacted, even and stable. Filler choosing of fill subgrade, the
roadbed degree of compaction and base treatment of the fill embankment, etc. should be in
accordance with the relevant highway subgrade design specifications.
Measures shall be taken to prevent the ground surface water and groundwater from immersing
into ground and subgrade to assure the subgrade strength and stability. The design should
make the subgrade in dry or moderate humidity status. Earth foundation resilience modulus
value should be more than 30MPa and the earth foundation resilience modulus value for
heavy-duty and super heavy-duty traffic highway should be more than 40MPa.
For wet or over-wet subgrade, sand replacement, gravel and macadam of seepage materials
should be taken for treating the foundation, or adopt quick lime and solidifying material for
treatment, set geo-synthetics and strengthen the subgrade drainage, etc. for an integrated
treatment. Determine the design value of earth foundation resilience modulus according to
various subgrade handling measures.
5.1.2. For soil cutting in rainy area and seriously weathered rock section, pay attention to
the drainage design of excavation and fill junction cutting section so as to improve the
hydrological situation of the subgrade. For wet and dry types of soil cutting, one grade should
be lowered generally, and perform the pavement design according to the moderate humid or
wet road section.
5.1.3. For rock cutting, a solid and stable base course shall be set up. For over-excavation
part of the subgrade, the integrated materials of lean concrete or inorganic binding agent
stabilized macadam (gravel) as leveling course should be adopted and fill with soil is
forbidden. Graded macadam (gravel) bed course of 150~250mm should be set in the whole
section according to the mountain rock weathering, cracking and rainfall situations.
When the pavement may be affected by the fractured water, spring water and other
groundwater, the subgrade drainage should be strengthened including establishing seepage
ditch, etc.
5.1.4. Pavement design should be based on the boundary consistency of subgrade soil to
determine the wet and dry types of subgrade. Wet and dry types of subgrade can be measured
in the worse season, the soil average consistency wc in depth of 800mm below the top surface
of the roadbed, and then, it can be determined according to the recommended value for
consistency of wet and dry states of subgrade in Table 5.1.4-1. It can be also determined
based on the general characteristics in Table 5.1.4-2 according to the highway natural zoning,
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soil type, drainage condition and the height from roadbed to groundwater level or the earth’s
surface water log level.
Table5.1.4-1. Recommended Value for Boundary Consistency in

Wet and Dry States of Subgrade
Wet and Moderate

Dry Wet Over-wet
dry states humidity
Soil type wc≥wc1 wc1>wc≥wc2 wc2>wc≥wc3 wc<wc3
Earth sand wc≥1.20 1.20>wc≥1.00 1.00>wc≥0.85 wc<0.85
Clayey soil wc≥1.10 1.10>wc≥0.95 0.95>wc≥0.80 wc<0.80
Silty soil wc≥1.05 1.05>wc≥0.90 0.90>wc≥0.75 wc<0.75
Note: wc1, wc2, wc3 are subgrade boundary consistency of dry and moderate humidity,
moderate humidity and wet, wet and over-wet states respectively; wc is the average
consistency in depth of 800mm below the top surface of the roadbed.
The average consistency wc of the subgrade is calculated by the following formula:
wL − w
wc = (5.1.4)
wL − wP
In which:
wc-- Average consistency of the soil;
w -- Average water content of the soil;
wL, wp-- Liquid limit and plastic limit of the soil respectively. They are measured
according to the joint determination method of liquid limit and plastic
limits under the existing “Test Methods of Soil for Highway Engineering”.
The average consistency for the new highway can be calculated according to the local stable
average water content, liquid limit and plastic limit, and considering the fill height of
subgrade, whether there is groundwater or earth’s surface water log effect. After all these are
demonstrated, the wet and dry types of subgrade soil can be determined.
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Table5.1.4-2. Wet and Dry Types of Subgrade
The relation between the average

Wet and consistency wc in depth of 800mm
General characteristics
dry types below the top surface of the roadbed
and boundary consistency wci
Earth foundation is dry and stable, pavement strength
Dry wc≥wc1 and stability is not affected by groundwater and the
earth’s surface water log. Subgrade height H0>H1.
The upper layer of earth foundation is in the
Moderate transitional zone influenced by groundwater or the
wc1>wc≥wc2
humid earth’s surface water log. Subgrade height
H2<H0≤H1.
The upper layer of earth foundation is in the capillary
Wet wc2>wc≥wc3 affecting area of groundwater or the earth’s surface
water log. Subgrade height H3<H0≤H2.
Subgrade is extremely unstable, when the frozen area
is frost boiling, the non-frozen area soft and elastic
Over-wet wc<wc3
earth foundation is treated and then, paving the
pavement can start. Subgrade height H0≤H3.
Notes:
1. H0 is the height from roadbed to groundwater level or the earth’s surface water log
level in the worse season.
2. The earth’ surface water log is the water log more than 20d in the disadvantageous
season.
3. H1, H2 and H3 are the subgrade critical height of dry, moderate humid and wet states
respectively. See Appendix F.
4. Determine the earth foundation wet and dry types mainly according to the average
consistency wc. The general characteristics in this table can be referenced to
determine when lacking of information.
5.1.5. The design value of subgrade resilience modulus is suitable to be determined by the
following methods:
1. When primarily designing to establish a new highway, according to the methods of

lookup table (or the existing highway investigation), indoor testing and conversion,
etc, through comprehensive analysis and demonstration, determine the design value
of subgrade resilience modulus in different subgrade situations along the road.
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2. Through the site measurement of subgrade resilience modulus value, degree of

compaction K and the subgrade consistency wc, or indoor test measurement of
subgrade soil resilient modulus value and indoor subgrade soil CBR value and so on,
the reliable conversion relationship can be established and can be used to calculate
the site subgrade resilience modulus.
3. When the subgrade is finished, the measure representative values of subgrade

resilience modulus for all the sections in disadvantageous season to check whether
they meet the request of design value. The site measurement is suitable to use
bearing plate test method or Benkelman beam deflectometer. If it is tested in the
non-disadvantageous season, it should be corrected.
4. If the representative value of site measured subgrade resilience modulus is less than
the design value, or the deflection value is greater than the required check value, the
measures of shining and re-compaction, adding lime fly ash for handling or the
thickness of pavement structure adjustment, etc. should be taken to assure the
strength and stability of the subgrade and pavement.
5.1.6. Measure the soil resilience modulus by indoor test should be performed as follows:
1. Choose soil yard, get soil sample and use bearing plate of 100mm diameter. Perform
the test in accordance with the test requirements for bearing plate under the existing
“Test Methods of Soil for Highway Engineering”. Test result of resilient modulus
should be corrected as follows:
In which:
EOS-- Resilience modulus after correction (MPa);
λ-- Test cylinder size constraint correction coefficient. 0.78 is for 50mm diameter
bearing plate and 0.59 for 100mm bearing plate;
E-- Value of resilient modulus by indoor test (MPa).
2. Sample preparation should be based on the best water content determined by the
heavy compaction criteria. Use three group samples, each group has three samples.
For each sample, 98, 50 and 30 times by the three-layer compactor to compact
pieces respectively. With measured different degree of compaction and their
corresponding resilience modulus to draw a relationship line between degree of
compaction and resilience modulus, check the drawing to obtain soil resilience
modulus value under standard degree of compaction condition.
-22-
3. For design value of subgrade resilience modulus, consider the effects of highway
classification, disadvantageous season and wet & dry types of subgrade and
calculate it as follows:
In which:
EOD-- Design value of subgrade resilience modulus (MPa);
EOS-- Test result of resilience modulus after the cylinder size constraint correction
considered by indoor bearing plate method (MPa);
Z-- Reduction coefficient with considering guaranteed rate, for expressway and class 1
highway, it is 0.66; for class 2 & 3 highways, it is 0.59; for class 4 highway, it is
0.52.
K-- Combined effect coefficient with considering disadvantageous season and wet &
dry types of subgrade. Refer to Table 5.1.6 for choosing, or according to analysis of
the relation between resilience modulus and the consistency by indoor bearing plate
or local experience to determine.
Table 5.1.6. Combined Effect Coefficient K
Earth foundation
wc≥wc1 wc1>wc≥wc2 wc<wc2
consistency value wc
Combined effect
1.3 1.6 1.9
coefficient
5.1.7. Measure the resilience modulus of completed subgrade by bearing plate and use
Formula (5.1.7-1) to calculate the subgrade resilient modulus Eob in the measuring point.
In which:
D-- Bearing plate diameter (mm);
Pi, li-- The i-class load (kN) and the resilience deformation tested by it (0.01mm);
μ0-- Poisson’s ratio of the subgrade, 0.35.
The design value of subgrade resilience modulus of a certain highway section should be
-23-
calculated according to Formula (5.1.7-2).
In which:
EOD-- Design value of the earth foundation resilience modulus of a certain section
(MPa);
E0 , S-- Measured average value and mean square deviation of earth foundation
resilience modulus;
Za-- Guaranteed rate coefficient, for expressway and class 1 highway, it is 2; for
class 2 & 3 highways, it is 1.648 and for class 4 highway, it is 1.5;
K1-- Disadvantageous season effect coefficient, it can be determined in accordance

with the local experience.
5.1.8. Benkelman beam deflectometer can be used to measure the subgrade deflection
value and check the deflection value correspondent with designed subgrade resilient modulus.
1. Calculate the subgrade designed deflection lOD which is correspondent with the
design value of subgrade resilience modulus in accordance with Formula (5.1.8-1),
and use it as a simple method to test the strength of subgrade.
In which:
lOD-- Subgrade designed deflection value (0.01mm);
p, δ-- Measure ground pressure of automobile tyre (MPa) and equivalent circle radius
(mm);
α0-- Even body deflection coefficient, 0.712;
K1-- Disadvantageous season effect coefficient, it can be determined in accordance

with the local experience.
2. The measured representative deflection value l0 of a certain road section should be

no more than subgrade designed deflection value lOD.
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In which:
l0 , S-- Measured subgrade average deflection value (0.01mm) and mean square
deviation (0.01mm) of this road section;
Za-- Guaranteed rate coefficient, for expressway and class 1 highway, it is 2; for
class 2 & 3 highways, it is 1.645 and for class 4 highway, it is 1.5.
5.2. Design for Bed Course and Anti-freezing Course
5.2.1. The bed course can be granular material of sand, gravel, macadam, cinder, slag, and
cement or lime cinder stability category and lime fly-ash stability category. Drainage bed
course for all classes highways should be connected to the edge drainage system, the bed
course width should be paved to the subgrade edge or connected with the seepage ditch under
the side ditch.
1. Good permeable granular material should be used for the anti-freezing bed course.
Passing through 0.075mm sieve, the grain content should not exceed 5%. When
cinder is used, less than 2mm grain content should not exceed 20%. The bed course
thickness shall depend on the specific condition and it is generally 150~200mm. For
wet and over-wet road sections of severe frozen area, it is 300~400mm.
2. When the bed course is macadam and gravel, the largest grain size and the structure
thickness should be coordinated. Generally, the largest grain size should not exceed
1/2 of the structure thickness to ensure forming a skeleton structure and improving
the structure stability. Grain composition is suitable to meet the requirements of
Appendix D.
3. Build a geo-synthetics partition course on the top surface of subgrade to prevent the
subgrade from polluting the granular material bed course or cutting off
groundwater.
5.2.2. The frozen area is divided into severe frozen area, moderate frozen area, frozen area
and non-frozen area shown in Table 5.2.2 according to the average value of more than 20-year
frozen indexes. See Appendix B for frozen index.
Table 5.2.2. Division of Frozen Areas
Division of frozen areas Severe frozen area Moderate frozen area Frozen area Non-frozen area
Freezing index (℃) ≥2000 2000~800 800~50 ≤50
5.2.3. The road maximum freezing-depth for many years Zmax is calculated as follows:
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Z max = abcZ d (5.2.3)
In which:
Zmax-- Maximum freezing-depth for many years (m);
Zd-- Earth standard freezing-depth (m);
a-- Thermal physical property coefficient of pavement and subgrade materials, see
Table 5.2.3-1;
b-- Subgrade humidity coefficient, see Table 5.2.3-2;
c-- Subgrade section form coefficient, see Table 5.2.3-3.
Table 5.2.3-1. Thermal Physical Property Coefficient of

Pavement and Subgrade Materials a
Clayey Fine-grained earth Fine-grained earth

Subgrade material Silty soil Silty earth sand
soil sand, clayey earth sand gravel (sand)
Thermal physical
1.05 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.35
property coefficient
Lime fly-ash macadam
Asphalt Lime fly-ash clay
Pavement material Concrete and cement macadam Graded macadam
concrete and cement-clay
(gravel)
Thermal physical
1.4 1.35 1.35 1.4 1.45
property coefficient
Note: a value is the weighted average value of all the materials of subgrade and pavement
within earth freezing-depth.
Table 5.2.3-2. Subgrade Humidity Coefficient b
Wet and dry types Dry Humid Wet Over-wet

Humidity coefficient 1.0 0.95 0.90 0.80
Table 5.2.3-3. Subgrade Section Form Coefficient c
Fill and Subgrade fill height (m) Subgrade excavation depth (m)
excavation
Zero Above Above
forms 2m 4m 6m 2m 4m 6m
fill 6m 6m
Section
form 1.0 1.02 1.05 1.08 1.10 0.98 0.95 0.92 0.90
coefficient
5.2.4. In all the wet and over-wet road sections in frozen areas, the anti-freezing thickness
should be checked.
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The total thickness of the structure calculated according to the traffic volume should be no
less than the minimum anti-freezing thickness requirements in Table 5.2.4. The anti-freezing
thickness has something to do with subgrade wet type, subgrade soil type, road freezing-depth
and thermal physical property of pavement structure material. If the total thickness of
structure is less than the minimum thickness of anti-freezing, the anti-freezing bed course
should be added to meet the minimum thickness requirement.
Table 5.2.4. Minimum Anti-freezing Thickness
Clayey soil, fine sandy loam Silty soil

Road
Subgrade Industrial Industrial
freezing-depth Gravel Stable soil Gravel Stable soil
type waste waste
(cm) category category category category
category category
50~100 40~45 35~40 30~35 45~50 40~45 30~40
100~150 45~50 40~55 35~40 50~60 45~50 40~45

Humid
150~200 50~60 45~55 40~50 60~70 50~60 45~50
>200 60~70 55~65 50~55 70~75 60~70 50~65
60~100 45~55 40~50 35~45 50~60 45~55 40~50
100~150 55~60 50~55 45~50 60~70 55~65 50~60

Wet
150~200 60~70 55~65 50~55 70~80 65~70 60~65
>200 70~80 65~75 55~70 80~100 70~90 65~80
Notes:
1. In the “Standard of Climatic Zoning for Highway”, for the humid coefficient less than
0.5 area, the anti-freezing thickness of II, III, IV arid areas is lessened by 15%~20%
of the value in this table.
2. The sandy soil subgrade anti-freezing thickness in II area should be a corresponding

reduction of 5%~10%.
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6. Base Course and Subbase Course
6.1. Semi-Rigid Base and Subbase Course
6.1.1. Semi-rigid base and subbase should have sufficient strength and stability, the
smaller shrinkage (thermal shrinkage and dry shrinkage) deformation and strong capability of
anti-scour. In the moderate frozen and severe frozen areas, the anti-freezing performance of
semi-rigid base and subbase should be checked.
6.1.2. According to the mixture structure, the semi-rigid base and subbase course should
be divided into four structure types such as skeleton density type, skeleton void type,
suspended density type and uniform density type.
6.1.3. Semi-rigid base application conditions
1. Cement-stabilized aggregate and lime fly-ash-stabilized aggregate materials are

applicable for base course and subbase course of all classes of highway. Within the
frozen area and rainy humid area, the lime-fly ash-stabilized aggregate materials are
suitable for the base course and subbase course of expressway and class 1 highway.
The lime-stabilized materials are suitable for subbase course of all classes of
highway and base course of class 3 & 4 highways.
2. Skeleton density type mixture is suitable for base course or upper base course of
expressway and class 1 highway. Base course of class 2 highway and below class 2
highway and the subbase course for all classes of highway can adopt suspended
density type mixture. Uniform density type mixture is suitable for subbase course of
expressway & class 1 highway and base course of class 2 highway and below class
2 highway. Skeleton void type mixture has higher porosity and is suitable for the
base course whose pavement internal drainage requirements should be considered.
6.1.4. For semi-rigid base mixing proportion design, determine the mixing proportion to
meet the design requirements according to the unconfined compressive strength test method
6.1.5. Typical value for degree of compaction of cement-stabilized material and 7d

unconfined compressive strength should conform to the requirement specified in Table 6.1.5,
and it is not suitable to exceed the upper limit. The vibratory compaction method is suitable to
be adopted for mixture sample moulding, see A.1 of Appendix A. If there is no test condition,
the static pressure forming method can be used for the suspended density and uniform density
type mixture.
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Base Course and Subbase Course
Table 6.1.5. Degree of Compaction for Cement-Stabilized Material and 7d

Unconfined Compressive Strength
Heavy and moderate

Super heavy traffic Light traffic
Stabilization traffic
Item
type Degree of Compressive Degree of Compressive Degree of Compressive
compaction strength compaction strength compaction strength
(%) (Mpa) (%) (Mpa) (%) (Mpa)
Aggregate ≥98 3.5~4.5 ≥98 3~4 ≥97
Base
2.5~3.5
course Fine-grained — — — — ≥96
soil
Aggregate ≥97 ≥97 ≥96
Subbase
≥2.5 ≥2.0 ≥1.5
course Fine-grained ≥96 ≥96 ≥95
soil
The cement content in cement-stabilized aggregate is generally 3%~5.5%. When the strength
requirement is not met, the gradation shall be regulated and the maximum content of cement
should not exceed 6%.
6.1.6. The maximum grain size of suspended density type cement-stabilized base course
aggregate is not more than 31.5mm, the maximum grain size of subbase course aggregate is
not more than 37.5mm and the aggregate gradation range is suitable to conform to the
requirements in Table 6.1.6-1.
Table 6.1.6-1. Gradation of Suspended Density Type Cement-stabilized Aggregate
Mass percentage passing through the following square sieve pores (mm) (%)
Item
37.5 31.5 19.0 9.50 4.75 2.36 0.6 0.075
Base
100 90~100 60~80 29~49 15~32 6~20 0~5
course
Subbase
100 93~100 75~90 50~70 29~50 15~35 6~20 0~5
course
Maximum grain size of skeleton density type cement-stabilized base course aggregate is not
more than 31.5mm and the aggregate gradation range is suitable to conform to the
requirement in Table 6.1.6-2.
Table 6.1.6-2. Gradation of Skeleton Density Type Cement-stabilized Aggregate
Item
31.5 19.0 9.50 4.75 2.36 0.6 0.075
Base course 100 68~86 38~58 22~32 16~28 8~15 0~3
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6.1.7. For cement-stabilized sand and sand gravel with much more content, the lime
should be added to it for synthetic stabilization .When the cement content is more than 30% of
total mass of binder, it should be designed according to the cement-stabilization type,
otherwise it should be designed according to the lime stabilization type.
For sand gravel and macadam with uniform aggregate grains and without gradation or with
little fine material or sand without soil, an amount of fly ash or 8%~12% of lime soil is
suitable to be added to the aggregate for synthetic stabilization.
6.1.8. Typical value of degree of compaction for lime and fly ash stabilized material and
7d unconfined compressive strength should conform to the requirement specified in Table
6.1.8.
Table 6.1.8. Degree of Compaction for Lime and Fly Ash Material and 7d
Super heavy ,
Light traffic
heavy and moderate traffic
Item Stabilization type Degree of Degree of
Compressive Compressive
compaction compaction
strength (Mpa) strength (Mpa)
(%) (%)
Base Aggregate ≥98 ≥0.8 ≥97
≥0.6
course Fine-grained soil — — ≥96
Subbase Aggregate ≥97 ≥96
≥0.6 ≥0.5
course Fine-grained soil ≥96 ≥95
6.1.9. Maximum grain size of skeleton density type lime fly-ash stabilized base course
aggregate is not more than 31.5mm and the aggregate gradation range is suitable to conform
to the requirement in Table 6.1.9.
Table 6.1.9. Gradation of Skeleton Density Type Lime-fly-ash

Stabilized Aggregate
Item
31.5 26.5 19.0 9.50 4.75 2.36 1.18 0.6 0.075
Base
100 95~100 48~68 24~34 11~21 6~16 2~12 0~6 0~3
course
6.1.10. Maximum grain size of suspended density type lime-fly-ash stabilized macadam
base course and subbase course aggregate is not more than 31.5mm & 37.5mm respectively.
Its gradation range is suitable to conform to the requirement in Table 6.1.10-1.
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Table 6.1.10-1. Gradation of Suspended Density Type Lime-fly-ash Stabilized

Macadam Aggregate
Item
37.5 31.5 19.0 9.50 4.75 2.36 1.18 0.6 0.075
Base
100 88~98 55~75 30~50 16~36 10~25 4~18 0~5
course
Subbase
100 94~100 79~92 51~72 30~50 16~36 10~25 4~18 0~5
course
For suspended density type lime fly-ash stabilized sand gravel base course and subbase course,
the gradation range of sand gravel is suitable to conform to the requirement in Table 6.1.10-2.
Table 6.1.10-2. Gradation of Suspended Density Type

Lime-fly-ash Stabilized Sand Gravel Aggregate
Item
37.5 31.5 19.0 9.50 4.75 2.36 1.18 0.6 0.075
Base
100 85~98 55~75 39~59 27~47 17~35 10~25 0~10
course
Subbase
100 95~100 65~89 50~72 35~55 25~45 17~35 10~27 0~15
course
6.1.11. When lime fly-ash stabilization material is adopted for base course of the
expressway and class 1 highway in moderate and severe frozen areas, the anti-freezing
performance inspection should be performed and the test method is seen in A.2 of Appendix
A.
The anti-freezing performance is evaluated by using the ratio between residual compressive
strength of 28d sample after five freezing-thaw cycles in 18℃~ -18℃ and 28d compressive
strength (MPa), its index should be consistent with the requirements in Table 6.1.11.
Table 6.1.11. Technical Requirements for Anti-freezing Performance of

Lime-fly-ash Stabilization Material
Climate subzone Severe frozen area Moderate frozen area
Residual compressive strength radio (%) ≥70 ≥65
6.1.12. Cement and other early strength agent can be added into the lime fly-ash stabilized
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material to increase their early strength or anti-freezing performance in winter and the added
content is determined by test.
6.1.13. Typical value of degree of compaction for lime fly-ash stabilized material and 7d
unconfined compressive strength should conform to the requirement specified in Table 6.1.13.
Table 6.1.13. Degree of Compaction for Lime fly-ash Stabilized Material and 7d
Super heavy, heavy and moderate traffic Light traffic

Item Type Compaction Compressive strength Compaction Compressive
degree (%) (Mpa) degree (%) strength (Mpa)
Base course Aggregate ≥98 1.5~3.5 ≥97 1.2~1.5
Subbase course Aggregate ≥97 ≥1.0 ≥96 ≥0.6
6.1.14. Cement content in cement fly ash stabilized material is suitable to be 3%~6%, the
mass ratio between cement fly ash and aggregate is suitable to be (13-17): (87-83) and the
aggregate gradation requirements are the same as lime fly-ash stabilized mixture.
6.1.15. Typical value of degree of compaction for lime stabilized material and 7d
unconfined compressive strength should conform to the requirement specified in Table 6.1.15.
Table 6.1.15. Degree of Compaction for Lime Stabilized Material and 7d

Unconfined Compressive strength
heavy and
Light traffic
medium traffic
Item Stabilization type Degree of Degree of
compaction compaction
strength (Mpa) strength (Mpa)
(%) (%)
Base Aggregate — ≥97
①
— ≥0.8
course Fine-grained soil — ≥95
③
Subbase Aggregate ≥97 ≥96

②
≥0.8 ≥0.7
course Fine-grained soil ≥95 ≥95
Notes:
① In low plasticity soil (plasticity index is less than 10) area, 7 d compressive strength of
lime stabilized sand gravel and macadam should be more than 0.5MPa.
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② Lower limit is for soil plasticity index, of which it is less than 10. Upper limit is for soil
plasticity index, of which it is more than 10.
③ For class 3 & 4 highways, if there is difficulty for adopting compactor, 1% of the
degree of compaction can be reduced.
6.1.16. When the lime stabilized aggregate is used for base course, the maximum grain size
should not be more than 37.5mm; when it is used for subbase course, the maximum grain size
should not be more than 53mm. The sand gravel without clay, the graded macadam and not
sieved macadam should be stabilized with cement. If there is no condition and it can be only
stabilized with lime, it should be stabilized with lime soil, the mass ratio of lime soil &
aggregate is suitable to be 1:4 and the aggregate should have favorable gradation.
6.2. Flexible Base Course and Subbase Course

6.2.1. Flexible base course and subbase course can be used for all classes of highways.
Hot mixed asphalt macadam is suitable to be used for base course and subbase course of
highway having moderate traffic volume and above; the penetration asphalt macadam is
suitable to be used for base or subbase of highway having moderate and heavy traffic volume;
hot mixed asphalt macadam and penetration asphalt macadam can be used for leveling course
of reconstructed project.
Graded macadam can be used for base course and subbase course of all classes of highways.
The graded gravel, graded crushed gravel and natural gravel conforming to the technical
requirements such as gradation and plasticity index can be used for the base of light traffic
volume in class 2 highway and below class 2 highways and subbase course of all classes of
highways.
Gap-filling macadam is suitable for the base course of class 3 & 4 highways and subbase
course of all classes of highways.
6.2.2. According to the porosity, the gradation type of asphalt macadam mixture can be
divided into dense gradation, semi-open gradation and open gradation. Dense gradation
asphalt macadam mixture has higher bearing capacity; the semi-open gradation asphalt
macadam mixture has bearing, slowing reflection crack and some drainage capacity. The open
gradation asphalt macadam mixture is suitable for drainage base course. Nominal maximum
grain size of asphalt macadam for base course is suitable to be equal to or more than 26.5mm.
6.2.3. Dense gradation asphalt macadam (ATB) can refer to the requirements in Table C.l
of Appendix C, the aggregate gradation is determined according to test and service experience:
Mixing proportion design of mixture is suitable to carry out according to Marshall Test, it can
be also performed by the other efficient method.
-33-
6.2.4. Nominal maximum grain size of semi-open gradation asphalt macadam (AM) and
open gradation asphalt macadam (ATPB) is suitable to be 26.5mm or 37.5mm. For binder of
semi-open gradation and open gradation asphalt macadam, adopt asphalt of higher viscosity.
In mixing proportion design of mixture Marshall Test method can be adopted and its
gradation can refer to the requirements in Table C.1 of Appendix C. Technical index of
mixture is suitable to conform to the requirements in Table 6.2.4.
Table 6.2.4. Technical Index of Mixing Proportion Design of Mixture
Semi-open gradation Open gradation asphalt

Test index Unit
asphalt macadam (AM) macadam (ATPB)
Equal to or more than
Nominal maximum grain size mm Equal to or more than 26.5
26.5
Marshall test piece dimension mm Φ152.4×95.3 Φ152.4×95.3
Compaction times (double face) times 112 75
Designed porosity VV① % 12~18 >18
Asphalt membrane thickness μm >12 —
Binder loss in Schellenberg run-off test % No more than 0.2 —
Mixture loss in Cantabria dispersing test or
% No more than 20 —
immersion dispersing test
Note: Test piece bulk volume density is determined according to the volumetric method.
6.2.5. When penetration type asphalt macadam is used for base course or leveling course,
the specification and usage of materials such as asphalt and macadam, etc. and it is suitable to
conform to the requirements in the Specifications and Table C.2 of Appendix C.
6.2.6. For gradation macadam, adopt the macadam with various grain sizes to mix with
stone chips, it is divided into skeleton density type and continuous gradation type, the
gradation composition of the aggregate can refer to Table D.1 of Appendix D. When adopting
the heavy-duty compaction standard design, the base course degree of compaction should be
more than 98%, CBR value should not be less than 100%; subbase course degree of
compaction should be more than 96% and CBR value should not be less than 80%.
6.2.7. Grain composition of gradation gravel or natural sand gravel should be in

accordance with the requirements in Table D.2 of Appendix D, and the gradation is suitable to
approach the smooth curve. Gradation gravel or natural sand gravel is used for base course,
when heavy-duty compaction standard design is used, the degree of compaction should not be
less than 98%, CBR value should not be less than 80%; when it is used for subbase course,
the degree of compaction should not be less than 96%, CBR value should not be less than
40% for light traffic volume and not be less than 60% for moderate traffic volume.
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6.2.8. Filling gap macadam can be used for subbase course of class 2 highway and below
class 2 highway. Maximum grain size is suitable to be 0.5~0.7 times of thickness. When it is
used for base course, the maximum grain size should not exceed 60mm; when it is used for
subbase course, the maximum grain size should not exceed 80mm. The gap filler can be stone
chips or coarse sand or sand gravel whose maximum grain size is less than 10mm. The degree
of compaction for filling gap macadam is expressed by solid volume rate. When it is used for
subbase course, the degree of compaction should not be less than 83%; when it is used for
base course, the degree of compaction should not be less than 85%.
6.3. Rigid Base
6.3.1. Rigid base is suitable for highway engineering of heavy traffic, super heavy traffic
and transporting coal, mineral, building material and so on. Rigid base thickness is generally
200~280mm and its minimum thickness should be more than 150mm.
6.3.2. When lean concrete is used for rigid base, the mixing proportion design of lean
concrete should be determined according to the bending strength test of 28d and the cement
content should be 8%~12%. Lean concrete strength should conform to the requirements in
Table 6.3.2, the construction quality management and control is suitable to evaluate by using
the compression strength of 7d. Maximum grain size of lean concrete base course aggregate
should not be more than 31.5mm.
Table 6.3.2. Strength Requirements of Poor Concrete Base Material
Test items Super heavy & heavy traffic Medium traffic
28d bending strength (MPa) 2.5~3.5 2.0~3.0
28d compressive strength (MPa) 12~20 9~16
7d compressive strength (MPa) 9~15 7~12
6.3.3. For lean concrete base course containing fly ash, the requirements for bending
strength of 28d should be the same as that in Table 6.3.2. Compressive strength acceptance
value of 14d should reach 85% of the compressive strength of 28d in Table 6.3.2. Fly ash
content is suitable to be 20%~40% of cement.
6.3.4. For the lean concrete base course, set longitudinal joint, transverse joint and fill with
joint filler, the hot asphalt or modified asphalt, modified emulsified asphalt binding course
should be set on it to enhance the combination between courses.
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7. Asphalt Surface Course
7.1. Asphalt Mixture Surface Course
7.1.1. Asphalt surface course should have property of flatness, density, antiskid and
durability; it also has the capacity of track resistance in high temperature, crack resistance in
low temperature as well as fine anti-damage in water. The performance of asphalt pavement for
newly built expressway and class 1 highway should conform to the requirements in Table 7.1.1.
Table 7.1.1. Technical Index of Asphalt Pavement for

Expressway and Class 1 Highway
Items Target value Test method

Flatness International flatness index IRI<2.0m/km, σ<1.0mm T0933, T0932
sideway force coefficient and tectonic depth conform to the
Antiskid T0965, T0961, T0963
requirements in Table 7.1.2
High temperature
Dynamic stability conforms to Article 7.1.6 T0719
stability
Freezing thawing splitting test strength ratio conforms to the
Water stability T0709, T0729
requirements in Table 7.1.7
Limit bending strain conforms to the requirements in Table
Crack resistance T0715
7.1.8
7.1.2. Main index of surface course antiskid performance is sideway force coefficient
SFC60 and pavement macro tectonic depth TD (mm). When the completion acceptance of
expressway and class 1 highway is performed, the antiskid technical index should conform to
the requirements in Table 7.1.2. Class 2 highway can refer to it.
Table 7.1.2. Antiskid Technical Index
Completion acceptance target value

Annual average rainfall
(mm)
Sideway force coefficient SFC60 Tectonic depth TD (mm)
>1000 ≥54 ≥0.55
500~1000 ≥50 ≥0.50
250~500 ≥45 ≥0.45
Notes:
-36-
Asphalt Surface Course
1. Sideway force coefficient SFC60-- Vehicle is tested by using sideway force

coefficient, the sideway force coefficient is obtained at vehicle speed of
60km/h±1km/h.
2. Pavement macro tectonic depth TD (mm)-- It is measured by sanding method.
7.1.3. According to the design porosity, the hot mixing asphalt concrete for surface course
can be classified into dense gradation type and open gradation type, see Table 7.1.3.
Table 7.1.3. Classification of Hot Mixing Asphalt Concrete
Gradation type and designed porosity

Hot mixing asphalt Max. grain Nominal max.
Dense gradation Open gradation
concrete type size (mm) grain size (mm)
3~5 3~4 >18
Sand grain
9.5 4.75 AC-5
type
13.2 9.5 AC-10
Fine grain type
16 13.2 AC-13
AC
Medium grain 19 16 AC-16
type 26.5 19 AC-20
Coarse grain
31.5 26.5 AC-25
type
13.2 9.5 SMA-10
Fine grain type
16 13.2 SMA-13
SMA
Medium grain 19 16 SMA-16
type 26.5 19 SMA-20
13.2 9.5 OGFC-10
OGFC Fine grain type
16 13.2 OGFC-13
Note: When SMA is used for summer hot zone or heavy traffic, super heavy traffic highway,
the upper limit of designed porosity can be loosened to 4.5% properly.
7.1.4. Asphalt mixture type of all the structural courses should be selected reasonably
according to the operation requirement, climate feature, traffic conditions, structural course
function and other factors in combination with asphalt layer thickness and local practical
experience.
1. For antiskid surface course, adopt asphalt mastic macadam (SMA) and dense
gradation coarse asphalt mixture (AC-C). If possible, adopt open gradation antiskid
surface course (OGFC).
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2. Every asphalt course at least contains one layer of dense gradation asphalt mixture.
7.1.5. The asphalt mixture mixing proportion design of expressway and class 1 highway
should select the engineering material and select several gradation curves according to the
gradation range and practical experience in Table 1 of Appendix C, performing mixing
proportion design, asphalt mixture performance test and test of design parameter, mixing
proportion range of target is determined according to the test result.
Engineering objective mixing proportion of class 2 highway and below class 2 highway can
be determined according to the gradation range and practical experience in Table C.1 of
Appendix C.
The asphalt mixture mixing proportion design is suitable to adopt Marshal Test method. If
possible, other effective mixing proportion design method proven by practice can be adopted.
7.1.6. High temperature stability of asphalt mixture will be evaluated by dynamic stability.
Design value of dynamic stability with medium traffic volume for highway surface course and
medium surface course asphalt mixture can be determined according to "Technical
Specifications for Construction of Highway Asphalt Pavement" (JTG F40) and the local
engineering experience. For hot area, heavy traffic, super heavy traffic, continuous long and
precipitous longitudinal slope section, bridge deck pavement and special requirements, the
requirements for dynamic stability index should be increased.
When it is required to increase high temperature stability of asphalt mixture, the technical
measures such as regulating aggregate gradation and asphalt dosage, increasing consistency of
asphalt and adopting modified asphalt, etc. can be taken.
7.1.7. Water stability of dense gradation hot mixing asphalt mixture should conform to the
requirements in Table 7.1.7. If the technical index of asphalt mixture water stability can not
meet the requirements, proper amount of slaked lime or cement should be added to the asphalt
mixture, some amount of limestone fine aggregate or coarse aggregate can be also added to it
for increasing water stability.
Table 7.1.7. Technical Index of Hot Mixing Asphalt Mixture Water Stability
Annual rainfall (mm) ≥500 <500 Test method
Splitting strength ratio of freezing

≥75 ≥70 T0729
thawing splitting test(%)
Immersion Marshall Test residual
≥80 ≥75 T0709
stability(%)
-38-
Note: For heavy and super heavy traffic highways in rainy moist area, 5% of the index value
of freezing thawing splitting strength ratio can be increased.
7.1.8. For surface course of expressway and class 1 highway, the bending test is suitable to
be carried out under -10℃ low temperature condition, checking the low temperature crack
resistance of dense gradation asphalt concrete, the limit breaking strain is suitable to conform
to the requirements in Table 7.1.8.
Table 7.1.8. Technical Index of Asphalt Mixture Low Temperature Bending Test
Breaking Strain (μє)
Annual extreme minimum air temperature (℃) Test method

