Physics Lab Manual R20

PHYSICS LABORATORY
Faculty Manual
I - B.Tech, I & II Semesters
AR-20 Regulation
Prepared by
Dr. G. Kiran Kumar (Associate Professor)
Mr. Y. Venkata Rao (Associate Professor)
Mrs. N. Adilakshmi (Assistant Professor)
Mr. M. Surya Rao (Assistant Professor)
Ms. S. Sravya (Assistant Professor)
Dept of B. S. & H.
Lab In-charge
Mr. Y.Venkata Rao
Associate Professor
Dept of B. S. & H.
Department of Basic Science and Humanities
RAGHU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Autonomous)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Permanently Affiliated to JNTU, Kakinada)
NBA and NAAC ‘A’ grade accredited Institute.
Dakamarri, Bheemili Mandal, Visakhapatnam – 531162, A.P.
Phone: 08922-248001 / 221122/9963981111, www.raghuenggcollege.com
(Autonomous)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Permanently Affiliated to JNTU, Kakinada)
NBA and NAAC ‘A’ grade accredited Institute.
Dakamarri, Bheemili Mandal, Visakhapatnam – 531162, A.P.
Phone: 08922-248001 / 221122/9963981111, www.raghuenggcollege.com
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Course Details
Laboratory Name : Engineering Physics / Applied Physics
Lab Code : 20PH1101(ME,CE), 20PH1102 (ECE), 20PH2102 (EEE, CSE)
Regulation : AR-20
Year : I B. Tech
Semester : I / II
Program : B. Tech
Periods/week : 3
Credits : 2
Faculty In-charge : Mr. Y. Venkata Rao
Associate Professor, Dept of B. S. & H.
Prepared by Checked by
Dr. G. Kiran Kumar (Associate Professor)
Dr. P. Mallikharjuna Rao
Mr. Y. Venkata Rao (Associate Professor) IQAC Member
Professor
Mrs. N. Adilakshmi (Assistant Professor) Dept. of BS & H.
Mr. M. Surya Rao (Assistant Professor)
Ms. S. Sravya (Assistant Professor) Approved by
Dept. of Physics, BS & H.
Head
Dept. of B. S. & H.
2
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
CONTENTS
SNO Description Page
No
1 Department Vision, Mission, Profile and Salient Features 4
2 Course Description 6
3 General Instructions 12
4 University Syllabus 14
5 Measuring Instruments 15
6 Melde’s Experiment – Transverse and Longitudinal modes 24
7 Newton’s Rings 31
8 Rigidity Modulus by Torsional Pendulum 37
9 Magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil carrying current. 41
10 Wedge Method 47
11 Characteristics of a Zener Diode. 51
12 To determine the energy gap of a semiconductor. 55
13 Wavelength by Diffraction Grating 58
14 Dispersive power of a diffraction grating. 64
15 Resolving power of a grating. 69
Additional Experiments
16 Variation of dielectric constant with temperature.
17 Characteristics of Thermistor – Temperature Coefficients.
18 Determination of resistivity of semiconductor by four probe
method.
19 Measurement of resistance with varying temperature
20 Study the variation of B versus H by magnetizing the magnetic
material
3
VISION
To be a center of excellence for physics research and extended learning.
MISSION
• To provide high quality physics education and awaken the young minds to the
understanding and functioning of the physical world through theory, hand on laboratory
experiments and simulations.
• To support student’s innovative ideas in preforming mini-projects and provide them
with realistic advices to complete their projects in positive outcomes.
• To constantly keep track of the latest scientific discoveries/innovations and include
such topics in the curriculum to the benefit of the students.
• To support all in-class and extended activities of the students, as well as participate in
programs conducted by the institution.
• To conduct faculty orientation programs/seminars/webinars and other extended
activities.
HOD’s MESSAGE
We have seen farther than others because we have stood on the shoulders of giants – Issac
Newton referring to Galileo.
Physics provides the basic knowledge and understanding of the mechanism of all living
and no-living things. Our teaching philosophy incorporates two core beliefs: 1) effective
communication between the teacher and student is vital, and 2) learning in physics is an
iterative process of theoretical study and application. It is through these principles that we wish
to reach our teaching goal which is to provide an environment that allows students to take
initiative in their education, and in which every student, regardless of background, comes away
with an understanding of physics concepts. We are interested in teaching a broad range of
Physics courses and have particular interest in topics related to Mechanics, Physics of Light
and Modern physics. Our experience has shown that careful and thorough preparation is the
most important effort we can make toward a successful class experience. This involves the
distillation of material from a broad set of sources into a well-organized lecture emphasizing
4
key concepts. The continuity in teaching a particular concept is also of vital importance. We
intend to bridge our teaching and research when appropriate in accordance with this approach.
An iterative approach to teaching cultivates these talents and develops the fundamental skills
required for understanding the concepts in physics. We hope and wish students attending our
courses inculcate the habits of understanding the concepts and applying them in their
professional and personal carers. We wish them a great success.
SALIENT FEATURES OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

1. Highly experienced faculty with an average teaching experience of 10 years each.
2. Fully equipped general physics, optics laboratories to cater to the needs of B. Tech
students and to conduct mini projects.
3. Teaching courses viz., Engineering Physics, Applied Physics to first year B. Tech
students as well as taken up professional/optional electives in final year such as Nano
Science and Technology.
4. Facilities for basic research.
5. Published ~15 peer reviewed science and scopus indexed research articles (SCI &
SCOPUS) in the last 3 years.
DEPARTMETN PROFILE
The department of Physics, is an integral part of the Raghu Engineering College since its
inception and has been delivering its services to the student community and well as the
organization in its various extended socio, cultural extra-curricular activities. The department
of Physics currently have 5 highly trained and experienced faculty in both teaching as well as
research. The department of Physics have 2 well equipped laboratories to cater to the needs of
the B.Tech students as well as to perform mini-projects, basic research in electronics and
material science. As an extension the department also is involved in research work being
conducted at the nano-science and technology centre. Faculty of the department of Physics
have published many high quality peer reviewed scientific articles which have been published
in any journals of international repute.
5
COURSE DESCRIPTION
Course Context and Overview:
The objective of the laboratory is learning. The experiments are designed to illustrate
phenomena in different areas of physics and to expose you to measuring instruments. Conduct
the experiments with interest and attitude of learning laboratory experiments are conducted to
reinforce theory and to provide practical experience with physical optics
.
Course Prerequisites:
1. Intermediate I & II year physics practical’s
Literature
Faculty Manual
Books Recommended:
Text Books:
1. Engineering physics lab manual by Dr. Y. Aparna & Dr. K. Venkateswara Rao
Reference Books:
1. Physics Practical manual , Lorven Publicatuions.

2. Practical physics, G.L. Squires, Cambridge University press.
3. Great experiments in physics, M.H. Shamos, Holt, Rinehart & Winston Inc.,1959.
4. Engineering physics lab manual by M. Sri Rama Rao, Daruku Prasad (Acme
Learning).
6
Program Educational Objectives
PEO No. Program Educational Objectives
To have the knowledge and technical skills required to be and to remain

PEO 1
productive.
To apply technical knowledge and skills as electronics and communication
PEO 2 engineers to provide effective solutions in industrial and governmental
organizations.
To achieve success with awareness of entrepreneurship skills and have the
PEO 3 ability for lifelong learning by pursuing professional development to meet the
emerging and evolving demands to have a successful career.
Programme Outcomes
PO No. Program Outcomes
a An ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science, and engineering

An ability to design and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze and
b
interpret data
An ability to design a engineering system, component or process to meet
c
desired needs
d An ability to function on an multidisciplinary teams
e An ability to identify, formulate, and solve engineering problems
f An understanding of professional and ethical responsibility
g An ability to communicate effectively
The broad education necessary to understand the impact of engineering
h
solutions in a global societal context
i A recognition of the need for, and an ability to engage in lifelong learning
j Knowledge of contemporary issues
An ability to use the techniques, skills, and modern engineering tools
k
necessary for engineering practice
l Student will demonstrate effective applications of engineering projects.
7
Programme Specific Outcomes
CSE:
PSO 1 : Foundation of mathematical concepts: To use mathematical methodologies to crack
problem using suitable mathematical analysis, data structure and suitable algorithm.
PSO 2 : Foundations of Software development: the ability to grasp the software development
lifecycle and methodologies of software systems. Possess competent skills and knowledge of
software design process. Familiarity and practical proficiencywith a broad area of
programming concepts and provide new ideas and innovations towards research.
PSO 3 : To include knowledge required for configuration of computer networks and
connections of related networking components. Along with that inculcate how to implement
wireless Internet connections and how to protect networks from Cyber fraud.
ECE:
PSO 1: Understand and apply the fundamental concepts of Basic and Engineering Sciences for
appropriate up-skilling in the fast emerging fields of Signal Processing, Image Processing,
Communication, Networking, VLSI, Embedded Systems, Analog and Digital Technologies to
meet the futuristic industrial achievements.
PSO 2: Apply latest hardware and software tools to solve complex electronics and
communication engineering problems along with analytical skills to derive appropriate
solutions in the real time applications across varied business and administrative functions.
EEE:
PSO 1: Graduates will be able to apply their knowledge to investigate various problems of
electrical and electronics circuits, power electronics, control systems and power systems.
Moreover, they can design, develop and implement industry automated products using PLC.
PSO 2: Graduates will be able to provide socially acceptable technical solutions to complex
electrical engineering problems with the application of modern software tools (PSPICE and
MATLAB) and appropriate techniques for Renewable and sustainable energy source
development.
ME:
PSO 1: Graduates will be able to explore the technical knowledge and able to design a system,
product, or process to meet desired needs within realistic constraints such as economic,
environmental, social, political, ethical, health and safety, manufacturability, and
sustainability.
PSO 2: Graduates will be able to work comfortably with various machines, manufacturing and
processing equipment, and also can use proficiently various CAD/CAM/CIE software such as
Auto Cad, Catia, Pro E, Ansys, Nastran simulation tools like MAT Lab etc.
CE:
PSO 1: Survey, map, plan & layout of infrastructures viz. canals, roads, etc. and apply
knowledge of environmental & geotechnical engineering.
PSO 2: Acquire knowledge of various materials, techniques, skills and engineering tools
required for civil engineering structures including all types of buildings, irrigation structures,
highways, railways, docks & harbours etc.
PSO 3: Analyze, design and execute the civil engineering structures with good knowledge in
engineering, mathematics & basic sciences
8
Course Objectives:
S.No Course Objectives