Climate conditions and
technical index
<-37.0 -21.5~-37.0 -9.0~-21.5 >-9.0
T0728
Limit breaking strain (μє) ≥2600 ≥2300 ≥2000
Note: When the modified asphalt is used, the extreme breaking strain index value can be
increased properly.
7.1.9. For SMA, the modified asphalt is suitable to be adopted, with the fiber stabilization
agent added and the content should be determined through test.
Marshall Test method can be adopted for SMA to perform the mixing proportion design, and
check the high temperature stability, low temperature crack resistance, water stability and
other indices.
7.1.10. OGFC is suitable for the wearing course and surface course of drainage pavement in
the area where the mean annual average rainfall is more than 800mm.
1. Open gradation asphalt mixture wearing course thickness is about 20mm and the
drainage surface course thickness is suitable to be 30~40mm. Gradation of
aggregate can refer to the requirements in Table C.l of Appendix C, the binder
should be modified asphalt with high viscosity, an amount of slaked lime and fiber
stabilization agent should be added into the mixture.
2. Water proof layer should be set under the open gradation asphalt mixture wearing
course or drainage surface course, and the rainwater should be drained off from
subgrade.
7.1.11. Cold mixing asphalt mixture can be used for surface course of class 3 & 4 highways,
the emulsified asphalt, modified emulsified asphalt or liquid asphalt can be used, and dense
gradation asphalt mixture should be selected, the gradation can refer to Table C.1 of
-39-
Appendix C. Mixture mixing proportion design can be determined according to the local
successful experience or by trial mixing and trial paving.
7.2. Asphalt Penetration Type Pavement and Surface Treatment
7.2.1. The thickness of asphalt penetration type pavement is suitable to be 40~80mm;

when the upper mixing and lower penetrating type asphalt pavement is used, the thickness of
mixed layer should be 25~40mm and the total thickness is suitable to be 70~100mm. Asphalt
penetration type pavement binder is suitable for petroleum asphalt.
7.2.2. Material specification and content of asphalt penetration type pavement (including
upper mixing and lower penetrating type pavement) should conform to the requirements in
Table C.2&C.3 of Appendix C. The dense gradation hot mixing asphalt mixture AC-10,
AC-13 should be adopted as asphalt mixture in mixed layer. Gradation of mixture is suitable
to conform to the requirements in Table C.1 of Appendix C. Mixing proportion design of
asphalt mixture should conform to the relevant regulations.
7.2.3. Asphalt surface treatment is suitable for the surface course of class 3 & 4 highways,
it can be divided into single course, double course and three-course. Single surface course
treatment thickness is 10~15mm; double surface course treatment thickness is 15~25mm and
three- surface course treatment thickness is 25-30mm.
7.2.4. For asphalt surface treatment, road petroleum asphalt or emulsified asphalt can be
adopted as binder, the specification and content of aggregate should conform to the
requirements in Table C.4 of Appendix C.
7.2.5. Micro-surfacing can be divided into MS-2 type and MS-3 type according to various
grain sizes of minerals, the single course thickness is 4~6mm and 8~10mm respectively.
Slurry seal can be divided into ES-1 type, ES-2 type and ES-3 type according to various grain
sizes of minerals, the single course thickness is 2.5~3mm, 4~6mm and 8~10mm respectively.
1. MS-3 type micro-surfacing is suitable for overlay of pavement of expressway and

class 1 highway. ES-3 type slurry seal is suitable for overlay of pavement of class 2
highway and the lower seal coat of newly built highway.
2. MS-2 type micro-surfacing is suitable for overlay of pavement of medium traffic

expressway and class 1 & 2 highways. ES-2 type slurry seal is suitable for the
overlay of pavement of class 2 highway and below class 2 highway as well as lower
seal coat of newly built highway.
3. ES-1 type slurry seal is suitable for overlay of pavement of class 3 & 4 highways
and parking lot.
-40-
7.2.6. Gradation of mineral aggregate for micro-surfacing and slurry seal should conform
to the requirements in Table 7.2.6-1. Laboratory testing technical indices of slurry mixture
should meet the requirements in Table 7.2.6-2.
Table 7.2.6-1. Gradation of Mineral Aggregate for Micro-Surfacing

and Slurry Seal Coat
Mass percentage passing through the following square sieve pores

Gradation type (mm) (%)
9.5 4.75 2.36 1.18 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.075
ES-1 100 90~100 65~90 40~65 25~42 15~30 10~20
MS-2, ES-2 100 90~100 65~90 45~70 30~50 18~30 10~21 5~15
MS-3, ES-3 100 70~90 45~70 28~50 19~34 12~25 7~18 5~15
Allowable
— ±5% ±5% ±5% ±5% ±4% ±3% ±2%
fluctuation range
Table 7.2.6-2. Technical Indices of Slurry Mixture
Standard
Test items Slurry seal coat

Micro-surfacing
Fast open Slow open
traffic type traffic type
Mixing time (25℃) No less than (s) 120 120 180
Cohesion force test No less than (N.m)
30min (initial setting tiome) 1.2 1.2 —
60min (open traffic time) 2.0 2.0 —
No more than (g/m2)
①
Sand quantity adhered to load tyre 450 450
Wet tyre abrasion loss watering 1h No more than (g/m2) 540 800
2
Watering 6d No more than (g/m ) 800 —
②
Width change rate in tyre rutting deformation test
No more than (%) 5 —
Notes:
① For overlay of pavement and lower seal coat of light traffic road, the adhered sand
quantity indices can not be required.
② When the micro-surfacing mixture is used to repair the rut, it is necessary to perform
the tyre rutting test.
-41-
8. Thickness of New Pavement Structure
8.0.1. For the design of pavement structure, the calculation should be carried out based on
the elastic course continuous system theory subjected to double-round uniformly distributed
vertical load. Pavement loads and calculation points are shown in Figure 8.0.1.
Figure 8.0.1. Pavement Loads and Calculation Points
8.0.2. The pavement structure should have a proper thickness to meet the requirements for
overall structural stiffness (i.e. bearing capacity) and for resistance to fatigue cracking of
asphalt course or semi-rigid base and subbase course.
1. The calculated deflection (lS) at tyre clearance center (point A) should be less than
or equal to the designed deflection (ld), that is:
lS ≤ ld (8.0.2-1)
2. The bottom tensile stress (σm) at tyre clearance center (point C) or at single-round
load center (point B) should be less than or equal to the allowable tensile stress (σR),
that is:
σm≤σR (8.0.2-2)
8.0.3. For the pavement structures of expressway, class 1 and class 2 highway, take
pavement surface course resilient deflection value, tensile stress in the bottom of asphalt
concrete course, and tensile stress in the bottom of semi-rigid material course as the design
indices. The pavement structures of class 3 and class 4 highway take the designed deflection
as design indices. When possible, it is suitable to examine the shear strength of asphalt
mixture for heavy load traffic pavement.
8.0.4. The design of pavement structure should be carried out in accordance with the
procedure shown in Figure 8.0.4, including the following main contents:
1. In accordance with the design requirements, deflection or flexural-tension stress

index，respectively calculate the cumulative standard equivalent axle loads of a
-42-
Thickness of New Pavement Structure
lane within the design period; determine the design traffic volume and traffic
classification; select the types of surface course and base course; and calculate the
designed deflection or allowable tension stress.
2. The subgrade is divided into several sections in light of subgrade soil type, wetness
or dryness, and subgrade cross-section form, determining the design value of
resilient modulus in each section of subgrade.
3. Initially determine several feasible alternatives for pavement structural

composition and thickness by referring to the local experience; based on
engineering experience and requirements of specifications, determine reasonably
the compressive resilient modulus and cleavage strength, etc. of the material in
each structural course. If conditions allowed, test can be carried out for
determination.
4. Calculate or check the thickness of pavement following the design procedure

established according to the design indices and based on the elastic multi-course
system theory.
5. Check if the anti-freezing thickness meets the requirement for seasonal frost
region.
6. Determine the pavement structure scheme by technical-economic comparative

study.
-43-
Traffic volume Calculating designed Identification of

collection and survey, deflection in accordance Meteorological data earth base, and
and calculation of with highway classification, and material determination the
cumulative standard types of surface course and investigation, resilience modulus of
axle loads base course, and Ne. and mixture test earth base
Establishment of pavement structure

scheme
Determination of the compressive

resilient modulus of material
Calculating or checking thickness

using designed deflection
Will Yes Determination of cleavage

flexural-tensile strength, ultimate tensile strength
stress be σsp
calculated?
Determination of
allowable tensile
No stress σr
Calculation of bottom
tensile stress σm
Checking of Yes Will Yes

antifreezing antifreezing
thickness thickness be
checked?
No
No
Will Yes
Yes thickness be
Is there next increased?
structure?
No
No
Will mixture Yes
Technical-economic ratio changed,
comparative study, and and σsp be
increased ?
determination of pavement
structure
No
Structural
change
Figure 8.0.4. Design Flow Block Diagram
-44-
8.0.5. Designed deflection should be calculated using Equation 8.0.5 according to

highway classification, cumulative standard equivalent axle loads within the design period,
and types of surface course and base course.
In which: ld -- Designed deflection (0.01mm);
Ne -- The cumulative equivalent axle loads of a lane within the design period
(axles/lane);
Ac -- Highway classification coefficient, e.g.1.0 for expressway and class 1

highway, 1.1 for class 2 highway, and 1.2 for class 3 highway and class 4
highway;
As -- Surface course type coefficient, e.g. 1.0 for asphalt concrete surface
course, and 1.1 for hot or cold mixing asphalt macadam, asphalt
penetration type pavement (including upper mixing & lower penetrating
asphalt pavement), and asphalt surface treatment;
Ab -- Pavement structural type coefficient, e.g. 1.0 for semi-rigid base asphalt
pavement, and 1.6 for flexible base asphalt pavement.
8.0.6. When using the tensile stress as design or check index for the asphalt concrete
pavement, and semi-rigid base and subbase course, the allowable tensile stress σR of material
should be calculated by Equation 8.0.6-1:
In which: σR -- The allowable tensile stress of the material in pavement structure, MPa;
σs -- The ultimate cleavage strength of asphalt concrete or semi-rigid material,

MPa;
Ks -- Tensile strength structural coefficient.
1. For the ultimate cleavage strength of asphalt concrete, refers to the ultimate
cleavage strength at 15℃. It is the ultimate cleavage strength at the age of 90d for
cement stabilized materials, 180 days for lime fly-ash and lime stabilized materials,
and 120 days for fly ash cement stabilized materials.
2. Tensile strength structural coefficient for asphalt concrete course should be

calculated by the following equation:
-45-
Tensile strength structural coefficient for inorganic binder stabilized aggregate should be
Tensile strength structural coefficient for inorganic binder stabilized fine soil should be
8.0.7. The design parameters of the materials of various structural courses used for
pavement design should be determined in light of the requirement for highway classification
and design.
1. For detailed design of expressway and class 1 highway, existing experiment data
can be referred. Materials parameters should be tested before construction to meet
the design requirement.
2. Preliminary design of expressway and class 1 highway or the design of class 2 and
below class 2 highways can refer to the existing test data or engineering experience
in the local area.
3. In the stage of feasibility study, refer to Appendix E and determine the design
parameters.
8.0.8. The design parameters of semi-rigid material should be determined in accordance

with the provisions of the “Test Methods of Materials Stabilized with Inorganic Binders for
Highway Engineering”. The design parameters of asphalt mixture should be determined in
accordance with the provisions of the “Standard Test Methods of Bitumen and Bituminous
Mixtures for Highway Engineering”.
8.0.9. When the pavement surface course deflection value is taken as design or check
index, the compressive resilient modulus is selected for design parameter. Test temperature of
asphalt concrete is at 20℃. For the calculation of pavement surface course deflection value,
the designed compressive resilient modulus E should be computed by Equation 8.0.9:
In which: -- The average value of the modulus in various test pieces, MPa;
S -- The standard deviation of the modulus in various test pieces;
Za -- Guarantee rate coefficient, take 2.0 for 95% assuring rate.
8.0.10. When the tensile stress in the bottom of asphalt course or semi-rigid material
structural course is taken as design or check index, the compressive resilient modulus of
-46-
asphalt mixture should be tested at 15℃; that of semi-rigid material should be tested at the
specified curing age (90 days for cement-stabilized material, 180 days for lime fly-ash and
lime stabilized materials, and 120 days for fly ash cement stabilized materials).
In calculation of bottom tensile stress, the unfavorable combination of modulus should be

taken into account. The design modulus value of each course under the calculation course
should be computed by Equation 8.0.9; the design modulus value E of calculation course and
each course above it should be computed by Equation 8.0.10:
The signs in this equation have the same meaning as Equation 8.0.9.
8.0.11. Cleavage strength, resilience modulus age correlation and quick curing method, etc.
should be established locally for the conversion between material strength and modulus at a
specified age. After fully proved, it will be a basis for determination of design parameters.
8.0.12 Calculation of pavement resilient deflection at tyre clearance center
Pavement calculation deflection value should be computed by Equation 8.0.12-1:
In which:
In which: lS -- Pavement calculated deflection value (0.01mm);
F -- Comprehensive correction coefficient of deflection;
-- Respectively tyre contact ground pressure (MPa) and equivalent circle

radius (cm) of standard automotive type;
ac - Theoretical deflection coefficient;
Eo or En-- Compressive resilient modulus value of earth foundation (MPa);
E1, E2, …, En-1 --Compressive resilient modulus of material in various courses (MPa);
h1, h2, …, hn-1 -- Thicknesses of various structural courses (cm).
8.0.13. Calculation of bottom tensile stress
-47-
Bottom tensile stress should be calculated respectively at single-circle center (point B) and
double-circle tyre clearance center (point C), and the greater value is taken as the bottom
tensile stress. Maximum bottom tensile stress should be computed by Equation 8.0.13:
In which: -- Theoretical maximum tensile stress coefficient;
Other symbols of this equation have the same meaning as Equation 8.0.12.
8.0.14. The thickness of each structural course can be determined through calculation or
checking computation.
1. Calculation method: Determine pavement structural composition in light of road

performance requirement or based on engineering experience. Select a course as
design course. Determine the thickness of other courses according to the type of
mixture and construction technology. Compute the thickness of design course as the
procedure prescribed in Clause 8.0.4. The thickness of design course should not be
less than the minimum construction thickness.
2. Checking computation method: Determine pavement structural composition with

reference to typical pavement structure in local region. Determine the thickness of
each structural course according to the type of mixture and construction technology.
Carry out checking computation as the procedure prescribed in Clause 8.0.4. When
checking computation presents a positive result, it can be taken as an optional
structure.
8.0.15. when pavement take-over, it is required to measure the surface course deflection
value at tyre clearance center under the standard axle load BZZ-100 in disadvantageous
season. Its reflection representative value should comply with Equation 8.0.15-1:
In which: l0j -- Representative value of measured surface course deflection value in a

section (0.01mm);
la -- Tested standard surface course deflection value (0.01mm), calculated

according to the final thickness of pavement structure and modulus of
material.
1. The representative deflection value should be measured under the standard
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automobile axle load BZZ-100. Conversion should be made in case of nonstandard

axle load. Semi-rigid base structure is suitable to adopt 5.4m deflectometer for
measurement. Flexible base structure can adopt 3.6m deflectometer for
measurement.
Temperature correction may not be made when the asphalt course has a thickness
less than or equal to 50mm in measurement. The temperature correction should be
made in other state. If the deflection test is made in non-disadvantageous season, the
seasonal correction should be considered.
2. The length of 1~3km should be taken as an evaluation section when testing the
deflection. One point of a lane should be tested every 10~50m in light of highway
classification in frequency test, not less than 80 points for every .kilometer of
expressway and class 1 highway should be tested, and not less than 40 points for
class 2 and below class 2 highways should be tested.
3. The representative value (0.01mm) of measured surface course deflection value in a

section , should be calculated by Equation 8.0.15-2:
In which: lo -- The representative value of measured surface course deflection in a

section (0.01mm);
-- The average value of measured surface course deflection in a section
(0.01mm);
S -- The deflection standard deviation of measured surface course in a section

(0.01mm);
Za -- Coefficient related with guarantee rate, Za=1.645 for expressway and class
1 highway, and Za=1.5 for other asphalt pavements;
K1 -- Seasonal influence coefficient, determined by local experience;
K3 -- Temperature correction coefficient and temperature correction method:

Refer to the related provisions of the “Site Test Regulations of Subgrade
and Pavement for Highway Engineering”, or based on the term
description or the locally measured data.
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9. Reconstruction Pavement Design
9.1. General Provisions
9.1.1. The relocated road section should be designed with new pavement. The section to
widen pavement, heighten subgrade or adjust longitudinal slope should be designed with
newly constructed or reconstructed pavement in light of actual condition. The existing section
to be reinforced should be designed with reconstructed pavement.
9.1.2. Pavement condition survey should be carried out so as to assess the damaged
condition section by sections, analyze the causes of pavement damage, and prepare a design
scheme for the pavement reconstruction in each section.
9.1.3. The expressway, class 1 highway and urban roads with much more traffic volume is
suitable to provide with a design scheme characterized by convenient construction, shorter
construction period, and less disturbance to normal transportation, which should reduce
excavation works and waste material of the existing road as much as possible in addition to
guarantee a given period.
9.1.4. The design scheme should consider the regeneration and utilization of asphalt
mixture and semi-rigid base material in the existing pavement, and actively but prudently
promote the regeneration technology in combination with existing outstanding achievement
and experience.
9.1.5. For widening works, the effective measures should be made for the smooth
connection of new and existing pavements to prevent differential settlement between them.
9.1.6. For large reconstruction and expansion works, a test road should be built as per
design scheme to get more knowledge of traffic diversion, construction organization,
construction technology, construction quality control, etc. in order to improve the design
scheme.
9.2. Asphalt Pavement Resurfacing
9.2.1. Survey and analysis of existing pavement covers the following contents:
1. Investigate the damaged condition, including cracking rate, rut depth and patching
area, etc.
2. Assess the bearing capacity of existing pavement stucture.
3. Based on the damaged condition survey and the testing and assessment of the
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Reconstruction Pavement Design
bearing capacity, identify three typical pavement conditions, i.e. good, medium, bad,
and conduct core sampling or pit sampling from asphalt pavement, collect samples
from asphalt mixture, base course, subbase course and earth foundation for test.
Analyze the causes of damage, and ascertain if damaged courses can be utilized.
4. Through sampling, make sure the water content, soil type and bearing capacity in
the range of subgrade roadbed soil to analyze the stability and strength of the
subgrade and the drainage condition in the range of subgrade.
9.2.2. At the time of design, the whole highway should be divided into several sections in
light of the following factors:
1. The length of existing pavement with similar damage, causes and deflection value
can be designated as a section.
2. If there is considerable deflection value locally in a section, patching and

reinforcement can be carried out. The point with bigger deflection value can be
disregarded when calculating the representative deflection value in this section.
3. Road condition evaluation is generally performed every 1km length, which can be
prolonged in case that the evaluation presents less variation in road condition. The
minimum length of a section with complex hydrological and soil conditions or
subject to special treatment can be set in light of actual condition.
9.2.3 Calculated deflection value in each section
The deflection value of existing pavement should be tested once every 20-50m, totally not
less than 20 testing points for each lane or each section, which can be intensified in case of
greater variation in deflection, under standard axle load BZZ-100 with Benkelman Beam
process. Conversion should be made in case of nonstandard axle load. The deflection value l0
in each section should be calculated by Equation 9.2.3:
In which: K2 -- Humidity influence coefficient, determined by the local experience.
Other symbols of this equation have the same meaning as Equation 8.0.15-2.
9.2.4. Treatment of existing asphalt pavement
1. The asphalt pavement with fundamentally satisfactory overall strength, rut depth
less than 10mm, superficial cracking, poorer flatness, and fewer antiskid functions
can be resurfaced directly to restore its service function.
2. The asphalt pavement with moderate or deep cracking can be milled and planed, or
crack grouted and patched in light of actual condition, when necessary, repaved with
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asphalt after anti cracking measures should be taken. The asphalt pavement with net
cracking, alligator crack or aged asphalt should be milled, planed and cleaned, and
then repaved with asphalt underlain by binding asphalt.
3. The asphalt pavement with insufficient overall strength or serious damage should be
identified for removal depth and scope as well as the structure and thickness for the
reinforcing course.
9.2.5. Resurfacing
1. Improve and enhance the service function of asphalt surface course by the measures
of asphalt concrete resurfacing, surface treatment or other preventive maintenance.
Normally, a single course of asphalt concrete resurfacing can be 30~50mm in
thickness, and 20~25mm thick to an ultra-thin course resurfacing. Preventive
maintenance can be carried out by slurry seal coat, micro-surfacing or curing
compound, etc.
2. The binder for ultra-thin wearing course is suitable to use modify asphalt or doped
with other additives to enhance the water stability of ultra-thin wearing course.
9.2.6. Calculation of the equivalent resilience modulus in existing pavement
1. The equivalent resilience modulus of existing pavement should be calculated in

light of each section.
2. The equivalent resilience modulus in each section should be calculated by Equation

9.2.6-1 (tyre clearance and deflection method):
In which: Et -- Equivalent resilience modulus of existing pavement (MPa);
-- Respective tyre contact ground pressure (MPa) and equivalent circle

radius (cm) of standard automotive type;
l0 -- Calculated deflection value of existing pavement (0.01mm);
m1 -- The ratio of the deflection value of existing pavement measured under the
standard axle load of automobile to the resilient deformation value
measured by bearing plate under the same pressure;
m2 -- Amplification coefficient of equivalent resilience modulus for existing

pavement.
Ratio value m1 should be determined through comparison and verification of different test
results performed in different locations. In case of no such data available, m1 can take 1.1
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(tyre clearance and deflection method).
3. m2 should be calculated by Equation 9.2.6-2 for calculation of the tensile stress in

the bottom of the reinforcing course in contact with existing pavement, and m2 can
be 1.0 for calculation of the tensile stress and deflection value in the bottom of other
reinforcing courses.
In which: En-1 -- Compression modulus of the course in contact with existing pavement,
MPa;
h’ -- Total thickness (cm) of various reinforcing courses equivalent to modulus

En-1 of contact course in the existing pavement.
4. The equivalent total thickness h’ can be calculated by Equation 9.2.6-3:
In which: Ei -- Compressive resilient modulus of the reinforcing course i, MPa;
hi -- The thickness (cm) of the reinforcing course i;
n-1 -- The number of reinforcing courses.
9.2.7 Structural design of reinforcing courses
1. Reinforcing design, due to the insufficient strength, complies with the same design
method as that for new pavement.
2. Structural design of reinforcing courses should be made in harmony with the

surrounding environment in light of compressive assessment for existing pavement,
highway classification and traffic volume and in connection with the design for
gradient adjustment of longitudinal and cross sections, select direct resurfacing, or
excavate the existing pavement to a certain structural course, or paving one or more
reinforcing courses, or paving semi-rigid base or poor concrete base, or other
alternatives. It is necessary to select a coefficient of pavement type according to the
resurfacing structure at the time of determination of calculated deflection value.
3. It is advised to spread binding asphalt, or pave leveling course, or pave structural

course directly, or take other cracking alleviation measures between existing
pavement and reinforcing course in light of the structure and thickness of
resurfacing course.
9.2.8. Design procedure for reinforcing courses
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1. Calculate the equivalent resilience modulus of existing pavement.

2. Select several feasible structural combinations and thicknesses, and determine the
material parameter of each reinforcing course through testing or with reference to
local proven experience.
3. Determine the design parameters in light of the type of reinforcing courses. When
the pavement resilient deflection is used as design index, the comprehensive
correction coefficient for deflection can be calculated by Equation 9.2.8:
In which: Et -- Equivalent resilience modulus of existing pavement (MPa);
Other symbols of this equation have the same meaning as Equation 8.0.12-2.
When the tensile stress is used as control index, the comprehensive correction coefficient for
deflection should be calculated by Equation 8.0.12-2, the provided designed thickness is
determined. Finally, calculate the pavement resilient deflection.
4. Calculate the thickness of design course or conduct structural checking computation

following the design procedure based on the elastic course system theory. The wet
and moderate wet road section in seasonal frost region should be also checked for
anti-freezing thickness.
5. Determine a reinforcing scheme through technical and economic comparison.
9.3. Cement Concrete Pavement Resurfacing with Asphalt
9.3.1. Field survey of cement concrete pavement condition focuses on the following
aspects:
1. Check damaged condition, including slab cracking and breaking and damages of
their corners and edges. Record the location and number of damaged slabs, or plot a
damaging sketch for each lane. Calculate the failure rate of slabs. Investigate the
splitting width of longitudinal and transverse joints as well as positions and heights
of slab staggerings. Calculate the average heights of slab staggerings over a length
and check the detachment position of bottom slab, etc.
2. Field measurement should be performed by drop hammer deflectometer or

Benkelman deflectometer.
(1) Every two to four slabs should be provided in a test point in light of road condition.
Deflection measurement should be taken at side slabs on both sides of transverse
joint and 30~50cm from its corner to acquire full knowledge about bearing capacity
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of cement concrete pavement.
(2) Select a typical section in light of measured deflection value or deflection basin data,
and measure the deflection value of side slab on both sides of transverse joints or
cracks to evaluate the bearing capacity of existing concrete slab and the load
transfer ability of joints, and check slab bottom detachment in light of the mean
height of slab staggering.
3. Select a typical pavement, and carry out drilling core sampling from each course.
Then, test the strength and modulus of existing concrete, and analyze the causes of
damage.
9.3.2. Evaluation of the load transfer ability of existing pavement joints
1. The difference in deflection of side slabs on two sides of transverse joints can be
calculated by Equation 9.3.2-1:
In which: UD -- Difference in deflection (0.01mm);
Du -- The deflection value of the slab edge subjected to no load (0.01mm);
De -- The deflection value of the slab edge subjected to load (0.01mm).
2. When measuring the deflection of side slabs on both sides of transverse joints by
drop hammer deflectometer or Benkelman deflectometer, the mean deflection value
(calculated by Equation 9.3.2-2) should be used to evaluate the bearing capacity of
cement concrete slabs, and disposal of them in light of their condition.
In which: -- Average deflection value (0.01mm).
9.3.3. Structural parameters of existing concrete pavement, including slab thickness,

flexural-tensile strength, flexural-tensile resilient modulus, and standard equivalent resilience
modulus of base top, can be determined in conformance with related provisions of the
“Specifications of Cement Concrete Pavement Design for Highway y”, JTG D40.
9.3.4. Depending on damage survey and bearing capacity testing, the original cement
concrete pavement can be treated in accordance with Table 9.3.4. If the bearing capacity of
existing pavement doesn’t meet the requirement from the existing traffic load, it should be
reinforced.
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Table 9.3.4. Treatment Method for Existing Cement Concrete Pavement
Average
Existing pavement Evaluation
Deflection value Patching Method
condition Grade
(0.01mm)
Local treatment: Replace broken slab, repair
cracked slab, and grout stripped slab, to make
Excellent or
20~45 representative deflection value of treated section
good
less than 20 (0.01mm). After that, surface it with
Damaging condition
asphalt.
Break concrete slabs into pieces, and then,
Medium or
>45 compact them. Finally, pave reinforcing course
lower
over them.
Load transfer ability Eliminate vertical and horizontal deformations by
of joints are UD≥6 grout filling, mount dowel bars, or applying
insufficient breaking technology. Then, surface it with asphalt.
Eliminate vertical and horizontal deformations by
Slab bottom
grouting or breaking and compacting. Then,
detachment
surface it with asphalt.
9.3.5. Asphalt surfacing can be carried out with single course or double course, and with a
leveling course or a reinforcing course added in light of actual condition. Surfacing design
should be done in light of highway classification, functional requirement, traffic volume,
environmental condition, and longitudinal and transverse slope adjustment. Measures against
reflection cracking should be provided in addition to stabilization of existing damaged cement
concrete slab.
1. The asphalt course laid over the existing stable cement concrete slabs should have a
thickness not less than 100mm for expressway and class 1 highway (or medium
traffic and above), and not less than 70mm for other highways.
2. A binding course paved with hot asphalt, modified emulsified asphalt, or modified
asphalt should be furnished prior to surfacing the existing cement concrete
pavement with asphalt. The 20~25mm-thick stress absorbing course, stress
absorbing membrane made of polymer modified asphalt or the long-fiber
non-woven polyester geotextile should be provided to prevent water infiltration,
mitigate reflection cracking, and strengthen intercourse bonding.
3. Water prevention and drainage system of pavement should be improved in

accordance with the related provisions of the Specification.
9.3.6. Asphalt surfacing design for broken slabs
1. When the average deflection value at slab joints or cracks is greater than 45
(0.01mm), it is necessary to eliminate slab detachment by breaking them to enable
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the cement concrete slabs in tight junction with base. After that, pave structural
course.
2. When the average deflection value at slab joints or cracks is greater than 70
(0.01mm), or the cement concrete slabs are relatively broken, it is advised to break
the slabs into pieces for base course or subbase course. Then, test its equivalent
resilience modulus with drop hammer deflectometer or Benkelman deflectometer.
Finally, carry out the design of reinforcing course and asphalt course as specified in
Section 9.2 of the Specifications.
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10. Drainage Design
10.0.1. General Provisions
1. Pavement drainage design should be carried out in light of the factors such as
highway classification, rainfall, and longitudinal slope in conjunction with the
structure drainage design of subgrade and bridge & culvert, rationally select
drainage scheme, arrange drainage facilities and provide an integral and smooth
drainage system to ensure the stability of subgrade and pavement.
2. Pavement drainage consists of pavement surface drainage, median drainage, and
internal drainage of pavement structure.
3. Pavement drainage should be designed according to a flood in 5-year period of
recurrence for expressway and class 1 highway, and to a flood in 3-year period
recurrence for class 2 and lower highway, which can be higher somewhat for the
highways in rain region or special road sections.
4. Urban road drainage should be well connected with city drainage system.
10.0.2. Pavement surface drainage type
1. Decentralized drainage: It consists of crown slope, road shoulder and side slope
protection, which is suitable for the road section with gentle longitudinal slope, less
water accumulation and lower embankment.
2. Centralized drainage: It consists of crown slope, impound curb or rectangular trench,

weep hole, and chute, which are suitable for the road section with higher
embankment or full of silty soil and/or sandy soil easily to scour and the bottom of
concave curve, etc.
10.0.3. Side construction of earth shoulder for decentralized drainage road section
1. Generally, the earth shoulder is provided with ecological protection, e.g. growing
the turf adaptive to local climate and soil condition, and mounting transverse
drainpipes outside the top of subbase course to allow the seepage water occluded on
the bottom of greening fill course to flow out of subgrade through the transverse
drainpipes. See Figure 10.0.3a. For low-fill embankment, the construction shown in
Figure 10.0.3b applies with a bed course to the edge of subgrade.
2. For the section with relatively much more scouring, the earth shoulder is suitable to
adopt at least 50mm-thick precast cement concrete blocks or cast concrete in place,
underlain by pervious materials such as sand, sand gravel and crushed stone, etc. in
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Drainage Design
favor of pavement drainage. See Figure 10.0.3c. It may be also reinforced with
crushed stones and gravels as shown in Figure 10.0.3d.
3. Decentralized drainage should be designed in proper connection with subgrade

slope protection, side ditch or drainage ditch.
10.0.4. Centralized drainage in straight section
1. The interval of weep holes should be calculated in accordance with the relevant
specification, generally 30~50m, with an opening of 0.5m in width. More weep
holes should be provided at the bottom of a U-shaped vertical curve or other
position.
2. Impound strap can be made of asphalt concrete or precast cement concrete. In case
of asphalt concrete impound strap, the gradation of the asphalt concrete is suitable
to conform to Table 10.0.4. The dosage of asphalt is suitable to be 0.5%~1% more
than the result of Marshall Test, which should be tampered 50 times on both sides
with the porosity of 2%~4%. Precast cement concrete impound curb should be
provided with weep hole to drain water from inside of the pavement structure.
Fill and greening
Surface course
PVC pipe
Base course
Arched slope
protection
Subbase
Waterproof Crushed
course gravel
woven geotextile
a) Side Construction of Earth Shoulder Ⅰ

Fill and greening
Surface course 3D net turfing slope

protection
Base course
Subbase course
b) Side Construction of Earth Shoulder Ⅱ
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Precast cement concrete block

Crushed stones or sand
Surface course gravel pervious course
Base course
Fill
Subgrade side slope
Subbase course
c) Side Construction of Earth Shoulder Ⅲ
Shoulder reinforcing
Surface course
Crushed stone or sand
gravel pervious course PVC pipe
Top seepage geotextile
Anti-seepage geotextile Subgrade slope
Fill protection
Subbase course
d) Side Construction of Earth Shoulder Ⅳ
Figure 10.0.3. Construction of Decentralized Drainage Road Shoulder (cm)
Table 10.0.4. Material Gradation of Asphalt Concrete Impound Strap
Square pore sieve (mm) 16 13.2 4.75 2.36 0.3 0.075

Percentage by mass of passing（%） 100 85~100 65~80 50~65 18~30 5~15
10.0.5. Median opening drainage and centralized drainage can be used in the
super-elevation section of a new expressway. If adopts centralized drainage, it is suitable to
set a U-shaped precast monolithic concrete ditch or a slotted drainage ditch with reinforced
concrete cover fitted along the left side of the left marginal strip with sumps at the interval of
25~50m. The water therein is led to the chute on or embedded pipe in side slope through the
transverse drainpipes. See Figure 10.0.5.
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Drainage Design
Longitudinal
Transverse Sump blind drain
drainpipe di route
Design h
centerline
Chute
Side
ditch
Figure 10.0.5. Centralized Drainage in Super-elevation Section
10.0.6. For the wet and pluvial region, the drainage facility of median consists of drainage
ditch (open drain ditch or hidden drain ditch), seepage ditch, storm-water inlet, sump and
transverse drainpipe, etc. The median can be of cone, cave or flat type, generally, unclosed,
and closed sometime, shown in Figure 10.0.6.
1. In order to drain the surface water in the median, a longitudinal seepage ditch is
suitable to be furnished with transverse drainpipes at the interval of 40~80m to lead
out the water in the seepage ditch. The seepage ditch should be wrapped with filter
textile (geotextile) to prevent the fine grains carried by infiltration water from
clogging the seepage ditch. Lay the waterproof geotextile in the intersection area
between the backfiller over the seepage ditch and the pavement structure.
2. In case the median is closed with 40~80mm-thick precast concrete or cast-in-place

concrete, and with sand gravel bed course under it and the internal drainage system
may not be furnished.
Driveway Driveway
Waterproof geotextile
Surface course Surface course
Waterproof geotextile
Base course Base course
Subbase course Subbase course
Earth base
PVC pipe
Crushed stone Soft pervious tube or porous pipe
blind ditch
a) Detail of Drainage in Median (Convex Type)
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Precast concrete block
Driveway Driveway
Surface course Surface course
Base course Base course
Subbase course Subbase course
Earth base
b) Detail of Closed Median Drainage (Convex Type)
Figure 10.0.6. Drainage in Median (unit: cm)
10.0.7. Design requirements for pavement internal drainage
1. When there probably appears restrained water in pavement, it is can pave a drainage
base with asphalt macadam, skeleton void type cement stabilized macadam, or
graded crushed stones.
2. The drainage base course should be made of clean, firm and durable macadam with
a crushing value not greater than 28%, and the maximum grain size of 20mm or
25mm, The aggregate gradation should meet the requirement for water permeability
(permeability coefficient mustn’t be less than 300m/d), which can be determined by
constant or variable head permeability test.
3. The skeleton gap type cement stabilized macadam should have an immersed
compressive strength not less than 3~4MPa at the age of 7 days. The amount of
asphalt for open gradation asphalt macadam aggregate can be 2.5%~4.5% of
aggregate dry weight.
10.0.8. Side drainage of pavement should be designed based on the local experience, the
road shoulder can be filled with pervious materials such as sands, gravels and crushed stones,
etc. constituting a drainage system together with transverse drainpipes and filter textile
(geotextile).
10.0.9. Drainage on bridge deck pavement
1. The water on bridge deck flows into discharge openings along crown slope and
longitudinal slope, and then, collects to the longitudinal drainage pipe. For the
bridge across a normal river, the deck water can directly flow down through the
drainpipe.
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Drainage Design
2. In order to discharge the water accumulated in bridge deck, it is necessary to set a

40mm-wide and 50mm-depth macadam seepage ditch on the side of bridge deck,
which is connected with the discharge openings at the interval of 5~10 m.
3. Drainage design should be augmented for super large bridge and important large
bridge. Side drainage design can refer to Figure 10.0.9.
Joint filler
Prime coat Upper Surface Curb

Side structure
course
Spiral drainpipe
Bridge
Joint foam filler
Lower surface Storm-water inlet
Spiral drainpipe course Expansion joint
Waterproof course
Abutment
Figure 10.0.9. Side Drainage of Bridge Deck
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11. Bridge Deck Pavement and Other Works
11.1. Bridge Deck Pavement
11.1.1. When the cement concrete bridge deck is surfaced with asphalt, the deck slab
should meet the following requirements:
1. The concrete deck slab should be flat, rough, dry, clean. There should not appear
such as free of laitance, dust, water, debris and oily stains. For the bridges in
expressway and class 1 highway, their decks is suitable to be roughened. For super
large bridges and important large bridges, their decks is suitable to grit blasted.
2. When the concrete deck needs to be furnished with a leveling course, the concrete
leveling course is suitable to have a thickness not less than 80mm and set
reinforcement mat according to the requirements. The fiber concrete leveling course
is suitable to have a thickness not less than 60mm; the leveling course should have
the same concrete strength grade as the girder, and be tightly bonded with bridge
deck. When the leveling course is thinner, it can be leveled with asphalt mixture or
by thickening lower surface course.
11.1.2. The asphalt bridge pavement consists of waterproof course, lower surface course
and upper surface course. See Figure 11.1.2. The waterproof course and the lower surface
course jointly constitute a waterproof system. Great attention should be given to water
tightness and thermal stability of the lower surface course.
1. The waterproof course and the