To learn the practical knowledge of Physical optics, Mechanics & Electronic
1
devices.
2 To provide the basic knowledge that is useful in Engineering physics practicals.
Set up an appropriate laboratory investigation addressing the principles and
3
applications of an area of physics.
Course Learning Outcomes:
S.No Course Learning Outcomes

Apply the basic laws of physics in the areas of classical mechanics, Newtonian
1
gravitation, special relativity, electro magnetism, physical optics.
Students gain the basic knowledge which is useful in industries and physical
2
universe.
Students gain the basic knowledge which is useful in industries and physical
3
universe.
Course Transferable Outcomes:
S.No Course Transferable Outcomes

1 Student will able to manage time and task
2 Student will able to learn both independently and co-operatively
3 Student will able to take responsibility and carry out laboratory test
4 Student will able to initiative and lead other
5 Student will able to use software relevant to the subject
9
Mapping of Course Outcomes to Programme Outcomes and Programme Educational
Objectives:
CO BTL
CO STATEMENT LEVEL
CO1 Apply the working principles of laboratory experiments in optics, mechanics, 3

electromagnetic and electronics and perform the experiments using required
apparatus.
CO2 Compute the required parameter by suitable formula using experimental values 3
(observed values) in mechanics, optics, electromagnetic and electronic
experiments.
CO3 Analyse the experimental results through graphical interpretation. 2
CO4 Recognize the required precautions to carry out the experiment and handling the 2
apparatus in the laboratory.
CO5 Demonstrate the working principles, procedures and applications. 3
CO – PO MAPPING
CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
1 1 1 - - - - - - 1 - - 1
2 1 1 - - - - - - 1 - - 1
3 1 1 - - - - - - 1 - - 1
4 1 1 - - - - - - 1 - - 1
5 1 1 - - - - - - 1 - - 1
CO –PSO Mapping
MECH CIVIL ECE CSE EEE

CO PS PS PS PS PS PS PS PS PS PS PS PS
O1 O2 O1 O2 O3 O1 O2 O1 O2 O3 O1 O2
1 1 - - - 1 1 - - - - 1 -
2 - - - - - - - 1 - - - -
3 - - - - 1 - - - - - 1 -
4 - - - - - - - - - - - -
5 1 - - - 1 1 - - - - 1 -
10
Assessment Strategy
A variety of learning strategies are used throughout the course.
S.No Teaching Learning and Assessment Strategy
Classroom Demonstration by Faculty In-charge through different Teaching
1
Methodologies
2 Extra Laboratory Session
3 Student- Faculty In-charge Discussion
4 Collaborative and Co-operative learn
5 Independent student study and Practice
Evaluation of Marks for the Laboratory Exam
Internal Marks - 50
For Laboratory courses there should be continuous evaluation during the semester for 50
Internal Marks. The distribution of Internal Marks is given below.
Serial No Criteria Marks
1 Continuous Evaluation 5
2 Internal Examination 5
3 Record 5
Total Marks 15
External Lab Exam - 50
Each semester end lab Examination shall be evaluated by an External Examiner along with an
Internal Examiner.
1 Write Up 10
2 Experimentation 15
3 Viva Voce 10
Total Marks 35
Total Lab Exam Marks - 50
Each semester Total Final lab Examination marks is the sum of marks obtained in both internal
and external Exams.
1 Internal 15
2 External 35
Total Marks 50
11
GENERAL INSTRUCTIO NS
SAFETY:
1. Students should have the prior knowledge about the lab they are doing.
2. When students are doing experiments with the Klystron mount and Gunn diode they have
to be very careful, and they have to avoid exposing them self to the microwaves.
3. If any kind of wrong thing happened while doing experiment, students have to immediately
switch off power supply on the work table.
4. Wearing loose garments inside the lab is strictly prohibited.
5. Students have to wear shoes compulsorily.
ATTENDANCE:
1. Students have to come to the laboratory with proper dress code and ID cards.
2. Students have to bring observation notebook, record note book and calculators etc. to the
laboratory.
3. Students have to sign in the log register after entering in to the lab and before leaving the
lab.
4. Students have to enter the list of components they need for their experiment in the indent
register.
5. Students have to show their observations with readings after completion of the experiment
and they have to get it signed.
6. After completion of a experiment students have to submit their completed records to the
faculty of the lab within a week.
MAKING CONNECTIONS:
1. Set up the microwave bench as per the block diagram starting from Klystron mount.
2. Complete the microwave experiment without disturbing the bench setup and power supply.
3. Call staff to check the connections before going to do your experiment.
4. Connect the circuit on the Optical trainer kit properly using patch cards and jumpers as per
the circuit diagram.
5. Handle Optical fibre cable carefully, sharp bends or twists can permanently damage it.
12
6. After completion of the lab all probes and patch chords should be kept in their actual position
OBSERVATION:
1. Do the experiment as per the procedure.
2. Enter all readings in a tabular form.
3. Draw the required graphs.
CALCULATION:
1. Perform the required calculations.
2. Compare the results with standard values.
3. Note down the results with units.
RECORD:
1. As the name implies, it is a permanent record for reference.
2. Write the record neatly.
3. Draw circuit diagrams neatly and label them correctly.
4. Enter the readings with units
5. Draw the required graphs.
6. Submit your completed record to the faculty of the lab within a week.
13
I Year – I APPLIED / ENGINEERING L T P C
I & II Semester
PHYSICS LAB
R - 20 0 0 3 2
(CSE, ECE,, EEE, CE and ME)
(Any 10 of the following listed 15 experiments)

1. Determine the thickness of the fibre using wedge shape method.
2. Determination of the radius of curvature of the lens by Newton’s ring method.
3. Determination of wavelength by plane diffraction grating method.
4. Dispersive power of a diffraction grating.
5. Magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil carrying current.
6. To determine the energy gap of a semiconductor.
7. Rigidity modulus of material by wire-dynamic method (Torsional pendulum)
8. Characteristics of a Zener Diode.
9. Measurement of resistance with varying temperature
10. Melde’s Experiment – Transverse and Longitudinal modes
11. Resolving power of a grating.
12. Study the variation of B versus H by magnetizing the magnetic material
13. Variation of dielectric constant with temperature.
14. Characteristics of Thermister – Temperature Coefficients.
15. Determination of resistivity of semiconductor by four probe method.
WEEK 1:
Introduction class to microwave components and bench setup & introduction class to optical
communication trainer kit and laser diode trainer kit. Over view of all experiments and related
precautions
WEEK 15: Lab internal
WEEK 16: Revision of all experiments
14
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
1. VERNIER CALIPERS
The Vernier calipers was invented by Paul Vernier. It consists of two long jaws J1 and
J2. The jaw J1 is fixed normal to the main scale M. A vernier scale V is fixed to the jaw J2 which
slides on the main scale. The vernier scale can be fixed at any position on the main scale by
means of a screw S. Two upper jaws J3 and J4 are also provided as shown in Fig. When the
jaws J1 and J2 are brought into contact, ordinarily the zero of vernier scale coincides with the
zero of the main scale.
i) Main scale:
On the main scale, one centimeter is divided into 10 divisions. So, each division is equal
!
to !"cm or 1mm.
ii) Vernier Scale:

On the vernier scale a distance of 9mm is divided into 10 equal divisions. So, each
vernier scale division id equal to 9/10 mm.
#
... 1 Vernier scale division (V.S.D) = !"mm
iii) Least count of an instrument (L.C):

The accuracy of any instrument depends on its least count. The least count is the
smallest value that can be measured by an instrument accurately.
Example: 1. By means of a meter scale one can measure length upto its least division i.e. 1mm.
So, its least count is 1mm.
15
2. By means of a watch, one can measure time upto one second exactly. Therefore, its least
count is 1 sec.
Definition: Least count of an instrument is defined as the smallest measurement that can be
made accurately with it.
... The least count of vernier calipers is equal to the difference of 1 M.S.D and 1 V.S.D.
... Least count, L.C = 1 M.S.D – 1 V.S.D
= 1mm – 9/10mm
= 1/10mm = 0.1mm = 0.01cm.
The least count of the vernier can be found directly by applying the formula.
𝑺
L.C = 𝑵
Value of one main scale division, S

Total number of divisions on the vernier scale, N
𝑺
... Least count of the vernier, L.C = 𝑵
16
2. SCREW GAUGE
The screw gauge consists of a U-shaped frame F with a shaft S fixed at one end and a hollow
cylinder A attached to the other end as shown in Fig. A screw S1 works through the thread cut
on the inner surface of the cylinder A. A metallic cap B is attached to a milled head C called
the head of the screw so that they move together. Milled head is useful in just gripping the body
in between the shafts. When the body got just gripped, the milled head makes some sound on
rotation, without further pushing the shaft. The ends of the shaft S and the screw S1 are parallel
to each other. The cap B is provided with a sloping edge E, which is divided into 100 equal
divisions and is called the head scale H. There is a line parallel to the axis of the cylinder called
index line which is graduated in millimeters. This scale is called the pitch scale P.
i) Pitch of the screw:

The linear distance advanced by the screw S1 on the pitch scale for one complete
rotation of the head is called the pitch of the screw (i.e. distance between tow consecutive
threads of the screw).
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒘
... Pitch of the screw = 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆
ii) Least count of the screw guage (L.C):

The distance traversed by the screw on the pitch scale when the head rotated through
one head scale division is called the least count of the screw guage.
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘
... Least count (L.C) = 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
Before taking the observations, zero error on the screw guage has to be noted.
17
iii) Zero error:
The head of the screw is rotated until the screw S1 just touches the fixed shaft S.
1. If the zero division of the head scale exactly coincides with the zero division of the
pitch scale, then there is no zero error and correction need not be applied in this case.
(Fig. a)
Zero error = 0 divisions
Correction = 0 divisions
2. If the zero division of the head scale is above the pitch scale line (say 5 divisions), then
the error is negative (fig b) and the correction is positive. In this case,
Zero error = -5 divisions
Correction = +5 divisions
3. If the zero division of the head scale is below the pitch scale line (say 5 divisions) then
the error is positive (fig c) and the correction is negative. In this case,
Zero error = +5 divisions
Correction = -5 divisions
The above correction has to be added to the observed head scale coincidence while
taking the observations.
BACK – LASH EROR:

This error occurs when instruments like screw guage, spherometer and travelling microscope
are used, which work on screw-nut principle. Due to wear and tear of the screw or non perfect
fitting. Some space will be left between the screw and nut for its operation. If the screw is
rotated for a certain angle of rotation in the forward direction and afterwards in the backward
direction. Then the screw will not move for a little motion of the head of the screw (or the
misfits in the nut through which it moves). This error is called back-lash error. In order to avoid
this error, the screw must always be moved in the same direction. This is to be remembered
whenever we use any instrument using / involving screw motion.
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3. TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE
i) Description:
The travelling microscope is an ordinary compound microscope M which is used to
obtain magnification of small objects. The essential components of the microscope are i) the
objective ii) the eye-piece. The microscope is attached to a frame which can slide along a
vertical piller S (or post). The vertical piller together with the microscope can be moved along
a horizontal platform P. The platform is provided with levelling screws L1, L2 at the base. The
horizontal displacement of the microscope can be measured on a horizontal scale S2 on the
platform and the vertical displacement can be measured on a vertical scale S1 engraved on the
vertical piller. The distance between the objective and the eye-piece can be adjusted with a rack
and pinion screw S5.
The verniers V1 and V2 are provided on the vertical and horizontal scales. The
microscope can be set with its axis either in the vertical or in the horizontal position by means
of a screw which is not shown in the figure. The microscope can be fixed at any desired position
on the vertical as well as on the horizontal scales with the screws S3 and S4respectively. Fine
adjustments in the vertical and horizontal directions can be made by means of two tangential
screws T1 and T2. The object to be focused should be placed on the platform or to be fixed to
a retort stand.
ii) ADJUSTMENTS:
1) The base of the microscope should be leveled perfectly horizontal by adjusting the
leveling screws.
2) The least count of the vernier scales attached should be found.
3) The eye-piece of the microscope is distinctly focused upon the cross-wires by drawing
the eye-piece in or out (Or) the eye-piece should be adjusted until the cross wires are
clearly seen by drawing it in or out. Turn the microscope towards the object to be
observed and adjust it till the image of the object is distinctly visible and there is no
parallax between the cross-wires and the image.
4) A piece of white paper having an ink mark on it is placed on the platform. The
microscope is to be moved along the vertical scale and to be adjusted such that the ink
mark is clearly seen, incase, the object to be seen is to be arranged on the platform as
in the case of Newton’s rings.
5) The microscope should always be moved in one direction to avoid the back-lash error.
19
iii) Vertical scale or horizontal scale:
Example: If on the vertical scale (or horizontal scale) one centimeter is divided into 20
divisions, each division is equal to (1/20) cm or 1/2mm.
... 1 Main scale division (1M.S.D) = (1/2) mm
iv) Vernier scale:
On the vernier scale a distance of 49 mm is divided into 50 equal divisions. So each vernier
scale division is equal to (49/50)mm
... 1 Vernier scale division (1V.S.D) = (49/50) mm
v) Least count of the vernier of the microscope:
The vertical or horizontal scale is graduated in centimeters. One centimeter is divided
into 20 equal divisions. On the vernier scale a distance of 49 mm is divided into 50 equal
divisions.
Value of one main scale division, S = ½ mm = 0.5mm
Total number of divisions on the vernier scale, N = 50
... Least count of the vernier of the microscope, L.C = S/N = 0.5/50 mm
=0.01mm = 0.001 cm.
vi) Uses:
It is used to determine the diameter of the bore of a capillary tube, Newton’s rings etc.
20
4. SPECTROMETER
ADJUSTMENTS OF THE SPECTROMETER

Before using the spectrometer for any experimental observation, the following optical and
mechanical adjustments are to make.
a) Optical adjustments
i) Focussing of eye-piece on the cross-wires
Turn the telescope towards a white surface or a white wall and adjust the distance
between the cross-wires and the eye-piece by slowly moving the eye-piece inside or outside
till the cross-wires are most distinctly seen.
ii) Adjustment of the telescope for parallel rays
Take the spectrometer to an open place and it on a stool. Turn the telescope towards a
distant object (the top of distant telegraph pole or a tree) and adjust the distance between the
objective and eye-piece by a rack and pinion screw until there is no parallax between the image
of the object and the cross-wires whatever may be the point of view of the observer. Now, the
telescope is said to be adjusted to receive the parallel rays.
iii) Adjustment of collimator
Widen the slit of the collimator and illuminate it with the source of light. Then turn the
telescope in line with the collimator and adjust the distance between the slit and the collimating
lens by a rack and pinion screw until a clear and well defined image of the slit is observed
through the telescope without parallax between the image of the slit and the cross-wires. As
the telescope is already adjusted to receive parallel rays, the beam emerging out of the
collimator is now said to have been adjusted to see a parallel beam. The slit should be vertical.
iv) Slit adjustment
Narrow down the slit to avoid aberrations and to make the spectrum pure.
b) Mechanical adjustments
v) Leveling of the prism table
By means of spirit level and the leveling screws, the prism table can be adjusted
perfectly horizontal. Place the sprit level on the prism table with its length parallel to the lone
joining any two of the leveling screws. Adjust the two screws so that the air bubble in the spirt
level is at its centre. Then, place the spirit level along the perpendicular to the line joining these
two screws and adjust the third screw until the air bubble in the spirit level is at its centre again.
Now, the prism table will be perfectly horizontal.
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DESCRIPTION:
A spectrometer is an optical instrument used to produce and study various types of
spectra. The essential components of a spectrometer are (i) Collimator, (ii) Prism table and (iii)
Telescope. The instrument is supported on a heavy metal base which is provided with leveling
screws L1 and L2. In the spectrometer, the circular scale is fixed on the cylindrical block to
which telescope is rigidly fixed and it can be rotated about the same vertical axis about which
vernier table and prism table rotate.
(i) Collimator:
The collimator is a device to produce a parallel
beam of light. The collimator consists of two coaxial
cylindrical metal tubes one sliding into the other. A
convex lens is fitted to one end of one tube and an adjustable vertical slit (rectangular) is fixed
to the outer end of the other tube. The width of the slit can be adjusted
by means of a screw S1. The distance between the slit and the lens can
be altered by a rack and pinion screw S2. The collimator is fixed to the
base of the instrument, with its axis perpendicular to the axis of
rotation of the prism table. When the slit, which is in the focal plane
of the lens is illuminated with a source of light (i.e., when the length
of the collimator is equal to the focal length of the lens) the rays of light emerging out of the
lens will be parallel.
(ii) Prism table:
It consists of two circular metal plates which are joined together by means of three
leveling screws and springs (x, y, z), with the help of which it can be made perfectly horizontal.
On the surface of the upper disc are drawn concentric circles and also straight lines parallel to
the line joining two of the leveling screws. The prism table can be raised or lowered or can be
fixed at any desired height by means of a screw S3 and this can be fixed to the vernier table.
Slow motion of the vernier table along with the prism table can be made by a tangential screw
provided at the base of the instrument. The axis of rotation of the prism table passes through
22
the centre of the circular scale, called the main scale which is graduated in half degrees.
Readings can be take with the help of two diametrically opposite verniers V1 and V2, which
are provided on a vernier table. This is to minimize errors due to non-coincidence of the centre
of the circular scale with the axis of rotation.
(iii) Telescope:
The telescope is of astronomical type. Which is used
to receive the parallel beam of light. It consists of two
coaxial cylindrical hollow metal tubes, one sliding inside the
other. An objective (an achromatic combination of lenses or
convex lens) is fixed at the inner side of the outer tube, which
is towards the prism table. The inner tube is fitted with a third tube carrying cross-wires and an
eye-piece. The distance between the objective and eye-piece can be adjusted by rack and pinion
screw S6 while that between the cross-wire and the eye-piece can be adjusted by moving it in
or out by hand. The telescope is fixed to a vertical support and can be rotated (about the vertical
axis of rotation of the prism table) or fixed at any desired position with a screw S5. Slow motion
of the telescope can be made with a tangential screw S7. The position of the telescope can be
read on a circular scale fixed to it with the help of two diametrically opposite verniers. When
parallel rays from the collimator falls on the objective, the image of the slit is formed in the
focal plane of the eye-piece where cross-wires are fixed.
To determine the least count of the vernier of the spectrometer:

Example:
The circular scale is graduated into half degrees i.e. from 00 to 3600. One degree is
divided into two divisions. The vernier scale is divided into 60 equal divisions.
One the circular scale, 2 divisions = 10 = 60@
... Value of one main scale division, (1M.S.D), S
= 30@
Total number of divisions on the vernier, N
= 60
... Least count of the vernier of the spectrometer, L.C =
B"@ ! @
S/N = C" = DEF = 30@@
23
MELDE’S EXPERIMENT
Expt. No Date: ___________
AIM:
To determine the frequency of a vibrator or an electrically maintained tuning fork using
Melde’s arrangement.
APPADRATUS:
Electrically maintained vibrator or tuning fork, light frictionless pulley fixed to a stand,
sewing thread, a light scale pan made of cardboard, a weight box, balance, meter scale, a
storage cell, plug key, rheostat and connecting wires.
FORMULA:
1. For the transverse mode of vibration of the thread, the frequency of the tuning fork is given
by
1 √𝑇
𝑛! = 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧
2 √𝑚 𝑙
2. For the longitudinal mode of vibration of the thread, the frequency of the tuning fork is given
by
1 √𝑇
𝑛E = 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧
√𝑚 𝑙
Where l = average length of one loop of the thread.
T = tension applied to the thread.
= Mg
M = total mass attached to the thread (mass of the pan + mass
Added in the pan)
g = acceleration due to gravity (980 cm / Sec2)
m = mass per unit length of the thread (liner density).
DESCRIPTION:
Melde’s apparatus consists of tuning fork F (made of steel) of low frequency. The stem
of the tuning fork is rigidly clamped on a non-metallic base by means of a screw clamp. An
electromagnet M is placed between the prongs of the tuning fork without touching the prongs.
A short metal strip S (brass) with a platinum tipped point is connected to one prong of the
24
tuning fork. With the help of a movable screw C (platinum) contact can be made with the metal
strip S. The established a make and break arrangement at S which maintains the vibrations of
the fork. A battery B, rheostat Rh (adjustable resistance), plug key K, metal strip S and the
screw C are connected between the two ends of the coil wound on the electromagnet. After
inserting the plug, the tip of the screw C is adjusted until it just touches the metal strip S, Then,
current flows through the electromagnet, is gets energized and pull the metal strip S. Then,
current flows through the electromagnet, it gets energized and pull the prongs inward (due to
attractive force of the electromagnet). This breaks the contact between the metal strip S and the
screw C. As a result, the electromagnet looses its magnetism. Due to the elastic property, the
prongs go back to their original position and this establishes a contact between the metal strip
S and the screw C (i.e. the circuit is again closed). The magnet is again energized and the
prongs are pulled inwards. The process is repeated due to the automatic make and break of the
circuit. Thus the fork vibrated continuously.
A smooth frictionless pulley P fixed to a retort stand is to be placed at a distance of
about 2 to 3 meters from the fork. Take a long uniform (inextensible) sewing thread and connect
one end of it to one of the prongs of the tuning fork. Connect the other end of the thread to a
small scale pan (which cam be loaded with suitable weights) after passing it over the smooth
frictionless pulley.
PRINCIPLE:
When a small weight is placed in the scale pan and the circuit is closed, the fork
vibrated. If the length between the fork and the pulley is adjusted properly, then the disturbance
is carried along the thread which appears in the form of a wave. This wave is called a
progressive wave. When this wave reaches the pulley, it gets reflected and interfere (or super
impose) with the incident wave (or forward wave). Therefore, stationary waves are produced
and as a result the thread is divided into a number of loops with will-defined nodes. There are
regions of alternate maximum and minimum vibrations of the thread. These are called
antinodes and nodes. The point at which the amplitude is maximum is called an antinode and
minimum is called a node. The vibrating segment of the thread between the two nodes is called
loop.
The experiment can be performed with two orientations of the thread with respect to
the tuning fork.
(Or)
25
The experiment can be performed by arranging the tuning fork into two ways so as to
produce (1) transverse waves and (2) longitudinal waves along the thread.
Modes of vibrations:
a) When the direction of motion of the prong is at right angles to the length of the string
the vibrations of the thread represent the transverse mode of vibration.
b) When the direction of motion of the prong is along the length of the string the vibrations
of the thread represent the transverse mode of vibration.
PROCEDURE:
1. Transverse mode of vibration:
The electrical
connections are to be
made as shown in fig. If
the tuning fork is
arranged such that the
vibrations of the prong of
the tuning fork are
perpendicular to the direction of the length of the thread (or perpendicular to the direction of
the thread) then the set up is known as transverse mode of vibration. Now, arrange the pulley
at a distance of 3 meters from the tuning fork.
Find the mass of the empty scale pan (R gram) and place a load of 1 gram in it. Adjust
the positions of the pulley and stand so that the thread is horizontal and parallel to the prong.
Close the circuit by inserting the plug and adjust the contact point so that it touches the metal
strip S. Adjust the position of the pulley so that the thread breaks up into a number of well
defind loops. Adjust the tension and the length of the thread between the pulley and fork so
that vibrations of constant maximum amplitude with a convenient number of well-defined
loops (say 6 to 8) are formed in the nodes. Then switch of the current and measure the total
distance L between the marks made. Find the length l of a single loop.
Repeat the experiment by increasing the load in the pan and in each case find the length
of a single loop. Note the observations in table. Here the time taken by the fork to perform one
complete vibration is equal to the time taken by the string to complete one vibration. So, the
frequency of the fork is equal to the frequency of the thread. The frequency n of the tuning fork
can be calculated by using the formula 1
26
2. Longitudinal mode of vibration:
If the tuning fork is
arranged such that the
vibrations of the prong of
the tuning fork are parallel
to the direction of
propagation of the waves
along the thread (or
parallel to the direction of
the length of the thread), then the arrangement is known as longitudinal mode of vibration. In
this case the time taken by the tuning fork to complete one vibration is equal to twice the time
taken by the thread for one complete vibration. Therefore, the frequency of vibration of the
string is equal to half that of tuning fork.
Repeat the experiment same as explained above, Note the observations in table. The
frequency of the tuning fork can be calculated using the formula 2.
To determine the linear density m (i.e. mass per unit length) of the thread.
Take 10 meters of the sewing thread and find its mass M1. The linear density m of the thread
can be found as follows:
Total mass of the thread, M1 = mg
Length of the thread, L1 = meter
TU
Linear density m of the thread, m = VU
= gm
(i.e., mass per unit length, of the thread)
27
OBSERVATIONS
1. Transverse mode of vibration of thread
Mass of the pan, R = gm
S.No. Load applied in the pan Tension No of Length of Length of √𝑇
M = (R + mass added T = Mg loops, P P loops, one loop 𝑙
in the pan) gm L cm l = (L/P)
cm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Average value of √𝑇 / l =
! √X
𝑛! = E√W Y
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧
2. Longitudinal mode of vibration of thread

Mass of the pan, R = gm
S.No. Load applied in the Tension No of Length of Length of √𝑇
pan T = Mg loops, P P loops, one loop 𝑙
M = (R + mass L cm l = (L/P)
added in the pan) cm
gm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Average value of √𝑇 / l =
1 √𝑇
𝑛E = 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧
√𝑚 𝑙
28
PRICAUTIONS:
1. The thread used in this experiment should be thin, uniform linear density and
inextensible.
2. A frictionless pulley should be used so that the tension of the string does not appreciably
differ from the weight hanging from its end.
3. Observations should be noted when the amplitude of vibration at the anti node is
maximum.
4. The plane of vibration of the thread should not rotate.
RESULT:
Frequency of the Longitudinal Transverse mode Average value

fork, n Hertz mode(Hertz) (Hertz) (Hertz)
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
1. What is a tuning fork?