Bridge deck pavement
Waterproof system
lower surface course should be Upper surface course

designed in light of bridge type,
structure
Waterproof course
safety grade, and environmental Lower surface course

conditions (e.g. acid fog and
rain in frost or ocean region).
2. Super large bridges and Bridge deck

important large bridges is
suitable to have a lower seal Figure 11.1.2. Structural Diagram of Bridge Deck
coat laid over the top of Pavement with Asphalt
concrete floor.
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Bridge Deck Pavement and Other Works
11.1.3. The waterproof course can be made of special waterproof materials such as film
coating and roll, etc. or polymer modified asphalt materials such as asphaltic sands, asphalt
mastic, hot melting asphalt macadam and slurry seal coat, etc. or reactive resin waterproof
materials such as epoxy-resin lower seal coat, etc.
The lower surface course made of cast asphalt concrete can be deemed to be waterproof.
However, the location susceptible to negative bending moment under the action of dynamic
load is suitable to provide with anti-splitting measures.
11.1.4. The bridge deck pavement thickness in expressway and class 1 highway is suitable
to be 70mm~100mm. The bridge deck pavement thickness in class 2 and class 3 highways is
suitable to be 50mm~90mm. The upper surface course should not be less than 30mm in
thickness, and not less than 50mm in case that bridge deck pavement is a single course.
1. When road pavement and bridge deck are constructed continuously, they are
suitable to have the same surface course structure and thicknesses with the surface
course and medium surface course at both ends of roads, regardless of large,
medium or small bridges in expressway and class 1 highway.
2. For large, medium and small bridges in all the classes of highway, their waterproof
course can be made of asphaltic sands, hot melting asphalt macadam seal coat,
slurry seal coat, film coating, roll, etc., and with special prime coat furnished in light
of actual condition to strengthen bonding. The lower surface course can be
composed of dense gradation asphalt concrete, asphalt mastic macadam, etc. to form
a waterproof system. The porosity of asphalt mixture should be strictly controlled.
3. The surface course must be made of dense gradation asphalt mixture. The antiskid
surface course should be paved on the bridge deck in rainy and moist region, or with
a longitudinal slope greater than 3.5%, or a design speed greater than 50km/h.
11.1.5. Bridge deck pavement should be specially designed for super large bridges and
important large bridges, etc.
1. For super larger bridges and important large bridges, select the waterproof course to
cast asphalt concrete, asphalt mastic or film coating, etc. and cast asphalt concrete or
asphalt mastic macadam lower surface course to constitute a waterproof system.
2. The shear strength and tensile strength should be checked between various structural
courses of bridge deck pavement.
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11.2. Other Works
11.2.1. Bridge head connection
Bridge deck pavement should be smoothly connected with approach roads in bridge head.
Medium and large bridges should have a transition slab furnished at both ends of bridge head,
where the subgrade should be reinforced by technical measures of replacement of stabilized
soil or sand and gravel, or geogrid to mitigate potential settlement after construction, prevent
or abate bump at bridge-head.
11.2.2. The side construction of expressway and class 1 highway can be designed as per
Figure 11.2.2.
Hard shoulder Earth shoulder
Figure 11.2.2. Side Construction of Pavement (cm)
1- Curb; 2- Surface course; 3- Base course; 4- Subbase course
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Appendix
Appendix A Vibration Moulding Process for Samples of Semi-rigid
Base Material and Anti-freezing Test Method
A.1. Vibration Moulding Process for Samples of Semi-rigid Base

Material
A.1.1. Purpose and Applicable Scope
This test process applies to various kinds of samples moulded through vibratory compaction
with the material stabilized of inorganic binders, including cylindrical samples used for the
test of unconfined compressive strength, indirect tensile strength and compressive resilience
modulus as well as beam samples used for the test of temperature contraction coefficient, dry
shrinkage coefficient, folding strength, and resilience modulus of rupture.
Cylindrical samples should have a diameter of 150mm and a height of 150mm. Beam samples
should have a size of 400×100×100mm (L×W×H).
A.1.2. Instruments and Equipments
1. Vibration compaction moulding machine (Figure A.1.2): Static pressure, exciting

force and vibration frequency are adjustable (It is the same as that used for
determining compactness through vibration), and with a Φ150mm round indenter
and a 100mm×400mm rectangular indenter provided.
2. Cylindrical sample mould
Steel mould: Inside diameter 152mm, height

170mm, wall thickness 10mm.
Mould collar: Inside diameter 152mm,

height 50mm, wall thickness 10mm.
Bolster: Diameter 151mm, height 20mm.
Bottom plate: Diameter 300mm, height

10mm.
All these parts can be assembled together

with bolts. Figure A.1.2. Schematic Diagram of
Vibration Compaction Moulding Machine
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3. Beam sample mould
Side steel plate: 450×180×150mm (length × width × thickness).
Steel bolster: 400×100×25mm (length × width × thickness).
All these parts can be assembled together with bolts.
4. Platform scale: Weighing capacity 15kg, sensitivity 5g;

Electronic scale: Weighing capacity 3kg, sensitivity 0.01g;
5. Square pore sieve: Pore size of each standard sieve respectively 37.5mm, 31.5mm,
26.5mm, 19mm, 9.5mm, 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 0.6mm, and 0.075mm.
6. Measuring cylinder: Respectively 50ml, 100ml, and 500ml.
7. Straight scraper: Length 200~250mm, width 30mm, thickness 3mm. It is a single-

edged scraper used to daub and finish large granular samples.
8. Mixing tool: An about 400×600×70mm rectangular metal tray, a butt small shovel
used to mix, etc.
9. Stripper.
10. Spanner and pliers used for tightening bolts, and small hammer used for adjust the
angle of eccentric block, etc.
A.1.3. Preparation of Samples Material
A given amount of typical sample material should be prepared to test its air-dry moisture
content one day prior to testing, i.e. not less than 100g for fine grained material, not less than
1,000g for medium grained material, and not less than 2,000g for coarse granular material. At
the same time, lime and cement should also be tested for their moisture content.
Calculate the weight of each kind of aggregate depending on the maximum dry density
obtained through standard compaction test, designed aggregate grading and volume of a
sample. Then, weigh them out to testing need.
There shall be 13 test pieces of each mix design for the test of unconfined compressive
strength, indirect tensile strength and compressive resilience modulus test, and 6 beam test
pieces of each mix design for the test of temperature contraction coefficient, dry shrinkage
coefficient, folding strength, and resilience modulus of rupture.
A.1.4. Sample Making Process
1. Set the vibration parameters of vibration compaction moulding machine, generally,

static pressure 1,900N, exciting force 6,800~6,900N, and vibration frequency
28~30Hz. Select a round indenter or rectangular indenter according to the shape of
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Appendix
the samples to be moulded. Determine the dimensions to which the mixture needs to
be moulded through vibratory compaction. Set the scale on vibration compaction
moulding machine in desired position.
2. Put and spread a package of test material on a metal tray. Spray a given amount of
water over it which is calculated according to optimal water content identified
through standard compaction test. Use a small shovel to fully stir them for even
mixture.
The adding amount of water can be calculated by the following equation:
In which: Qw -- The adding amount of water in mixture (g);
Qn -- The mass of aggregate (g). Its original water content is wn, i.e. air-dry
water content (%);
Qc -- The mass of cement or lime (g). Its original water content is wc (%);
w -- The water content of mixture to be reached (%).
3. Add the binder materials such as cement or fly-ash and lime to soaked test material.
Use a small shovel, trowel or other tools to blend them into even mixture. For
cement-added test material, it shall be vibration tested within 1 hour after evenly
blended. Otherwise, the test material shall be rejected (exclusive of lime or lime
fly-ash stabilized material).
4. Assemble steel mould collar, steel mould and steel bottom plate together, and place
it on a firm ground. Divide the evenly blended mixture into four parts, and put them
into the cylinder one after another. Meanwhile, use an around 2cm-diamete rod to
pestle. After that, level its surface, compact it lightly, and cover it with a pre-tailored
plastic paper. Then, put the mixture filled steel mould on the steel bottom plate of
vibration compaction moulding machine, and fix the bottom plate of steel mould
and the bottom plate of vibration compaction moulding machine with bolts.
5. After pointing the vibrating indenter to steel mould, lower the vibrator by a manual
chain hoist to make the indenter in close contact with the mixture in steel mould.
After that, put the chain in its position, check the bolting and related connections in
vibration compaction moulding machine, and confirm that no other article is placed
on the vibration compaction moulding machine.
6. Start vibration compaction moulding machine. Observe the variation of scale
indicator carefully. Power off the vibration compaction moulding machine
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immediately when the scale indicator reaches the desired position. Take down the
duration of vibratory compaction.
7. Raise the vibrating indenter using manual chain hoist. Loosen the bolt in the bottom
plate of steel mould, and then, remove steel mould together with compacted mixture.
Remove the collar by loosening the bolt. At this moment, top surface of compacted
mixture shall be flush with top edge of steel mould.
8. Place the steel mould filled with mixture at a proper location by holding the bolster
on the bottom of steel mould. After a period of time in light of mixture composition
type, push the compacted mixture out of steel mold using a stripper.
For beam sample, it is necessary to loosen bolt, and remove side plate carefully.
However, the sample shall remain on the steel bolster, and mustn’t be moved until
the mixture gets strong enough.
9. After the sample is stripped or can be handled, wrap it with plastic membrane, and
place it in a curing room immediately. Curing conditions are the same as those for
static pressure method.
A.1.5. Notes and Descriptions
1. For cement stabilized material, the longer the interval between water added mixing
and test is, the more cement is hydrated and set. Therefore, when cement is used as
binder, vibratory compaction test must be performed within 1 hour after test
material is blended.
2. Since vibration might damage test instruments, it is essential to carefully check the
instruments for bolt tightness prior to test, and fully observe operating rules at the
time of operation to avoid accidents arising from carelessness. In case of a shorter
period of vibratory compaction, it is necessary to carefully observe if the vibrating
indenter resilient normally. Don’t allow vibration compaction moulding machine in
long-time resilient state.
3. For the mixture after vibration compaction, in order to prevent compacted mixture
from deformation or loosening, the cylindrical test piece shall not be stripped
immediately. When the compacted mixture is stripped depends on its composition
type:
2~3h for suspended dense structural mixture;
5~6h for skeleton density structural mixture;
10~12h for skeleton gap structural mixture.
Compared with cylindrical test piece, beam test pieces is more susceptible to damage when it
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Appendix
is just molded. Therefore, after vibration compaction and the side plate is removed, beam test
pieces shall remain on steel bolster, and not handled until 24 hours later. If temporary
handling is inevitable, handle it carefully by holding the steel bolster.
4. After the mixture is put into steel mould, and leveled, it shall be covered with a
plastic paper. This can prevent fine grains in the mixture from sticking to vibrating
indenter. If so, it will not only affect vibrating effect, but make top surface of the
sample rough when the indenter is raised after completion of the test.
5. The evenly blended mixture must be divided into four parts, and put into the
cylinder one after another. For semi-rigid base material, the segregation has
considerable effect on the result of laboratory test.
A.2. Anti-freezing Test Method for Semi-rigid Base Material

A.2.1. Purpose and Applicable Scope
This test method applies to the anti-freezing test of semi-rigid base material stabilized with
cement or fly-ash and lime.
The anti-freezing of a semi-rigid base material is evaluated by the ratio of its saturated
unconfined compressive strength at the age of 28d or 180d with exposure to several of
freezing and thawing cycles to that with no exposure to be freezing.
The test piece adopts a sample with a diameter of 150mm and the height-to-diameter ratio of
1: 1.
A.2.2. Instruments and Equipments
1. Road construction material strength tester, or a 200kN or above press machine.

2. Test mould: 150mm×150mm (diameter × height).
3. Balance: Sensitivity 0.01g.
4. Stripper.
5. Thermostatic (20℃±2℃) moist (97%) chamber.
6. Constant temperature refrigerator: Keep the temperature at -18℃. In case no special
constant temperature refrigerator is available, household refrigerator can be used
instead with a precision of temperature control less than ±1℃).
7. Platform scale: Weighing capacity 15kg, sensitivity 5g.
8. Water tank: Its depth should be 50mm greater than the height of a test piece.
9. Other instruments: Measuring cylinder, agitating tool, funnel, aluminum boxes,

oven, etc.
-71-
A.2.3. Preparation of Test Material
Test material should be prepared in accordance with the “Test Methods of Materials Stabilized
with Inorganic Binders for Highway Engineering” (JTJ 057-94), T 0805-94, Clause 4.0.3.
A.2.4. Sample Making Process
1. The maximum dry density and the optimal moisture content of the materials
stabilized with inorganic binders should be determined by compaction test or
vibratory compaction test. The test piece molded with static pressure method takes
the degree of compaction of 98%.
2. Each group (2 groups) has 9 test pieces.
A.2.5. Sample Curing
Curing temperature: 20℃±2℃.
The sample curing period for five cycles of freezing and thawing should be 28 days, and that
for ten cycles is 180 days.
A.2.6. Testing Procedure
1. Saturate the samples at room temperature for 24 hours one day prior to completion
of curing.
2. After taking the saturated samples out of water, towel them dry, weigh them, and
measure their height (h1) to a precision of 0.1mm using a vernier caliper.
3. Divide the samples into two groups with 9 pieces each. Place the first group of
samples on the lifting platform of the pavement material strength tester (with flat
ball seat placed in advance) for compressive test. Then, begin to test. In testing
process, keep test pieces under uniform deformation at a rate of 1mm/min. Take
down the maximum pressure P (k) at the time of sample failure.
4. Place the second group of samples in a constant temperature refrigerator (or the
freezing compartment of a household refrigerator) with a freezing temperature of
-18℃±1℃ for 16h±1h.
5. After taking the second group of samples from the refrigerator, weigh them, and
measure their height (h2) to a precision of 0.1mm using a vernier caliper. Then, put
them in a water tank at room temperature of 20℃ for 8h±1h.
6. After taking the second group of samples subjected to freezing and thawing cycle
from the water tank, use a soft cloth to absorb the free water over them, weigh them,
and then, replace them in the refrigerator to repeat the first freezing and thawing
cycle.
7. Such freezing and thawing is carried out for 5 or 10 cycles in light of test
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Appendix
requirement. After the last freezing process is over, take the samples from the
refrigerator, and put them in the water tank for 24h. After that, take the saturated
samples out of water, towel them dry, weigh them, and measure their height.
8. Place the second group of samples on the lifting platform of the road construction
material strength tester. Then, begin to test. In testing process, keep test pieces under
uniform deformation at a rate of 1mm/min. Take down the maximum pressure P (N)
at the time of sample failure.
A.2.7. Calculation
1. The unconfined compressive strength of a sample can be calculated by the

following equation:
In which: Rc, RDC --Respectively the saturated unconfined compressive strength before and
after freezing and thawing cycle (MPa).
P -- The maximum pressure at the time of sample failure, N.
A -- The cross section of sample, mm2.
2. Permissible error
The deviation coefficient (Cv, %) of test result of samples should not be larger than 20%.
3. The ratio of retained compressive strength of semi-rigid base material due to
freezing and thawing can be calculated using the following equation:
In which: BDR -- The ratio of retained strength of semi-rigid base material due to freezing
and thawing, %.
Rc, RDC-- Have the same meaning as Equation A.2.7-1.
-73-
Appendix B Relevant Data in Climatic Region
Table B.1. Statistical Climatic Data of Each Province (Municipality

and Autonomous Region) from 1960 to 2000
Min. and Max. Temperature
Temperature (℃)
(℃) Freezing Index
Station Province Latitude (°) Minimum Maximum 98% Guarantee Rate
Standard Multiyear Mean Standard Multiyear
Multiyear Mean Maximum Minimum Maximum
Deviation of Hottest 7d Deviation Mean
Haozhou Anhui 33.87 -12 3 36 2 40 -18 39 81
Hefei Anhui 31.87 -9 2 36 1 38 -13 16 33
Huangshan Anhui 30.13 -18 2 23 1 25 -22 249 347
Beijing Beijing 39.93 -16 3 34 2 38 -22 178 308
Xiamen Fujian 24.48 4 1 34 1 36 2 — —
Jiuxianshan Fujian 25.72 -10 2 25 1 27 -14 — —
Jianou Fujian 27.05 -5 2 37 1 39 -9 — —
Fuzhou Fujian 26.08 1 2 36 1 38 -3 — —
Jiuquan Gansu 39.77 -25 3 31 1 33 -31 699 858
Lanzhou Gansu 36.05 -17 2 33 2 37 -21 276 338
Tianshui Gansu 34.58 -14 2 32 2 36 -18 105 154
Zhanjiang Guangdong 21.22 6 2 34 1 36 2 — —
Guangzhou Guangdong 23.13 3 2 34 1 37 -1 — —
Shaoguan Guangdong 24.8 -1 2 36 1 38 -5 — —
Nanning Guangxi 22.82 2 2 35 1 37 -2 — —
-74-
Appendix
Min. and Max.

Temperature (℃)
Temperature (℃) Freezing Index
Beihai Guangxi 21.48 4 2 33 1 35 0 — —
Guilin Guangxi 25.32 -2 2 35 1 37 -6 — —
Weining Guizhou 26.87 -9 2 25 1 27 -13 — —
Guiyang Guizhou 26.58 -5 2 31 1 33 -9 — —
Luodian Guizhou 25.43 -1 2 35 1 37 -5 — —
Sanya Hainan 18.23 12 3 33 1 35 6 — —
Haikou Hainan 20.03 8 2 35 1 37 4 — —
Xisha Hainan 16.83 18 1 33 1 35 16 — —
Shijiazhuang Hebei 38.03 -15 3 35 1 37 -21 113 184
Weichang Hebei 41.93 -26 2 29 2 33 -30 1083 1233
Zhangjiakou Hebei 40.78 -21 2 33 2 37 -25 599 708
Anyang Henan 36.12 -13 3 35 1 37 -19 69 153
Sanmenxia Henan 34.8 -11 2 35 2 39 -15 53 93
Zhengzhou Henan 34.72 -12 2 35 2 39 -16 48 91
Nanyang Henan 33.03 -10 3 35 2 39 -16 22 67
Mohe Heilongjiang 53.47 -47 3 29 2 33 -53 3573 4148
Heihe Heilongjiang 50.25 -37 3 30 2 34 -43 2450 2843
Harbin Heilongjiang 45.75 -34 3 31 1 33 -40 1623 2140
Suifenhe Heilongjiang 44.38 -31 2 29 2 33 -35 1586 2009
Yichang Hubei 30.7 -4 2 37 1 39 -8 1 10
Jingzhou Hubei 30.33 -6 3 35 1 37 -12 2 12
Wuhan Hubei 30.62 -6 3 36 1 38 -15 5 19
Hengyang Henan 26.9 -4 2 37 1 39 -8 — —
-75-
Continued
Min. and Max.
Temperature (℃)
Station Province Latitude (°)
Minimum Maximum 98% Guarantee Rate
Multiyear Mean Deviation of HottestMean
Standard Multiyear Standard
7d Deviation Maximum Minimum Multiyear
Mean Maximum
Nanyue Hunan 27.3 -12 2 27 1 29 -16 — —
Yueyang Hunan 29.38 -5 3 35 1 37 -11 — —
Baicheng Jilin 45.63 -31 3 32 2 36 -37 1487 2092
Changchun Jilin 43.9 -29 3 31 2 35 -35 1308 1799
Huadian Jilin 42.98 -37 4 30 2 34 -45 1504 2088
Songjiang Jilin 42.53 -38 3 29 2 33 -44 1631 1958
Xuzhou Jiangsu 34.28 -12 3 35 1 37 -18 42 76
Nanjing Jiangsu 32 -10 2 35 1 37 -14 15 33
Nantong Jiangsu 32.02 -8 2 34 1 36 -12 9 25
Ganzhou Jiangxi 25.85 -3 1 36 1 38 -5 — —
Nanchang Jiangxi 28.6 -5 2 37 1 39 -9 — —
Lushan Jiangxi 29.58 -13 2 28 1 30 -17 — —
Jingdezhen Jiangxi 29.3 -7 2 36 1 38 -11 — —
Kaiyuan Liaoning 42.53 -31 3 31 2 35 -37 1095 1542
Jinzhou Liaoning 41.13 -21 3 31 2 35 -27 546 865
Shenyang Liaoning 41.73 -27 2 31 2 35 -31 882 1225
Dalian Liaoning 38.9 -16 3 29 1 31 -22 242 360
Tulihe Neimenggu 50.48 -46 2 27 2 31 -50 3370 3902
Hailaer Neimenggu 49.22 -40 3 30 2 34 -46 2631 3097
Wulatehouqi Neimenggu 41.57 -29 3 31 2 35 -35 1187 1356
Hohhot Neimenggu 40.82 -25 3 31 2 35 -31 899 1028
Xilinhaote Neimenggu 43.95 -34 3 32 2 36 -40 1828 2060
Yinchuan Ningxia 38.48 -22 3 32 1 34 -28 503 607
-76-
Appendix
Min. and Max.

Temperature (℃)
Guyuan Ningxia 36 -24 3 28 2 32 -30 600 736
Delingha Qinghai 37.37 -27 4 27 2 31 -35 952 1093
Xining Qinghai 36.62 -21 2 28 2 32 -25 594 760
Wudaoliang Qinghai 35.22 -32 2 16 2 20 -36 2443 2579
Qingshuihe Qinghai 33.8 -37 3 16 1 18 -43 2362 2804
Jinan Shandong 36.68 -13 2 35 1 37 -17 69 171
Taishan Shandong 36.25 -22 2 23 1 25 -26 654 785
Yiyuan Shandong 36.18 -16 2 33 1 35 -20 158 203
Qingdao Shandong 36.07 -11 2 30 1 32 -15 64 115
Datong Shanxi 40.1 -26 2 31 2 35 -30 830 940
Wutaishan Shanxi 39.03 -35 3 16 2 20 -41 1914 2501
Taiyuan Shanxi 37.78 -20 2 32 1 34 -24 331 393
Yuncheng Shanxi 35.03 -14 2 36 2 40 -18 65 102
Yulin Shaanxi 38.23 -25 3 33 2 37 -31 651 804
Yanan Shaanxi 36.6 -20 2 33 1 35 -24 324 466
Xi’an Shaanxi 34.3 -11 3 36 1 38 -17 46 92
Hanzhong Shaanxi 33.07 -7 1 33 2 37 -9 4 22
Shanghailonghua Shanghai 31.17 -7 2 35 1 37 -11 — —
Shiqu Sichuan 32.98 -32 3 18 1 20 -38 1524 1661
Songpan Sichuan 32.65 -18 2 25 2 29 -22 270 369
Chengdu Sichuan 30.67 -4 1 33 1 35 -6 0 2
-77-
Continued
Min. and Max.
Temperature (℃)
Kangding Sichuan 30.05 -12 2 23 1 25 -16 178 235
Xichang Sichuan 27.9 -2 2 32 2 36 -6 — —
Wanyuan Sichuan 32.07 -6 2 34 1 36 -10 1 11
Tianjin Tianjin 39.1 -15 3 33 1 35 -21 207 317
Naqu Tibet 31.48 -31 4 18 2 22 -39 1382 1712
Lhasa Tibet 29.72 -15 2 26 2 30 -19 108 182
Pali Tibet 27.73 -26 3 14 1 16 -32 1025 1752
Aletai Xinjiang 47.73 -35 5 32 1 34 -45 1527 1838
Qinghe Xinjiang 46.67 -41 5 29 2 33 -51 2287 2780
Urumqi Xinjiang 43.78 -27 4 34 2 38 -35 1082 1462
Kashi Xinjiang 39.47 -18 4 34 1 36 -26 272 383
Hami Xinjiang 42.82 -23 3 37 2 41 -29 692 897
Zhongdian Yunnan 27.83 -20 3 21 1 23 -26 198 324
Zhaotong Yunnan 27.35 -8 2 28 1 30 -12 32 57
Kunming Yunnan 25.02 -3 2 27 1 29 -7 0 1
Jinghong Yunnan 22 6 2 35 2 39 2 — —
Hangzhou Zhejiang 30.23 -6 2 36 1 38 -10 4 13
Wenzhou Zhejiang 28 -3 1 34 1 36 -5 — —
Shapingba Chongqing 29.58 1 2 38 1 40 -3 — —
Youyang Chongqing 28.8 -5 1 33 1 35 -7 — —
-78-
Appendix
Appendix C Asphalt Mixture Mineral Grading and Specifications and Dosage of Asphalt
Penetration Type & Asphalt Surface Treatment Material
Table C.1. Mineral Grading of Various Asphalt Mixtures
Percentage % by mass passing various sieve pores (mm)

Type of Gradation
53 37.5 31.5 26.5 19.0 16.0 13.2 9.5 4.75 2.36 1.18 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.075
AC-5 100 90~100 55~75 35~55 20~40 12~28 7~18 5~10
AC-10 100 90~100 45~75 30~58 20~44 13~32 9~23 6~16 4~8
Dense gradation AC-13 100 90~100 68~85 38~68 24~50 15~38 10~28 7~20 5~15 4~8
asphalt concrete AC-16 100 90~100 70~92 60~80 34~62 20~48 13~36 9~26 7~18 5~14 4~8
AC-20 100 90~100 74~92 62~82 50~72 26~56 16~44 12~33 8~24 5~17 4~13 3~7
AC-25 100 90~100 70~90 60~83 51~76 40~65 24~52 14~42 10~33 7~24 5~17 4~13 3~7
SMA-13 100 90~100 50~75 20~34 15~26 14~24 12~20 10~16 9~15 8~12
Asphalt mastic
SMA-16 100 90~100 65~85 45~65 20~32 15~24 14~22 12~18 10~15 9~14 8~12
macadam
SMA-20 100 90~100 72~92 62~82 40~55 18~30 13~22 12~20 10~16 9~14 8~13 8~12
ATB-25 100 90~100 60~80 48~68 42~62 32~52 20~40 15~32 10~25 8~18 5~14 3~10 2~6
Dense gradation
asphalt macadam ATB-30 100 90~100 70~90 53~72 44~66 39~60 31~51 20~40 15~32 10~25 8~18 5~14 3~10 2~6
base course ATB-40 100 90~100 72~92 65~85 49~71 43~63 37~57 30~50 20~40 15~32 10~25 8~18 5~14 3~10 2~6
AM-13 100 90~100 50~80 20~45 8~28 4~20 2~16 0~10 0~8 0~6
AM-16 100 90~100 60~85 45~68 18~40 6~25 3~18 1~14 0~10 0~8 0~5
Semi-open
gradation asphalt AM-20 100 90~100 60~85 50~75 40~65 15~40 5~22 2~16 1~12 0~10 0~8 0~5
macadam AM-25 100 70~98 50~85 - 32~62 20~50 6~29 6~18 3~15 2~10 1~7 1~6 1~4
AM-40 100 75~98 67~96 50~80 25~60 - 15~40 10~35 6~25 6~18 3~15 2~10 1~7 1~6 1~4
ATPB-25 100 80~100 60~100 45~90 30~82 16~70 0~3 0~3 0~3 0~3 0~3 0~3 0~3
Open gradation
asphalt macadam ATPB-30 100 80~100 70~95 53~85 36~80 26~75 14~60 0~3 0~3 0~3 0~3 0~3 0~3 0~3
base course ATPB-40 100 70~100 65~90 55~85 43~75 32~70 20~65 12~50 0~3 0~3 0~3 0~3 0~3 0~3 0~3
-79-
Table C.2. Specifications and Dosage of

Asphalt Penetration Type Surface Course Material (Square Sieve Pores)
Type of Asphalt Petroleum Asphalt
Thickness (mm) 40 50 60
Spec. & Dosage Specification Dosage Specification Dosage Specification Dosage
Seal coat material S14 3~5 S14 3~5 S13(S14) 4~6
3rd time asphalt 1.0~1.2 1.0~1.2 1.0~1.2
2nd time joint filler S12 6~7 S11(S10) 10~12 S11(S10) 10~12
2nd time asphalt 1.6~1.8 1.8~2.0 2.0~2.2
1st time joint filler S10(S9) 12~14 S8 16~18 S8(S6) 16~18
1st asphalt 1.8~2.1 2.4~2.6 2.8~3.0
Main course stone S5 45~50 S4 55~60 S3(S2) 66~76
Total amount of asphalt 4.4~5.1 5.2~5.8 5.8~6.4
Thickness (mm) 70 80 Remark
Spec. & Dosage Specification Dosage Specification Dosage
Seal coating material S13(S14) 4~6 S13(S14) 4~6

1. In the region exposed to
rd
3 time asphalt 1.0~1.2 1.0~1.2 extreme cold weather or
dryness and sand storm,
2nd time joint filler S10(S11) 11~13 S10(S11) 11~13
the upper limits can be 5%
2nd time asphalt 2.4~2.6 2.6~2.8 ~10% higher.
2. Aggregate dosage takes

1st time joint filler S6(S8) 18~20 S6(S8) 20~22
m3/1000m2 as unit.
st
1 asphalt 3.3~3.5 4.0~4.2 Asphalt and asphalt
emulsion dosage takes
Main course stone S3 80~90 S1(S2) 95~100
kg/m2 as unit.
Total amount of asphalt 6.7~7.3 7.6~8.2
-80-
Appendix
Table C.3. Specifications and Dosage of Penetration Course Material (Upper

Mixing & Lower Penetrating Type) for Surfacing (Square Sieve Pores)
Thickness (mm) 40 50 60
Spec. & Dosage Specification Dosage Specification Dosage Specification Dosage
2nd time joint filler S12 5~6 S12(S11) 7~9 S12(S11) 7~9
2nd time asphalt 1.4~1.6 1.6~1.8 1.6~1.8
1st time joint filler S10(S9) 12~14 S8 16~18 S8(S7) 16~18
1st time asphalt 2.0~2.3 2.6~2.8 3.2~3.4
Main course stone S5 45~50 S4 55~60 S3(S2) 66~76
Total amount of
3.4~3.9 4.2~4.6 4.8~5.2
asphalt
Thickness (mm) 70 Remark
Spec. & Dosage Specification Dosage
2nd joint filler S10(S11) 8~10
2nd time asphalt 1.7~1.9
1st time joint filler S6(S8) 18~20 In the region exposed to extreme cold weather or
dryness and sand storm, the upper limits can be 5%
1st time asphalt 4.0~4.2 ~10% higher.
Main course stone S2(S3) 80~90
Total amount of
5.7~6.1
asphalt
-81-
Table C.4. Specification and Dosage for Material of Asphalt Surface Treatment
(Square Sieve Pores)
Dosage of Asphalt or
3 2
Aggregate (m /1000 m ) Emulsion Asphalt
Type of Thickness
Type (kg/m2)
Asphalt (mm)
1st Course 2nd Course 3nd Course 1st 2nd 3nd
Total
Spec. Dosage Spec. Dosage Spec. Dosage Time Time Time
Single 10 S12 7~9 1.0~1.2 1.0~1.2
Course 15 S10 12~14 1.4~1.6 1.4~1.6

15 S10 12~14 S12 7~8 1.4~1.6 1.0~1.2 2.4~2.8
Petroleum Double
20 S9 16~18 S12 7~8 1.6~1.8 1.0~1.2 2.6~3.0
Asphalt Course
25 S8 18~20 S12 7~8 1.8~2.0 1.0~1.2 2.8~3.2
Triple 25 S8 18~20 S12 12~14 S12 7~8 1.6~1.8 1.2~1.4 1.0~1.2 3.8~4.4
Course 30 S6 20~22 S12 12~14 S12 7~8 1.8~2.0 1.2~1.4 1.0~1.2 4.0~4.6
Single
05 S14 7~9 0.9~1.0 0.9~1.0
Course
Emulsified Double
10 S12 9~11 S14 4~6 1.8~2.0 1.0~1.2 2.8~3.2
Asphalt Course
Triple S12 4~6
30 S6 20~22 S10 9~11 2.0~2.2 1.8~2.0 1.0~1.2 4.8~5.4
Course S14 3.5~5.5
Notes:
1. The dosage of emulsion asphalt is calculated according to the percentage of residue

by evaporation content 60%. Conversion should be conducted if the percentage
differs from it.
2. In the region exposed to extreme cold weather or dryness and sand storm, the upper
limits can be 5%~10% higher.
-82-
Appendix
Appendix D Gradation Composition of Non-binder Material
Table D.1. Gradation Composition of Graded Macadam
Index (%)
Limit (%)
Plasticity
Percentage (%) by Mass Passing Following Sieve Pores (mm)
Liquid
Course Remark
37.5 31.5 26.5 19 16 13.2 9.5 4.75 2.36 1.18 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.075
Upper Transition course
base 100 85~100 60~80 30~50 15~30 10~20 0~5 against reflection
course cracking
100 90~100 79~95 60~85 53~80 48~74 40~65 25~50 18~40 13~32 9~25 6~20 3~13 0~7
Continuous type
Base 100 90~100 75~95 66~88 59~82 46~71 30~55 18~40 13~32 9~25 6~20 3~13 0~7
course <25 <8 skeleton density
100 85~95 66~80 44~56 37~48 31~41 28~38 18~28 12~20 8~14 5~11 3~9 0~6
type
95~100 85~95 75~90 60~82 53~78 48~74 40~65 25~50 18~40 13~32 9~25 6~20 3~13 0~7 Continuous type
Subbase
course and 100 85~100 65~85 42~67 20~40 10~27 8~20 5~18 0~10 Skeleton type
bed course
100 80~100 56~87 30~60 18~46 10~33 5~20 0~10 Continuous type
Notes:
1. The upper base course can refer to the graded macadam between asphalt pavement and semi-rigid base. The upper base course
material is suitable to grade in accordance with this provision.
2. Plasticity index of the base course in rainy and moist region should not be greater than 4%.
3. The percentage by mass passing the sieve of 0.075mm should not exceed 5% when used for drainage or anti-freezing bed course.
-83-
Table D.2. Gradation Composition of Graded Gravel
Percentage (%) by Mass Passing Following Sieve Pores (mm)

Liquid Plasticity
Course No.
Limit Index
53 37.5 31.5 26.5 19 9.5 4.75 1.18 0.6 0.075
1 100 90~100 65~85 45~70 30~55 20~37 15~25 7~12 <43 12~21
Sand-gravel pavement
① 2 100 85~100 70~90 50~70 40~60 25~40 20~32 8~15 <43 12~21
surface course
3 100 85~100 60~80 45~65 30~50 20~32 8~15 <43 12~18
1 100 90~100 65~85 45~70 30~55 15~35 10~20 4~10 <28 <9
Base course and subbase

② 2 100 90~100 75~90 50~70 30~55 15~35 10~20 4~10 <28 <9
course
3 100 85~100 60~80 30~50 15~30 10~20 2~8 <28 <9
Bed course 1 100 90~100 65~85 30~50 8~25 0~5 <28 <9
Notes:
① Wearing course may not be furnished. If furnished, the percentage of fine granular material less than 0.5mm and the plasticity Index
can apply the lower limit value.
② Plasticity index of the base course in rainy and moist region should not be greater than 6%.
-84-
Appendix
Appendix E Reference Data for Materials Design Parameters
Table E.1. Design Parameters of Asphalt Mixture
Compression Modulus (MPa) Cleavage

Material Strength at Remark
20℃ 15℃
15℃ (MPa)
Fine grained Dense gradation 1200~1600 1800~2200 1.2~1.6 AC-10, AC-13
asphalt concrete Open gradation 700~1000 1000~1400 0.6~1.0 OGFC
Asphalt mastic macadam 1200~1600 1600~2000 1.4~1.9 SMA
Medium grained asphalt concrete 1000~1400 1600~2000 0.8~1.2 AC-16, AC-20
Dense gradation coarse grained
800~1200 1000~1400 0.6~1.0 AC-25
asphalt concrete
Asphalt Dense gradation 1000~1400 1200~1600 0.6~1.0 ATB-25, ATB-35
macadam base Semi-open
600~800 — — AM-25, AM-40
course gradation
Asphalt penetration type material 400~600 — — —
-85-
Table E.2. Design Parameters of Base Course and Subbase Course Materials
Compression Compression Cleavage
Mixture Ratio and
Material Modulus E (MPa) Modulus E (MPa) Strength
Specification
(for deflection cal.) (for tensile stress cal.) σ (MPa)
Cement sand gravel 4%~6% 1100~1500 3000~4200 0.4~0.6
Cement macadam 4%~6% 1300~1700 3000~4200 0.4~0.6
Lime fly-ash sand
7:13:80 1100~1500 3000~4200 0.6~0.8
gravel
Lime fly-ash
8:17:80 1300~1700 3000~4200 0.5~0.8
macadam
Lime fly-ash cement
6:3:16:75 1200~1600 2700~3700 0.4~0.55
sand gravel
Fly-ash cement
4:16:80 1300~1700 2400~3000 0.4~0.55
macadam
Limestone soil
Granules>60% 700~1100 1600~2400 0.3~0.4
macadam
Macadam lime-soil Granules>40%-50% 600~900 1200~1800 0.25~0.35
Cement lime
4:3:25:68 800~1200 1500~2200 0.3~0.4
sand-gravel soil
Lime fly-ash soil 10:30:60 600~900 2000~2800 0.2~0.3
Limestone soil 8%~12% 400~700 1200~1800 0.2~0.25
Limestone soil for
4%~7% 200~350 — —
subgrade treatment
Continuous grading
300~350 —
type for base course
Skeleton dense type
Graded macadam 300~500 — —
for base course
Subbase course and
200~250 —
bed course
Gap filling crushed
Subbase course 200~280 — —
stones
Unscreened crushed
For subbase course 180~220 — —
stones
Graded sand gravel,
For subbase course 150~200 — —
natural sand gravel
Medium-coarse sand Bed course 80~100 — —
Note: The calculation parameter of tensile stress mainly depends on field measurement. This
table is used only for reference.
-86-
Appendix
Table E.3. Design Parameters of Crushed Gravels