A. It is a source of standard frequency. It consists of a U-shaped steel bar provided with
arms of equal length and a rigid handle (or stem) at its middle point.
2. What is an electrically maintained tuning fork or vibrator?
A. A tuning fork which is maintained in a state of vibration by supplying energy
periodically to it form an external electric source is known as electrically maintained
tuning fork.
3. Why steel is used for a tuning fork?
A. The density of steel is low and elasticity is high. This is because the frequency of a
tuning fork is inversely proportional to the square toot of the density of the material of
the fork and directly proportional to the square toot of the elasticity of the material of
the fork.
4. What type of waves are produced in the string?
A. Transverse stationary waves are produced in both the cases (longitudinal and transverse
mode of vibrations).
5. What are stationary waves?
29
A. When two simple harmonic waves of the same amplitude and frequency travelling in
opposite directions in a straight line superimpose, then the resultant wave obtained is
called a stationary wave or a standing wave.
6. How are stationary waves produced in this experiment?
A. Due to the vibratory motion of the prong of the tuning fork, progressive transverse
waves are produced in the string. These waves traverse form the prong along the string
and gets reflected from the pulley (due to reaction). When the progressive wave form
the prong and the reflected wave from the pulley get superimposed on each other, then
the resulting wave pattern is called a stationary wave or a standing wave.
7. What are Nodes and Antinodes?
A. Node: A point in a stationary wave pattern where the vibration is minimum.
Antinode: Point of maximum displacement in a stationary wave pattern.
8. What type of string must be used in this experiment?
A. A thin, inextensible thread of uniform linear density.
30
NEWTON’S RINGS
Expt. No Date: ___________
AIM:
To determine the radius of curvature of a given Plano - convex lens by forming Newton’s
rings.
APPARATUS:
A Plano convex lens of large focal length about 100cm. Two plane glass plates, black
cloth or paper, travelling microscope, a condensing lens, sodium vapour lamp, and a retort
stand.
FORMULA: The radius of curvature of a given Plano convex lens is determined by the
formula
𝑫𝟐 [ 𝑫𝟐
𝒎 𝒏
R = 𝟒𝝀(𝒎[𝒏) cms
Where R = radius of curvature of the surface of the lens in contact with the glass
plate.
Dm = diameter of mth dark ring (from graph)
Dn = diameter of nth dark ring (from graph)
m, n = number of the chosen rings ( from graph)
λ = wavelength of the monochromatic source of light (sodium light)
λ = 5893 Ao = 5893 x 10-8 cms
DESCRIPTION:
S is a monochromatic source of light which is arranged at a suitable distance from a condensing
lens C (i.e. at its focus) such that a parallel beam of light rays will incident on the glass plate
G arranged at 450 to the horizontal. The glass plate G in turn partially reflects the beam and
this turns it by 900 and makes it incident normally on the experimental lens L, which encloses
a thin film of air between its lower surface and the glass plate P. A part of the incident light is
reflected by the surface of the lens L and a part is transmitted which is reflected from the surface
of the plane glass plate. These two reflected rays, as these are derived from the same source
interfere and give rise to an interference pattern in the form of circular rings. When these rings
are viewed through a microscope M focused on the air film, alternate dark and bright rings
with a central dark spot appears. These rings are called Newton’s rings.
31
Arrangement of the microscope to receive the ring system
The glass plate P and the convex lens L should be
cleaned well with a lens paper. Place the glass plate on a
black paper and keep a white paper after putting an ink dot
over it, on the glass plate. The microscope is adjusted such
that the ink dot on the white paper is distinctly seen in field
of view of the eye-piece, without parallax with cross-wires.
This is required because the interference rings form in that
plane. Then, remove the paper and place the convex lens
with its convex surface in contact with the surface of the
glass plat P. An air-film is formed between the lens and the plate. The thickness of the air film
is zero at the point of contact and gradually increases radically outwards. The curves of constant
thickness are circles with their centers at the point of contact.
NOTE: Sometimes instead of the dark spot at the centre, a bright spot may appear. This is due
to the presence of the dust particles between the lens and the glass plate. When it happens, the
lens and the glass plate should be clean well to get a dark spot. For obtaining brighter ring
pattern, the height of the glass plate G and its inclination are to be carefully adjusted.
PROCEDURE:
Viewing through the microscope the rings thus formed, move the microscope’s vertical
pillar horizontally on the base such that the point of intersection of the cross-wires coincides
with the central dark spot. By counting the central spot as zero, move the microscope to the left
side using the slow motion screw counting the dark rings. When the vertical cross-wire is
tangential to the 20th ring, note the main scale reading and the venire coincidence. Now, move
the microscope towards the centre of the ring system and make the vertical cross-wire coincide
with 18th, 16th, 14th, 12th, 8th, 6th, 4th and 2nd ring and note down the readings of M.S.R and V.C
as above. Then, move the microscope towards the right side of the central spot and note the
readings for 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, ….etc as was done on left side. The difference between the readings
of any particular ring on left side (d1) and right side (d2) gives the diameter of the particular
ring. The square of the diameter for each ring can be found.
NOTE: While taking the observations, the microscope should be moved only in one particular
direction using slow motion screw to avoid back-lash error.
32
GRAPH:
Draw a graph with number of dark rings on the
x-axis and the square of the diameter of the rings on y-
axis. A straight line passing through the origin will be
E
obtained. From the graph, the values of 𝐷W and
𝐷aE corresponding to mth and nth rings are to be noted.
By substituting the above values in the formula, the
radius of curvature of the given lens can be found
OBSERVATIONS:
1. To determine the diameter D of dark rings: Travelling Microscope
Value of 1 main scale division S = 1/20 cm
Number of divisions on the venire scale, N = 50
... Least count, L.C = S/N = 0.001cm
No. MICROSCOPE READINGS Diameter

of Left end of the rings Right end of the rings of the
the MSR VC Total reading MSR - LC Total reading ring D2
dark - L d1=MSR-L + R d2=MSR – R D = d1 ~ Mm
ring (VC x L.C) +(VC x L.C) d2
mm mm mm
CALCULATION:
𝑫𝟐 [ 𝑫𝟐
𝒎 𝒏
R = 𝟒𝝀(𝒎[𝒏) cms
33
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The lens and the glass plate should be thoroughly cleaned with benzene or spirit.
2. Light should be incident normally on the lens.
3. The radius of curvature of the lens should be large so that the diameter of the rings is
E E
large and error in finding the value of (𝐷W - 𝐷a ) is small.
4. The central spot should be dark.
5. While taking the observations, the travelling microscope should always be moved in
one direction to avoid error due to back – lash.
RESULT:
Radius of curvature of Experimental Graph

the given convex lens,
R cm
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

1. What do you mean by interference of light?
A. When two light waves superimpose upon each other, then the resultant amplitude in the
region of superposition is different than the amplitude of individual waves. This
modification in the distribution of intensity in the region of superposition is called
interference. When the resultant amplitude is the sum of the amplitudes due to two waves,
the interference is known as constructive interference and when the resultant amplitude
is equal to the difference of the amplitudes, the interference is known as destructive
interference.
2. What are the conditions for obtaining interference of light?
A. (i) The two source should be coherent i.e., they should vibrate in the same phase or
constant phase difference.
(ii) The two sources must emit waves of same wave length and time period.
(iii). The sources should be monochromatic.
(iv). The amplitudes of the interfering waves should be equal or nearly equal.
3. How does interference occur in Newton’s rings?
34
A. When a Plano-convex surface is placed on a glass plate, an air film is formed between
the two. A part of the incident light is reflected by the upper surface of the lens and a part
is transmitted which is reflected from the surface of the plane glass plate. As the two
reflected rays are derived from the same source, they interfere and produce interference
pattern in the form of circular rings. When monochromatic light is allowed to fall
normally on the lens and viewed in the reflected light, through a microscope, alternate
dark and bright rings with a central dark spot appears. These rings are called Newton’s
rings.
4. Where are the interference fringes formed?

A. The fringes are formed in the air film enclosed between the lens and the glass plate.
5. Why do you get the central ring dark?
A. At the point of contact between the lens and the plate the thickness of the air film is zero
and the two interfering waves have a phase difference of 𝜋 and hence a path difference
c
of E which makes central fringe dark.
6. Why Newton’s rings are circular?

A. Path difference of a light ray along a circle is constant.
7. Under what conditions do you get central fringe bright?
A. If the fringe system is formed in the transmitted light the central fringe will be bright.
Also, when the dust particles are present between the lens and the glass plate.
8. Are the rings equip spaced?
A. No, spacing between the rings decreases with the increase of order.
9. Why do you not observe the fringes in the transmitted light?
A. Because, the rings formed in the transmitted system are fainter and contrast between the
bright and dark rings is very poor.
10. Why do you use sodium light?
A. In order to obtain the fringe pattern as alternate dark and bright rings, monochromatic
light should be used. Monochromatic light is given by sodium light.
11. What will happen when the sodium lamp is replaced by a white light source?
A. A series of colored fringes are formed near the centre (in both the reflected and
transmitted light). The violet color will come first as we proceed away from the centre.
Due to superposition of the colored rings an almost uniform illumination results after a
few rings.
35
12. Without using light, can you demonstrate interference effects?
A. Yes, it can be demonstrated on the surface of water.
13. What is the use of interference phenomenon?
A. The phenomenon of interference is used to give experimental confirmation of wave
nature of light and also used to determine the wavelength of light.
14. Can you measure refractive index of a liquid using this apparatus?
A. Yes, by enclosing the liquid between the lower surface of the lens and the glass plate.
15. What are the uses of Newton’s rings?
A. (i). To determine wavelength of monochromatic light.
(ii). To determine the refractive index of a liquid.
(iii). To measure the radius of curvature of a spherical surface.
(iv). To measure expansion coefficients of crystals.
36
TORSIONAL PENDULUM
Expt. No Date:
Aim: To determine the Modulus of rigidity of the material of the given wire using a Torsional
pendulum.
Apparatus: Torsional pendulum (A Circular brass disc provided with a chuck and nut at its
centre, steel wire or brass wire or copper wire any one, another chuck and nut fixed to a wall
bracket), Stop watch, Screw gauge, Venire Calipers, Meter scale.
Description: The Torsional pendulum consists of uniform circular metal disc of about 8 to
10cm diameter with 1 or 2 cm thickness, suspended by a wire at the centre of the chuck at the
centre of the disc and upper end is gripped into another chuck which is fixed to a wall bracket.
Theory: When the disc is rotated in a horizontal plane to the radial position then the wire gets
twisted. Wire will exert a torque on the disc tending to returns it to the first position. This is
the restoring torque. For small twists, the restoring torque is proportional to the amount of
twist or
the angular displacement (From hook’s law) so that

Let q be the angle through which the wire is twisted. “a” is the radius of the
Wire, ‘l’ is the length of the wire between chuck and ‘η’ is the rigidity of
Modulus of the material of the wire, Then the restoring couple set up in it is equal to
(p .n.a .q ) = cq
4
2l
(p .a 4 .n)
= c -------- 1 Where ‘c’ is the Torsional Constant
2l
1
37
(Twisting couple per unit (radian) twist of the wire).
This produces an angular acceleration (dw/dt) in the disc
Therefore if “I” is the moment of inertia of the disc about the wire we have
dw dw æcö
I. = -c.q = - ç ÷q
dt dt èIø
i.e Negative sign shows that torque is directed opposite to the angular displacement’q’, the
dw
angular acceleration ( ) of the angular displacement(q) and therefore its motion is simple
dt
harmonic hence time period is given by
I
T= 2π ----------------------- 2
c
8p I l
From 1 & 2 n= 4 ´ 2
2 2 a T
In case of a circular disc whose geometric axes coincide with the axis of rotation. The moment
of inertia “I” is given by I=