Percentage of Dampness of Resilience Modulus Density Water Content
Crushed Gravel (%) Subgrade (MPa) (t/m3) (%)
Dry 90~100 2.05~2.25 7
>70 Humid 70~80 2.00~2.20 8
Wet 55~65 1.95~2.15 11
Dry 75~85 2.00~2.20 7
50~70 Humid 55~65 1.95~2.15 8
Wet 45~55 1.90~2.10 11
Dry 47~57 1.90~2.10 <10
30~50 Humid 30~40 1.85~1.95 10~15
Wet 20~30 1.75~1.85 >15
Dry 30~40 1.80~1.90 <10
<30 Humid 15~25 1.70~1.80 10~15
Wet 15 1.60~1.70 >15
-87-
Appendix F Estimation of Resilient Modulus for Earth Foundation

by Lookup Table Method
F.0.1. Determination of Critical Height

Critical height refers to the minimum height from roadbed top to groundwater level or
impounded surface water level where the subgrade is respectively in dry, Humid and wet
states in an unfavorable season, which can be determined empirically, based on soil and
climate conditions. If no sufficient live data is available, the critical heights (H1, H2, H3)
respectively in dry, humid and wet states can be determined with reference to Table F.0.1.
F.0 Determination of Average Consistency of Subgrade Soil

During preliminary design of a new road, if average consistency of soil cannot be obtained
through field measurement, it is allowed to ascertain the dampness type in each section of
subgrade based on the local experience or critical height of the subgrade, and then, infer the
average consistency (wc) of subgrade soil with reference to Tables 5.1.4-1 and 5.1.4-2.
F.0.3. Estimation of Design Resilience Modulus for Subgrade
The design modulus of resilience of subgrade can be estimated by referring to Table F.0.3
based on the type of subgrade soil, climatic region and the average consistency of subgrade
soil. When heavy-duty compaction standard applies, the design resilience modulus of
subgrade can be 20%~ 35% higher than the value given in the table.
Table F.0.1. Reference Values for Critical Height of Subgrade

Soil composition
From roadbed Sandy Soil
top to water level
Long-time surface Short-time surface
Groundwater
Critical water accumulation water accumulation
height
Natural zoning (m)
H1 H2 H3 H1 H2 H3 H1 H2 H3
II1
II2
II3 1.9~2.2 1.3~1.6
II4
II5 1.1~1.5 0.7~1.1
III1
III2 1.3~1.6 1.1~1.3 0.9~1.1 1.1~1.3 0.9~1.1 0.6~0.9 0.9~1.1 0.6~0.9 0.4~0.6
III3 1.3~1.6 1.1~1.3 0.9~1.1 1.1~1.3 0.9~1.1 0.6~0.9 0.9~1.1 0.6~0.9 0.4~0.6
III4
III1a
-88-
Appendix
Continued
Soil composition
From roadbed Sandy Soil
top to water level
Groundwater
height
Natural zoning (m)
H1 H2 H3 H1 H2 H3 H1 H2 H3
III2a 1.4~1.7 1.0~1.3

IV1, IV1a
IV2
IV3
IV4 1.0~1.1 0.7~0.8
IV5
IV6 1.0~1.1 0.7~0.8
IV6a
IV7 0.9~1.0 0.7~0.8 0.6~0.7
V1 1.3~1.6 1.1~1.3 0.9~1.1 1.1~1.3 0.9~1.1 0.6~0.9 0.9~1.1 0.6~0.9 0.4~0.6
V2, V2a (Purple soil)
V3
V2, V2a
(Yellow loam soil,
modern alluvial soil)
V4, V5, V5a
VI1 (2.1) (1.7) (1.3) (1.8) (1.4) (1.0) 0.7 0.3
VI1a (2.0) (1.6) (1.2) (1.7) (1.3) (1.0) (1.0) (0.5)
VI2 1.4~1.7 1.1~1.4 0.9~1.1 1.1~1.4 0.9~1.1 0.6~0.9 0.9~1.1 0.76~0.9 0.4~0.6
VI3 (2.1) (1.7) (1.3) (1.9) (1.5) (1.1)
VI4 (2.2) (1.8) (1.4) (1.9) (1.5) (1.2) 0.8
VI4a (1.9) (1.5) (1.1) (1.6) (1.2) (0.9) (0.5)
VI4b (2.0) (1.6) (1.2) (1.7) (1.3) (1.0)
VII1 (2.2) (1.9) (1.6) (2.1) (1.6) (1.3) (0.8) (0.4)
VII2
VII3 1.5~1.8 1.2~1.5 0.9~1.2 1.2~1.5 0.9~1.2 0.6~0.9 0.9~1.2 0.7~0.9 0.4~0.6
VII4 (2.1) (1.6) 1.3 (1.8) (1.4) 1.0 (0.9)
VII5 (3.0) (2.4) 1.9 (2.4) (2.0) 1.6 (1.5) (1.1) (0.5)
VII6a
-89-
Soil composition
From roadbed Clayey Soil
top to water level
Groundwater
height
Natural zoning (m)
H1 H2 H3 H1 H2 H3 H1 H2 H3
II1 2.9 2.2
II2 2.7 2.0
II3 2.5 1.8
II4 2.4~2.6 1.9~2.1 1.2~1.4
II5 2.1~2.5 1.6~2.0
III1
III2 2.2~2.75 1.7~2.2 1.3~1.7 1.75~2.2 1.3~1.7 0.9~1.3 1.3~1.75 0.9~1.3 0.45~0.9
III3 2.1~2.5 1.6~2.1 1.2~1.6 1.6~2.1 1.2~1.6 0.9~1.2 1.2~1.6 0.9~1.2 0.55~0.9
III4
III1a
III2a
IV1, IV1a 1.7~1.9 1.2~1.3 0.8~0.9
IV2 1.6~1.7 1.1~1.2 0.8~0.9
IV3 1.5~1.7 1.1~1.2 0.8~0.9 0.8~0.9 0.5~0.6 0.3~0.4
IV4 1.7~1.8 1.0~1.2 0.8~1.0
IV5 1.7~1.9 1.3~1.4 0.9~1.0 1.0~1.1 0.6~0.7 0.3~0.4
IV6 0.8~2.0 1.3~1.5 1.0~1.2 0.9~1.0 0.5~0.6 0.3~0.4
IV6a 1.6~1.7 1.1~1.2 0.7~0.8
IV7 1.7~1.8 1.4~1.5 1.1~1.2 1.0~1.1 0.7~0.8 0.4~0.5
V1 2.0~2.4 1.6~2.0 1.2~1.6 1.6~2.0 1.2~1.6 0.8~1.2 1.2~1.6 0.8~1.2 0.45~0.8
V2, V2a (Purple soil) 2.0~2.2 0.9~1.1 0.4~0.6
V3 1.7~1.9 0.8~1.0 0.4~0.6
V2, V2a 1.7~1.9 0.7~0.9 0.3~0.5
(Yellow loam,
V4, V5, V5a 1.7~1.9 0.9~1.1 0.4~0.6
VI1 (2.3) (1.9) (1.6) (2.1) (1.7) (1.3) 0.9 0.5
VI1a (2.2) (1.9) (1.5) (2.0) (1.6) (1.2) (0.9) (0.5)
VI2 2.2~2.75 1.65~2.2 1.2~1.65 1.65~2.2 1.2~1.65 0.75~1.2 1.2~1.65 0.75~1.2 0.45~0.75
VI3 (2.4) (2.0) (1.6) (2.1) (1.7) (1.4) (0.8) (0.6)
VI4 2.4 2.0 1.6 (2.2) (1.7) (1.3) 1.0 0.6
VI4a (2.2) (1.7) (1.4) (1.9) (1.4) (1.1) 0.7
-90-
Appendix
Continued
Soil composition
From roadbed
Clayey Soil
top to water level
Groundwater
height
Natural zoning (m)
H1 H2 H3 H1 H2 H3 H1 H2 H3
VI4b (2.3) (1.8) (1.4) (2.0) (1.6) (1.2) (0.8)
VII1 2.2 (1.9) (1.5) (2.1) (1.6) (1.2) (0.9) (0.5)
VII2 (2.3) (1.9) (1.6) 1.8 1.4 1.1 0.8 0.4
VII3 2.3~2.85 1.75~2.3 1.3~1.75 1.75~2.3 1.3~1.75 0.75~1.3 1.3~1.75 0.75~1.3 0.45~0.75
VII4 (2.1) (1.6) (1.3) (1.8) (1.4) (1.1) (0.7)
VII5 (3.3) (2.6) (2.1) (2.4) (2.0) (1.6) (1.5) (1.1) (0.5)
VII6a (2.8) 2.4 1.9 2.5 2.0 1.6 1.4 (0.8)

Soil composition
From roadbed
Silt Soil
top to water level
Groundwater
height
Natural zoning (m)
H1 H2 H3 H1 H2 H3 H1 H2 H3
II1 3.8 3.0 2.2
II2 3.4 2.6 1.9
II3 3.0 2.2 1.6
II4 2.6~2.8 2.1~2.3 1.4~1.6
II5 2.4~2.9 1.8~2.3
III1 2.4~3.0 1.7~2.4
III2 2.4~2.85 1.9~2.4 1.4~1.9 1.9~2.4 1.0~1.9 1.0~1.4 1.4~1.9 1.0~1.4 0.5~1.0
III3 2.3~2.75 1.8~2.3 1.4~1.8 1.8~2.3 1.4~1.8 1.0~1.4 1.4~1.8 1.0~1.4 0.55~1.0
III4 2.4~3.0 1.7~2.4
III1a 2.4~3.0 1.7~2.4
III2a 2.4~3.0 1.7~2.4
IV1, IV1a 1.9~2.1 1.3~1.4 0.9~1.0
IV2 1.7~1.9 1.2~1.3 0.8~0.9
IV3 1.7~1.9 1.2~1.3 0.8~0.9 0.9~1.0 0.6~0.7 0.3~0.4
IV4
IV5 1.79~2.1 1.3~1.5 0.9~1.1
IV6 2.0~2.2 1.5~1.6 1.0~1.1
IV6a 1.8~2.0 1.3~1.4 0.9~1.1
-91-
Continued
Soil composition Silty Soil
From roadbed
top to water level
Groundwater
height
Natural zoning (m)
H1 H2 H3 H1 H2 H3 H1 H2 H3
IV7
V1 2.2~2.65 1.7~2.2 1.3~1.7 1.7~2.2 1.3~1.7 0.9~1.3 1.3~1.7 0.9~1.3 0.55~0.9
V2, V2a (Purple soil) 2.3~2.5 1.4~1.6 0.5~0.7
V3 1.9~2.1 1.3~1.5 0.5~0.7
V2, V2a 2.3~2.5 1.4~1.6 0.5~0.7
(Yellow loam,
V4, V5, V5a 2.2~2.5 1.4~1.6 0.5~0.7
VI1 (2.5) (2.0) (1.6) (2.3) (1.8) (1.3) (1.2) 0.7 0.4
VI1a (2.5) (2.0) (1.5) (2.2) (1.7) (1.2) 0.6
VI2 2.3~2.15 1.85~2.3 1.4~1.85 1.85~2.3 1.4~1.85 0.9~1.4 1.4~1.85 0.9~1.4 0.5~0.9
VI3 (2.6) (2.1) (1.6) (2.4) (1.8) (1.4) (1.3) (0.7)
VI4 (2.6) (2.2) 1.7 2.4 1.9 1.4 1.3 0.8
VI4a (2.4) (1.9) 1.4 2.1 1.6 1.1 1.0 0.5
VI4b (2.5) 1.9 1.4 (2.2) (1.7) (1.2) 1.0 0.5
VII1 (2.5) (2.0) (1.5) (2.4) 1.8 1.3 1.1 0.6
VII2 (2.5) (2.1) (1.6) (2.2) (1.6) (1.1) 0.9 0.4
VII3 2.4~3.1 2.0~2.4 1.6~2.0 (2.0~2.4) (1.6~2.0) (1.0~1.6) (1.6~2.0) 1.0~1.6 0.55~1.0
VII4 (2.3) (1.8) (1.3) (2.1) (1.6) (1.1)
VII5 (3.8) (2.2) (1.6) (2.9) (2.2) (1.5) (1.3) (0.5)
VII6a (2.9) (2.5) 1.8 (2.7) 2.1 1.5 1.6 1.1
Notes:
1. H1, H2 and H3 are the critical heights of subgrade respectively in dry, humid and wet
states. Where the height from roadbed top to groundwater level is less than H3, an
over-wet subgrade is defined. Pavement construction mustn’t be carried out until
proper treatment is done.
2. In VI and VII districts, the underlines means that there are less measured data
available; the brackets means that there are no measured data available and they are
inferred from a law.
3. The III2, III3, VI2 and VII3 data were addressed by Gansu province in 1984, which
can be used for other regions’ reference.
4. The second-class district without sufficient data can refer to the figures of adjacent
second-class districts. Meanwhile, survey and study should be carried out actively to
obtain more data of its own.
-92-
Appendix
Table F.0.3. Reference Values for Resilient Modulus of Earth foundation in

Different Soil Compositions in Class 2 Natural Zoning (MPa)
Consistency
Zoning Soil 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.70 2.00
composition
Clayey soil 19.0 22.0 25.0 26.5 28.0 29.5 31.0
II1
Silty soil 18.5 22.5 27.0 29.0 31.5 33.5
Clayey soil 19.5 22.5 26.0 28.0 29.5 31.5 33.5

II2
Silty soil 20.0 24.5 29.0 31.5 34.0 36.5
II2a Silty soil 19.0 22.5 26.0 27.5 29.5 31.0
Earthy sand 21.0 23.5 26.0 27.5 29.0 30.0 31.5 34.5 37.0 45.5
II3 Clayey soil 23.5 27.5 32.0 34.5 36.5 39.0 41.5
Silty soil 22.5 27.0 32.0 34.5 37.0 40.0
Clayey soil 23.5 30.0 35.5 39.0 42.0 45.5 50.5 57.0 65.0
II4
Silty soil 24.5 31.5 39.0 43.0 47.0 51.5 56.0 66.0
Earthy sand 29.0 32.5 36.0 37.5 39.0 41.0 42.5 46.0 49.5 59.0 69.0
II5 Clayey soil 26.5 32.0 38.5 41.5 45.0 48.5 52.0
Silty soil 27.0 34.5 42.5 46.5 51.0 56.0
II5a Silty soil 33.5 37.5 42.5 44.5 46.5 49.0
III1 Silty soil 27.0 36.5 48.0 54.0 61.0 68.5 76.5
Earthy sand 35.0 38.0 41.5 43.0 44.5 46.0 47.5 50.5 53.5 62.0 70.0
III2 Clayey soil 27.0 31.5 36.5 39.0 41.5 44.0 46.5 52.0 57.5
Silty soil 27.0 32.5 38.5 42.0 45.0 48.5 51.5 59.0
III2a Earthy sand 37.0 40.0 43.0 44.5 46.0 47.5 49.0 52.0 54.5 62.5 70.0
Earthy sand 36.0 39.0 42.5 44.0 45.5 47.0 48.5 51.5 54.5 63.0 71.0
III3 Clayey soil 26.0 30.0 34.5 36.5 38.5 41.0 46.0 47.5 52.0
Silty soil 26.5 32.0 37.0 40.0 43.00 46.0 49.0 55.0
Consistency
Zoning Soil 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.70 2.00
composition
III4 Silty soil 25.0 34.0 45.0 51.5 58.5 66.0 74.0
IV1 Clayey soil 21.5 25.5 30.0 32.5 35.0 37.5 40.5
IV1a Silty soil 22.0 26.5 32.0 35.0 37.5 40.5
IV2 Clayey soil 19.5 23.0 27.0 29.0 31.0 33.0 35.0
Silty soil 31.0 36.5 42.5 45.5 48.5 51.5
-93-
Consistency
Zoning Soil 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.70 2.00
composition
IV3 Clayey soil 24.0 28.0 32.5 35.0 37.5 39.5 42.0
Silty soil 24.0 29.5 36.0 39.0 42.5 46.0
IV4 Earthy sand 28.0 30.5 33.5 35.0 36.5 38.0 39.5 42.0 45.0 53.0 61.0
Clayey soil 25.0 29.5 34.0 36.5 38.5 41.0 43.5
Silty soil 23.0 28.0 33.5 36.0 39.0 42.0
IV5 Earthy sand 24.0 26.0 28.0 29.0 30.0 30.5 31.5 33.5 35.0 40.0 44.5
Clayey soil 22.0 27.0 32.5 33.5 38.5 41.5 44.5
Clayey soil 28.5 34.0 39.5 42.5 45.5 48.5 51.5
26.5 31.0 36.5 39.0 42.0 45.0
Silty soil
IV6 Earthy sand 33.5 37.0 41.0 43.0 44.5 46.5 48.5 52.0 55.5 66.5 77.0
Clayey soil 27.5 33.0 38.0 41.0 44.0 46.5 50.5
Silty-clayey 26.5 31.5 36.5 39.0 42.0 45.0
soil
IV6a Earthy sand 31.5 35.0 38.5 40.0 42.0 43.5 45.0 48.5 52.0 62.0 72.0
Clayey soil 26.0 31.0 35.5 38.0 40.5 43.5 46.0
Silty soil 28.0 34.5 41.0 44.5 48.5 52.0
IV7 Earthy sand 35.0 39.0 43.0 45.0 47.0 49.0 51.0 55.0 59.0 70.5 82.0
Clayey soil 24.5 29.5 34.5 37.0 40.0 42.5 44.5
27.5 33.5 40.0 43.5 47.5 51.0
Silty soil
Consistency
Zoning Soil 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.70 2.00
composition
V7 Earthy-sandy- 27.5 31.5 35.0 37.5 39.5 41.5 43.5 48.0 52.0 65.0 78.5
clayey soil 27.0 32.0 37.0 39.0 42.5 45.5 48.0 54.0 60.0
Silty soil 28.5 34.0 40.0 43.0 46.0 49.5 52.5 59.5
V1 Purple clayey 22.5 26.0 30.0 32.0 34.0 36.0 38.0
soil
V2 Purple silty 22.5 27.5 33.5 36.5 40.0 43.0

soil
Yellow 25.0 29.0 33.0 35.5 37.5 40.0 42.0

loamy-clayey
soil
V2a Yellow 24.5 30.5 37.5 41.0 45.0 49.0
loamy-silty
soil
V3 Clayey soil 25.0 29.0 33.0 35.5 37.5 39.5 42.0
Silty soil 24.5 30.5 37.5 41.0 45.0 48.5
V4 Red 27.0 32.0 38.0 41.0 44.0 47.0 50.5

(Sichua loamy-clayey 22.0 27.0 32.5 35.5 38.5 41.5
n) soilRed
loamy-silty
soil
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Appendix
Consistency
Zoning Soil 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.70 2.00
composition
VI Earthy sand 51.0 54.0 57.0 58.5 60.0 61.0 62.0 64.5 67.0 73.5 80.0
Clayey soil 33.5 37.0 41.0 42.5 44.0 45.5 47.2 50.5
Silty soil 34.0 38.0 42.0 44.0 46.0 48.0 50.0
VI1a Earthy sand 52.5 55.0 58.0 59.0 60.5 61.5 62.5 65.0 67.0 73.0 79.0
Clayey soil 27.0 31.0 34.5 36.0 38.0 40.0 42.0 45.5
Silty soil 31.5 36.5 41.5 44.0 46.5 49.0 51.5
VI2 Earthy sand 42.0 45.5 49.0 50.5 52.0 53.5 55.5 58.5 61.5 69.0 78.0
Clayey soil 27.0 30.5 33.5 35.0 37.0 38.0 40.0 43.0 46.5
Silty soil 25.5 30.5 35.5 38.0 41.0 43.5 46.0 52.0
VI3 Earthy sand 46.0 50.0 53.5 55.0 56.5 58.5 60.0 63.0 66.0 75.0 83.0
Clayey soil 29.5 33.5 37.5 39.5 44.0 44.0 46.8 50.0
Silty soil 29.5 35.0 41.0 43.5 49.5 49.5 52.5
Consistency
Zoning Soil 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.70 2.00
composition
Earthy sand 51.0 53.5 56.5 57.5 59.0 60.0 61.0 63.5 65.5 72.0 77.5
VI4 Clayey soil 28.5 32.0 36.0 37.5 39.5 41.5 43.5 47.5
Silty soil 30.5 34.5 39.0 41.0 43.5 45.5 48.0
Earthy sand 45.5 49.0 52.5 54.0 56.0 57.5 59.0 62.0 65.0 73.5 81.5
VI4a Clayey soil 31.0 34.5 38.0 40.0 42.0 44.0 45.5 49.5
Silty soil 33.0 38.5 44.0 47.0 50.0 52.0 56.0
Earthy sand 49.5 52.5 55.5 57.0 58.5 59.5 61.0 63.5 65.5 72.5 78.5
VI4b Clayey soil 30.0 33.0 36.5 38.0 39.5 41.0 42.5 45.5
Silty soil 31.0 35.5 40.5 43.0 45.5 48.5 51.0
Earthy sand 52.0 55.0 58.0 59.5 61.0 62.0 63.5 66.0 69.0 76.0 82.5
VII1 Clayey soil 26.5 31.5 36.5 39.5 42.0 45.0 48.0 54.0
Silty soil 30.5 37.0 44.0 47.5 51.5 55.0 59.0
Earthy sand 48.0 51.0 54.0 55.0 56.5 58.0 59.0 61.5 64.0 71.0 77.0
VII2 Clayey soil 25.5 29.5 33.0 35.0 37.0 39.0 41.5 45.5
Silty soil 28.0 33.5 39.0 42.0 45.0 48.5 51.5
Earthy sand 42.5 45.5 49.0 50.5 52.5 53.5 55.0 58.0 60.5 68.5 76.5
VII3 Clayey soil 20.5 24.5 28.5 30.5 32.5 35.0 37.0 41.5
Silty soil 23.5 28.0 33.0 36.0 38.5 41.0 44.0
VII4 Earthy sand 47.0 50.0 53.0 54.5 56.0 57.0 58.5 61.0 63.5 70.5 77.0
Clayey soil 22.0 25.5 29.0 30.5 32.5 34.5 36.0 40.0
VII6a
Silty soil 27.5 32.5 37.5 40.5 43.0 46.0 49.0
Earthy sand 45.5 49.0 52.0 53.0 54.5 56.0 57.5 60.0 62.5 70.0 76.5
VII5 Clayey soil 30.0 33.0 37.5 39.5 41.5 43.5 45.0 49.0
Silty soil 32.5 38.0 43.5 46.0 49.0 51.5 54.5
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Appendix G Description of Words in the Specifications
When exactly implementing the articles in the Specifications, the words of the degree of
strictness to be treated differently, are explained as follows:
(1) Words denoting very strict requirement, which must be observed without exception:
“Shall” is used for affirmation; “Shall not” is used for negation.
(2) Words denoting strict requirement under normal condition:
“Should” is used for affirmation; “Should not” is used for negation.
(3) Words denoting a permission of slight choice, when conditions allow, may firstly be
chosen:
“Suitable to” or “May” is used for affirmation; “Not suitable ” or “May not” is used
for negation.
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Explanation of clauses
Appendix Clauses Explanation of “Specifications for Design of

Highway Asphalt Pavement” (JTG D 50-2006)
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1. General Rules
1.0.1． Highway traffic volume increases sharply and the number of heavy-duty vehicles
becomes larger as national economy develops constantly. This makes a challenge to pavement
design and construction. To enhance the level of pavement design and the engineering quality,
reduce early damage, sum up experiences and lessons from engineering practice, and absorb new
achievements of scientific researches, the former specifications is amended according to the
requirements of the Ministry of Communications.
1.0.3． Pavement design work is systematic engineering not limited to thickness calculations.
Selection of materials has a direct effect on pavement quality and durability as the properties of
raw materials determine the physical and mechanical properties of asphalt mixtures or various
base mixtures and the properties of various mixtures determine the road service performance of
various structure layers. The combination of structure layers relates closely to local climate,
traffic volume and traffic composition, and a reasonable structural combination allows
pavements to achieve an economic and durable effect. Thickness calculations relate directly to
the values of design parameters of materials; without actually measured material parameters,
thickness calculations lack basis. Failure to carry out surveys into raw materials and the absence
of reasonable material rates may result in design changes and running out of general estimate and
budget, leading to incontrollable investment; therefore, importance should be attached to
material surveys to prevent simple application of pavement structures without discrimination and
avoid becoming simplex thickness calculations of design.
Design work consists of the following particulars:
(1) Perform surveys and collect data about traffic volume and its composition, actively
carry out surveys and testing of axle load spectrum distribution, and analyze and predict
design traffic volume.
(2) Collect local climatic and hydrologic data, learn about the geology, subgrade
fill/excavation and dryness/humidity along the route, and determine subgrade resilience
modulus by testing or argumentation.
(3) Surveys on various road materials should be seriously conducted, samples taken for
testing, and materials required for the structure layers of a pavement chosen according
to test results.
(4) At the stage of construction drawing design, target proportioning design for mixtures is
suitable to be done and design parameters of materials tested and determined.
(5) Study out pavement structure combination and calculate structure thickness.
(6) Conduct technical and economic comparison between pavement structure proposals for
initial investment or long-term cost and service life analysis, and present a proposed
design scheme. No technical and economic pre-estimation model for an entire process
covering initial investment, repair during operations and maintenance cost has been
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created in our country till now. Design and research organizations with appropriate
capacity are expected to carry out activities in this respect and build up data.
(7) Do a good job in seriously designing pavement drainage, pavement structure’s internal
drainage and median divider drainage systems.
1.0.4． A multiple-stage construction scheme is to be decided by the design organization as the

case may be.
1.0.5． The pavement design principle lays stress on serious field survey and traffic volume
analysis and prediction as well as a well-laid foundation for design. For expressways, class 1
highways and highways with heavy traffic, the technical and economic comparison should be
done from the point of view of full service life cost analysis during design according to their
significance and traffic volume development prediction before a design scheme is proposed. In
addition to environment protection and protection of the health and safety of construction
personnel, care should be taken during pavement design for disposal of discarded materials so
that they will not pollute the environment. It’s encouraged to actively carry out the recycling of
used asphalt surface layer, broken cement concrete slabs and used base material, so as to save
resources and investment, protect the environment and facilitate sustainable development.
1.0.6． According to the Circular about Issuance of the “Guidelines for Management of
Highway Engineering Industry Standards”, Document No. MOTHI (2001) 620, the
Specifications are divided into compulsory provisions of highway engineering construction
standard, engineering industry standard, highway engineering industry association standard and
local standard for highway engineering industry. The Specifications are highway engineering
industry standard which should be enforced for highway engineering construction projects. Some
of the provisions of the highway engineering industry standard that relates directly to quality,
safety, environment protection and other public benefits are compulsory provisions of the
highway engineering construction standard and must be enforced, while other provisions are
recommended ones and may be applied according to local actualities.
The Specifications set clear stipulation for wording. The meaning of “Instructions on the
Wording of the Specifications” should be seriously understood, spiritual essence of the
provisions comprehended, and provisions of the Specifications reasonably applied in
combination with local actualities and practical experiences so that the design becomes more
economic and reasonable while corresponding to the actualities.
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2. Terms and Symbols
2.1． Terms
2.1.1． Since a tendency of diversification in pavement structure type has arisen over latest
years as a result of rapid development of highway traffic undertaking, it’s necessary to make
clear the definitions of various asphalt pavement structures. Therefore the bases are divided into
semi-rigid base, flexible base and rigid base, and asphalt pavements composed of these may be
divided into semi-rigid base asphalt pavement, flexible base asphalt pavement and rigid base
asphalt pavement.
2.1.8. Design period is the service life period of a pavement at calculated thickness with
predicted traffic volume. There should be a reference period when future traffic volume
development is predicted; different reference periods are used for different highway classes.
However, the design period is not service period. However, the design period is not equal to
service period; deviation from predicted traffic volume may occur as predicted traffic volume
often differs from actual traffic volume, the development of highway traffic varies in a leaping
and unbalanced manner rather than in a constant mode when our country finds herself in a rapid
development age, and there are lots of uncertain factors like overload transportation. Pavement
design is to calculate structure thickness with the fatigue failure of a pavement generated under
the action of accumulative standard equivalent axle loads; such failure may occur in the
pavement before design period expires if traffic volume develops faster than predicted and
heavy-duty vehicles are more than predicted. Pavement design should satisfy the bearing
capacity and service function required for predicted standard accumulative equivalent axle loads.
Maintenance and repair is the key to ensure that a pavement is kept in normal working condition
and a shortage of pavement maintenance will only accelerate such failure and shorten its service
life; therefore, it’s permitted within design period that repair/maintenance or surfacing works to
restore the surface function are performed during operations.
2.1.11., 2.1.12. The former specifications don’t make clear the definitions of maximum grain
size and nominal maximum grain size, which are clarified in the new Specifications. Maximum
grain size means the minimum aperture size with 100% mixture passing through the sieve
meshes. Nominal maximum grain size means the minimum aperture size with 90%-100%
mixture passing through sieve meshes. Grain size for gradation is named by nominal maximum
grain size. Fore example, AC-13 stands for nominal maximum grain size of 13mm and
maximum grain size of 16mm while AC-16 stands for nominal maximum grain size of 16mm
and maximum grain size of 19mm or 26.5mm.
2.1.18. The elastic layer system theory is used in pavement calculations. Since difference
between assumed conditions and actual pavement working status results in inequality between
actually measured deflection value and theoretic calculation, a comprehensive deflection
correction coefficient is suggested through the testing, analysis and summarization of a number
of trial roads.
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2.1.19. In the design of pavement structures or mixtures, consideration should be given to their
worst status. When thickness is calculated, the resilience modulus of pavement material and
subgrade in the state of the lowest strength as season changes in a year should be considered as
worst. For subgrade, this means the frost thawing period in spring for freezing regions and the
rainy season for non-freezing regions. The rainy season varies from region to region, so does the
most disadvantageous season; plum rain season is the worst for some regions while the season
with substantial rain or long rainy period is the worst for others.
For asphalt mixture design, high-temperature condition in summer makes the worst season for
non-freezing regions while low-temperature condition in winter makes the worst season for
freezing regions.
When the values of relevant material parameters are tested or determined, consideration should
be given to the effect of temperature and humidity conditions in the region where the works are
located in different years, different seasonal changes or the worst season in a year.
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3. General Provisions
3.1. Standard Axle Load and Design Traffic Volume
3.1.1. According to a study report under the title of the “Specifications for Design of
Heavy-load Asphalt Pavement”, the foreign data show that countries in the world that take
100kN as standard axle load constitute the largest number or 34% of total number, those that take
80kN constitute the second largest number or 28%, those that take more than 100kN constitute
26%, and those that take 60kN or 90kN constitute 6% respectively. Since the axle weight limits
of 100kN for single axle and 180kN for double axles are stipulated in our country, 100kN for
double wheel-set single axle is taken as standard axle load though there is serious overload on
some highways, against which individual provinces have taken restrictive measures.
According to surveys, the tire ground contact pressure may go up to 0.8-1.1MPa for highways
with a large number of heavy-duty/overloaded vehicles and corresponding ground contact area
increases to some extent as well. For coal carrying, construction material carrying and port
easing highways and highways dominated by large vehicles, the designers may appropriately
increase the loading parameters upon argumentation according to data about actually measured
vehicle axle weight, tire pressure and diameter of equivalent circle.
3.1.2. With the axle load conversion formula for deflection equivalent, the former
specifications derive:
The relation between deflection and axle load for different axle loads
L1 / L2 = (P1 / P2 )
b
(3-1)
Design deflection value
Ld = AN − c (3-2)
Design deflection equivalent relation for different axle loads
Where:
L1, L2, P1, P2, N1, N2- are the deflection values, axle loads and times of action of different
vehicle types respectively;
b, c, n, A- are correlation coefficients.
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According to a study report presented for the “Heavy-load Asphalt Pavement Design
Assignment” by the Scientific Research Institute of Highways under the Ministry of
Communications, it’s confirmed once again that pavement deflection ratio is directly
proportional to the power of load ratio according to the results of theoretical calculations and
actual measurements. It can be seen from analytical results of accelerated load tests (ALF) and
tests taken on Hubei Xiangfan trial road and Jinwei Highway and on Zheng-Luo Expressway and
Badaling Expressway with a falling weight deflectometer (FWD) that the value of b is averagely
0.93 and that of n 4.65 where the pavement deflection lies between 20 and 40 (0.01mm). The
“Study on Heavy-duty Asphalt Pavements”, a report presented by Chang’an University, shows
that the deflection and flexural-tensile stress curves for asphalt pavements increases in a
non-linear manner with increasing axle weight; they increase in a linear manner for axle weight
of 50-130kN and in a non-linear manner for that over 130kN. Considering the non-linear feature,
the value of n in the axle load conversion formula designed for deflection may go up to 5.0-5.8
for axle weight over 130-300kN and the recommended value of n is 5.0; the value of n in the
axle load conversion formula for flexural-tensile stress is 9.0.
Foreign literature shows that the 5th power is used in France for flexible pavements, the 4th
power used by US Asphalt Institute (AI), the 4th power used in Britain, the 5th power used in
Australia and the 4th power used in Japan. It’s so specified in the Specifications that the former
specifications still apply where the axle weight is smaller than 130kN.
Owing to lack of more sufficient references, when the axle weight is larger than 130kN, refer to
aforesaid research results for cases with axle weight of 130-220kN, with 5.0 assumed as the
value of n in the axle load conversion formula for deflection design and 9.0 as the value of n for
flexural-tensile stress.
With respect to a lean concrete base, the axle load conversion formula for tensile stress
equivalent mode is used when axle load conversion is conducted with tensile stress as design
index. Not much work has been done for lean concrete base fatigue equation. It’s known from
the research results of Chang’an University that the fatigue equation for lean concrete goes as
shown below and the 12.79th power is used for axle load conversion:
K s = σ s / σ r = 0.513N e0.0677 (3-7)
According to foreign literature, the 12th power is used in France and the same is used in
Australia for indexes of stability category; therefore, the 12th power may be used in calculation
for lean concrete bases by referring to aforesaid literature.
3.1.3. Design traffic volume for a pavement is to calculate standard accumulative equivalent
axle loads by allowing for pre-estimated traffic volume for a certain design period based on
initial traffic volume. Therefore design period is a reference period for the calculation of standard
accumulative equivalent axle loads. Design period is not exactly service period or the service life
of the pavement. Design period is normally 6-15 years in the former specifications. Compared
with foreign countries, however, the design period in our country is short. According to foreign
literature, there is a difference in pavement design between design period and analytic period; the
concept of design period is different from ours and the analytic period is used to perform
long-term performance and lifespan assessment. By American AASHTO design method, for
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example, the analytic period is 30-50 years for urban roads with large traffic volume, 20-50 years
for suburban roads with large traffic volume, 15-25 years for urban roads with small traffic
volume, and 10-20 years for gravel pavement with small traffic volume, whereas design period is
normally 10-20 years. In Britain, France, Germany and South Africa, the design period is
normally 20 years. In Australia, the design period is 20-40 years and, with additional overlay
provided, 10-20 years. Considered from the point of view of fatigue cracking, the design period
in Japan is 20 years, but the administrators may adopt a slightly longer or shorter design period
according to traffic conditions, environment and the cost effectiveness of pavement lifespan.
Therefore the new Specifications specifies a design period for each highway class in normal
cases, considering the engineering experiences and economic development in our country, and
appropriately relaxes restriction, considering the actual situation of unbalanced economic
development and significant difference in traffic volume across our country. For
reconstruction/extension works or heavy maintenance/repaving works and highways with special
service requirements, the design period may be adjusted as the case may be.
3.1.4. For highways to be constructed, the composition of traffic volume (natural quantity of
vehicles) by vehicle type over many years, i.e. the composition percentages of various vehicle
types like car small truck, bus, medium truck, large truck and trailer, can be obtained according
to traffic volume OD survey data provided by the project feasibility study report, and daily mean
vehicle traffic volume in the first year or at the end of design period predicted. During design,
surveys on axle weight distribution should be conducted for all vehicle types, focusing on the
quantity of small trucks, medium buses, buses, medium trucks, large trucks and trailers as well as
their axle weight distribution, and factors like zero load, full load and overload should be
counted in according to the actualities of traffic carrying capacity so as to predict the design
traffic volume more truly.
For reconstruction works, it’s preferable to perform prediction and calculations according to the
axle load spectrum actually measured at the time of a representative year/month/day/hour or to
the surveyed axle load distribution data about various vehicle types.
3.1.8. Cause for addition of traffic volume classification:
(1) In pavement thickness calculations, standard accumulative equivalent axle load Ne on
one lane over the design period is used as the basis of design load. However, the
standard accumulative equivalent axle load can reflect neither the composition of traffic
volume nor the immediate effect of vehicle load on pavement rutting, evenness,
abrasion/skid resistance and other performance indexes, so it’s hard to establish a
correlation using the standard accumulative equivalent axle load.
(2) Requirements for the technical indexes of raw materials and aspects like mixture design
and structure design normally relate to highway class; the higher class a highway is of,
the higher requirements it has for technical indexes. However, it can be seen from the
analysis of relevant survey data that the traffic volume and composition vary greatly for
a same highway class. This results in too high technical requirements for expressways
with small traffic volume and low technical requirements for class 2 highways with very
large traffic volume; therefore it’s necessary to consider the effect of traffic volume
classification according to the actualities of domestic traffic while considering highway
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class.
(3) Daily mean trucks or large vehicles are often used abroad to classify traffic volume, as
in Australia, France, Germany and Japan. Accumulative equivalent axle load (in ten
thousands) are used instead, as by US Asphalt Institute (AI) and in South Africa, to
classify traffic volume; there are normally four to seven or even more classes. In our
country, the accumulative equivalent axle loads (in then thousands) were often used in
the past to characterize the extent of traffic volume. Seeing the need to consider multiple
performance indexes as well as technical requirements in terms of the design of material,
mixture and structure design, etc., it’s necessary to add the method of dividing traffic
volume classes mainly based on trucks. According to the national trunk highway traffic
survey data, the traffic volume is divided into seven classes. Upon the comprehensive
analysis and giving consideration to vehicle traffic volume composition percentages,
national highway traffic volume and the classification (of medium standard vehicles) on
expressways in our country as well as the views of some experts, the traffic volume in
our country is simplified into four classes, namely light, medium, heavy and extra-heavy
traffic classes. Upon verification by thickness calculation, the effect of each traffic class
on pavement thickness calculation is basically appropriate.
3.2. Road Materials
3.2.1. Selection of asphalt grade and technical indexes of asphalt relates closely to the climate
of the location of works.
Climate zoning for asphalt pavements can be determined in accordance with the “Technical
Specifications for Construction of Highway Asphalt Pavement” (JTG F40) while the asphalt
grade can be chosen by climatic region in combination with the experiences from engineering
practice. For highways with long duration of high temperature in summer and a large number of
heavy-load vehicles in a region climatically classified as hot in summer, the asphalt of high
consistency and high viscosity at 60℃ or modified asphalt, etc. may be used in sections with
large longitudinal gradient or long slope; the harder asphalt should be chosen for sections with
large traffic volume and a large number of heavy-duty vehicles. It’s preferable to choose asphalt
of low consistency for base asphalt of modified asphalt, surface treatment and penetration
macadam.
Climate zoning for asphalt is denoted by mean value of maximum air temperatures on all days in
the hottest month, but the value is often lower than the mean value of maximum air temperatures
on consecutive 7 days in the hottest month and rutting is most likely on these hottest days.
Therefore when the asphalt grade and technical indexes of asphalt are selected for some regions,
reference is made to the PG gradation method of American Superpave; the maximum pavement
temperature is calculated using the mean value of high air temperatures on consecutive 7 days in
the hottest month over past years and guarantee the rate of 98% while considering the correlation
between air temperature and pavement temperature, so as to choose the technical indexes of
asphalt at high air temperature. Meanwhile, the technical indexes for low air temperature are
chosen based on the extreme minimum air temperature over past years.
This method has been applied to engineering practice in some provinces. Appendix B provides
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the accumulated meteorological data about some regions for 1960 - 2000. The correlations
between temperature at a depth of 2cm below pavement and local climatic and geographic
parameters, etc. may be established according to air temperature data for different regions and
pre-estimated maximum pavement temperature.
3.2.4. Modified asphalt may be used in the following cases to improve the road performance
of asphalt mixtures:
(1) Modified asphalt may be used where the high-temperature stability, water stability and
low-temperature cracking resistance performance of a mixed asphalt mixture cannot
meet requirements for its technical indexes.
(2) For highways with super heavy or heavy traffic or important highways, the modified
asphalt should be used in the asphalt surface course during bridge deck pavement on a
large or special large bridge, and modified asphalt or asphalt of higher consistency may
be used in the middle surface course as well, as the case may be.
(3) Modified asphalt may be used for highways under harsh climatic conditions such as
considerable variation in temperature difference and long duration of high/low
temperature.
(4) Modified asphalt may be used where the special structures like asphalt mastic macadam,
extra thin overlaying course, open gradation skid-resistant surface layer and colored
pavement are laid.
(5) Modified asphalt may be used in sections with route alignment located on consecutive
long longitudinal slopes, steep slopes and smaller radius ramps or with frequent starting
and braking, parking lots, etc. and highways with special requirements.
Currently, there are many kinds of modifier or modified asphalt at home. Technical and
economic argumentation and comparison should be conducted through admixture proportioning
testing and mixture performance testing to choose a modifier of stable quality with good
modifying effect for easy construction.
To enhance the high-temperature rutting resistance of a pavement, it’s preferable to use the
thermoplastic rubber type (SBS for short), thermoplastic resin type (EVA/PE for short) or other
chemical/physical modifiers and natural asphalt.
For modifiers of thermoplastic rubber type, what is most widely used is
styrene-butadiene-styrene block copolymer (SBS for short).
For modifiers of thermoplastic resin type, there are, for example, ethylene-vinyl acetate polymer
(EVA for short) and polyethylene (PE for short) already with practical experience.
For natural asphalt, there are natural lake asphalt (e.g. Trinidad lake asphalt), shale tar, etc.
To enhance low-temperature cracking resistance, it’s preferable to use thermoplastic rubber type,
rubber type and other chemical modifiers.
For modifiers of rubber type, what is often used is styrene butadiene rubber (SBR for short)
emulsion, waste/used rubber powder, etc.
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A wide range of modifiers are available. The quality of modified asphalt obtained by using a
same modifier varies due to different dosage or different additive. Quality inspection should be
strengthened to control the quality of modified asphalt strictly.
Where two or more modifiers (e.g. natural asphalt and SBS) are used for compound modification
or where a new kind of modifier is used, it’s preferable to refer to relevant foreign and domestic
technical standards or specifications and have them verified in practice.
3.2.5. Asphalt mastic macadam to which stabilizers like lignin fiber, synthetic fiber and
mineral fiber are added has been widely applied to engineering practice. Over latest years, the
addition of synthetic fiber like polyacrylonitrile fiber and polyester fiber or mineral fiber to
SBS-modified asphalt concrete has been used in the middle surface course of some special large
bridges or highways with heavy traffic load, leading to better road service results and clearly
enhancing the dynamic stability. Service requirements and technical and economic comparison
should be considered when the fiber stabilizers are selected and it’s preferable to choose the
materials with a high ratio of performance to price. It’s preferable that the fiber quality meets the
“Technical Requirements of Nine Standards for Road/Bridge Materials” (JT/T 531-538 &
589-2004), as issued by the Ministry of Communications, regarding lignin fiber and polymer
fiber for asphalt pavements. Additive proportioning dosage should be determined by testing,
which is normally 0.25%-0.4%.
3.2.8. The sideway force coefficient of a pavement relates closely to the quality of stone
material in the asphalt mixture, texture depth and the gradation of aggregate. Therefore the
coarse aggregate for an asphalt surface layer should be seriously surveyed and macadam that has
high strength and a great polished stone value, wearing resistance and meets the requirement for
polished stone value (PSV) should be chosen. For poor driving sections of a class 3 highway,
such as sharp turn or steep slope, that have bad alignment condition, the coarse aggregate for a
surface course may be chosen by referring to the requirements in Table 3.2.8 so as to enhance
their safeness.
Common stone materials include basalt, andesite, gneiss, diabase, sandstone, granite, diorite,
cherty limestone and roll-crushed gravel. In regions with mean annual precipitation over 500mm,
certain amount of limestone chips or other chips with small PSV may be added to fine aggregate
for the skid-resistant surface course of expressways and class 1 highways, and certain amount of
limestone macadam or some other macadam with small PSV may be added to coarse aggregate
for the surface course of class 2 and class 3 highways. In regions with mean annual precipitation
less than 500mm, certain proportion of limestone or some other macadam or chips with small
PSV may be added to coarse/fine aggregate for the surface course of highways of any class.
3.2.9. To enhance the cohesion of asphalt and macadam, an anti-stripping agent with constant
high-temperature resistance and water resistance may be added to asphalt or measures like
modified asphalt taken; meanwhile, certain amount of slaked lime or cement should be added
instead of mineral powder to enhance the water stability of asphalt mixtures. The water stability
of asphalt mixtures should also be tested so that they meet the requirement in Chapter 7 of the
Specifications concerning water stability index.
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4. Structure Layers and Composition Design
4.1. Structure Layer Design
4.1.1. An asphalt surface layer is normally divided into two layers known as surface course
and lower surface course abroad, and, among others, an asphalt base and a sub base are
additionally provided. In our country, all three asphalt layers in a semi-rigid base asphalt
pavement are habitually known as surface layer, namely as surface course, middle surface course
and lower surface course respectively, which are retained in the current amendment. Flexible
base is added to the new Specifications. Structure layers of asphalt concrete, asphalt macadam
and graded macadam，etc. may be provided under two or three asphalt surface layers; if so, the
asphalt concrete and asphalt macadam may be known as upper base while semi-rigid base may
be known as lower base. This changes the traditional habit in the former specifications that all
asphalt courses are known as surface layer.
4.1.2. In the former specifications, the asphalt concrete pavements are all classified as high
grade pavement, asphalt penetration pavement, asphalt macadam and surface treatment as
sub-high grade pavement, clay-bound macadam and graded crushed gravel, etc. as transitional
pavement, and sand-gravel pavement as low grade pavement. Asphalt concrete applies to
highways of all classes; the selected asphalt layer thickness varies merely due to different traffic
volume for highways of different classes. It’s apparently improper to refer to 30-40mm asphalt
concrete ordinarily laid on a class 3 highway as high grade pavement, too. Therefore in the
Specifications, the pavement classification method that has been adopted for forty years is
amended and consideration is given to the fact that expressways, class 1 highways and class 2
highways are usually constructed by mixing method as a result of the generalization of mixing
equipments and spreading equipments around the country while the asphalt penetration
pavement is hardly used except in special cases without mixing equipment or mixing site. It’s so
specified that the asphalt penetration pavement may be used in the surface layer of class 3 and
class 4 highways or in special cases while the surface treatment may be used in the surface layer
of class 3 and class 4 highways.
4.1.3. Current amendment makes some adjustments in minimum thickness of asphalt
pavement structure layers largely for the consideration that the asphalt layer thickness should fit
in with nominal maximum grain size of asphalt mixtures for pavement compaction, with the
minimum thickness and suitable thickness of compaction suggested in Table 4.1.3 in
combination with practical experiences. The suitable thickness is considered from the point of
view of giving play to mechanical spreading efficiency and compact rolling so as to enhance
durability and water stability and prevent water damage. It’s preferable to determine the
thickness of structure layer, as the case may be, during the design of the layers.
4.1.5. There was a case Where the thickness of a base of semi-rigid material was designed to
be 250-270mm and the construction organization constructed the layer by dividing it into two
layers of 120mm+130mm or 150mm+120mm or 130mm+ 140mm; this made the thickness of
the structure layer of semi-rigid material smaller than minimum thickness and, under the action
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of heavy-duty vehicles, a too large tensile stress was likely to occur in the thin semi-rigid base
and result in cracking. For this reason, the article emphasizes that the provision of a too thick or
too thin base/sub base should be avoided during design. It’s preferable for the spreading
compaction thickness of one base/sub base layer to be 180-200mm and the layer may be
appropriately thickened providing that some extra heavy-duty compaction equipments are
available and can guarantee the compactness upon actual measurement. Besides, a construction
process for continuous spreading and compaction of semi-rigid base was researched in Shandong
Province, which strengthens the bonding between two layers of semi-rigid material, turns the
double-layer structure into a single-layer integral structure, and enhances bearing capacity and
durability.
4.2. Structural Composition Design
4.2.1. Our country is vast in area and greatly varied in climate, material and hydrological
conditions as well as in the degree of economic development, traffic volume and composition.
For different regions, a pavement structure that suits the locality should be chosen as the case
may be.
Asphalt layer thickness relates to the type of structure used. Asphalt layer thickness may be
studied out or calculated by referring to minimum asphalt layer thickness, combining asphalt and
mixture performance and integrating local experiences from engineering practice.
(1) For asphalt pavements with a semi-rigid base, the minimum asphalt layer thickness is
120mm for expressways, 100mm for class 1 highways, 60mm for class 2 highways,
30-50mm (mixing method) or 15-30mm (surface treatment for the method of spreading
in layers) for class 3 highways, and preferably 10-30mm surface treatment or slurry seal
for class 4 highways.
(2) For asphalt pavement structures with a flexible base, the 100mm or 120mm thick
double-course type may be chosen for surface layer, with a base of flexible material like
asphalt mixture base, penetration macadam or graded macadam provided underneath.
The thickness of asphalt layers should be calculated and determined based on highway
class, traffic volume and other particular conditions.
(3) For asphalt pavements with a rigid base, it’s preferable for the minimum asphalt layer
thickness not to be less than 100mm for expressways and class 1 highways. Measures to
enhance the high-temperature shear strength of asphalt mixtures and strengthen
interlayer binding should be taken due to small asphalt layer thickness and large
interlayer modulus ratio, so as to prevent asphalt layer shear, traction and reflection
cracks.
4.2.2. It can be known from the theoretical analysis that the pavement structure thickness
relates closely to interlayer modulus ratio, so a requirement for proper control of interlayer
modulus ratio is set for semi-rigid bases. The resilience modulus of an asphalt layer is normally
smaller than that of semi-rigid base materials. As the theoretically analyzed, most of the asphalt
layers stay under pressure or give rise to a small tensile stress while the layers of semi-rigid
material primarily bear a tensile stress if there is a continuous system between the asphalt layers
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and semi-rigid base material. The smaller modulus ratio between upper and lower layers, the
larger tensile stress the lower layer bears as the shear stress in asphalt layers increases; therefore
it’s preferable that the rigidity of the semi-rigid base is not too large. A tensile stress 1 or 2 times
as large as that in continuous state might occur on the bottom face of the upper layer if the
interlayer contact face being immersed in water may result in the occurrence of interface
slippage. Therefore the reliable technical measures for interlayer binding should be taken during
design to prevent interlayer slippage.
For asphalt pavement structures with a flexible base, the modulus differs a little between asphalt
layers while the modulus differs much between an asphalt layer and graded macadam; at this
time, there is a large tensile stress at the bottom of the asphalt layer. Use of a material
combination with gradual decrement in modulus between structure layers allows the structure
layers to stay more reasonably under stress.
4.2.3. For asphalt pavements with a lean concrete base, there isn’t a mature design method at
present and the design should be conducted discreetly according to engineering practice. The
modulus of a lean concrete base is larger than that of a semi-rigid base; the tensile stress at layer
bottom somewhat increases while the shear stress in an asphalt layer and that between an asphalt
layer and lean concrete base interface increases. Therefore the asphalt surface layer on a lean
concrete base should be of appropriate asphalt layer thickness and more importance should be
attached to increase in the shear strength of asphalt mixtures and to close binding of interlayer
interface to prevent the traction of interlayer interface. Checking calculations of asphalt layer
shear stress and interface shear stress should be done where the circumstances permit.
4.2.6. To prevent reflection cracks, a trial section should be firstly constructed when the
graded macadam is used as the base or transitional course of an expressway or class 1 highway,
care taken in performing proper control of material specifications, construction process
management and engineering quality process, and experiences summed up without blindfold
generalization; the same care should be adopted especially when it comes to the highways with
large traffic volume and a large number of heavy vehicles.
Asphalt stress absorbing film and asphalt stress absorbing course have the function of preventing
reflection cracks and strengthening interlayer binding.
Spreading of polymer-modified asphalt rich in elasticity resuming capability, such as
high-content SBS-modified asphalt and rubber asphalt, over a semi-rigid base in an amount of
1.0-1.4kg/m2 and further spreading of small macadam or premixed macadam with grain size of
3-8mm gives rise to a stress absorbing film after rolling.
An asphalt stress absorbing course makes use of modified asphalt sand grain type or fine grain
type asphalt concrete with strong cohesive force and very high elasticity resuming capability,
having a thin-layer structure with small porosity, denseness, water imperviousness and high
resistance to deformation and fatigue. It is normally 20-25mm thick and also has the effect of
reflection crack prevention.
In some special cases, it may be considered to lay geotechnical synthetic material like polyester
filament geotextile or polyester glass fiber.
4.2.7. With respect to tack coat asphalt, the current amendment differs from what is specified
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in the former specifications in that spreading of tack coat asphalt is required between all adjacent
asphalt layers. Normally, the emulsified asphalt may be spread between newly constructed
asphalt surface layers preferably in an amount of 0.3-0.6L/m2 (with asphalt content of about
0.15-0.3L/m2); high-grade asphalt spreaders are also used to spread atomized hot asphalt at high
temperature. Where the tack coat asphalt is spread on a cement concrete pavement or deck slabs,
it’s preferable to spread hot asphalt or modified asphalt of the same grade. There is one kind of
asphalt tack coat that can be used on a semi-rigid base, in bridge deck pavement or between a
surface course and a middle surface course so as to prevent rainwater infiltration and strengthen
interlayer binding. It’s preferable to spread the modified asphalt in an amount of 0.8-1.6L/m2
along with premixed macadam or macadam of grain size of 4.75-9.5mm or 3-8mm; it’s
preferable to spread the same over 60%-70% of asphalt area without full spreading or
overlapping.
4.2.8. For a seal coat structure, the materials and processes should be selected based on the
purpose of its setup. Normally, the binder may be chosen from petroleum asphalt for roads,
modified asphalt, modified emulsified asphalt, etc; asphalt of a grade consistent with original
asphalt surface layer or of a grade one-level higher may be used as well.
A lower seal coat is a structure layer provided on the surface of a semi-rigid base to protect the
base from being damaged by construction vehicles and use the semi-rigid material curing while
preventing rainwater from filtering down into structure layers below the base and strengthening
interlayer binding. In some newly constructed works, a seal coat is also provided between the
surface and middle surface course to prevent rainwater from filtering down. There are a number
of method for lower seal coat; the practice demonstrates that the asphalt single-layer surface
treatment is one of economic and effective methods.
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5. Subgrade and Bed Course
5.1. Subgrade Resilience Modulus
5.1.1.-5.1.4. In this section, the contents of the former specifications in relation to the
“Specifications for Design of Highway Subgrade”, such as subgrade filling material and
compactness, are deleted while the paragraphs in close relation to pavement engineering, such as
classification of subgrade as dry/wet type and methods to measure earth foundation modulus like
look-up table method for the value of subgrade resilience modulus, loading plate method and
deflection method, are retained.
5.1.5. Subgrade resilience modulus with respect to look-up table method was suggested in the
1970s of the 20th century upon calculation and analysis on survey and test data about highways
in provinces throughout the country, including subgrade compactness, water content, fill height,
subgrade fill, drainage status, groundwater level and loading plate test. Since highways at that
time were of a low class and all criteria were for light compaction, subgrade resilience modulus
was on the low side. According to the results of special researches into subgrade resilience
modulus, study of contrast tests between heavy and light compaction criteria taken on indoor
loading plates with different soil properties from several provinces show that, given same
compactness (with optimum water content chosen according to the results of respective
compaction tests), the modulus by heavy criterion is basically 2 times of that by light criterion.
Therefore the value of E0 listed in Table F.2 of Appendix F may be increased by 15%-30% where
look-up table method is used to pre-estimate the subgrade resilience modulus.
5.1.6. With respect to the matter of soil base resilience modulus testing with indoor small
loading plates, the results of indoor loading plate tests taken on different subgrade soil from
several provinces show, according to the results of special researches into subgrade resilience
modulus, that the subgrade resilience modulus is basically in a linear relation with compactness.
1. Since the soil samples were subject to the restrictive effect of the bottom and wall of
geotechnical test cartridge during the indoor loading plate testing, the correction of test
cartridge size restriction should be done where the deflection formula of the elastic
half-space theory is used to calculate the subgrade resilience modulus. To this end, the
calculation formulas for the stress, strain and displacement of the elastic layer with rigid
substratum are derived, with cartridge bottom restriction deemed as rigid substratum,
and comprehensive correction coefficient λ for cartridge size by indoor loading plate
method is determined by combining contrast verification between axis symmetric finite
element analysis and the results of actual indoor and outdoor loading plate
measurements. The value of comprehensive correction coefficient λ is relative to
loading plate diameter size and the value of A for loading plates of different diameters
may be determined by the empirical formula below:
Where:
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λ- is the comprehensive correction coefficient of cartridge size restriction;

D- is loading plate diameter (mm).
From this we get 0.78 as the value of λ when loading plate of 50mm diameter is used and 0.59 as
the value when loading plate of 100mm diameter is used.
2. Special researches into subgrade resilience modulus show that, if Formula (5-2), a
conventional method, is used to calculate the representative value of subgrade resilience
modulus, the variation coefficient tends to the results in a negative value as the
representative value when it goes beyond 0.5, which apparently does not correspond to
the actual cases, because the subgrade resilience modulus, as actually measured indoors
and outdoors, often has high variability.
Where:
Za- is guarantee rate coefficient that is 2 for expressways and class 1 highways, 1.645
for class 2 and class 3 highways or 1.5 for class 4 highways;
E0 is the representative value of subgrade resilience modulus (MPa);
E 0 and S are the average value (MPa) and mean-square deviation (MPa) of actually measured
subgrade resilience modulus.
Formula (5-2) was created in fact on the basis of subgrade resilience modulus being subject to
normal distribution, whereas the subgrade resilience modulus is subject to logarithmic normal
distribution according to the “Unified Standard for Reliability Design of Highway Engineering
Structures” (GB/T50283). The representative value of subgrade resilience modulus should be
calculated by the following formula:
Where:
δ- is the variation coefficient of subgrade resilience modulus;
Z- is reduction factor allowing for guarantee rate, i.e.
Meanings of remaining letters are same as those in Formula (5-2).

According to the “Unified Standard for Reliability Design of Highway Engineering Structures”
(GB/T 50283) regarding variation level grade used for all classes of highway and corresponding
to the recommended range of the variation coefficient of subgrade resilience modulus, the
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recommended values of Z for all classes of highway are thus suggested synthetically from
Formula (5-4), as shown in Table 5-1.
Table 5-1Recommended Values of Reduction Factor Z
Calculation Expressway/Class 1 Class 4

Highway class Class 2 & 3 highways
parameter highway highway
Variation level grade Low Medium High
Variation coefficient
Variation coefficient 0.15-0.25 0.25-0.35 0.35-0.45
Guarantee rate (%) 97.7 95.0 93.3
Guarantee rate
Guarantee rate
coefficient 2.0 1.645 1.5
coefficient
Reduction factor Z 0.59-0.73 0.54-0.65 0.48-0.57
Reduction factor Recommended value
0.66 0.59 0.52
Z
After lots of subgrade resilience modulus data are actually measured both indoors and outdoors,
the statistical analysis may be performed according to actual measurement data and
corresponding reduction factor Z allowing for guarantee rate determined by Formula (5-4).
5.1.7. After completion of subgrade construction, the representative value of soil base
resilience modulus in each section should be actually measured in the disadvantageous season to
verify if it meets the requirement for design value, and the actual measurement methods include
loading plate method and deflection value method. Since the value of design subgrade resilience
modulus is recommended value of soil base resilience modulus allowing for a certain guarantee
rate under the condition of worst year or worst season whereas the time of field measurement is
not always in the disadvantageous season and so actual measurement value is possibly higher
than the design value, reduction with a disadvantageous season influence coefficient may be
done by referring to the old specifications or local experiences.
5.1.8. Where a Benkelman beam is used to determine the value of subgrade deflection and
calculate the representative value of subgrade deflection in that section so as to verify if the
subgrade compaction quality meets the requirement of the value of design subgrade resilience
modulus, the comprehensive effect of disadvantageous season and dry/moist type of subgrade
should be considered as well and therefore, the deflection value should be divided for
verification, by disadvantageous season influence coefficient K1. If the disadvantageous season
influence coefficient is not considered and the value of design resilience modulus is used directly
in back calculation of deflection value for verification, the deflection value should be on the
large side and measurement should mean nothing. Portable falling weight deflectometer (PFWD)
has been developed for practical measurement method in latest years; as a handy inspection
method for soil base strength, it entails further accumulation of data in practice.
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5.2. Bed Course & Antifreeze Course Design
5.2.1. Where the route passes through a moist/over-moist area or soft ground, the subgrade
may be treated by taking measures such as setting up a bed course, replacement by filling with
permeable material like sand gravel, etc. or addition of an inorganic binder or consolidating
agent, etc. and the design value of subgrade resilience modulus appropriately increased
according to the actual conditions or actual measurement data.
Where the non-sieved macadam and natural sand gravel are used for a bed course, the maximum
grain size, which should be normally (1/3-2/3) h, should be determined according to structure
layer thickness h so as to ensure the formation of aggregate skeleton and enhance the stability of
structure layers.
5.2.2. Freezing regions are classified with freezing index as indicator. Freezing index is the
accumulative value of the product of negative temperature and days in each winter (℃·d) and
can be looked up for different regions in the observation data over more than 20 years from local
meteorological department or data in Appendix B.
5.2.4. Provisions of the former specifications regarding checking calculation of antifreeze
course still apply.
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6. Base & Sub Base
6.1. Semi-rigid Base & Sub Base
6.1.2. Researches and engineering practice demonstrate that the distribution status of
aggregate in a mixture relates closely to material properties. In current amendment, the
semi-rigid bases are expressly classified as four structure types, namely homogeneous dense type,
suspended dense type, skeletal dense type and skeletal void type. Homogeneous dense type
largely refers to inorganic binder stabilized fine-grained soil, such as lime soil, cement soil and
lime-fly-ash soil.
For classification as suspended dense type, skeletal dense type and skeletal void type, the size of
demarcation between coarse aggregate and fine aggregate in a mixture should be identified at
first. It’s relatively reasonable to take aperture size of 4.75mm as the size of demarcation
between coarse aggregate and fine aggregate, as viewed in terms of strength, deformation and
stability. Discrimination between these three structure types is largely based on the relation
between the volume of voids among coarse grains and the volume of fine material serving as
filler upon compaction after the coarse aggregate is compacted. The volume of fine material, as
compacted, in a mixture of suspended dense type should be larger than the volume of voids
created by coarse aggregate; in other words, the coarse aggregate is kept in a suspended state in
the compacted mixture. The volume of fine material, as compacted, in a mixture of skeletal
dense type should be critical on the volume of voids created by coarse aggregate which has
certain skeletal function in the compacted mixture. The volume of fine material, as compacted, in
a mixture of skeletal void type is smaller than the volume of voids created by coarse aggregate
and there are certain voids among the coarse aggregate forming a skeleton in the compacted
mixture.
By referring to the gradations recommended in the “Technical Specifications for Highway
Pavement Base Construction”, three kinds of cement stabilized macadam, namely suspended
dense type, skeletal dense type and skeletal void type, are studied out respectively. According to
the relation between the volume of voids created by coarse aggregate upon compaction and that
of fine material part (including cement, fine aggregate and water) in the mixture upon
compaction, aggregate gradation for different structure type is determined in accordance with
volume method, as shown in Table 6-1. 3 cement dosages are used respectively for each type in
the test, namely 4%, 5% and 6% for suspended dense type and skeletal dense type and 6%, 8%
and 10% for skeletal void type. XM denotes a structure of suspended dense type hereinafter, GM
a structure of skeletal dense type, and GK a structure of skeletal void type.
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Table 6-1Aggregate Gradation for Cement Stabilized Macadam of Different Types
Sieve aperture (mm) 31.5 26.5 19.0 16.0 13.2 9.5 4.75 2.36 1.18 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.075
Suspended dense type XM 100 96.8 93.5 84.7 75.9 67.0 39.0 26.0 20.5 15.0 11.2 7.3 3.5
Skeletal dense type GM 100 90.4 73.6 65.2 58.0 46.0 26.8 25.8 18.0 9.1 4.4 1.6 0.5
Skeletal void type GK 100 86.3 62.8 52.5 41.1 26.3 11.2 3.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 0.0
Vibration method and heavy-duty compaction method are used respectively to establish the
criteria for the compaction of cement stabilized macadam material of different structure types
with different binder dosage. Indoor tests taken on test pieces for unconfined compressive
strength (7d, 28d, 90d), cleavage strength (28d, 90d) and rupture strength (28d, 90d) show that:
(1) Given same cement dosage and curing condition, the compressive strength and
compressive resilience modulus of cement stabilized macadam of skeletal dense type
(GM) are slightly larger than those of suspended dense type (XM) while those of
skeletal void type (GK) are the smallest;
(2) Cleavage strength, rupture strength and rupture resilience modulus have a rule that those
of cement stabilized macadam of suspended dense type (XM) are the largest, those of
skeletal dense type (GM) the second largest, and those of skeletal void type (GK) the
smallest;
(3) In the range from +55℃ to -15℃, the average temperature shrinkage coefficient and
average dry shrinkage coefficient of cement stabilized macadam of skeletal dense type
(GM) are smaller than those of suspended dense type (XM) while both coefficients of
skeletal void type (GK) are the smallest;
(4) Where the strength is equivalent, the sequence in terms of erosion resistance is that the
skeletal void type (GK) is better than skeletal dense type (GM) while the suspended
dense type (XM) is the worst, as shown in Fig. 6-1.
30-min scouring volume (g)
Type of mixture
Fig 6-1 Scouring Resistance Capacity of Cement Stabilized Macadam of Different Types
Note: XM-4 denotes a structure of suspended dense type with 4% cement dosage while other symbols are
analogous.
According to aforesaid tests and engineering practice, the application conditions are specified for
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semi-rigid material of different structure types.

6.1.5. According to the feedback from construction sites, some cement stabilized aggregate
bases occur early cracking and actual measurements indicate their 7d compressive strength is on
the high side due to cement dosage going beyond 6%. With increasing of cement dosage, the
strength of a base increases accordingly, but its brittleness increases, too and it is likely to give
rise to shrinkage cracking. For this reason, the Specifications make it clear on the one hand that
the representative value of 7d compressive strength consists of a range and suggest on the other
hand different standard upper limits of compressive strength for different traffic grade. The new
Specifications appropriately decrease the standard upper limits of compressive strength for
cement stabilized aggregate bases so that the cement dosage does not exceed 6%. According to
the mechanical calculations, the tensile stress of a semi-rigid sub base exerts a control effect in
most cases and it’s so necessary to ensure that a cement stabilized type sub base has certain
compressive strength and to increase its standard value appropriately so as to enhance its flexural
tensile strength. During mixture proportioning design, the gradation of aggregate and the
structural form of a mixture should be adjusted and improved at first so that they meet the
requirement for design strength; it’s preferable not to increase cement dosage indiscriminately.
The new Specifications recommend the test piece forming by vibration method. Proportioning
design by use of forming by vibration method can reduce cement dosage as, with the same
cement dosage, the strength is obviously higher than forming by compaction method; forming by
vibration method is more approximately to onsite compaction process, so it conforms better to
reality.
6.1.6. The gradation of various base materials of inorganic binder stabilized granular material
type, as suggested in the former specifications, is continuous gradation designed on the
maximum denseness principle, and testing and analysis show they are all of suspended dense
type. Research results and engineering practice demonstrate that, with decrease in the amounts of
4.75mm, 2.36mm and 0.075mm passing in a mixture, especially that of 0.075mm, the cracking
and scouring resistance of the base is apparently enhanced. Therefore, the aggregate gradation
for a structure of suspended dense type puts a heightened restriction on the content of fine
material smaller than 2.36mm, especially that smaller than 0.075mm. A range of aggregate
gradations for structures of skeletal dense type is suggested on the basis of summarized
engineering practice in different organizations. However, the verification must be performed
according to specific gradation and mixture proportioning as to whether a skeletal dense status
has come into being. A mixture of skeletal dense type requires that the maximum gain size of
aggregate is preferably not too large, so as to reduce the mixture segregation. When the test to
determine the gradation of aggregate of skeletal dense type is taken, the coarse aggregate should
be firstly divided into 2 or 3 grades, filling grade by grade by the method of surface vibrating
compaction, and vibrating compaction density and porosity calculated until the coarse aggregate
composition with maximum vibrating compaction density is found. The compacted volume and
weight of fine aggregate and binder are calculated and determined by volume method on such
basis so as to determine the composition of fine aggregate and the proportion of binder.
Gradation of aggregate of skeletal dense type has led to good results in a number of engineering
applications. For example, the cement stabilized macadam base in a bid section of an expressway
in Henan Province in 2000 made use of aggregate with a small amount of fine grains smaller
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than 0.075mm and a large content of coarse grains compared with the medium-value gradation in
the Specifications, which was approximate to a structure of skeletal dense type. After a cold
winter, the trial section remained unpaved with asphalt concrete surface layer, with each
observation section no less than 500m long, and in the trial section of skeletal dense type, the
minimum cracks space is 35m, a maximum cracks space of 105m and an average cracks space of
55m, while other bid sections existed the cracks spaced at a maximum of 35m and some of them
existed those spaced at 5m. In March 2003, a trial road with a cement stabilized macadam base
of skeletal dense type was paved for an expressway in Tianjin; it was found through observation
during construction that the trial section was basically free from cracks while a neighboring
non-trial section of equal length existed 5 cracks. By use of cement stabilized macadam of
skeletal dense type, an expressway in Shandong Province similarly demonstrated a good result in
terms of improved cracking resistance.
6.1.9. Lime-fly-ash mixture proportioning has been much researched in different regions,
largely to seek improvements in the cracking and erosion resistance of bases. It can be seen from
Table 6-2 that the gradation has a tendency of becoming thicker and, with considerable increase
in the proportion of coarse aggregate larger than 2.36mm and 4.75mm, is getting closer to
skeletal dense type.
Table 6-2Lime-fly-ash Stabilized Macadam Aggregate Gradation Actually Used by

Different Organizations
Sieve hole Hu-Hang Pudong Avenue, Jiangsu Transportation Tianjin

aperture (mm) Expressway Shanghai Research Institute Municipal
31.5 100 99.2 100 100
26.5 85-93 65.8 70-90 -
19 - - - 46
16 54-80 39.9 38-65 -
9.5 30-48 28.2 20-42 24
4.75 14-34 20.3 8-31 11
2.36 - 11.4 - 5
1.18 - 9.3 - 2
0.6 - 6.1 - 0
0.075 0-4 0.6 0-4 0
In Jiangsu Province, the lime-fly-ash stabilized macadam was used as pavement base, for
example, Hu-Ning Expressway, Ning-Lian Class 1 Highway, Ning-Tong Class 1 Highway and
Nanjing Airport Expressway, and a lot of experiments and researches were done. With
lime-fly-ash macadam material used as the base in Nanjing Airport Expressway, a range of
gradations, as shown in Table 6-3, was suggested from the analysis of strength characteristics
and cracking resistance as well as the temperature shrinkage and dry shrinkage tests upon indoor
and outdoor testing and researches. Compared with the gradation in the former specifications, the
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coarse aggregate larger than 4.75mm in such aggregate gradation apparently increases and gets
closer to a skeletal dense structure.
Table 6-3Lime-fly-ash Macadam Aggregate Gradation for Nanjing Airport Expressway
Sieve hole size (mm) 40 30 20 10 5 2.0 1.0 0.5 0.075