( MR ) where M is the mass of disc and “R” is the radius of the
2
2
disc.
Procedure:
The circular metal disc is suspended. The length of the wire between the chucks is
adjusted to 90cm. When the disc is in equilibrium position, a small mark is made on the curved
edge of the disc. This marking will help to note the number of oscillations made by the disc
when the disc oscillates. The disc is set to oscillate by slowly turning the disc through a small
angle.
When the disc is oscillating the time taken for 10 oscillations is noted with the help of
a stopwatch and recorded in the observations table in trail 1. The procedure is repeated for the
same length of the wire and again the time taken for 10 oscillations is noted and recorded in
the observations table in trail 2. From trail 1 and 2 the mean time for 10 oscillations is obtained.
The time period (T) i.e. the time taken for one oscillation is calculated.
The experiment is repeated, by decreasing the length of the wire in steps of 10 cm and
the results are tabulated in table.
The radius of the wire ‘a’ is to be found accurately with the help of a screw gauge since
it occurs as the fourth power in final equation. The radius and the mass of the disc are found
with a vernier calipers and a rough balance respectively.
38
The mean value of (l/T2) is substituted in final equation and η is calculated.
A graph is also drawn with ‘l’ on the x - axis and T2 on the y – axis. It will linear as
shown in the figure. From the graph, the value of T2 for as large as a value of ‘l’ is noted and
this value of (l/T2) is substituted in final equation and the rigidity of the modulus of material
of the material of the wire η is calculated.
Model Graph:
Y
T2
Observations:
X
Mass of the disc : M =1350 gm l
Radius of the disc : R = 6.027 cm
Average radius of the wire : a = 0.002408cm.
l
Table – 1: Determination of
T2
Length of Wire Time for 20 oscillation Time Per one

l
Sl.No oscillation
l ( cm) Trial1 Trail2 Mean (t) T T2
T2
T= (t/20)
1
2
3
Table – 2: To measure the radius of the disc with Vernier calipers.

L.C. of Vernier Calipers = 1 M.S.D / Total V.S.D. =1/10 = 0.1mm = 0.01cm
Main Scale Vernier
reading coincidence V.C. x L.C. = B Diameter
S.No.
(MSR)(cm) (V.C) (cm) A + B (cm)
A
1
2
39
3
Table – 3: To measure the radius of the wire with screw gauge.

Pitch of the screw = Distance travelled by the screw / Number of rotations
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘 𝟏
L.C. of Screw Gauge = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 =𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 0.01mm = 0.001cm
Zero Error =0 Correction = 0

Reading on Corrected
Head scale Diameter of
the pitch Head Scale C.H.S.R x
S.No. Reading the wire
Scale A(mm) Reading L.C. B(mm)
(H.S.R) A + B (mm)
(C.H.S.R)
Radius =
Calculations:
hi Y
Formulae: Rigidity Modulus of wire η = jk 𝑀𝑟 E X m
M =1.35Kg ; η =
Precautions: 1.The length between the chucks should be measured carefully.
2. Screw gauge and Vernier Calipers readings have to be noted with accuracy.
Result: The rigidity modulus of the material of given wire is determined using Torsional
pendulum 1. From table η = 2. From graph η =
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

1.Define the different types of module of elasticity
Ans; there are three monduli in use.
1) young’s modulus: The ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain, with in
the elastic limits is called young’s modulus of the material. Its unit is N /m2.
2) Bulk modulus :When a uniform pressure is applied over the whole surface of a
body, it produces a uniform compression. the compressor is proportional to the
pressure, and the ration of pressure to the volume strain is called bulk modulus
.it is measured in N/m2
40
STEEWART-GEE’S METHOD
Expt. No. Date: ___________

AIM:
To study the variation of magnetic field along axis of current carrying circular coil.
APPARATUS:
Stewart Gee galvanometer, Battery, Plug key, Commentator, Rheostat and Ammeter
and connecting wires.
FORMULA:
1.
𝟐 𝝅 𝒏 𝒊 𝒂𝟐
𝑭 = 𝟑s
𝟏𝟎(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 ) 𝟐
Where F = intensity of the magnetic field at a point on the axis of a circular coil carrying current
n = number of turns of the coil.
i = current flowing through the coil.
a = radius of the coil
x = distance of magnetic needle from the centre of the coil towards east and west
2.
F = H Tan θ
Where H = Horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field.
θ = average angle of deflection of the magnetic needle.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
41
DESCRIPTION:
1. Magnetic compass box
The magnetic compass box consists of a very small magnetic needle pivoted on a sharp
support at the centre of a circular scale. A light, thin and long aluminum pointer (non –
magnetic) is rigidly fixed perpendicular to the axis of the needle at its centre which reads the
angle through which the magnetic needle moves on the horizontal circular scale. The circular
scale is graduated in degrees and divided into four equal quadrants. Each quadrant is graduated
from 00 to 900 so that the diametrically opposite points indicate the same reading. A circular
plane mirror is fixed just below the pointer which enables to take the readings of the Pinter
without error due to parallax. The needle, the aluminum pointer and the circular scale are
encased in a circular brass box with a glass top to protect the needle from the draughts of air.
2. Stewart and Gee’s type of tangent galvanometer:

Stewart and Gee’s type tangent galvanometer consists of a non-magnetic circular frame.
The frame is rigidly fixed at the middle of a
horizontal wooden base with its plane
vertical. The base is three sets of thick
insulated copper wire having different turns
are wrapped on the circular frame. One end
of all the coils is connected to the extreme
left terminal and the other free ends of the
coil are connected to the terminals and
provided at the base of the instrument. The
circular frame is large enough to keep a
magnetic compass box like that of the deflection magnetometer to pass along the axis of
circular coil. The magnetic compass box is placed on a platform which is capable of sliding
horizontally at right angles to the plane of the circular coil on a rectangular non-magnetic metal
frame supported on four uprights. A scale which is graduated in cm is engraved on one side of
the metal frame by means of which the distance of the magnetic needle from the centre of the
coil can be read with the index marked on the sliding platform. The zero of the scale is fixed
at the centre and increases on both sides. Here, the centre of the magnetic needle always lie on
the axis of the circular coil for all positions of the magnetic compass box. (In another form of
this instrument, the compass box is permanently sixed at the centre of the scale and the entire
scale can be moved along the axis of the coil).
42
PROCEDURE:
1. To set the circular coil in magnetic meridian:
Levels the wooden base so that it is perfectly horizontal by means of the leveling
screws. Place the magnetic compass box on the sliding platform and keep it at the centre of the
coil (reference mark on the platform should coincide with the zero division on the scale). In
the absence of the external magnetic field, the vertical plane of the circular coil must be along
the magnetic meridian. When current is passed through the circular coil, the resultant magnetic
field will be along the axis of the coil. To study the variation of magnetic field along the axis
of the circular coil the following procedure should be adopted. Rotate the wooden base in the
horizontal plane until the arms of the base are parallel to the aluminum pointer in the magnetic
compass box (i.e., arms are east and west direction) and the magnetic needle is parallel to the
vertical plane of the circular coil. In this position, the coil, magnetic needle and its image all
lie in the same vertical plane. Now, without disturbing the coil, rotate the magnetic compass
box until the ends of the aluminum pointer reads 0 – 0 on both sides of the circular scale of the
deflection magnetometer.
2. To determine the angle of deflection θ of the magnetic needle:

Connect the two terminals of he wooden base (n = 50) to the tow opposite terminals of
Commentator. A battery B, rheostat R, ammeter A and plug key K are to be connected in series
will the other two opposite terminals of the Commentator. Close the key K. As the current
flows through the coil, it behaves as a magnet with north pole on one face and south pole on
the other face. Adjust the rheostat till the aluminum pointer shows a deflection of about 600.
Note the deflections θ1 and θ2 against the ends of the aluminum pointer on the circular scale
and kept the ammeter reading constant throughout the experiment. Now, reverse the direction
of current through the coil, by means of the Commentator and again not e the deflections θ3
and θ4. If the mean deflections of the aluminum pointer before and after reversing the direction
of the current are equal, it ensures that the vertical plane of the coil lies exactly in the magnetic
meridian. If the mean deflections of the aluminum pointer before and after reversing the
direction of current are differ by more than 30, it reveals that coil is not set exactly in the
magnetic meridian. Then, slightly turn the base of the apparatus till the deflections before and
after reversal of the direction of current through the coil is equal.
Now, open the key, move the platform towards east along the scale and place it at a
distance x (say 2 cm) from the centre of the coil. Close the key and note the deflections before
43
and after reversal of the current. Find the mean of the four readings, which gives the mean
deflections θ. Repeat the experiment by placing the platform at various distances (say 4cm,
6cm, 8cm) until the deflections falls to about 300. At each position find the mean deflection.
Beyond 600, the value of θ cannot be taken accurate as Tan900 happened to be infinity.
Similarly the deflections below 300, cannot be taken as accurate as Tan00 happened to be zero.
Move the platform towards west form the centre of the coil and note the readings in
table. For the same distances as was done on east. At each position, find the mean deflection
θ.
3. To determine the radius a of the circular coil:

Take a thread of about one meter along and wind it over the circumference of the coil.
Measure the length l of the thread. Then,
Circumference of the coil, 2𝜋a = l cm
Y
Radius of the coil, a = Ei = cm.
The intensity of the magnetic field F at a point on the axis of a circular coil of n turns
and of radius a due to a current i passing through it can be calculated using the formula. The
theoretical value obtained from the formula can be compared from the value that obtained form
the formula experimentally.
GRAPH:
A graph is drawn with tan θ along y-axis and
distance x from the center of the coil along x-axis. This
graph shows the variation of the magnetic field on the
axis of a circular coil with distance. It is symmetrical
about y-axis and the magnetic field is maximum at the
centre of the coil.
44
OBSERVATIONS:
Current i = 0.2 …… amp; Number of turns in the coil, n = …100…….;
H=0.38oersted.
S.No. Position Distance Deflections Aver Tan F=H F=

magneto x 𝜃! 𝜃E 𝜃B 𝜃h age θ tan θ 𝟐 𝝅 𝒏 𝒊 𝒂𝟐
𝟑
𝟏𝟎 (𝒙𝟐 t 𝒂𝟐 ) s𝟐
meter (cm) θ
1
2 East of
3 the coil
4
5 center
6
7 West of
8 the coil
9
The values of B calculated from equations (1) and (2) should be equal.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Take the readings in the deflection magnetometer readings with out error.
2. Current in the ammeter is constant.
3. From the objects should be kept away from the coil.
4. The magnetic compass box and the coil should not be disturbed after setting the coil in
the magnetic meridian.
5. While shifting the magnetic compass box to various distances, the current should be
stopped.
45
RESULT: The variation of magnetic field with distance on the axis of a circular coil carrying
current.
S.NO. F = H tan θ 𝟐 𝝅 𝒏 𝒊 𝒂𝟐
F= 𝟑
𝟏𝟎 (𝒙𝟐 t 𝒂𝟐 ) s𝟐
Observed
1
2
3
4
5
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

1. Define magnetic field?
A The space surrounding a magnet in which its influence is felt is called its magnetic field.
2. Define magnetic meridian?
A. A vertical plane containing the magnetic axis of a freely suspended magnet is called
magnetic meridian
3. Why do we keep the ammeter and rheostat well away from the magnetic compass
box?
A. The magnetic field produced by the current passing through the rheostat and the permanent
magnetic field due to the horse-show magnet inside the ammeter will effect the readings of
the magnetic needle.
4. Why the circular coil should be set in magnetic meridian?
A. In order to keep the field produced by the coil horizontal to the plane of the coil and normal
to the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field in accordance with the tangent law.
5. What is tangent law?
A. When a magnetic needle is suspended freely in tow uniform magnetic fields of intensity F
and H at right angles to each other, then the magnetic needle is influenced by the two
perpendicular magnetic fields and it comes to rest making an angle θ with the direction of
H (Horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field). Then, the tangent of the angle θ
gives the ration of the two magnetic field intensities.
Tan θ = F/H -> F = H Tan θ
46
THICKNESS OF A PAPER - WEDGE METHOD
Expt. No: Date:
AIM:
To determine the thickness of a given paper by forming interference fringes due to a
wedge shaped air film.
APPARATUS:
Two optically plane glass plates of the same size, wooden frame, a piece of black paper,
reading lens, traveling microscope, reflecting glass plate, a paper of small thickness and a retort
stand.
FORMULA:
𝝀.𝒍
t = 𝟐𝜷 cm
Where t = Thickness of the given paper to be determined.

λ = wavelength of light used (sodium) = 5893 x 10-8 cm
𝛽 = fringe width
l = distance between the point of contact of the glass plates and the axis of
the thin paper fixed in between them.
DESCRIPTION:
The experimental arrangement is as shown in figure. Take two optically plane glass plates and
clean them with a piece of cloth. Fix the paper whose thickness is to be determined between
the two glass plates in such a way that the two glass plates touch at one end and separated at
the other end. A thin film of air or wedge (wedge shaped film) will be formed between the two
glass plates. The thickness of the air film or wedge gradually increase from the point of contact
of the two glass plates towards the other end. Now, place this set on a wooden frame (or on the
base of the traveling microscope) whose lower surface is covered with a black paper. Light
from a monochromatic source S (sodium) is allowed to incident normally on the combination
after partially reflected from a glass plate G which is inclined at an angle of 450 with the
horizontal. The ray reflected at the lower surface of the upper plate and partly from the top
surface of the lower plate interfere and produce interference fringes. As these two rays are
47
derived from the same incident ray and hence traveled over different paths, they are in a
condition to produce interference fringes. The locus of all the points having the same thickness
of air film is a straight line for different thicknesses. Thus, alternate dark and bright parallel
straight lines will be observed, which can be viewed through a microscope held vertically
above the centre of fringe system
.
PROCEDURE:
Illuminate the wedge shaped film by
sodium lamp. Adjust the glass plate G, until the
inclination is 450 with the horizontal, such that
light from the source S, after reflection from G
incident normally on the air-film. Focus the
microscope vertically above the fringe system
and adjust the cross-wire so that the fringes are
clearly seen. Move the microscope
horizontally and adjust its position so that the
vertical cross-wire coincides with one of the
fringes say, first fringe (near the point of
contact). Note the main scale reading and vernier coincidence of that fringe. Let the total
reading be r0. For convenience, treat the first fringe as 0th fringe. By counting the number
fringes, move the microscope away from the point of contact of the glass plates and adjust the
microscope so that the vertical cross-wire coincides with the 5th fringe. Then, note the M.S.R
and V.C. Let the total reading be r1. Repeat the experiment and not the observations for the
10th, 15th, 20th, 25th, and 30th fringe. While taking the observations see that the microscope is
moved always in the same direction to avoid back-lash error. Note the readings in table. The
difference between the two readings r0 and r1 gives the width of 5 frings. Find the average
width of 5 fringes. From this find the width of one fringe β. Measure the distance between the
point of contact of the two glass plates and the wire. The thickness d of the given wire can be
calculated by substituting the values of λ, l and β in formula.
48
OBSERVATION:
To determine the fringe width β: Travelling microscope
Value of one main scale division, S = 1/20 = 0.05 cm
Number of divisions on the vernier, N = 50
Least count of the vernier of the microscope, L.C = S/N = 0.001 cm
No. of M.S.R V.C b = n × T.R = a + b Width of 5 fringes

the a cm N L.C cm
fringe
Average width of the 5 fringes, x =

Average width of one fringe, β = x/5
CALCULATIONS:
l= ; λ = 5890 × 10-8 cm
β=
𝝀.𝒍
t = 𝟐𝜷 cm =
PRECATIONS:
1. The glass plates should be thin and optically plane.
2. The glass plates should be cleaned with mythilated spirit and then to be wiped with
clean cloth.
3. The paper used should be thin and uniform.
4. The vertical cross-wire should be made to coincide with the bright fringe.
5. The travelling microscope should be moved in one direction only to avoid back-lash
error.
49
RESULT:
Thickness of the paper, t =

cm.
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
1. How is a wedge-shaped film formed?

A. When a thin piece of paper or a hair is placed between two optically plane glass plates, a
thin film of air or wedge called wedge called wedge shaped film is formed. When this
film is viewed in the reflected light from a monochromatic source, the ray reflected at the
lower surface of the upper plate and partly from the top surface of the lower plate interfere
and produce, alternate dark and bright parallel, straight fringes of equal thickness.
2. Why the fringes are straight and parallel?

A. As the thickness of the film is constant only in a direction parallel to the thin edge of the
wedge, straight and parallel fringes are obtained. (or) Because the locus of all points
having the same thickness of wedge film is a straight line.
3. When the film is illuminated with white light, which type of fringes are formed?
A. Coloured fringes appear near the edge of the wedge.
4. Why the fringes are of equal thickness?

A. Because, each fringe is the locus of the pints where the thickness of the film is constant.
5. When the two glass plates are not perfectly plane, what is the nature of the fringes?
A. Fringes of unequal thickness will be formed.
6. What is the principle of this experiment?

A. Interference phenomena.
50
ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
Expt. No Date:
Aim: To study the I-V characteristics of a Zener diode, and hence determine the Knee voltage
and Breakdown voltage.
Apparatus: Zener diode, Power supply, voltmeter and ammeter.
FORMULA
The dynamic resistance of zener diode is,
RZ =∆VZ/∆IZ
∆VZ = small change in reverse voltage (from the graph)
∆IZ = small change in reverse current (from the graph )
Cut –in voltage,VO = volt (from the graph )
Break down voltage of the zener diode , VZ = volt (from the graph)
Procedure: The N-Type and P-Type sections of the given zener diode are identified. The black
band marked on the zener diode represents N-type section. The measuring electrical
instruments are checked for good working conditions. The circuit connections are made as
shown in the diagram. For every characteristic, before the circuit is closed, the potentiometer
knobs must be set to read minimum. Forward Bias The P-type section and the N-type section
of the zener diode are connected to the positive and negative terminals of the battery
respectively. The power supply is switched on and the applied forward voltage Vf is increased
in suitable steps from zero volt to a maximum of 1V and the corresponding currents through
the diode are noted. The readings are tabulated. A plot of If versus Vf is made in the first
quadrant choosing a suitable scale. Knee voltage (Vk) is calculated from the X-intercept is
obtained by extrapolating the linear portion of the curve. Reverse Bias The P-type section and
the N-type section of the zener diode are connect to the negative and positive terminals of the
battery respectively. The power supply is switched on and the applied reverse voltage Vr is
increased in suitable steps from zero volt to a maximum of 5V and the corresponding reverse
currents (Ir) through the diode are noted. The readings are tabulated. A plot of Ir Vs Vr is made
in the third quadrant choosing a suitable scale. Breakdown voltage VB is calculated from the
X-intercept is obtained by extrapolating the linear portion of the curve.
51
THEORY: ZENER DIODE
The Zener diode is a silicon crystal diode having a special reverse current characteristic. In
Zener diode as the reverse voltage applied to p-n junction Increased, a limit increases very
rapidly forms it’s cut off value and the Zener diode begins to behave like a conductor. This
limiting voltage is called the "Zener voltage" or “break down voltage” and the resulting large
current as “Zener current”.
There are two mechanisms of all breakdown in a Zener diode. According to one
mechanism, new charge carriers (i.e. electrons and holes) are liberated when thermally
acquired sufficient energy from the applied potential and break the covalent bonds. The newly
generated charge carriers further break the bonds in crystal Consequently the current increases
at a very rapid pace without increasing the applied voltage.
According to another mechanism the breakdown simultaneously exist. The breakdown
can be controlled by the amount of Impurity In the semiconductor, the nature of electrodes and
the technique employed to form the Zener diode.
In case of Zener diode both types of breakdown simultaneously exist. The breakdown
can be controlled by the amount of impurity in the semiconductor, the nature of electrodes and
the techniques employed to form the Zener diode.
Now-a-days Zener diodes having definite fixed valves of breakdown voltages are
available in the market. Due to its special breakdown characteristic Zener diodes find very
important applications as voltage regulator in D.C power supply.
Symbolic representation of Zener diode is given figure 1
CHARACTERSTICS OF ZENER DIODE