Percentage of passing (%) 100 80-90 50-70 26-46 20-30 14-20 9-15 6-10 0-4
It’s seen from the actual service that, by adjusting the content of coarse material in aggregate and
strengthening quality control during construction, lime-fly-ash stabilized macadam bases exhibit
a flat, high-strength, even surface and less cracks. Besides, the aggregate for lime-fly-ash
macadam bases used in construction on class 2 highways in Jiangsu Province mostly has simplex
gradation, with the coarse granular material constituting about 75%-80% of lime-fly-ash
stabilized macadam. It can be seen from compaction and on site sampling results that the
granular material so graded forms a skeleton in the mixture and lime fly ash serves for filling and
cementation, which can be called as lime-fly-ash granular material of skeletal dense type; it’s
seen from the construction and use, the former Hu-Ning Class 2 Highway that there is almost no
shrinkage crack or one crack at least every 50m or longer. A recommended range of aggregate
gradations is so suggested in the Specifications upon serious analysis on the basis of summarized
practical experiences from different regions.
Where the coarse aggregate larger than 4.75mm in a mixture, either with a cement stabilized
base or a lime-fly-ash stabilized base, engenders a skeletal status, the status of coarse aggregate
distribution is the same. For a lime-fly-ash stabilized base, fine aggregate consists of fine
aggregate smaller than 4.75mm and about 20% lime fly ash. A reasonable proportion of
lime-fly-ash macadam of skeletal dense type should be determined by the relation between the
volume of skeletal voids in coarse aggregate and that of filling material, including lime, fly ash
and fine aggregate. If the material is smaller than 4.75mm in a mixture (lime, fly ash and fine
aggregate) serves as filling material to fill skeletal voids in coarse aggregate, the content of
filling material should be somewhere between 20% and 30%. Variation in the content of filling
material depends on the factors like the gradation type of coarse aggregate, compactness, and
form of stone grains and the ratio of binder to aggregate.
6.1.11. Where the material of lime-fly-ash stabilized type is used as lower base or sub base,
the frost resistance inspection is not required for the time being; it is generally unnecessary for
the bases of cement stabilized type as the latter type has better frost resistance than lime-fly-ash
stabilized type, and may be conducted by referring to the following provisions where this is
specially required. The guide to antifreeze design should be referred to for the method of
freezing-thawing test which should be taken by quick freezing method, maintaining freeze for 8
h at -18℃±1℃ and then, thaw for 8 h at normal temperature of 18℃±1℃ that constitutes a 16
h cycle of freezing and thawing. After 5 freezing and thawing cycles, the residual strength of test
pieces is tested and the residual strength ratio is calculated by Formula (6-1):
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Where:
Δfm is residual strength ratio after 5 freezing and thawing cycles (%);
fm1 is mean value of the water-saturated compressive strength of test pieces not undergoing
freezing and thawing (MPa);
fm2 is mean value of the water-saturated compressive strength of test pieces after 5 freezing
and thawing cycles (MPa).
Residual strength ratio after 5 freezing and thawing cycles should meet the requirement of the
Specifications.
6.1.13. Fly ash/lime stabilized soil type has good stabilizing effect. For lack of lime or
unacceptable quality, however, only cement and fly ash can be used for stabilization in some
regions. Examples of the employment of cement-fly-ash stabilized bases in actual works in
provinces like Henan and Hebei have achieved good applying effect.
It can be seen from the engineering practice and indoor testing that the strength development
characteristic of cement-fly-ash stabilized type material lies between that of cement stabilized
type and that of lime-fly-ash stabilized type; in other words, its early strength is higher than
lime-fly-ash stabilized type but lower than cement stabilized type while the extent of its later
strength development is higher than that of cement stabilized type but lower than that of
lime-fly-ash stabilized type. The pavement base structure of an expressway in Henan was
designed to be cement-fly-ash stabilized macadam and have proportioning of cement: fly ash:
macadam=5.5: 10: 84.5. Cracks found on its trial section in construction and curing phases were
spaced generally at 2km or even longer. The expressway was formally opened into traffic at the
end of 2002 and now provides good service effect.
According to relevant indoor testing and engineering practice, the strength index for
proportioning design is suggested in this article.
6.1.14. The strength of cement-fly-ash stabilized type base material increases with increasing
cement dosage. According to the results of relevant testing, it’s preferable for cement dosage not
to be lower than 3%, as considered from the point of view of basic strength requirement and
erosion resistance. Like cement stabilized type base material, the contractibility and brittleness of
the material increase with increasing cement dosage. Although the contractibility of cement fly
ash is better than simply cement stabilized type in stabilization, it’s preferable for cement dosage
not to be more than 6%, as synthetically considered from the point of view of strength and
contractibility.
6.2. Flexible Base & Sub Base
6.2.2. In the former specifications, the asphalt macadam mainly refers to semi-open gradation
asphalt macadam (AM) usually with a porosity of 10%-18%, whereas bases of an asphalt
stabilized macadam mixture (asphalt macadam for short) that are generally used abroad are
divided into three types, namely the dense gradation asphalt macadam (ATB, Asphalt treated
base) with design porosity of 3%-6%, open gradation asphalt macadam (ATPB, Asphalt-treated
permeable base) with design porosity more than 18% and semi-open gradation asphalt macadam
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with design porosity of 6%-12%. With the research and development of gradation design method
and mixture performance, the concept of large grain size asphalt mixture (LSM) has been
presented abroad in latest years on the basis of dense gradation asphalt macadam base and
applied extensively to flexible bases. Maximum grain size of a large grain size asphalt macadam
base is usually 25-63mm (1-2 inches); such mixture has been developed for heavy traffic load,
where the coarse aggregate is interlocked into a skeleton and the fine aggregate fills up the voids,
forming a structure of skeletal dense type or skeletal void type to resist permanent deformation
under the action of vehicle load. Upon adequate compaction, the dense gradation large grain size
asphalt macadam advantages increase in fatigue service life, reduction of permanent deformation,
reduction of water sensitivity and increase in strength and stability.
Nominal maximum grain size of large grain size asphalt macadam used as base is normally equal
to or larger than 26.5mm. Large Marshal test pieces should be used in the proportioning test; the
size of test pieces is ø152.4mm × 95.3mm when forming by compaction.
The size of large Marshal test pieces is enlarged by 50% compared with standard Marshal test
pieces; the falling weight has mass of 10.2kg and does compaction 112 times, provided that the
height of the falling weight remains unchanged. Comparison of test results shows that large
Marshal test pieces can increase the compactness of asphalt concrete and decrease
asphalt-aggregate ratio and that its stability and flow value can increase by 2.25 times and 1.5
times respectively while its dynamic stability, compressive resilience modulus, compressive
strength and cleavage strength increase considerably.
Coring results from relevant trial sections show that it’s easier by standard Marshal compaction
method to reach 98% of the specified value of compactness and go beyond 100%, ranging from
105% to 114%; moreover, it’s easy by compaction method to break up stone material and have
original gradation changed. Where the vibrating compaction is employed, compactness ranges
from 97% to 101% and corresponds better to reality. Use of forming by vibration or by gyratory
compactor is recommended and forming by compaction method can be tentatively employed
only where no testing equipments are available.
6.2.3. Gradations and mixture’s technical indexes with respect to large grain size dense
gradation asphalt macadam (LSM) are put together according to the results of the “Test & Study
of Large Grain Size Asphalt Mixtures and Their Engineering Application & Practice”, a special
study conducted by, among others, Jiangsu Transportation Research Institute and Harbin Institute
of Technology. A large grain size asphalt mixture is a mixture with nominal maximum grain size
equal to or larger than 26.5mm and is suitable for flexible bases. Research activities covered
indoor proportioning test, gradation comparison and selection, physical and mechanical
performance testing, trial roads and real works; recommended gradations and mixture’s design
indexes are suggested by referring to American aggregate gradation for large grain size asphalt
mixtures. Six design gradation curves (Fig 6-2) were studied out in indoor tests, and
proportioning design and various road service performance tests were conducted. Refer to Fig
6-3 and Fig 6-4 for results of mechanical performance tests on six large grain size asphalt
mixtures with respect to their permanent deformation, creep stiffness modulus, compressive
resilience modulus, cleavage strength，etc. An optimum gradation curve was thus chosen from
them to get verified in engineering practice and a good effect has been achieved in a number of
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real works. In Jiangsu Province, LSM was applied to roads with heavy traffic like Ning-Lian
Class 1 Highway which has been opened into traffic for four years, and remains in good working
condition.
Percentage of passing (%)
Sieve hole size (mm)
Test gradation 1 Test gradation 2 Test gradation 3 Test gradation 4 Test gradation 5 Test gradation 6
Fig. 6-2 Gradation Curve of Six Kinds of Large Grain Size Asphalt Macadam
Creep stiffness modulus (MPa)
Permanent deformation (10-6)
Gradation 1 Gradation 2 Gradation 3 Gradation 4 Gradation 5 Gradation 6 Gradation Gradation Gradation Gradation Gradation Gradation
1 2 3 4 5 6
Fig 6-3 Deformation and Creep Stiffness Modulus of Six Mixtures

Resilience modulus (MPa)
Cleavage strength (MPa)
Gradation Gradation Gradation Gradation Gradation Gradation Gradation Gradation Gradation Gradation Gradation Gradation
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
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Fig 6-4 Compressive Resilience Modulus and Cleavage Strength of Six Mixtures
Large grain size dense gradation asphalt macadam (LSM) is of asphalt stabilized macadam type
(ATB), but LSM somewhat differs from ATM in aggregate gradation and mixture’s technical
indexes. For ease of use, the gradation of large grain size asphalt macadam (LSM) and mixture’s
technical indexes are suggested according to summarization of real works, as detailed in Tables
6-4 and 6-5.
Table 6-4Range of Aggregate Gradations for LSM
Sieve hole size Large grain size dense gradation asphalt macadam
Type of gradation
(mm) LSM-25 LSM-30 LSM-40
53 100
37.5 100 90-100
31.5 100 90-100 75-90
26.5 90-100 75-90 65-85
19 70-90 60-85 55-75
16 55-75 45-70 50-70
13.2 45-65 40-60 35-55
Percentage of passing
9.5 35-55 35-55 30-50
through sieve hole (%)
4.75 25-45 23-45 23-45
2.36 17-35 17-35 17-35
1.18 10-25 10-25 10-25
0.6 8-20 8-20 8-20
0.3 5-15 5-15 5-15
0.15 3-12 3-12 3-12
0.075 3-7 3-7 3-7
Table 6-5Technical Indexes of LSM by Marshal Test
Technical
Item of test
requirement
Size of test piece (mm) ø 152.4× 95.3
Times of compaction (doubled-sided) 112
Design porosity (%) 4-6
Air voids of mineral Maximum nominal size 26.5 > 12.5
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Technical
Item of test
requirement
aggregate (%) (mm) 31.5 > 12.0
37.5 > 11.5
Stability (kN) > 15
Flow value Actual measurement
Saturation (%) 55-70
Immersion Marshal residual stability (%) > 75
6.2.4. Use of semi-open gradation asphalt macadam mixture in drainage bases has drawn
attention in recent years both at home and abroad. This larger grain size asphalt mixture
originated from the experiences of some US states. In some Midwest US states, surveys into
pavements that had been used for over thirty years and kept in relatively good operating
condition were performed and it was found that what was used in the base of many successful
pavements was large grain size or single grain size embedded type asphalt mixture. This mixture
has considerable potential to resist the action of heavy traffic load and therefore, the mixture
design based on the formation of embedded state by single grain size coarse aggregate is
suggested. American NCHRP united key research project tram conducted a lots of researches
into large grain size asphalt mixtures, too, finally giving birth to NCHRP Research Report 386.
Studies and applications have been carried out in some provinces and cities of our country over
recent years and a good application effect has been achieved.
Semi-open gradation asphalt macadam mixture bases have achieved a good application effect in
some Central and Western US states like Indiana. (Indiana DOT STANDARD SPECIFICATION
1999) Two kinds of gradation composition with semi-open gradation asphalt mixtures serving as
primary base material are shown in Table 6-6.
Table 6-6Range of Base Asphalt Mixture Gradations in Indiana
Sieve hole AC
52 37.5 26.5 19 13.2 9.5 4.75 2.36 1.18 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.075
size (mm) content
25 100 70-98 50-85 28-62 15-50 6-29 6-18 2-15 1-10 0-7 0-6 0-4 3.2
40 100 45-75 30-60 20-50 15-40 10-35 5-25 6-18 2-15 1-10 0-7 0-6 0-4 3.0
Large grain size semi-open gradation asphalt macadam differs from ordinary asphalt stabilized
macadam. First, a skeletal structure with coarse aggregate is used, with the content of coarse
aggregate of the coarsest grade is normally around 50%, so that it is provided with good capacity
of rutting resistance. The gradation range of large grain size semi-open gradation asphalt
macadam is designed by volume method and NCHRP Report 386 uses the method of volume
filling to derive the gradation composition of a mixture by linear programming. Secondly, in
comparison with open gradation asphalt macadam (ATPB), a smaller porosityhas been adopted
in the condition when the semi-open gradation large grain size asphalt macadam meets the
drainage requirement. According to researches over recent years, an open gradation drainage
base with larger porosity (18%-24%) involves a lot of problems, and its fatigue resistance and
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water stability make solicitudes. For example, Swedish National Road and Transport Research
Institute believes, by comparing the service performance of four asphalt base materials with
different structure after researches like lab studies, accelerated load test and onsite FWD testing,
that the durability of an open gradation drainage base with larger porosity is bad. Thirdly, the
designed asphalt mixture has larger asphalt film thickness, whereas semi-open gradation asphalt
macadam (AM) requires that its asphalt film has minimum thickness of 12μm. Since asphalt film
thickness designed in normal cases is more than 15μm, it’s preferable to use low-grade or
high-viscosity asphalt, with reference asphalt dosage of 2.8%-3.5%.
To give consideration to both drainage and durability, the drainage performance of large grain
size semi-open gradation asphalt macadam mixture was studied in Shandong Province and it was
found that its nominal maximum grain size and porosity closely relate to permeability coefficient.
Under the normal conditions, the permeability coefficient of a semi-open gradation asphalt
macadam mixture (as measured by a testing method in accordance with ASTM PS 129-01) is
larger than 0.01cm/s when its porosity is larger than 12%; the coefficient increases with a
porosity of 12%-18% but its variation somewhat slows down with a porosity going beyond 18%.
When the permeability coefficient becomes larger than 0.01cm/s, the permeation requirement for
open gradation asphalt wearing course (OGFC) should be met.
Therefore it’s necessary to appropriately reduce the mixture’s porosity so as to improve its
durability in the condition to meet the drainage requirement. The gradation of AM-25 and
AM-40 and mixture’s technical indexes are recommended through engineering practice. When
the design porosity is normally around 15%, such mixture has certain drainage capacity and
bearing capacity, so symbol AM is used to denote it. However, the gradation of recommended
semi-open gradation large grain size asphalt macadam base (AM) and design method are already
different from AM in the former specifications. Semi-open gradation drainage asphalt macadam
has certain bearing capacity as well as the function of abating reflection cracks and draining the
remaining water within pavement structure, and is suitable for use as flexible base and sub base.
During thickness calculations, the thickness of the layer should be studied out and that of other
structure layers calculated. Over recent years, such drainage base has been constructed in new
expressway construction and maintenance works in Shandong Province; these expressways have
been open into traffic for 1 to 5 years and the base has been kept in good service condition.
Drainage base (ATPB) is applicable to special sections where free water might appear within the
pavement structure and it’s necessary to consider the drainage from the pavement structure; its
porosity is more than 18% while its durability is something to concern about. Open gradation
drainage base (ATPB) still lacks practice in our country and should be used discreetly after
testing and study.
6.2.6. Graded macadam is a classical pavement structure layer, usually made by adding and
mixing macadam and chips of several grain sizes, and is applicable to the base and sub base of
highways of all classes. Gradation macadam can be divided into skeletal dense type and
continuous type.
It can be seen from analysis that the proposed gradation values have hardly changed for decades
in several major countries and chiefly have the following features:
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(1) The range of proposed gradation values varies to an excessively wide extent (Japan
Outline of Asphalt Pavements, US AASHO).
(2) Although divided into coarse, medium and fine types, all of them are basically smooth
continuous gradation.
(3) In our country, the proposed gradation value of graded macadam as upper base is
smaller even than that of asphalt lower course specified in current specifications
(AC-25I) after several adjustments.
The range of gradations specified in the Specifications of different countries is wide and different
mixtures, such as suspended dense, skeletal dense and skeletal void ones, can be made within the
proposed range; there are also different gradation principles, such as continuous gradation and
gap gradation. This widens the space for the design principle of drawing on local resources.
Relevant testing and researches show that the different forming methods bring about different
CBR values and resilience modulus. Where forming is conducted by vibration method, the
resilience modulus of graded macadam that conforms to the principle of tightly arranged
skeleton and denseness may change in the range of 500-550MPa when 98% compactness by
vibrating compaction criterion is reached. It can be seen that it’s preferable to use skeletal dense
type gradation for highways with large traffic volume. CBR values of graded macadam given in
the provisions are a requirement by the criterion for heavy compaction method; all CBR values
increase more or less if forming is conducted by vibration method.
At present, the compaction techniques have developed into an age dominated by frequency and
amplitude modulation type vibratory rollers while the tonnage of pneumatic rollers increases
constantly; the compaction method has dragged behind practical production. The consideration
should be given to the interaction of material and rolling technique during mixture composition
design so that an optimum composition structure is created for mixtures.
During quality inspection, the gradation management and compactness inspection should be
intensified and onsite loading plate or simple FWD inspection conducted. Data should be
provided according to the comprehensive modulus testing for future amendment.
To reduce reflection cracks on an asphalt pavement, it’s preferable to lay asphalt macadam on a
semi-rigid base where the traffic volume is large and heavy vehicles are numerous; a flexible
base like graded macadam may be used in highways with small traffic volume and numerous
light vehicles. For expressways and class 1 highways, a trial section should be constructed firstly
where the graded macadam is used as base or transitional course, care taken in performing
proper process control as regards material specifications, preparation of graded macadam
mixtures and engineering quality, and experiences summed up without blindfold generalization;
it should be adopted especially when it comes to highways with large traffic volume and a large
number of heavy vehicles.
6.3. Rigid Base
6.3.1. Compared with other bases, a rigid base like lean concrete, rolled concrete and cement
concrete has higher strength and rigidity, better integrity and stability, good scouring resistance,
and also internal drainage function for porous pervious concrete; it can be used as the base of
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pavements with heavy-duty traffic.

Lean concrete bases can be divided into dense lean concrete and porous lean concrete, as viewed
from their structure composition characteristics. Porous lean concrete refers to pervious lean
concrete without sand or with little sand.
Ideas for LC-AC design method for lean concrete base asphalt pavement can be for reference
from the design method for RCC-AC composite pavement. During load stress analysis, a 3D
finite element and orthotropic contact element are used at first to calculate the maximum load
stress - flexural-tensile stress at the bottom of a lean concrete base (LC course) without asphalt
course (AC course), and then the elastic layer system theory used to analyze the effect of asphalt
course (AC course) on the lean concrete base (LC course).
Load stress analysis concludes that the regular pattern of variation in load stress at the bottom of
LC course under the effect of asphalt course thickness ha, lean concrete course thickness hc, ratio
of lean concrete modulus to sub base modulus Ec/Es and the ratio of lean concrete modulus to
asphalt concrete course modulus Ec/Ea (a refers to AC, c to LC and s to sub base) is same in both
continuous and smooth cases. Flexural-tensile stress at the bottom of lean concrete course
decreases linearly with increasing asphalt course thickness ha, decreases with increasing lean
concrete course thickness hc, increases with increasing Ec/Es at a rate that becomes more
apparent as hc decreases, and increases with increasing Ec/Ea at a lower rate that becomes
unobvious when ha drops down to 2-6cm. Results of the analysis of flexural-tensile stress at the
bottom of lean concrete course are shown in Fig 6-5 - Fig 6-10.
Base thickness (cm)

Flexural-tensile stress (MPa)
Surface layer thickness (cm)
Fig 6-5 Effect of Surface Layer Thickness on Flexural-tensile Stress with Different Base
Thickness
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Fig 6-6 Effect of Surface Layer Thickness on Flexural-tensile Stress with Different Ec/Es
During temperature stress analysis, the ideas are used for reference from the analytic method for
ACC-AC temperature field and temperature stress, the finite element method used to derive the
nonlinear transient temperature field for LC-AC pavement, and recommended values of
temperature field and maximum temperature gradient for different natural divisions obtained by
use of finite element in respect of space and by use of difference method in respect of time
before temperature warping stress is figured out. It turns out from the results of temperature
stress analysis that, where there is interlayer smoothness, temperature stress in LC course
decreases linearly with increasing ha and increases linearly with increasing hc or Ec, and that,
where there is interlayer continuity, the results are relatively approximate to those in the case of
interlayer smoothness and temperature stress is about 96% of that in the case of interlayer
smoothness though the calculations are complicated as the thermophysical characteristics of sub
base need to be considered. Results of lean concrete base temperature stress analysis are shown
in Fig 6-11 - Fig 6-16.
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Base thickness (cm)
Fig 6-7 Effect of Base Thickness on Flexural-tensile Stress for Difference Surface Layer
Thickness
Base thickness (cm)
Fig 6-8 Effect of Base Thickness on Flexural-tensile Stress with Different Ec/Es
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Fig 6-9 Effect of Ec/Es on Flexural-tensile Stress for Different Surface Layer Thickness
Base thickness (cm)

Fig 6-10 Effect of Ec/Es on Flexural-tensile Stress for Different Base Thickness
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Temperature stress (MPa) Base thickness (cm)
Fig 6-11 Effect of Surface Layer Thickness to Temperature Stress in Different Base
Thickness
Base modulus (103MPa)

Temperature stress (MPa)
Fig 6-12 Effect of Surface Layer Thickness to Temperature Stress in Different

Base Modulus
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Base thickness (cm)

Fig 6-13 Effect of Base Modulus to Temperature Stress in Different Base

Thickness
Base modulus (103MPa)

Base thickness (cm)
Fig 6-14 Effect of Base Modulus to Temperature Stress in Different Surface Layer
Thickness
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Base modulus (MPa)

Fig 6-15 Effect of Base Thickness to Temperature Stress in Different Base
Modulus
6.3.2., 6.3.3. 28d is assumed for both the proportioning design of lean concrete base
material and the design age of structures. Researches show that the strength of lean concrete
without addition of fly ash increases with age at a decreasing rate, i.e. the compressive strength
for 90d being 105% of that for 28d and compressive strength for 180d being 119% of that for
28d; the compressive strength and flexural-tensile strength of lean concrete with addition of fly
ash increase with age at a rate higher than that of lean concrete without addition of fly ash; the
addition of fly ash is advantage to the increase in strength. Use of the 28d age design norm is to
allow for the strength development feature of lean concrete bases with addition of fly ash as well.
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Temperature stress (MPa) Surface layer thickness (cm)
Base thickness (cm)
Fig 6-16 Effect of Base Thickness to Temperature Stress in Different Surface

Layer Thickness
The proportioning design index for lean concrete base material is normally 28d flexural-tensile
strength. 7d compressive strength of a lean concrete base is used in construction quality
inspection. Since the strength of a lean concrete base with addition of fly ash increases slowly,
it’s more stable to keep control with 14d compressive strength during construction quality
inspection.
6.3.4. Lean concrete bases are classified as rigid base; they considerably differ from
semi-rigid bases in aspects like raw material selection, proportioning design and technical
requirements for construction and approximates more to cement concrete. Existing raw material
inspection, proportioning design, construction equipment, paving techniques and all
testing/measuring methods and means for cement concrete can continue to apply in principle.
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7. Asphalt Surface Layer
7.1. Asphalt Mixture Surface Layer
7.1.1. Contents of the article are one of the two main targets of pavement design; in other
words, the service function requirements for vehicle running should be met on the basis that the
pavement meets requirements for structure performance. With repeated action of vehicles and
seasonal changes of climate, however, the road service properties like evenness and friction
coefficient should decrease year by year, so the repair and maintenance during operations form
an integral part.
7.1.2. The article regarding the technical index for asphalt pavement skid resistance is
amended in current amendment according to the result of a special study on the “Standard for
Asphalt Pavement Skid Resistance” which was conducted by the Ministry of Communications.
The result was presented according to the investigation on the pavement skid resistance of 7
expressways (Chang-Ping, Chang-Ji, Shi-An, Xi-Bao, Hu-Ning, Hang-Yong and Quan-Xia) in
Northeast China, North China, Northwest China, East China and South China in combination
with analytic results of more than 90,000 pieces of original data in climate and traffic accidents,
etc. (Table 7-1).
Table 7-1Information about Data Investigation
Region Route Length (km) Climate data Pavement data Accident data
Chang-Ping 83 240 6500 488
Northeast region
Chang-Ji 133 144 4125 1320
North region Shi-An 216 1440 10525 1984
Northwest region Xi-Bao 130 576 6896 1840
Central region Hu-Ning 275 720 12200 22544
East region Hang-Yong 145 144 6861 6512
South region Quan-Xia 81 96 4016 2224
Total 1063 3360 51123 36912
(1) The new criterion for skid resistance testing chiefly allows for annual precipitation and
the fact that more accidents take place due to decrease in pavement skid resistance on
rainy days than at ordinary times was proved by surveys and studies long ago, so it’s
improper for the former specifications to adopt a uniform skid resistance criterion
throughout the country without considering the amount of precipitation. By taking
different criteria for different precipitation and so avoiding unreasonable
indiscrimination, the pavement skid resistance requirement is tempered for
small-precipitation regions and arid regions to make full use of local materials and
resources and save engineering cost. Compared with the former specifications, this is a
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major progress. The requirement for friction coefficient is heightened in some countries
for some sections in poor running condition (such as entrance to a toll station, ramp,
sharp turn and steep slope) while there are different requirements for friction coefficient
against different design speeds in some others. This is theoretically right. However, we
have performed zoning for different precipitations, and the whole criterion system will
appear excessively miscellaneous and also cause a lot of inconvenience to pavement
design if some further classification is done; therefore the new skid resistance criterion
suggests the corresponding index values by mainly considering the differences in annual
precipitation and highway class.
(2) Table 7.1.2 in the article lists the skid resistance requirements for the asphalt pavement
of expressways and class 1 highways, to which the reference may be made for class 2
highways. This doesn’t mean decrease in the degree of danger with class 2 highways.
Accident data show that the accident rate of class 2 highways is not lower than that of
expressways and class 1 highways on account of incomplete safeguard facilities and
mixed traffic. Thus we should attach more importance to the safeness of ordinary roads
and carry out design by referring to the provisions in the articles in combination with the
environment and actualities of regions where a route passes through.
(3) The friction coefficient in the former specifications has sideway force coefficient as
control index, which is not altered in current amendment for the following reasons: ①
Although a wide range of longitudinal force coefficient testing devices have been
introduced to some places, the sideway force coefficient testers remain the prevailing
testing device. ② An international contrast test on friction coefficient testing devices
was taken in 1990s of the 20th century, trying to establish an international friction
coefficient index (IFI), but the results of the test were not very good; therefore we
cannot but choose one device measurement from them as control index. ③ The sideway
force coefficient can represent the risk of lateral skid better and can also be measured
continuously. Since sideway force coefficient routine investigation machines are
expensive and have not yet been popularized, DFT60, an easy-to-use dynamic friction
coefficient tester with relatively simple construction has been introduced, with
consideration given to construction control and the demand for testing in special
sections, which can be used on the pavement of expressways and class 1 highways as
well as for construction control, ramps, markings and other situations where it’s
inconvenient to use a sideway force coefficient routine investigation machine. Refer to
US standard ASTM E1911-98 for the standard and testing method for the dynamic
friction coefficient tester (DFT60).
A pendulum apparatus can only measure the pavement skid resistance under low-speed condition
and reflect partial micro-texture of pavements; it can be used on class 2 highways. It’s preferable
that the requirements of indexes in Table 7-2 are met if the dynamic friction coefficient tester
(DFT60) and British pendulum number (BPN) are used in testing.
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Table 7-2Dynamic Friction Coefficient and British Pendulum Number of Pavements
Delivery testing
Mean annual precipitation
Dynamic friction coefficient for British pendulum number for class 2
(mm)
expressways and class 1 highways highways
> 1000 ≥ 0.59 ≥ 58
500-1000 ≥ 0.54 ≥ 56
250-500 ≥ 0.47 ≥ 54
(4) The testing speed of sideway force coefficient routine investigation machine (SCRIM)
in the former specifications is 50km/h, which is increased up to 60km/h in the
Specifications. This is chiefly to allow for more approximation of testing speed to actual
vehicle running speed; the corresponding criterion increases slightly due to increase in
speed though the standard value is not changed. According to the test curve of SFC and
that of DFT at different speeds, SFC will decrease by about 1%-3% when testing speed
increases from 50km/h to 60km/h.
(5) According to the research results, the correlations between the value of sideway force
friction coefficient SFC60 and DF60 and between BPN and SFC60 are obtained, as shown
in Formulas (7-1) and (7-2). Therefore, the value measured with a dynamic friction
coefficient tester may be converted into the value of sideway force friction coefficient
SFC60. Since the testing speed of sideway coefficient routine investigation machines is
currently 50km/h in our country, the conversion relation between SFC60 and DF60 has
not yet been established and Formula (7-1) for the conversion relation between SFC60
and DF60, which is established through practical measurements, may be referred to and
used.
SFC50=85.882 DFT60+4.6121 (s=0.95) (7-1)
BPN=0.4064 SFC60+36.353 (s=0.82) (7-2)
What needs to be explained additionally is that BPN value must be determined with an improved
pendulum type friction coefficient tester. Improved pendulum apparatus have such main
technical characteristics as sheet rubber made on a special formulation and positive static
pressure of 22.2 N ± 0.5 N of sheet rubber on a pavement as measured by hanging weight
method.
(6) The Specifications continues to use dual-index control with sideway force friction
coefficient and tectonic depth. Tectonic depth reflects the depth of tectonic on pavement
surface; a large tectonic depth means that the surface water under wheel clearance can
be quickly drained while vehicles are running at a high speed, so as to reduce water film
thickness, prevent the phenomenon of water floating and keep down the attenuation of
pavement skid resistance on rainy days; it’s still used as it is an importance index
regarding pavement skid resistance. A larger tectonic depth is not always better; with
excessive tectonic depth, vehicle running noise increases, the possibility of permeation
increases, and construction difficulty also increases. To reduce noise, many European
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countries highly are fond of fine and rough pavements. Therefore it’s preferable to have
a tectonic depth (TD) of 0.6-1.2mm at delivery and it’s recommended that the tectonic
depth remains preferably no more than 1.4mm.
(7) The pavement skid resistance criterion is changed from a final acceptance criterion to a
delivery testing criterion. In the former specifications, the skid resistance criterion is a
final acceptance criterion and the first summer after delivery acceptance is defined as
testing time because it’s known the summer is the worst season. The delivery testing
criterion is used instead for ease of operation because the time of final acceptance is
usually two or three or even up to five years behind delivery acceptance, the friction
coefficient attenuates with time under the action of running vehicles in a pattern that
depends on stone material quality, traffic volume and environmental conditions, and it’s
hard to control the coefficient as an index for final acceptance. In a same year, the
pavement friction coefficient varies to some extent with changing seasons. However,
such variation is limited and is minor in seasons other than winter. For this reason, no
later than 12 months after delivery acceptance is provided in the new Specifications.
7.1.3. Over recent years, researches and engineering practice concerning the asphalt mixtures
have been conducted from region to region, a lot of new mixture design methods emerged, and
some types of gradation suitable for different conditions summarized according to engineering
practice; although some gradations are differently named, they have similar fundamental
principles. To distinguish between the features of various asphalt mixtures, they are thus divided
firstly by degree of porosity into three types, namely dense gradation, semi-open gradation and
open gradation. Dense gradation may be further divided into coarse type (AC-C) and fine type
(AC-F) abroad. Different types of gradation are applicable to different conditions.
With features like surface roughness, large texture depth and good resistance to rutting and
deformation, the coarse gradation is dominated by coarse aggregate and is applicable to surface
course in rainy, torrid regions with large traffic volume. Coarse gradation asphalt mixtures may
also be used in middle and lower surface courses to enhance rutting resistance, but care should
be taken to intensify compaction during construction.
It is more gradation fine aggregate, better construction workability, good water stability，good
resistance to low-temperature cracking and fatigue cracking，etc. However, it can be used in a

fatigue-resistant structure layer or on highways in arid regions with little rain, small traffic
volume and severely cold climate due to its surface densification and small texture depth.
7.1.4. Type selection and proportioning design for asphalt mixtures is the key to ensure the
quality and service function of asphalt pavements. Pavement service function and asphalt
mixture composition have a complicated and contradictory relation. A dense type asphalt mixture
should be normally selected for structure layers to prevent rain and snow from filtering down and
then inducing water damage. The resistance of asphalt mixtures to high-temperature rutting,
low-temperature cracking and fatigue and their durability should also be considered. Since the
factors affecting various service properties are associated and contradictory, major conflicts
should be tackled in combination with local environmental conditions and there should be a
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trade-off by comprehensively and generally considering the balance between various properties
of asphalt mixtures instead of addressing some of them while ignoring others. Since different
regions have different climate, traffic conditions and service requirements, the suitable gradation
types and gradations should be chosen according to the local actualities and engineering
experiences.
1. To seek for dense and rough surface function while overcoming water damage and
rutting damage, the existing engineering experiences are summarized.
(1) When the former specifications are implemented, pavement infiltration, oozing and pot
holes occur in some places. According to surveys and analyses, water damage takes
place in some sections while some others with same gradation remain intact. The reason
for this is complex and relates to multiple aspects like stone material quality, mixture
gradation, mixture design, adhesion of asphalt to stone material, construction
compaction, poor interlayer binding and management. Technically, what is done first is
to reduce asphalt mixture porosity and reduce infiltration by decreasing the AK type
porosity specified in the former construction specifications from 4%-10% to 3%-5% and
increasing compaction frequency from 50 times to 75 times so as to enhance the onsite
compactness control and make onsite porosity smaller than 7%; the AK type gradation
of skid resistant surface layer formerly with a large porosity is adjusted to dense type,
from AC type continuous gradation to S type, and gradations in all regions made closer
to skeletal dense type gradation dominated by coarse aggregate. These changes make
the water permeability of AK type gradation greatly reduced. To prevent asphalt and
hard stone material from stripping, the measures like modified asphalt, addition of
anti-stripping agent, slaked lime or cement are used to enhance the adhesion of asphalt
to stone material, enhance the water stability of mixtures and reduce water damage
noticeably. In addition, the factors like mixture segregation due to poor macadam
specifications and quality as well as unilateral pursuit of evenness while making light of
compaction process and neglecting compactness during construction make an important
cause for water damage. It’s unilateral to attribute water damage exclusively to AK type
gradation. By taking care in controlling porosity, compaction frequency and
compactness during mixture design, taking anti-stripping measures and intensifying
construction management, the problem of early water damage to pavements has been
largely resolved in most provinces over latest years. Surface course gradations in
different places, as adjusted, are relatively approximate, though they are given different
names.
In the former specifications, AK-13A basically covers design gradation lines in all aspects.
Substantial engineering practical experiences demonstrate that, with adjustment in volume index,
AK-13A surface course can achieve a rough, densified, uniform effect and adjusted gradation is
renamed as coarse gradation AC-13C. AK-13B in the former specifications is on the thick side
and has a large porosity, tending to give rise to seepage, and so it’s not recommended. In a
similar way, all AC-1I type gradations in the former specifications are cancelled.
AK-16A in the former specifications was normally used for 4cm surface course in the past,
which is liable to segregation and hard to compact, has a large porosity, and exhibits different
degree of seepage. By adjusting gradation curves, keeping design porosity at around 4%-5%,
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increasing paving thickness to 50mm, and taking care during construction to prevent segregation
and control compactness over recent years, water permeability has decreased while a rough,
dense surface course can still be obtained. Similarly, adjusted coarse type gradation is renamed
as AC-16C. Coarse gradations AC-13C and AC-16C in the new Sspecifications are actually the
adjusted types of AK-13A and AK-16A in the former specifications, for the gradation range of
which reference may be made to Table 7-3. At present, the gradation types for skid resistant
surface layer consist of coarse type gradations AC-13C, AC-16C, SMA-13, SMA-16, OGFC-10
and OGFC-13 which should be selected according to the actualities in different places.
Table 7-3Gradation Range of AC-13C and AC-16C for Reference
Gradation Percentage (%) of passing through the following sieve hole (mm)
type 19 16 13.2 9.5 4.75 2.36 1.18 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.075
AC-13C 100 90-100 60-80 30-53 20-40 15-30 10-23 7-18 5-12 4-8
AC-16C 100 95-100 70-92 56-76 30-50 20-36 16-28 10-20 8-16 6-13 4-8
(2) For gradation AC-20I in the former specifications, the fine aggregate passing though
4.75mm sieve hole constitutes 38%-58%, which is apparently on the excessive side, and
the asphalt mixture exhibits a suspended dense structure, tending to give rise to rutting
under disadvantageous conditions like high-temperature season. Therefore AC-20I is
improved; by decreasing fine aggregate passing through 4.75mm sieve hole, the coarse
aggregate content increases, asphalt dosage decreases, and high-temperature stability is
enhanced. Similarly, AC-25I in the former specifications is adjusted. In current
construction specifications, the upper limit of fine aggregate passing through 4.75mm
and 2.36mm sieve holes remains approximate to type I in the former specifications
while the lower limit decreases by 8%-10%. The range of gradations widens and,
although the flexibility for design and construction organizations becomes higher, the
design difficulty in determining a gradation from a wider range of gradations meeting
road service performance requirements increases. Therefore, the mixture gradation
design should be treated seriously in combination with local natural conditions.
Gradations for middle and lower surface courses recommended according to data in
different regions, as shown in Table 7-4, may be selected in combination with local
actualities.
Table 7-4Range of Gradations for Middle and Lower Surface Courses
Gradation Percentage of passing through the following sieve hole (mm)

type 31.5 26.5 19 16 13.2 9.5 4.75 2.36 1.18 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.075
AC-20C 100 90-100 74-90 62-82 50-70 32-46 22-36 16-28 10-22 6-16 4-12 3-7
AC-25C 100 90-100 70-90 60-82 51-73 40-65 24-48 14-32 10-24 7-18 6-14 4-10 3-7
2. Gradation types and selection
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(1) Surface courses should have functions like denseness, uniformity, skid resistance and
wearing capacity; it’s advisable to use a skid-resistant surface layer with rough surface
(AC-C, SMA) for sections with poor horizontal and vertical alignments of route in rainy,
humid regions with torrid climate. Asphalt mixture gradations match the asphalt layer
thickness. Gradation types like AC-13C and SMA-13 may be chosen where the surface
course thickness is 40mm. It’s preferable for surface course thickness to be 45-50mm
and gradation types like AC-16C and SMA-16 may be chosen for sections with long
steep longitudinal grade, sharp turn or a large number of heavy vehicles in regions with
severely cold climate.
(2) According to surveys in rutted sections, the rutting deformation occurs chiefly in middle
surface course; this relates to dense gradations with much fine aggregate used as a result
of chief consideration given in middle surface course design in our country to the
prevention of seepage. After rutting occurred frequently on highways with long/steep
longitudinal grade section and a large number of heavy vehicles in our country, the
coarse gradations started to be chosen for middle and lower surface courses in 2002 so
that the mixtures have been developing towards skeletal dense type gradation, e.g. by
choosing gradation types like AC-20C, SUP-19 or SMA-20, so as to enhance their
high-temperature stability and water stability.
(3) For lower saurface course, asphalt concrete AC-25 or dense gradation asphalt macadam
ATB-25 and LSM-25 may be chosen as flexible base.
(4) It’s preferable not to use semi-open gradation asphalt macadam (AM) as surface layer
due to its large porosity and serious seepage. Semi-open gradation asphalt macadam
AM-13, AM-16 and AM-20 are mainly used in leveling course.
(5) Open gradation wearing course (OGFC) has design porosity of 18%-24%. It has
functions like drainage, reducing water film thickness, preventing water floating and
skid resistance while being capable of reducing noise. However, the waterproof course
and drainage measures should be properly constructed, whereas cost is high and
clearing-up and maintenance for blocked air voids due to dust contamination is one of
the problems.
7.1.5. A table of gradations for various asphalt mixtures is recommended (Table C.1 in
Appendix C) according to the engineering practical experiences; the gradation curves and range
should be chosen in combination with local actualities and application experiences as some
gradations have a wider range. It’s preferable to choose 2-3 gradation curves, determine
asphalt-aggregate ratio by mixture proportioning test in combination with local experiences,
conduct road service performance inspection on mixtures with regard to, high-temperature
stability, low-temperature stability, water stability and water permeability, conduct inspection
with regard to skid resistance where the circumstances permit, and determine an optimum
asphalt mixture gradation according to various technical indexes by bringing together local
actualities. It’s more important to verify the rationality of proportioning by trial mixing and trial
spreading before formal spreading commences only with joint validation of up-to-grade quality
by the owner and design, supervising and construction organizations.
Refer to relevant methods in the “Technical Specifications for Construction of Highway Asphalt
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Pavement” for details of dense gradation asphalt mixture proportioning design methods. Marshal
test method is mainly used at present, whereas US Superpave method and GTM method, among
others, have been introduced by some domestic organizations, by which many real works have
been constructed and have produced good service results over latest years, and so these methods
can be used, too.
7.1.6. The problem of pavement rutting was not noticeable in our country in the 1990s of the
20th century, but rutting started to become prominent after water damage has been largely
resolved with the coming of the 21st century. Especially in the summer of 2002 when the
constant high temperature dominated the country, different degree of ruts occurred along wheel
path on the lanes in uphill sections and sections with a large number of heavy and overloaded
vehicles, both in some of south and north provinces; serious traction, flow and deformation took
place in some of the sections. According to field surveys, the traction and deformation of asphalt
mixtures occurred mainly in middle surface course and flow occurred also in lower surface
course occasionally. According to the theoretical analysis, the pavement shear stress is largely
distributed in a range of 5-8cm on pavements and its extent relates to wheel load, longitudinal
grade of pavements and vehicle running speed. Therefore the external causes for rutting include:
The heavier axle load there is, the larger interface shear stress between asphalt surface layer and
semi-rigid base and larger asphalt layer shear stress there are due to low vehicle running speed
on longitudinal slopes under heavy-duty traffic; The larger modulus ratio between semi-rigid
base and asphalt surface layer there is, the larger interface shear stress and also larger asphalt
layer shear stress there are; Extended high temperature in summer can put asphalt mixtures in a
plastic state marked by reduced shear strength and, when the shear stress becomes larger than the
shear strength of asphalt mixtures, the shear deformation might take place in pavements. The
internal causes include: Any of improper design or construction with asphalt mixtures, fine
aggregate in gradation on the excessive side, porosity on the small side, asphalt dosage on the
large side and asphalt consistency on the low/diluted side may bring down shear strength;
Besides, lack of uniformity in the specifications and quality of stone material processing,
disorder management, non-strict gradation control, excess dust from stone material or too large
filler-asphalt ratio can result in insufficient thermal stability of asphalt mixtures and then give
rise to ruts and flow. Therefore, the mixture design for surface and middle surface courses should
give comprehensive consideration to the consistence of the two aspects in contradiction, i.e.
prevention of seepage and high-temperature stability, without leaning to one aspect only.
(1) Internationally, there is no unified, recognized method to evaluate the thermal stability
of asphalt mixtures; the index system, testing equipment and testing method used vary
from country to country. The former specifications used the results of key projects for
the 7th Five-Year Plan and introduced rut testing equipment and dynamic stability
assessment index; the dynamic stability criterion suggested according to the results of
tests taken by use of domestic asphalt made at that time and the continuous gradation
with a lot of fine aggregate is lower. Indexes for assessment of high-temperature
stability include dynamic stability, relative deformation and creepage. Current specific
studies on asphalt mixtures believe that the relative deformation has a good relation with
dynamic stability and the creep stiffness from single-axle creep tests can represent the
thermal stability of asphalt concrete as well, but no recommended value has been
suggested due to a shortage of test data. Therefore, the dynamic stability from rutting
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tests still works this time.

(2) Pavement rutting relates to climate conditions, traffic volume and traffic composition;
different dynamic stability index values should be suggested according to different
climate conditions and different traffic grades. The dynamic stability of asphalt mixtures
relates to asphalt grade, kind of modified asphalt, gradation type, test temperature, wheel
pressure, etc. Due to the restriction of insufficient depth of research work, it’s still
impossible to make clear, as desired, the complex relations between dynamic stability &
rut depth and climate, traffic conditions, different binders and asphalt mixture gradation;
therefore the dynamic stability is just a relative index to verify and assess the
high-temperature stability of asphalt mixtures and it cannot achieve pavement rutting
control for the time being.
Seeing that the dynamic stability in the provisions of the former specifications is a nationwide
unified criterion and obviously does not accommodate to the climate and traffic conditions in
different regions, nothing but some qualitative instructions can be given in this article and the
design value of the dynamic stability of asphalt mixtures may be suggested by referring to
construction specifications and according to locality-specific conditions and engineering
experiences.
(3) Heavy-duty traffic is an importance cause for rutting in the high-temperature season.
Where the dynamic stability is used to assess the thermal stability of asphalt mixtures,
the test temperature is normally 60℃ and wheel pressure 0.7MPa; for heavy-duty or
overload traffic, the wheel pressure may be up to 0.8-1.1MPa. Therefore for highways
with a large number of heavy-duty vehicles or extra heavy traffic, the important
highways, consecutive long/steep longitudinal slopes, ramps, crossings, access for large
vehicles, parking lots and other special cases, the dynamic stability requirement may be
raised or the test temperature or test wheel pressure appropriately increased, and the test
temperature may be appropriately decreased for regions with cold climate.
(4) Where the technical requirement for dynamic stability cannot be met, the technical
measures should be taken to enhance the shear strength of asphalt mixtures. Use of
skeletal dense type gradation can enhance the interlocking ability of asphalt mixtures;
use of modified asphalt, high-viscosity modified asphalt or asphalt one grade more
consistent than on surface layer has an obvious effect for the enhancement of thermal
stability; addition of, 0.25%-0.4% high-temperature resistant synthetic fiber
(polyacrylonitrile, polyester fiber) and mineral fiber can enhance the road service
performance.
7.1.7. In addition to adopt the index of adhesion ability between asphalt and stone material in
accessment of asphalt pavement stability, immersion Marshal residual stability and
freezing-thawing cleavage test are useds. Immersion rutting test is used abroad to assess the
anti-stripping property of asphalt, whereas there is a shortage of data in our country and the data
need to be accumulated.
According to the suggestions based on the results of key projects for the Eighth Five-Year Plan,
the freezing-thawing cleavage test in the former specifications is limited only to use in regions
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with annual minimum air temperature below -21.5℃; Through the practice over recent years,
however, the method uses the harsh testing conditions to assess the water stability of asphalt
concrete and such index is used in all rainy south regions to assess the water stability of asphalt
concrete, with good effect achieved. Therefore in current amended article, applicable scope of
the assessment of the water stability of mixtures by freezing-thawing cleavage test is extended to
the whole country so that the asphalt concrete has certain water stability in order to avoid early
water damage to pavements.
If an asphalt mixture cannot meet the requirement for water stability, slacked lime or cement
should be added at a dosage determined by testing. Normally, the slacked lime that constitutes
1.5%-2% of total mass or cement that constitutes 2%-2.5% of the same is added instead of
mineral powder to an asphalt mixture. It’s preferable not to copy the dosage indiscriminately as
the stone properties vary from place to place.
7.1.8. Importance is widely attached to the low-temperature cracking resistance of asphalt
concrete pavements. A technical index known as asphalt mixture low-temperature bending test
failure strain (με) is presented according to the results of domestic scientific researches and tests
over latest years. As a relative one, the index is used only to assess the low-temperature cracking
resistance of asphalt concrete pavements and is unable to control the low-temperature cracks
from occurring, a reference index for cool and cold regions.
7.1.10. Like drainage surface layer, an open gradation wearing course (OGFC) is made of
open gradation asphalt mixture; rain water on a pavement can filter rapidly via uneven surface
into the surface layer of the pavement and be drained by the internal drainage system. It has
functions like surface roughness, skid resistance and noise reduction and is mostly known as
open gradation skid-resistant wearing course (OGFC) in Europe and America or as drainage
pavement in Japan. Their strong points include no water fog, good vision during driving, no
water floating, and obviously enhanced vehicle running safety. Drainage pavements also have
certain effect of reducing vehicle running noise. See Table 7-5 for main differences between the
two.
Table 7-5Difference between OGFC and Drainage Surface Layer
Item OGFC Drainage surface layer

Wearing course to increase Surface course to increase resistance
resistance on rainy days and prevent on rainy days, prevent seepage and
Primary purpose
seepage (thickness calculation not reduce noise (thickness calculation
counted) counted)
Construction thickness (mm) 20 or so 40-50
Binder Grade 20/30 hard asphalt, etc. High-viscosity modified asphalt
Max grain size of aggregate (mm) 10 13 or 20
Porosity (%) 15 or so 20 or so
Asphalt dosage (%) 6.0-7.5 4.0-6.0
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Open gradation skid resistant surface layer has been used in Europe, America, Japan and other
countries for many years, for which the packaged technologies have been developed in terms of
design, construction and maintenance machinery, and good comprehensive benefits have been
achieved. Researches are being conducted in our country; to this end, the technical requirements
for the binders, gradations and mixtures of open gradation asphalt mixtures are preliminarily
suggested by making reference to foreign literature and practice for reference during design. It’s
preferable to use modified asphalt, rubber asphalt or high-viscosity modified asphalt for open
gradation asphalt mixtures. Reference may be made to the requirements in Table 7-6 for the
performance indexes of high-viscosity asphalt.
Table 7-6Technical Requirements for Performance Indexes of High-viscosity Asphalt
Test item Technical index Test item Technical index

Penetration (25℃, 50g, 5s) Membrane heating penetration ratio
≥ 40 ≥ 65
(0.1mm) (%)
Softening point TR& B (℃) ≥ 80.0 Toughness [N·m (kgf·cm)] ≥ 20 (200)
Ductility (5cm/min, 15℃) (cm) ≥50 Adhesion ability [N·m (kgf·cm)] ≥15 (150)
Flash point (℃) ≥260 Viscosity at 60℃ [Pa·s (Poise)] ≥ 20000 (200000)
Membrane heating quality:
≤ 0.6
variation rate (%)
Refer to Table 7-7 for technical requirements on open gradation asphalt mixtures.
Table 7-7Technical Requirements for Open Gradation Asphalt Mixtures
Test item Unit Technical requirements

Design porosity % 17-23
Stability by Marshal test kN ≥ 3.5
Run-off loss % ≤ 0.3
Scattering loss % ≤ 20
Dynamic stability by rutting test times/mm ≥ 3000
Water stability: Residual Marshal stability % ≥ 80
Freezing-thawing cleavage strength ratio % ≥ 70
Immersion scattering loss % ≤ 30
Drainage performance: Permeability coefficient cm/s > 0.01
Seepage volume mL/15s > 900
7.1.11. Hot-mixed asphalt macadam (AM) may be used in a leveling course. It’s preferable for
hot-mixed asphalt macadam not to be used as surface layer due to its high water permeability
resulting from a porosity of 12%-18%; it may be used as surface layer only on a base of granular
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material with good water permeability or used with dense gradation asphalt concrete laid thereon.
Where it is used in a leveling course, the gradation is selected based on asphalt layer thickness
and minimum asphalt layer thickness should be 2-2.5 times of nominal maximum grain size.
7.2. Asphalt Penetration Pavement and Surface Treatment
7.2.1. It’s specified in the former specifications that the thickness of asphalt penetration type
additionally spread the upper mixed course should be preferably 30-40mm and total thickness
should be preferably 70-100mm; in the current amendment, the thickness of the mixed course is
changed to preferably 20-40mm and total thickness to preferably 60-100mm. Such changes are
based on the successful experiences from existing roads.
7.2.5. It’s specified in the former specifications that the asphalt surface treatment by mixing
method should be preferably 30-40mm thick. Since the thickness of the mixed course of an
asphalt penetration pavement has been changed to 20-40mm, the thickness of asphalt surface
treatment by mixing method is changed to 20-40mm, too.
7.2.6. Slurry seal coat is a new added content. Slurry seal coat, also known that it may be
used in the wearing course or protection course or lower seal coat in the newly constructed
highways, of which there have been successful experiences in our country and with which the
cost can be saved especially in the regions lack of fine quality stone material for skid-resistant
courses.
The dosage of emulsified asphalt and modified emulsified asphalt in a mixture for slurry seal
coat should be determined via proportioning design. Mixture quality should meet the technical
requirements of relevant specifications.
Hard, rough, abrasion-proof, clean aggregate free of earth and foreign matters should be chosen
for slurry seal coat. Coarse aggregate should meet the technical requirements for the quality of
coarse aggregate used for hot-mixed asphalt mixtures; its indexes like apparent relative density,
crushing value and Los Angles abrasion value may be tested by using coarser aggregate or raw
stone material. Slacked lime or anti-stripping agent must be added where the acid stone material
with no more than grade 4 ability of adhesion to a binder is used. It’s preferable to use sand and
chips made by machine from clean superior alkali stone material for fine aggregate; the sand
equivalent of the part of fine aggregate which is smaller than 4.75mm should meet the
requirement of relevant specifications; natural sand must not be used. Any large grain size
beyond specifications should be found in such aggregate and such aggregate must be sieved
before being carried to a spreader. The rate of a mixture passing through different sieve holes
must fluctuate in a range of variation permitted for design standard gradation, and the zigzag of
gradation curve should be avoided as far as possible. Where there are actual works which
demonstrate that the gradation used can meet slurry seal coat service requirement and provide
adequate durability, it may be used upon argumentation by experts and approval from the
competent authority.
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8. Thickness of Newly Constructed Pavement Structures
8.0.1.-8.0.4. In the former specifications, the pavement surface deflection value is a

design index while the flexural-tensile stress of asphalt layer and semi-rigid material base is a
checking index. The Specifications use both pavement surface deflection value and
flexural-tensile stress as design index and still use the theory of elastic layer system under the
action of bi-circular uniformly distributed load to perform thickness calculations.
(1) Road surface rebound deflection value taken as a design index to ensure the integral
rigidity of pavement structures
Road surface rebound deflection is an index for calculations on the theory of elastic layer system
under the action of vehicle load and closely relates to compressive strain on the top face of
subgrade. Road surface rebound deflection is the summation of the deformation of pavement
structure layers and the rebound deformation of soil base, and the proportion of the rebound
deformation of soil base in total rebound deformation of road surface is normally over 90%;
therefore, the road surface rebound deformation can reflect the working condition of soil base
while the extent of deflection value represents the level of integral pavement rigidity, i.e. the
pavement structure’s ability to diffuse load stress. Road surface deflection value may be
measured simply with Benkelman beam, an approach simple to operate, veritable, reliable,
inexpensive, and easy to generalize. The compressive strain index is difficult to test and cannot
be used in engineering quality inspection and old pavement bearing capacity assessment, so the
use of the index of the compressive strain of soil base is not recommended tentatively.
The deflection value criterion takes the occurrence of longitudinal crack on a pavement under
repeated action of vehicle load as critical state and longitudinal net-shaped cracking as failure
state; it chiefly reflects the whole of pavement structures under the action of vehicle load,
including apparent characteristics in case of the condition of unbalanced contrast between partial
stress and resistance of structure layers.
(2) Flexural-tensile stress taken as a design index to control the fatigue cracking of structure
layers
Under repeated action of vehicle load, tensile strain or tensile stress takes place at the bottom of
asphalt layer and then, the results in the fatigue cracking of a pavement. According to the current
theories, a pavement crack occurs and develops bottom up; as its apparent characteristic, a
longitudinal crack occurs and then develops gradually into longitudinal net-shaped cracking and
alligator crack failure. For asphalt pavement structures with a semi-rigid base, the bottom of
asphalt layer is dominated by compressive stress or very small tensile stress; tensile stress or
tensile strain in asphalt layer doesn’t exert a control action while the tensile stress in the
semi-rigid base/sub base exerts a main control action. For asphalt pavement structures with a
flexible base, the tensile strain in asphalt layer is affected by the modulus ratio between asphalt
layer and granular material layer, in addition to deflection value that can be used to control the
compressive strain and compressive stress in soil base; the larger modulus ratio there is, the
larger tensile strain in asphalt layer there is. However, there are the following three additional
causes for pavement cracking: 1. Asphalt layer causes temperature stress and fatigue cracking on
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road surface due to climate, daily variation in temperature or warming/chilling change of seasons.
2. Sudden attack of cold current and sharp temperature drop cause temperature stress to become
larger than the tensile strength of asphalt and then, result in the tensile rupture of a pavement. 3.
Asphalt layer ageing may cause cracking. It can be known from boring surveys over recent years
that some cracks develop from asphalt surface course to middle surface course instead of being
the consequence of semi-rigid crack reflection solely; there are also some cracks which run
across asphalt layer. It can be seen that the index of tensile stress or tensile strain at layer bottom
in the Specifications cannot represent the cracking failure of asphalt layer in all its aspects either.
In foreign literature, there are also reports on the top-down extension of asphalt layer cracks on
the edge of wheel path. In fact, the occurrence of pavement cracks and their process of
development are complicated. It’s impossible to rely on current design indexes in removing
fatigue and asphalt ageing caused by temperature stress in a pavement, rutting deformation and
shear failure arising from insufficient thermal stability of asphalt mixtures, etc. Therefore new
design indexes are studied to control the aforesaid failure phenomena from taking place. At
present, the Specifications remedies the inadequacy of design approaches mainly in terms of
material selection, mixture optimization design and structure combination, etc.
(3) About shear stress index
Because of increase in heavy vehicles, serious overload and construction of expressways in hilly
and mountainous regions in our country, the pavement ruts are liable to occur in sections like
long/steep longitudinal slope, curve and ramp in summers with extended duration of high
temperature. The shear index closely relates to the thermal stability of asphalt mixtures, and
cohesion C and internal frictional resistance φ of asphalt mixtures vary obviously at high
temperature. For expressways in mountainous areas or sections with steep longitudinal grade or
extra long grade, the consideration should be given to theoretical calculations of the road surface
shear stress arising from the horizontal component of vehicle load, the interface shear stress on a
lean concrete base and old cement concrete slabs, and shear stress when braking at a crossing.
Issues like shear strength measurement and allowable shear stress need to be further studied and
couldn’t be included in the Specifications for the time being.
(4) Interlayer contact state
Stress and strain analysis with regard to asphalt pavement structures shows that the interlayer
binding condition in pavement structure design has a considerable influence in the design results,
especially on tensile stress (including shear stress); the tensile stress in a base in skid state
increases 1-2 times over that in continuous state. Whichever interlayer contact condition used in
design depends on the construction conditions and material properties. It would look too
conservative if a pavement is designed based on skid state as pavement thickness should be too
large. In principle, we should perform thickness calculations during design based on the
interlayer continuous state, using APDS special procedure, and it’s required that the technical
measures should be taken during design to ensure as tight binding of layers as possible so that
there is a continuous state between layers. If it’s necessary during design to consider possible
movement between asphalt layer and semi-rigid base, an interlayer binding coefficient may be
chosen, as the case may be, to perform calculations.
8.0.5. The criterion for road surface deflection value directly relates to material and the type
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and thickness of pavement structures. If allowable compressive strain of subgrade is regulated to

be the same, several different pavement materials and structures of different thickness may be
chosen, but the road surface deflection of the structures is different. Since it’s more convenient
and practicable to regulate road surface deflection value than to regulate the allowable
compressive strain of subgrade, the criterion for design deflection must allow for the effect of
different pavement structures, where the road surface deflection value serves as a design index,
and it’s reasonable to determine the criterion for design deflection using a pavement structure
type coefficient.
Details of the provisions of the former specifications have set out the pavement structure
coefficients Abof semi-rigid bases and flexible structure layers, as the source of 1.0 and 1.6
respectively. A pavement on a hybrid base formed by combining flexible structure layers and a
semi-rigid base is a structure passing from flexible to semi-rigid; the design deflection value
should lie between the two while pavement structure coefficient Ab may be processed by the
method of interpolation. In other words, it is a semi-rigid base structure and pavement structure
coefficient Ab is 1.0 where the total thickness of flexible structure layers in the semi-rigid base or
sub base is smaller than 180mm; pavement structure coefficient Ab is 1.6 where that of flexible
structure layers is larger than 300mm; the pavement structure coefficient Ab allows linear
interpolation where that of flexible structure layers lies between 180mm and 300mm. For
flexible base asphalt pavement structures with considerable traffic volume, they are still under
researches at present and the engineering practical experiences are lack; therefore, the use of
flexible base asphalt pavement structures should be something discreet and performed in
combination with the experiences abroad and actualities at home.
8.0.8. Methods for determination of material parameters, such as forming method,
instruments and tools, temperature control and loading mode, etc. have a considerable effect in
test results. Methods for determination of material parameters are not studied this time.
For design parameters, the relevant parameters should be determined by different methods
according to the type of damage to pavements and force bearing modes. With regard to the
tensile stress calculations, the testing methods for material parameters were simplified in the
amendment of the Specifications in 1997, allowing for disadvantages like ponderous beam type
test piece, trivial details of testing and highly discrete data, and substitution of compressive
modulus for flexural-tensile modulus and cleavage strength for flexural-tensile strength was
suggested to facilitate popularization and application. There have been special projects that
studied the feasibility of substituting compressive modulus for flexural-tensile modulus and
cleavage strength for flexural-tensile strength and performed comparative analysis between
flexural-tensile fatigue and cleavage fatigue. However, this parameter system leads to such
structure design that the tensile stress basically does not control the pavements, as viewed from
current pavement design. With substitution of compressive modulus for flexural-tensile modulus
and cleavage strength for flexural-tensile strength, the values taken for them are on the
conservative side, as viewed from the comparison results; recommended compressive modulus
for semi-rigid bases is far lower than flexural-tensile modulus and the ratio of flexural-tensile
modulus to compressive modulus is usually larger than 2-3; the cleavage strength is smaller than
flexural-tensile strength and the ratio of flexural-tensile strength to cleavage strength is usually
between 1.1 and 1.7. These are apparently not variations in the same proportion. For the purpose
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of consistence between indexes and calculation parameters, it’s more reasonable to use
flexural-tensile modulus and flexural-tensile strength; however, the provinces are expected to
make pieces based on local material and test calculation parameters as there is a shortage of
actually measured data about the flexural-tensile modulus and flexural-tensile strength at present.
Compressive resilience modulus and cleavage strength are still used as parameters for
flexural-tensile calculations until the substantial testing data become available.
8.0.9., 8.0.10. In the former specifications, the method of mean value minus two times of
mean square deviation is used in the calculations of both deflection and flexural-tensile indexes
to calculate the modulus, which is on the unsafe side for the calculation of flexural-tensile stress.
Therefore in the current specifications, the method of mean value minus two times of mean
square deviation for modulus above the calculated layer and mean value plus two times of mean
square deviation for modulus in the layer for which the flexural-tensile stress is calculated is
used, allowing for adverse combination of modulus values taken, so that the larger tensile stress
is obtained from the calculations. With consideration given to adverse combination of material
modulus, the flexural-tensile stress in structure layers will exert a control action.
8.0.12. Back in the 1070s of the 20th century, it was found in our country when the application
of the theory of double-layer elastic system under the action of bi-circular load was studied that
the theoretical deflection value obtained from calculations by determining the material modulus
with a whole floor of test trench and layered inversely calculated modulus didn’t tally with the
actually measured deflection value. This is because the elastic layer system theory is a theoretical
system from the complex mechanical and mathematic deductions under certain assumed
conditions (semi-infinite space body, material isotropy, isotropic body and exclusion of dead
weight) which do not completely correspond to the pavement actualities and thus the result in
discrepancy between theoretical calculation and actually measured value. Therefore, the
deflection correction coefficient was introduced when the “Design Specifications for Flexible
Pavement of Highways” was drawn up in 1976, which was the ratio of actually measured
deflection value to theoretically calculated value.
Tests were extended again when the Specifications was amended in 1997; the deflection
correction coefficient F was suggested after analysis of testing data under the conditions of total
pavement thickness of 49-93cm, the actually measured surface deflection values of 3-88 (0.01
mm), most deflection values of 10-50 (0.01mm) and most soil base modulus of 30MPa via 49
structures paved on seven trial roads, so that the calculated deflection values and the actually
measured deflection values tend to get closer to actualities. For current amended specifications,
the trial roads were constructed as well to verify the deflection correction coefficient F; it is
believed that the deflection correction coefficient F in the former specifications still applies and
so it’s not amended this time.
8.0.14. Example of structure layer thickness calculations for an asphalt pavement to be
constructed
(1) Basic information
① Natural geographical conditions
The expressway to be constructed is located in II2 region and consists of four lanes in both
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directions. An asphalt pavement structure is to be used in construction drawing design. Soil

along the route is medium liquid-limit clay; there should be fill subgrade of 1.8m high and
groundwater level should be 2.4m away from road bed. There is a medium moisture, with annual
precipitation of 620mm, the maximum air temperature of 35℃, the minimum air temperature of
-31℃, the maximum road freezing depth of 175cm for many years, mean freezing index of
882℃ and maximum freezing index of 1225℃.
② Determination of soil base resilience modulus

Since the subgrade of design sections is in medium moisture and the subgrade soil is medium
liquid-limit clay, the design value of soil base resilience modulus is fixed at 40MPa in
accordance with indoor testing method.
③ Near-term traffic composition and traffic volume in the region where the sections are
located can be known from the engineering feasibility study report, as shown in Table 8-1. The
rate of rise in traffic volume is predicted to be 8.0% for first five years, 7.0% for following five
years, and 5.0% for last five years. The standard accumulative axle load on the asphalt pavement
is based on 15 years.
Table 8-1Near-term Traffic Composition and Traffic Volume

Vehicle classification Typical vehicle type Qty. ((vehicles /d)
Car Santana 2000 2280
Medium bus Jianghuai AL6600 220
Bus Huanghai DD680 450
Light-duty truck Beijing BJ130 260
Medium-duty truck Dongfeng EQI40 660
Heavy-duty truck Huanghe JN163 868
Articulated trailer Dongfeng SP9250 330
④ Design axle load
Refer to Table 8-2 for results of accumulative axle load calculations, which indicate a heavy
traffic grade.
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Table 8-2Axle Load Conversion and Accumulative Axle Load
Front axle Rear Daily traffic

Rear axle Qty of Qty of rear
Vehicle type weight wheel base volume
weight (kN) rear axles axle wheel sets
(kN) (m) (vehicles/d)
Beijing BJ130 light-duty
13.4 27.4 1 2 0 260
truck
Dongfeng EQ140 23.6 69.3 1 2 0 660
Dongfeng SP9250 50.7 113.3 3 2 4 330
Huanghai DD680
49.0 91.5 1 2 0 450
long-distance bus
Huanghe JN163 58.6 114.0 1 2 0 868
Jianghuai AL6600 17.0 26.5 1 2 0 220
Deflection and asphalt layer tensile
Conversion method Semi-rigid layer tensile stress index
stress indexes
Accumulative traffic axle
20,980,000 26,730,000
load
(2) Preliminary pavement structure proposals

Based on the road materials from the locality and in combination with existing engineering
experiences and typical structures, three structure combination proposals are studied out.
Pavement thickness in Proposals A and B is determined by calculation method while the
structure thickness in Proposal C is checked by checking calculation method. According to the
factors such as small construction thickness of structure layers, material, hydrology, traffic
volume and functions of construction machines & tools, pavement structure combinations and
the thickness of layers are preliminarily determined as follows:
Proposal 1:
4cm fine grain type asphalt concrete + 6cm medium grain type asphalt concrete + 8cm coarse
grain type asphalt concrete + 38cm cement stabilized macadam base + ? Cement lime gravel soil
layer, with cement lime gravel soil serving as design layer.
Proposal 2:
4cm fine grain type asphalt concrete + 8cm medium grain type asphalt concrete + 15cm dense
gradation asphalt macadam + ? Cement stabilized gravel + 18cm graded gravel cushion course,
with cement stabilized gravel serving as design layer.
Proposal 3:
4cm fine grain type asphalt concrete + 8cm medium grain type asphalt concrete + 2×10cm dense
gradation asphalt macadam + 35cm graded macadam.
(3) Pavement material proportioning design and determination of design parameters
① Determination of test material
Aggregate for semi-rigid bases comes from material fields along the route, class A grade 90 is
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chosen as binder asphalt, and SBS modified asphalt is used for upper surface course; all of their
technical indexes meet the relevant provisions of the “Technical Specifications for Construction
of Highway Asphalt Pavement”
② Pavement material proportioning design (omitted);
③ Determination of the compressive resilience modulus of pavement materials;
a. Pieces made of various raw materials for the works are chosen according to the design
proportioning to measure design parameters.
The compressive resilience modulus of semi-rigid material is measured in accordance with the
top face method specified in the “Specifications for Testing of Inorganic Binder Stabilized
Materials for Highway Engineering”.
b. The compressive resilience modulus of asphalt mixtures is measured in accordance with
the method specified in the “Specifications for Testing of Asphalt and Asphalt Mixtures
for Highway Engineering”. The compressive resilience modulus at 20℃ and 15℃ are
measured. Refer to Tables 8-3 and 8-4 for test results and design parameters of various
materials.
Table 8-3Compressive Resilience Modulus Measurement and Parameter Values Taken for
Asphalt Materials
Compressive resilience modulus Compressive resilience modulus at

at 20℃ (MPa) 15℃ (MPa)
Name of material
Variance Ep-2σ Variance Ep-2σ Ep+2σ
Ep Ep
σ Ep substitution ∑ Ep substitution
Fine grain type asphalt concrete 1991 201 1589 2680 344 1992 3368
Medium grain type asphalt concrete 1425 105 1215 2175 187 1801 2549
Coarse grain type asphalt concrete 978 55 868 1320 60 1200 1440
Dense gradation asphalt macadam 1248 116 1016 1715 156 1403 2027
Table 8-4Compressive Resilience Modulus Measurement and Parameter Values Taken for
Semi-rigid Material and Other Materials
Compressive modulus (MPa)

Name of material Variance Ep-2σ Ep+2σ
Ep
σ Ep substitution
Cement stabilized macadam 3188 782 1624 4752
Cement lime gravel soil 1591 250 1091 2091
Graded macadam 400
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Graded gravel 250
④ Measurement of the cleavage strength of pavement materials

Various raw materials for the works are chosen according to the design proportioning to measure
the cleavage strength of the materials at specified temperature and age. Measurements are
performed in accordance with the methods specified in the “Specifications for Testing of Asphalt
and Asphalt Mixtures for Highway Engineering” and the “Specifications for Testing of Inorganic
Binder Stabilized Materials for Highway Engineering”. Refer to Table 8-5 for results.
Table 8-5Cleavage Strength of Pavement Materials
Dense
Fine grain Medium Coarse type Cement Cement Lime-fly-ash
Name of gradation
type asphalt type asphalt asphalt stabilized lime gravel stabilized
material asphalt
concrete concrete concrete macadam soil gravel
macadam
Cleavage
strength 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.6
(MPa)
(4) Determination of pavement structure layer thickness

① Structure thickness calculations in Proposal 1
The structure is a semi-rigid base; the base type coefficient of asphalt pavement is 1.0 and design
deflection value is 20.60 (0.01mm). The design procedure is used and it’s worked out that the
thickness of cement lime gravel soil layer which meets the requirement of design deflection
index is 11.1cm and the thickness of cement lime gravel soil layer which meets the requirement
for tensile stress at layer bottom is 16.5cm. The thickness of cement lime gravel soil layer or
17cm is assumed as design thickness. Calculated defection on road surface is 18.57 (0.01mm).
Refer to Table 8-6 for results of the checking calculations for structure layers.
Table 8-6Results of Structure Thickness Calculation
Compressive
bottom (MPa)
Tensile stress
Compressive modulus
tensile stress
Allowable
Thickness
Name of modulus at 20℃

Cleavage
strength
at layer
(MPa)
(MPa)
at 15℃(MPa)
(cm)
No. structure layer (MPa)

material Mean Standard Mean Standard
value deviation value deviation
Fine grain type
1 1991 201 2680 344 1.2 4 -0.19 0.46
asphalt concrete
Medium grain
2 type asphalt 1425 105 2175 187 1.0 6 0.06 0.38
concrete
Coarse grain
3 type asphalt 978 55 1320 60 0.8 8 -0.06 0.31
concrete
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Compressive
bottom (MPa)
Tensile stress
Compressive modulus
tensile stress
Allowable
Thickness
Cleavage
strength
at layer
(MPa)
(MPa)
at 15℃(MPa)
(cm)
Cement
4 stabilized 3188 782 3188 782 0.6 38 0.15 0.26
macadam
Cement lime
5 1591 250 1591 250 0.4 17 0.13 0.14
gravel soil
6 Soil base 40 0 - - - - - -
② Structure thickness calculations in Proposal 2

The structure is a combination of flexible base and semi-rigid base, with thick asphalt layer.
According to the engineering experiences, base type coefficient is fixed at 1.45 by interpolation
method and design deflection value at 29.87 (0.01mm). The design procedure is used and it’s
worked out that the thickness of cement stabilized gravel layer which meets the requirement of
design deflection index is 16.4cm and the thickness of cement stabilized gravel layer which
meets the requirement for tensile stress at layer bottom is 19.5cm. The thickness of cement
stabilized gravel layer or 20cm is assumed as design thickness. Calculated defection on road
surface is 27.0 (0.01mm). Refer to Table 8-7 for results of the checking calculations for structure
layers.
Compressive
bottom (MPa)
Tensile stress
Compressive modulus
tensile stress
Allowable
Thickness

Cleavage
strength
at layer
(MPa)
(MPa)
at 20℃(MPa)
(cm)

Fine grain type
1 1991 201 2680 344 1.2 4 -0.28 0.46
asphalt concrete
Medium grain
2 type asphalt 1425 105 2175 187 1 8 0.04 0.38
concrete
Dense gradation
3 asphalt 1248 116 1715 156 0.6 15 0.04 0.23
macadam
Cement
4 stabilized 2617 234 2617 234 0.5 20 0.26 0.26
macadam
5 Graded gravel 250 0 - - - 18 - -
6 Soil base 40 0 - - - - - -
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③ Structure thickness checking calculations in Proposal C

The structure is a flexible base; the base type coefficient of asphalt pavement is 1.6 and design
deflection value is 32.96 (0.01mm). The design procedure is used to check if the structure meets
the requirements for design deflection and allowable tensile stress. Refer to Table 8-8 for results
of the checking calculations. Calculated deflection on road surface for the structure is 31.47
(0.01mm) which is smaller than the design deflection and meets the requirement; the results of
the checking calculations for tensile stress at the bottom of each structure layer meet the
requirements. The structure is a comparative proposal.
bottom (MPa)
Tensile stress
tensile stress
Allowable
Thickness
Name of modulus at 20℃ modulus at 15℃
Cleavage
strength
at layer
(MPa)
(MPa)
(cm)
No. structure layer (MPa) (MPa)
Fine grain type
1 1991 201 2680 344 1.2 4 -0.31 0.46
asphalt concrete
Medium grain type
2 1425 105 2175 187 1 8 0.08 0.38
asphalt concrete
Dense gradation
3 1248 116 1715 156 0.6 20 0.23 0.23
asphalt macadam
4 Graded macadam 350 0 - - - 35 - -
5 Soil base 40 0 - - - - - -
④ Anti-freezing thickness checking calculations

In Proposal 1, the asphalt layer thickness is 18cm and total thickness is 73cm. According to the
provisions of Table 5.2.4 in an article of the Specifications, the minimum anti-freezing thickness
is 40-50cm;
is 45-55cm;
is 50-60cm;
The thickness of all pavement structures mentioned above meets the requirement for minimum
anti-freezing thickness.
8.0.15. Road surface deflection value is to be measured on road surface at delivery acceptance;
the value of material modulus at standard age is used during design thickness calculations as the
strength and rigidity of a semi-rigid base relate to age. Where the deflection value of each
structure layer must be measured during construction, the surface deflection of each structure
layer should be calculated based on material modulus value and construction thickness to which
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the actual age of the semi-rigid base/sub base corresponds at the time of measurement, and
should be used as standard deflection value to measure each structure layer.
Where no BZZ-100 standard vehicle is available for measurement, the vehicles with other axle
weight may be used for measurement. In case that a vehicle with other nonstandard axle load
(80-130kN) is used for testing, the deflection value measured under nonstandard axle load
should be converted into that under standard axle load by Formula (8-1).
Where:
P100, l100- are 100kN standard axle load and corresponding deflection value;
Pi, li- are nonstandard axle load and corresponding deflection value.
Where the deflection is measured other than in an disadvantageous season, the seasonal
influence correction coefficient K1 should be considered according to the local experience.
Considering its relation with relevant specifications, the design specifications change the final
completion deflection value to actually measured representative deflection value on road surface
and the final completion deflection value is to be determined by relevant specifications. Besides,
the individual measuring points which are too large or too small may be dealt with, in regard to
actually measured representative deflection value on road surface, in accordance with the
principle of three times of mean square deviation before calculations are performed.
For pavement deflection value, 20℃ is taken as standard state for measurement of asphalt
deflection value. No temperature correction is required the asphalt surface layer thickness is
smaller than or equal to 50mm; no temperature correction is required either where pavement
temperature varies within 20℃± 2℃; The temperature correction should be done in all other
cases to measure the deflection value. Temperature correction may be performed by referring to
Formulas (8-2) to (8-5) or other documents.
(1) During measurement, the mean temperature T on asphalt surface layer is calculated on
the following formula:
Where:
T- is mean temperature on asphalt surface layer during measurement (℃);
a- is a coefficient, a= -2.65+0.52h;
b- is another coefficient, b= 0.62-0.008h;
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T0 is the summation of road surface temperature ( ℃ ) at measurement and mean air

temperature over previous 5h;
h- is the thickness of asphalt surface layer (cm).
(2) Temperature correction coefficient K3 for asphalt pavement deflection is calculated on
the following formula:
Where:
l20- is the deflection value (0.01mm) converted into that on an asphalt pavement at 20℃;
lT- is the deflection value (0.01mm) when the mean temperature in asphalt surface layer is
T at measurement.
When T ≥ 20℃,
When T ≤ 20℃,
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9. Reconstruction Pavement Design
9.1. General Provisions
9.1.4. For utilization of recycling asphalt concrete, there have been sophisticated technologies
abroad; not only primary recycling but also secondary recycling of regenerated asphalt mixtures
are researched. Since our country is lack of asphalt resources and the discarded asphalt causes
pollution to environment, recycling and changing wastes into valuables conform to the strategy
of sustainable development and is a major orientation of technical development in our country.
Asphalt pavement recycling techniques currently carried out in our country comprise of
techniques like in-situ hot recycling surface course, plant-mixed hot recycling and modified
asphalt cold-mixed recycling mixture, for which there have been trial roads and real works.
Original asphalt with asphalt penetration larger than 18 (0.01mm) can be recycled mostly with a
proportion of 20%-30% original asphalt mixture added, as viewed from results of tests taken
both abroad and at home, and recycled asphalt may be used in a surface layer or base. At present,
the plant-mixed recycling mixtures for asphalt pavements in our country are largely used in a
lower surface course, base, sub base or the surface layer of low grade roads. For example, the hot
recycling asphalt mixtures were used partially in the lower surface course or flexible base of
Guang-Fo Expressway; cold recycling asphalt mixtures were used in Hu-Ning reconstruction
works; the techniques like in-situ recycling of surface course as middle surface course and
addition of surface course onto it were used during the maintenance of Jing-Tang Expressway.
Semi-rigid materials and cement concrete may be crushed to serve as aggregate or alternatively
mixed with added cement and macadam to serve as base. Foreign experiences may be drawn on,
further researches and practice conducted in combination with the actualities in our country, and
the experiences accumulated for the application of recycling asphalt mixtures. It’s expected that
the importance is attached in reconstruction works to the recycling or disposal of materials used
to build original pavement or structures, so as to prevent wastes from polluting the environment.
9.1.5. Where the widening design is carried out for original pavement, the measures to abate
non-uniform settlement cracks on subgrade should be taken where the asphalt surface layer of
widened part joins original pavement longitudinally. The degree of denseness of the subgrade
soil of widened part should also be checked and measures taken prior to paving, as the case may
be, so that the integral strength of widened part approximates to that of original pavement before
strengthening and additional asphalt layer or overlay paving across the breadth are performed.
9.2. Additional Layer on Asphalt Pavements
9.2.1. Surveys on original pavement should be carried out to the requirements of the
Specifications and, at the same time, the quality assessment with respect to pavement damage
status, vehicle running quality, strength and skid resistance may be conducted in accordance with
the provisions of the “Technical Specifications for Maintenance of Highway Asphalt Pavement”.
9.2.2. Division should be done based on the conformance of the extent of pavement damage
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with the treatment scheme and in combination with construction methods, with construction
length normally no less than 300m; the treatment by mending damaged spots may be used in
sections partially subject to serious damage.
9.2.3. For moist or over-moist subgrade in freezing regions, it’s preferable to consider the
effect of gradual attenuation of pavement strength by multiplying with humidity influence
coefficient K2 which is to be determined according to local experience.
9.2.4. Where there are lots of cracks on original pavement and additionally paved layer is
thin, it’s preferable to mill and plane the old asphalt layer, or else treatment by crack pouring and
partial mending should be performed instead of milling and planning. To abate the reflection
cracks, a stress absorbing layer may be provided on the old pavement or the pavement paved
with a geotechnical synthetic material such as self-adhesive glass fiber grid, high-temperature
resistant filament need punched and singed polyester geotextile, the quality of which should
meet the requirements of relevant technical standard. It’s preferable for the aperture size of glass
fiber grid to be 0.5-1.0 time of maximum grain size of the asphalt mixture spread thereon; there
should be an asphalt layer equal to or larger than 70mm over the geotechnical synthetic material.
Products with good actual performance should be chosen during design and construction quality
should be strictly controlled during construction.
9.2.5. Thin overlay is a measure to enhance the service function of old asphalt surface layer.
It must not be used except where the original asphalt pavement is relatively flat with rut depth
smaller than 10 mm and the pavement is free from structural failure (e.g. longitudinal/lateral
crack and net-shaped cracking). Where the pavement skid resistance criterion for expressways
and class 1 highways is under good level (excluding good level) or where that for class 2 and
lower grade highways is under medium level (excluding medium level), it’s preferable to
enhance road surface skid resistance by paving additional overlay course or taking other
measures. The thickness of thin overlay must not be smaller than that of the minimum
construction layer. During construction, the spreading and rolling temperatures should be strictly
controlled to ensure the compactness of overlay course and its close adhesion to lower course.
Extra-thin asphalt concrete wearing course is a thin-layer structure with large texture depth and
good skid resistance. An extra-thin wearing course is normally 20-25mm thick and a gap
gradation like SMA-10 or UTAC-10 is optional for mixtures. It’s preferable to carry out asphalt
mixture proportioning design in accordance with Marshal testing method. It’s preferable that the
gradation and technical indexes of dense gradation asphalt mixtures should meet the
requirements in Tables 9-1 and 9-2.
To prevent extra-thin asphalt concrete from stripping and strengthen the water resistance of the
structure, an effective cohesive course, i.e. the modified asphalt waterproof cohesive course,
should be laid underneath extra-thin asphalt concrete.
Table 9-1 Gradation of Extra-thin Asphalt Concrete Aggregate
Sieve hole size (mm) 13.2 9.5 7.5 4.75 2.36 1.18 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.075
UTAC-10 100 90-100 58-70 25-35 19-28 15-22 11-18 9-14 7-11 5-9
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Table 9-2 Technical Indexes of Marshal Test
Item of test Technical requirement Item of test Technical requirement

Number of compactions Double sides compaction
Saturation (%) >70
with Marshal test piece for 75 times each
Immersion Marshal residual
Design porosity (%) 4-5 (4-6) >80
stability (%)
Stability (kN) >7 Cleavage strength ratio (%) >75
Flow value (0.1mm) 40-50
9.2.7. Strengthening design for an original highway is different from the design of a
pavement to be constructed. Different design schemes and original pavement treatment schemes
should be used based on different damage status.
Strengthening design schemes for expressways and class 1 or 2 highways should be worked out
mainly based on the deflection value and damage status of the original pavement. Main schemes
include: Additional asphalt layer may be laid directly where the deflection is minor, with
measures to abate the reflection cracks considered depending on actual overlay thickness and
cracks; Additional semi-rigid base and asphalt layer may be laid in the absence of elevation
limitation where the deflection is considerable and the original pavement is subject to serious
failure; Where the direct additional paving is limited by elevation or where there is serious
damage to original pavement, the excavation may be performed down to certain structure layer
before the additional strengthening course is laid. Design should allow for any variation in
pavement structure thickness as brought about by longitudinal/transverse gradient adjustment.
9.2.8. Comprehensive deflection correction coefficient for strengthening design
The design of additionally laid layer in the “Design Specifications for Flexible Pavement of
Highways”, published in 1976, presented a semi-empirical semi-theoretical three-parameter
formula pursuant to trial road testing and theoretical analysis. The bases of trial roads at that time
were mostly flexible structure layers and suitable for additional paving design for flexible
structures. Although the method of three-parameter formula was still used when the “Design
Specifications for Flexible Pavement of Highways” (JTJ 014-86) was amended, it was indicated
that some values assumed for material design parameter β are not suitable for inorganic binder
stabilized bases.
When the “Specification for Design of Highway Asphalt Pavement” (JTJ 014-97) was amended,
the three-parameter empirical method was changed, for the purpose of uniformity between
design systems for pavements to be constructed and for reconstructed pavements, to a theoretical
design method based on the elastic layer system theory. Since the focus at that time was put on
the design method for pavements to be constructed, a same deflection correction coefficient was
used for both new and old roads, which resulted in the situation that the strengthening thickness
was on the large side. So it’s necessary to amend deflection correction coefficient F in additional
paving design for old roads once again.
The curve of the formula for calculation of comprehensive deflection correction coefficient F is
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in a parabolic form and so there is an extreme point. When E0 is smaller than a certain value, ls
decreases with increasing E0; when E0 is larger than a certain value, ls increases with increasing
E0. Generally speaking, the position of extreme point E0 relates to the extent of index B.
Checking calculations were performed by the method of approximate derivation for dozens of
common semi-rigid pavement structures covering Xi’an trial roads, Changnong trial roads,
Zhengding trial roads and Mengzhou trial roads, and it was found that the value of B usually lies
between 0.5 and 0.6. This means that ls increases with increasing E0 where B > 0.5-0.6; there is
an extreme point for ls where B < 0.5-0.6. If B = 0.38 in current specifications, the calculations
show that the unreasonable phenomenon of increase in ls with increasing soil base modulus will
take place where soil base modulus E0>300MPa. The special case of E0> 300MPa in new
construction works is almost impossible, whereas the former pavement design is different and
the probability of such occurrence is very high; therefore, a new correction formula should be
considered.
When the comprehensive deflection correction coefficient F is determined, the actual range of
variation in original pavement deflection, usually from 40 to 160 (0.01mm), should be
considered; in other words, the equivalent soil base resilience modulus is 100-340MPa, different
from that of new subgrade which is usually 20-80MPa. According to the comparative analysis of
theoretical deflection value of road surface and design deflection with the traffic volume
corresponding to three-parameter design thickness, the value of F is, for original pavement
strengthening:
According to the test data from reconstructed trial sections of Shen-Da road, the comprehensive
deflection correction coefficient is also verified by a formula as follows:
Through comparative analysis of design thickness from the two formulas, the use of the first
formula is recommended. During strengthening design, the design deflection value still serves as
a control index for integral pavement rigidity; for class 2 and higher grade highways, the design
requirement for tensile stress at the bottom of strengthening course should also be met.
9.3. Additional Asphalt Paving on Cement Concrete Pavement
9.3.1. The status of original cement concrete pavement directly affects the service life of
additional asphalt layer laid thereon. Therefore the adequate survey on the original cement
concrete pavement is the basis to carry out the additional asphalt layer design reasonably.
With respect to survey on the original cement concrete pavement slabs, it’s preferable to perform
the assessment and grading of the type, scope and extent of damage in accordance with relevant
provisions of the current “Design Specifications for Cement Concrete Pavement of Highways”
(JTG D40) or “Technical Specifications for Maintenance of Cement Concrete Pavement of
Highways”.
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For original pavement structure bearing capacity, load transfer capacity of joints or cracks and
cavity beneath slabs, the falling weight deflectometers (FWD) or Benkelman beam
deflectometers (BB) are generally used at present to perform field measurement and assessment.
Seeing that it’s difficult to judge the presence of cavity beneath slabs, organizations with
appropriate means should also make a survey on road status with the aid of ground penetrating
radar (GPR) and perform comprehensive analysis based on FWD and GPR measurement data.
9.3.2. Joints between original pavement slabs are the weakest points near which the majority
of cement concrete pavement failure takes place. According to the researches, it is found that the
slab-edge deflection difference at original pavement slab joints (or cracks) is the primary cause
that gives rise to the occurrence of reflection cracks in additional asphalt layer. Slab-edge
deflection difference at joints or cracks can be expressed by deflection difference or load transfer
coefficient. Fig 9-1 is a schematic diagram of displacement sensor arrangement when the
slab-edge deflection difference at pavement slab joints (or cracks) is tested with a falling weight
deflectometer.
Sensor
Loading plate
Fig 9-1 Falling Weight Deflectometer Displacement Sensor Arrangement for

Measurement of Slab-edge Deflection Difference at Cracks/Joints
US Asphalt Institute (AI) takes slab-edge deflection difference at joints or cracks as one of
control indexes for the design of additional asphalt layer on original cement concrete pavement,
requiring that a deflection difference smaller than 0.05mm must be guaranteed prior to additional
paving. According to the mechanical analysis of fatigue rupture of additional asphalt layer at
reflection cracks under the action of traffic load, 0.05mm is the critical value to prevent drastic
attenuation of the fatigue life of additional asphalt layer from taking place. Under normal
foundation supporting condition, the corresponding load transfer coefficient at this time is 75%.
See Fig 9-2 for relevant results.
Since US Asphalt Institute (AI) takes 80kN as standard axle load while 100kN is taken as
standard axle load in our country, it’s preferable, according to the mechanical analysis of the
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fatigue rupture of additional asphalt layer at reflection cracks under the action of traffic load, to
use 0.06mm as deflection difference for control in our country; the corresponding load transfer
coefficient at this time is still 75%. To prevent drastic attenuation of the fatigue life of additional
layer from taking place, it’s required prior to additional asphalt surface layer paving that the
deflection difference or load transfer coefficient of original cement concrete slabs (either treated
or not treated) at joints or cracks should meet this minimum requirement.
Average deflection at original pavement slab joints/cracks is another control index for the design
of additional asphalt layer on cement concrete pavement. According to the mechanical analysis
of fatigue, the average deflection chiefly reflects the situation of weak ground supporting and
affects the failure of old cement concrete slabs directly.
Notes: Note:
US Asphalt Institute (AI) requires that the average deflection at joints/cracks should not be
smaller than 0.36mm. Allowing for difference between US and our country’s standard axle loads
and in combination with actual domestic application at present, it’s thus required that the average
deflection value should not be smaller than 0.45mm. If such requirement cannot be guaranteed,
the original slabs should, in combination with the results of relevant researches abroad, be
cracked or broken and stabilized before the strengthening treatment is given.
9.3.4. The design scheme and original pavement treatment should be based on the results of
pavement damage survey and slab-edge deflection measurement. Different schemes should be
adopted for different sections.
(1) Where the original cement concrete pavement is basically intact with a low rate of
broken slabs and a bearing capacity that basically meets the requirements, it’s preferable
to lay additional asphalt layer in accordance with the provisions of the “Technical
Specifications for Maintenance of Cement Concrete Pavement of Highways” after
partial repair or treatment by replacing a small amount of slabs is given to original
cement concrete pavement, depending on original pavement status, after use of a
reflection crack preventing measure is considered.
(2) Where the pavement structure’s bearing capacity does not meet the requirement for
bearing capacity, the different measures to reinforce original slabs should be taken based
on the average deflection at joints/cracks, the deflection difference and cavity beneath
slabs before additional asphalt layer or strengthening course is laid. Representative
values of deflection difference at joints or cracks and the average deflection in sections
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should be calculated after reasonable division of sections according to the original

pavement survey data.
(3) When the additional asphalt pavement is paved on the original concrete slabs, a
polyester geotextile cohesive course, modified asphalt stress absorbing membrane and
stress absorbing course may be laid where the prevention of reflection cracks is
considered. A polyester geotextile cohesive course is a thin layer capable of crack
abatement, water resistance and interlayer binding strengthening as result from upward
dipping of filament non-woven polyester geotextile with asphalt, which is laid out after
hot asphalt, modified asphalt or modified emulsified asphalt is spread, upon rolling with
a pneumatic roller. It’s preferable to determine the amount of asphalt spread by testing,
which is usually 0.8-1.4kg/m2.
(4) The cracking process is to strike the original pavement slabs once or twice with a
polygonal shock, vibratory or cam machine so that old pavement slabs exhibit 2-3
transverse hair-like cracks with different extent of subsidence, so as to reduce
displacement in longitudinal and vertical directions, and the additional structure layer is
paved after the old concrete slabs are made binding closely with the base and get
stabilized. It is a good approach to treat slabs with cavity beneath or a continuous
segment with slight/moderate cracks, so as to remove the potential trouble.
(5) The breaking process is to break an original pavement slab with a hammering or
vibrating machine into 10-50cm pieces so that it loses its integrity as a slab and can be
used as base or sub base.
(6) Seeing that the failure of many original cement concrete pavement slabs relate to poor
drainage of their pavement structure, the importance should be thus attached to the
improvement of the drainage ability for old cement concrete pavement structures.
9.3.5. Additional asphalt layer thickness design should allow for two types of failure, namely
the failure of additional asphalt layer and that of original cement concrete pavement slabs. In the
current “Design Specifications for Cement Concrete Pavement of Highways” (JTG D40), the
composite pavement design is carried out mainly for the latter type of structure failure; in other
words, the flexural-tensile stress in the original cement concrete slabs is calculated with
consideration given to the effect on original cement concrete slab edge restraining effect and
force bearing after additional asphalt surface layer is paved. Besides this, the additional asphalt
layer failure, i.e. the additional layer reflection crack and interlayer shear failure, should be
considered as well.
Reflection cracks in additional asphalt layer are caused chiefly by traffic load and temperature
load. To prevent temperature load from causing reflection cracks in additional asphalt layer,
current practice is mainly to limit the slab-edge displacement at joints/cracks. Seeing that the
researches on the asphalt mixture’s temperature fatigue cracking are not mature and that it’s not
easy to measure the slab-edge horizontal displacement in engineering practice, the effect of
temperature load on additional layer reflection cracks is thus not considered for the time being.
In fact, the horizontal displacement generated with slabs of small size usually does not cause the
additional asphalt layer cracking in the event that the original cement concrete slabs are broken.
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According to the mechanical analysis of the fatigue damage and fracture of additional asphalt
layer on the original cement concrete slabs under traffic load, the fatigue cracking life of the
additional asphalt layer is predicted that providing the average deflection at original cement
concrete slab joints/cracks and deflection difference should meet the relevant provisions. The
accumulative equivalent number with standard axle load that causes fatigue damage and rupture
under the conditions of different ground support, load transfer capacity of joints/cracks and
additional asphalt layer thickness is obtained from the substantial calculations. Since the
theoretical analysis approach remains to be further verified by practice, the additional asphalt
layer thickness suggested in this article is just a minimum requirement and the additional layer
thickness should be determined during design according to the actualities of original pavement.
Care should be taken to enhance the shear strength and high-temperature stability of asphalt
mixtures as shear stress in additional asphalt layer over cement concrete slabs is large.
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10. Drainage Design
In this chapter, the main contents of the former specifications are retained and the contents in
respect of pavement structure drainage and deck drainage are added, with a supplement to earth
shoulder reinforcement and edge drainage. Experience in drainage within pavement structures
still lacks and the reference may be made to the “Specifications for Design of Highway
Drainage” for what might be indeterminate.
10.0.3.-10.0.5. Setup of earth shoulders in decentralized drainage sections and that of weep
holes and chutes in centralized drainage sections is a newcontent according to the actualities of
current engineering practice in our country and may be determined during design in combination
with local actualities and application experiences.
10.0.6. Median divider drainage is an important aspect of expressway class 1 highway surface
drainage; different drainage modes should be selected according to factors like divider width,
greening, and type of traffic safety devices and mode of divider surface treatment. In the
Specifications, the median divider drainage is divided into closed type and unclosed type. ①
With closed type median divider drainage, rainwater can be drained from the divider surface to
lanes on both sides; paving with small precast concrete blocks or cast-in-situ concrete may be
used as closing measure and the thickness may be normally 40-80mm with a sand cushion
provided underneath. ② With unclosed type median divider drainage, most of rainwater filters
down from the divider and is suitable to be drained by providing an underground drainage
facility in the divider. When the type of drainage facility is selected for a region, it may be
determined in combination with the regional and engineering demands.
10.0.7. 10.0.8. Various joints are present on a pavement; cracks or some voids in asphalt
mixtures occur in the course of service; loosening and pot holes occur on a pavement in the
course of service. During rainfall or snowfall, some water flows via the transverse and
longitudinal slopes out of the road and subgrade; some of the water always filters down into
pavement structures through seams and voids. Pavement interior drainage and pavement edge
drainage systems are provided to rapidly drain the free water held up in pavement structures.
Contents in respect of pavement interior drainage and pavement edge drainage systems are added
according to the recent actual engineering performance and should be selectively used from
region to region according to actualities and engineering experiences.
10.0.9. Water log on the deck may retard the traffic and cause floating and skid in vehicle
running. Meanwhile, chloride-containing thaw water, held up on the deck as a result of salt
spreading to remove snow in freezing regions, promotes the rusting of structure reinforcing bars
and erodes concrete and pavement, thus reducing the service life of bridges. Therefore deck
drainage enhancement is an important step to improve the deck pavement quality. The new
Specifications set relevant provisions in this respect according to the engineering practice and the
design may be carried out in combination with application experiences from region to region.
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11. Deck Pavement and Other Works
11.1. Deck Pavement
11.1.1. Over recent years, much importance has been attached by different circles to deck
pavement as some damage occurs in some portion of deck pavement. According to surveys, the
causes for asphalt deck pavement failure mainly include the following:
(1) Bad construction quality of cement concrete deck slabs or leveling course results in
insufficient bonding of asphalt layer and cement concrete paving layer.
(2) Poor evenness of cement concrete deck slabs and no leveling course setup result in
uneven asphalt surface layer thickness and non-uniform compactness as well as serious
segregation of mixtures at thin points of pavement layer.
(3) The top surface of cement concrete deck slabs or leveling course is paved with
waterproof bonding course and asphalt mixture when it has not been completely dried;
moisture may be turned into vapor when heated and result in, bulging and scaling of
waterproof bonding course.
(4) Because of the effect of salt spreading for snow removal and repeated freezing and
thawing in the winter of north regions, partial erosion is caused to deck slabs/beams and
concrete pavement layer.
Therefore，the relevant technical requirements are set upon cement concrete deck slabs/beams
and pavement layer to ensure deck pavement quality.
A 15cm × 15cm square grid made of ø 12 steel bars is usually used as reinforced concrete
leveling course on cement concrete deck slabs. Where leveling course is 6-8cm, fiber concrete
may be used for leveling, to which the steel fiber or synthetic fiber may be added in order to
enhance tensile strength. When the leveling course is 1-5cm, the course may be incorporated
with asphalt lower surface course into one layer, as the case may be, or be paved with asphalt
fiber concrete.
11.1.2. The climate of the environment where a bridge is located is different, so is the erosion
of bridge structures and damage to pavement by water, so is the requirement for the water
resistance of deck pavement. According to the "General Code for Design of Highway Bridges
and Culverts” (JTG D60), there are three design safety classes for highway bridges/culverts,
depending on the severity of consequences possibly arising from structure failure, when the
extreme state of bearing capacity is designed based on constant condition. To this end, the
waterproof system for deck pavement should be adapted to the design safety class of a bridge
and climatic/environmental conditions; the higher safety class the bridge is of and is located in a
region subject to freezing, the higher requirement there is for the waterproof course of deck
pavement. This article clearly specifies that an asphalt deck pavement structure consists of
waterproof course, lower surface course and surface course. To prevent rainwater from filtering
down into structures, it’s not only necessary to choose a good waterproof course, but also the
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water tightness of lower surface course is a key, hence the concept of a waterproof system
composed of waterproof course and lower surface course. It’s required that a lower seal coat is
designed for special large bridges and important large bridges, so as to establish a complete
waterproof system.
11.1.3. The water resistance of deck pavement relates not only to the performance of
waterproof course itself but also to the integrity and cracking resistance of waterproof material
and the adhesion of waterproof course to concrete slabs as well as the variability of waterproof
course during construction and close attachment in lap seam treatment. Since there are a number
of waterproof course types and materials in our country, the comprehensive consideration should
be given to factors like their superior/inferior water resistance, firm/infirm adhesion between
structure layers, feasibility of construction techniques and reliability of construction quality, so
as to select waterproof course materials reasonably.
(1) Film-coated waterproof material should have certain thickness and match the asphalt
mixture in lower surface course. Insufficient degree of film coating is liable to the
piercing of film coat during rolling and results in poor water resistance and interlayer
binding. Film-coated waterproof material should not only be tested in accordance with
“Nine Standards for Road/Bridge Materials” (JT/T 531-538 & 589-2004), but also
water resistance and interlayer pull resistance and shear resistance tests should be
conducted to ensure that film coating thickness matches up to the type of asphalt
mixture in lower surface course.
(2) Where the asphalt sand waterproof course is chosen, the comprehensive consideration
should be given to balance between the water tightness of asphalt sand and its thermal
stability, and it’s recommended that the design porosity is smaller than or equal to 2.5%.
(3) Where the slurry seal coat waterproof course is chosen, the modified emulsified asphalt
should be used as its binder to ensure the interlayer resistance of the waterproof system.
(4) Hot-melted asphalt macadam as waterproof course is formed by bestrewing concrete
with modified asphalt or hot asphalt at 1.2-1.6kg/m2 before macadam or pre-mixed
macadam is spread and rolled. To ensure the interlayer resistance of the waterproof
system, it’s preferable to use asphalt one grade higher than the modified asphalt for
pavement.
(5) Where the asphalt mastic waterproof course is chosen, it’s preferable that the asphalt
mastic meets the technical requirements in Table 11-1.
Table 11-1 Technical Requirements for Asphalt Mastic
Technical index Technical requirement corresponding to the following climate division

Mean maximum air > 30 20-30 < 20
temperature in July (℃)
and climate division 1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 3-2
Mixing temperature (℃) 220-250
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Fluidity (s) ≤ 40
Test temperature
corresponding to
penetration ≤5mm (℃)
Test temperature 35 25 15
corresponding to
penetration increment
≤1.5mm (℃)
11.1.4. The structure and thickness of the lower surface course of large/medium/small bridges
on expressways and class 1 highways may be normally the same as those of route pavement at
both ends. However, whether the waterproof system is complete or not relate to waterproof
course material and thickness as well as whether the waterproof course is combined with
concrete slabs and with lower surface course of pavement into a whole. For asphalt mastic,
asphalt sand and slurry seal coat, it’s necessary to provide a special priming coat; for hot-melted
asphalt macadam seal coat, whether a priming coat is to be provided may be determined
according to the condition of concrete slabs. Modified emulsified asphalt with good cohesive
ability or solvent type modified asphalt binding agent material makes the priming coat in a
pavement structure.
According to the results of the “Study on Deck Pavement Materials and Techniques”, a Western
key project hosted by Chongqing Communications Scientific Research & Design Institute, and to
summary of engineering practice, deck pavement structures suitable for non-freezing regions are
recommended for reference and selection during design, as shown in Fig 11-1.
Besides, importance should be attached to the adaptation of waterproof course to the structure
and thickness of lower surface course during deck pavement. Where the asphalt concrete lower
surface course is used, it’s preferable that the porosity of hot-mixed asphalt concrete should meet
the requirements in Table 11-2.
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Asphalt concrete Asphalt concrete
Waterproof course
Waterproof system
Waterproof system
Waterproof course
Asphalt concrete
Waterproof system
Waterproof course
SMA or AC SMA or AC SMA or AC
Cement concrete slab Cement concrete slab Cement concrete slab

Asphalt sand Asphalt mastic Hot-melted asphalt
Priming coat Priming coat Priming coat
Waterproof course
Waterproof system
Waterproof system
Waterproof course
SMA or AC SMA or AC
Cement concrete slab Cement concrete slab

Emulsified asphalt slurry seal coat Film coating
Priming coat Priming coat
Fig 11-1 Deck Pavement Structures of Large/Medium Bridges
Table 11-2 Technical Indexes of Asphalt Mixture Lower Surface Course for Deck
Pavement
Climatic region Item SMA AC

Field porosity < 5.0 < 5.0
Freezing region
Lower surface Design porosity 2.0-3.0 2.0-3.0
course Field porosity <6 <6
Non-freezing region
Design porosity 2.0-4.0 2.0-4.0
11.1.5. There are usually higher service requirements and certain technical difficulty for the
deck pavement of special large and important large bridges due to the importance of works, so
specific design should be conducted.
Flooring structure layer design closely relates to the type and force bearing feature of bridge
structures, traffic volume and composition, and climatic/environmental conditions. Because of
small asphalt layer thickness, material testing and water resistance testing of the system, as well
as interlayer tensioning resistance testing of the system, should be conducted for verification and
confirmation.
(1) It can be known from force bearing analysis for deck pavement that, for waterproof
course+ 6cm asphalt layer deck pavement, normal stress between waterproof course and
asphalt layer or between waterproof course and concrete deck slabs is smaller than
0.2MPa and the shear stress is smaller than 0.36MPa, whether between deck slabs and
waterproof course or between waterproof course and asphalt layer, whether the solid
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slabs and T-shaped slabs or box beams and deck slabs, when normal-temperature asphalt
concrete modulus (1800MPa) and normal-temperature waterproof course modulus are
used in the calculation of stress across middle surface course. Allowing for force
bearing analysis for deck pavement and relevant tensile strength and shear strength
requirements for asphalt type waterproof structure systems abroad, it’s recommended
that the shear strength between waterproof course and asphalt layer or between
waterproof course and concrete slabs should be larger than 0.4MPa for deck pavement
at 25℃; for waterproof coiled material, the shear strength should be larger than 2.5MPa
and the tensile strength should be larger than 0.4MPa, too.
Conditions for cohesive strength and shear strength tests: simulative deck pavement structure
combination as test piece, 10mm/min as both tensioning speed and shear speed, 25℃ as test
temperature, polished state as concrete surface condition.
It can be known from comparison between results of indoor tests between dense gradation
asphalt concrete AC and SMA, cast asphalt concrete and a variety of waterproof courses, as
frozen, that, in terms of cohesive strength and shear strength, AC+ asphalt mastic waterproof
course approximates AC+ hot-melted asphalt macadam, AC+ slurry seal coat takes the next place,
and AC+ coiled material has the lowest strength; SMA+ slurry seal coat is the best, SMA+
asphalt mastic waterproof course approximates AC+ hot-melted asphalt macadam, and SMA+
coiled material takes the next place; cast asphalt concrete+ asphalt mastic waterproof course is
the best while cast asphalt concrete+ coiled material and cast asphalt concrete+ hot-melted
asphalt macadam have approximate effects.
(2) Water resistance test in the system: After the waterproof course is paved with asphalt
concrete, the waterproof course facing water should remain impervious for 1 min at the
pressure of 5.1m water head (0.5 bar).
Tests show that the cast asphalt concrete has good water resistance, whereas there are certain
penetration voids, given field porosity, in hot-rolled SMA and AC asphalt concrete as they are
materials composed of grains. Given similar porosity level, however, the penetration voids in
SMA is far less than in AC with the same maximum grain size; the smaller the maximum grain
size is, the less penetration voids there are, hence higher probability of water resistance with
SMA than with AC. According to technical requirements for hydraulic water resistance, the
water permeability coefficient of SMA as measured at the pressure of 5.1m water head (0.5 bar)
is smaller than 10 × l0-7cm/s, and so the comprehensive water resistance of a waterproof system
with SMA used as lower surface course of deck pavement will be superior to that with AC.
(3) Bridge structures applicable to special large and important large bridges and freezing
regions are shown in Fig 11-2 for reference during design.
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Waterproof system
Waterproof course
Waterproof course
Waterproof system
Cast type AC or SMA
Cement concrete slab Cement concrete slab
Asphalt mastic, coiled material or Double-sided coiled material

solvent type binding agent Epoxy lower seal coat
Epoxy lower seal coat
Fig 11-2 Deck Pavement Structures Suitable for Special Large and Important Large
Bridges
Dense and impervious to water, cast asphalt concrete is a primary deck pavement material in
Europe, Japan and other countries for its high integrity, good tenacity, strong waterproof, shock
and dynamic load resistance, and excellent durability. It has started to be applied to cement
concrete deck pavement works in our country as well over latest years.
With respect to the thermal stability of cast asphalt concrete, Germany mainly makes use of
penetration & penetration increment test to assess the high-temperature performance of cast
asphalt concrete while Japan has a requirement for penetration only and not for increment. In
Germany and Japan, the test temperature of testing pieces is 40 ℃ according to the air
temperature and deck pavement temperature conditions. Allowing for higher air temperature in
our country than in Germany and Japan, the design pavement temperature should be determined
according to the climatic condition in the location of works in combination with actually
measured bridge temperature, and technical indexes kept unchanged; in other words, such design
pavement temperature is used to assess the thermal stability of cast asphalt concrete. According
to the climatic conditions in our country, the thermal stability assessment indexes of cast asphalt
concrete are adjusted and become more demanding than corresponding indexes in Japan and
Germany, and the requirement for thermal stability gets higher. Refer to Table 11-3 for the
technical indexes of casting asphalt concrete.
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Table 11-3 Technical Indexes of Casting Asphalt Concrete
Technical index Technical requirement corresponding to the following climate division
Mean maximum air temperature > 30 20-30 < 20

in July (℃) and climate division 1-1, 1-2 1-3, 1-4 2-1, 2-2 2-3, 2-4 3-2
Mixing temperature (℃) 220-250
Fluidity (s) ≤ 40
Test temperature corresponding
50 40
to penetration 1-4mm (℃)
Test temperature corresponding 55 60 45
to penetration increment
≤0.4mm (℃)
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JTG

Trade Standard of the People’s Republic of China JTG D50-2006

Specifications for Design of Highway

Issued on 10th October, 2006 Implemented on 1st January, 2007

Issued by the Ministry of Communications of

Specifications for Design of Highway

Compiled by: China Highway Planning and Design Institute (HPDI)

The People’s Communications Press

Year of 2006 · Beijing

2. TERMS AND SYMBOLS .................................................................................................................... 3

2.1. TERMS ..................................................................................................................................................... 3

3. GENERAL PROVISIONS................................................................................................................... 6

3.1. STANDARD AXLE LOAD AND DESIGN TRAFFIC VOLUME ......................................................................... 6

4. STRUCTURE COURSE AND COMBINATION DESIGN ............................................................ 13

4.1. STRUCTURE COURSE DESIGN ................................................................................................................ 13

5. SUBGRADE AND BED COURSE.................................................................................................... 19

5.1. SUBGRADE RESILIENCE MODULUS ....................................................................................................... 19

6. BASE COURSE AND SUBBASE COURSE .................................................................................... 28

6.1. SEMI-RIGID BASE AND SUBBASE COURSE ............................................................................................. 28

7. ASPHALT SURFACE COURSE ...................................................................................................... 36

7.1. ASPHALT MIXTURE SURFACE COURSE .................................................................................................. 36

8. THICKNESS OF NEW PAVEMENT STRUCTURE...................................................................... 42

9. RECONSTRUCTION PAVEMENT DESIGN ................................................................................. 50

9.1. GENERAL PROVISIONS........................................................................................................................... 50

10. DRAINAGE DESIGN ........................................................................................................................ 58

11. BRIDGE DECK PAVEMENT AND OTHER WORKS .................................................................. 64

11.1. BRIDGE DECK PAVEMENT...................................................................................................................... 64

APPENDIX A VIBRATION MOULDING PROCESS FOR SAMPLES OF SEMI-RIGID BASE

APPENDIX B RELEVANT DATA IN CLIMATIC REGION .................................................................. 74

APPENDIX C ASPHALT MIXTURE MINERAL GRADING AND SPECIFICATIONS AND

APPENDIX D GRADATION COMPOSITION OF NON-BINDER MATERIAL ................................. 83

APPENDIX E REFERENCE DATA FOR MATERIALS DESIGN PARAMETERS ............................ 85

APPENDIX F ESTIMATION OF RESILIENT MODULUS FOR EARTH FOUNDATION BY

APPENDIX G DESCRIPTION OF WORDS IN THE SPECIFICATIONS ............................................ 96

APPENDIX CLAUSES EXPLANATION OF “SPECIFICATIONS FOR DESIGN OF HIGHWAY

1. GENERAL RULES ............................................................................................................................ 99

2. TERMS AND SYMBOLS ................................................................................................................ 101

3. GENERAL PROVISIONS............................................................................................................... 103

4. STRUCTURE LAYERS AND COMPOSITION DESIGN ........................................................... 109

5. SUBGRADE AND BED COURSE................................................................................................... 113

6. BASE & SUB BASE .......................................................................................................................... 117

7. ASPHALT SURFACE LAYER ....................................................................................................... 137

8. THICKNESS OF NEWLY CONSTRUCTED PAVEMENT STRUCTURES ............................. 149

9. RECONSTRUCTION PAVEMENT DESIGN ............................................................................... 161

10. DRAINAGE DESIGN ...................................................................................................................... 169

11. DECK PAVEMENT AND OTHER WORKS................................................................................. 170

1.0.4. Asphalt pavement of expressway and class 1 highway is unsuitable to be

1.0.5. The design of asphalt pavement meets the following principles:

3. Follow the principles of adjusting measures to local conditions, reasonably selecting

5. According to the related provision of the national environment protection, protect

2. Terms and Symbols

2.2.1. Asphalt pavement

2.1.2. Semi-rigid base

2.1.3. Rigid base

2.1.4. Flexible base

2.1.5. Axle load spectrum

Probability distribution of different axle loads of all kinds of vehicles.

2.1.6. Equivalent single axle loads