The characteristic of a Zener diode means the graph drawn between voltage applied across the
junction and the resulting circuit current as shown in figure (A)
52
FORWARD BIAS
FORWARD BIAS
i) Knob of the Potentiometer is kept fully anti-clock wise.
ii) No Switch on the unit, the voltage vfis adjusted to 0.1 volts by using potentiometer,
the milliammeter reading If is taken.
iii) By increasing the supply voltage vf in steps of 0.1 volts the corresponding value of
If is noted and tabulated.
iv) A graph is drawn taking Vf on X-axis and If on Y-axis and the curve is obtained.
REVERSE BIAS
REVERSE BIAS
i) Knob of the Potentiometer is kept fully. anti-clock wise.
ii) The voltage Vris adjusted to 1 volt by using potentiometer, the milliammeter
reading Ir is taken.
iii) By increasing the supply voltage Vr in steps of i volts the corresponding value oi Ir
is noted and tabulated.
53
iv) A graph is drawn taking VR on X-axis and IR on Y-axis and the curve is obtained.
CHARACTERSTIC
Observations
S.NO For forward biasing For reverse biasing
Voltage vf (V) Current IF (mA) Voltage VR (V) Current IR (mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
CALCULATIONS
Plot Vr – Ir graph. If feasible find the slope of these curves and hence the resistant of
semiconductor diode in as well as in reverse configuration.
RESULT
The forward and reverse bias characteristics of given ZENER DIODE are attached herewith.
PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERRORS

Connections in forward and reverse bias arrangement should be thoroughly checked and
voltmeters and milli meters of appropriate range should be connected.
Voltages applied should be well withing the safety limit of given diode.
54
ENERGY BAND GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR
Expt. No: Date: ___________
AIM:
To determine the band gap in a semiconductor using a PN junction diode.
APPARATUS:
Voltmeter, 1µA - 100 µA, Power supply, Electrically heated oven, Thermometer,
Semiconductor diode.
FORMULA:
{Y|}~ |• €•~ Y‚a~
The energy band gap is given by ∆𝐸 = ".ƒ"BC
electron - volts
THEORY:
In a semiconductor there is an energy gap between its conduction and valence band.
For conduction of electricity a certain amount of energy is to be given ti the electron so that it
goes from the valence band to the conduction band. The energy needed is the measure of the
energy gap, ΔE between two bands. When a P-N junction is reverse biased then current is due
to minority carriers whose concentration is dependent on the energy gap, ΔE. The reverse
current, Is (saturated value) is a function of the temperature of the junction diode. For small
range of temperature, the relation is expressed as
!"„
Log Is = Constant + 0.5036 ∆𝐸 D X
F
Where temperature T is in Kelvin, ΔE is in electron volts. A graph in log Is and (103/T) is

plotted which comes out to be a straight line, The slope of this line will be 5.036 ΔE, giving
the value of band gap for the semi conductor.
55
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the P (Red terminal)
and N (Black terminal) sides
of junction diode to µA block
terminal and voltmeter black
terminal and fix a
thermometer to measure the
temperature.
2. Switch on the heater and move the control knob and allow the oven temperature to
increase up to 600C.
3. As temperature reaches about 650C switch off the oven, the temperature will rise further
say about 700 and will become stable.
4. Now temperature will begin to fall. Take current and temperature readings in steps of
50 fall in temperature.
OBSERVATION:
Current Is in Temperature Temperature, 103/T Log Is

0
µA C T Kelvin Kelvin
GRAPH:
A graph is plotted between log IS on Y –
axis and 103/T on X – axis that comes out to be a
straight line. Its slope is found band gap.
CALCULATION:
Plot a graph in log Is and 103/T and find slope
56
Find ΔE =
RESULT:
Band gap for semiconductor = ………….. ev
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
1. What is diffusion? Does the reverse saturation current depend on the diffusion
coefficient of electrons and holes?
A. Where there is a variation of concentration of particles is a region of space, the particles
from the region concentration till the concentration through out the region becomes
uniform. This phenomenon is called diffusion in the p – n junction diode, the reverse
current is due to the diffusive flow of minority electrons from the p – side to the n – side
and that of minority holes from the n – side to the p – side. Hence Is depends on the
diffusion coefficients of electrons and holes.
[ˆ‰
sŠ‹X
These coefficients are incorporated in the constant A of the equation 𝐼† = 𝐴 𝑒
2. Define diffusion coefficient?
A. It is defined as the number of particles crossing unit are in unit time for unit concentration
gradient.
3. What is diffusion length?
!
A. It is the distance inside the semiconductor at which the cariers concentration drops to ~
of its value as the surface.

4. Can you mention any other method for determining the band gap Eg?
A. From study of the photoconductivity of semiconductor, one can determine Eg.
5. Why is the value of Is insensitive to the reverse bias, but is highly sensitive to
temperature changes?
A. The reverse saturation current Is is due to the minority cariers which are thermally
generated. So Is is almost unaffected by the reverse bias, but is highly sensitive to the
temperature changes.
6. How far does Is remain constant as the reverse bias is increased?
A. Till the breakdown voltage is reached.
57
WAVE LENGTH by DIFFRACTION GRATING – NORMAL INCIDENCE
Expt. No. : Date: ________
AIM:
To determine the wavelength of the given source of light using a plane transmission
grating and spectrometer in the normal incidence position.
APPARATUS:
Spectrometer, plane transmission grating, magnifying lens, spirit level and source of
light (mercury source).
FORMULA: The wave length of a given source of light is determined by using the formula,
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽
λ= 𝑵𝒏
𝑨𝟎
Where λ = wavelength of light

𝜃 = angle of diffraction
N = number of lines per cm on the grating
n = order of the spectrum
DESCRIPTION:
To set the grating for normal incidence position
Illuminate the slit of the collimator by placing the
source of light in line with the axis of the collimator. Turn
the telescope exactly opposite to the collimator. Turn the
image of slit. Reduce the width of the slit as narrow as
possible. Clamp the venire table to the prism table. Adjust
the position of the telescope, so that the vertical cross-wire
exactly coincides with the image of the slit and note the
readings on both the venires (V1 and V2). For convenience,
release the venire table and adjust the venire 1 so that 0
division of the venire 1coincides with 0 of the circular
main scale. Then zero of the venire 2 will coincides with
1800 on the circular scale, if the spectrometer is perfect. If
58
the axis of circular scale and the axis of rotation of telescope are not coinciding, then V2 will
not coincide with 1800. Then, release the telescope and rotate it exactly through 900 from the
direct reading position and fix it. At this position the axis of the collimator and telescope are
perpendicular to each other. Mount the grating on the prism table with its plane vertical and
coinciding with the centre of the prism table as well as the ruled surface the collimator. Then,
release the prism table and by looking through the telescope, rotate the prism table slowly until
the reflected image of the slit from the ruled surface of the grating exactly coincides with the
vertical cross-wire. Keeping the prism table and telescope fixed, release the venire table and
rotate it such that the ruled surface is towards the collimator exactly through 450 and clamp it.
In this position, the grating surface is vertical and perpendicular to the incident beam from the
collimator. Now, the grating is said to be have been arranged in the normal incidence position
(Fig. 1)
PROCEDURE:
Determination of the angle of diffraction θ:

After setting the grating for normal incidence
position, release the telescope and turn it to any side,
say left side of the direct image of the slit. The
diffracted images of the first and second order
spectrum are observed (Fig 2).
If mercury source is used, then the mercury
spectrum consisting of violet 1, violet2, blue green,
yellow-1, yellow-2 and red lines will be observed ( If
sodium light is used the sodium spectrum containing
D1, D2 (yellow lines), which are very close to each
other will be seen). Focus the telescope on the first
order spectrum and adjust the position of the telescope
so that the vertical lines by means of slow motion
screw. Then, fix the telescope and note the main scale
venires (V1 and V2). Let the total reading on each venire be L. Repeat the same procedure for
other spectral lines and in each case note the readings for first order spectral lines.
Similarly, move the telescope to the right side of the direct image and focus the first
order spectrum and adjust the position of the telescope until the vertical cross-wire exactly
59
coincides with the violet line. Then, note the M.S.R and V.C for the first order on the venire 1
and venire 2. Let the total reading on any venire be R. Similarly, note down the readings
corresponding to other spectral lines. The difference between the reading corresponding to any
line on left side L and right side R gives twice the angle of diffraction for the line, calculating
from the readings of both the venires for the first order . Calculate the average value of twice
the angle of diffraction. From this, find the angle of diffraction. Repeat the experiment for other
lines on first order and note the observations in table.
OBSERVATIONS:
To determine the angle of diffraction θ:
Value of one main scale division 1/2 degrees = 30’ ,
Number of divisions on the Vernier = 60
Least count of the venire, L.C = S/N = 30”
T.R = Total Reading
Telescope readings
Order Color Left side Right side Angle of Avera
of the of the T.R T.R diffractio ge
spectr line M.S.R V.C R=a+ M.S.R V.C L=a+ n angle 𝜆 =
um 2θ=L ~R of {‚a Ž
A n (n×L. a n (n×L.
•a
C) C) diffra
ction
(A0)
θ =
Venire
ŽU tŽm
h
Viole V1
t
V2
Blue V1
First V2
order
(n = Green V1
1)
V2
60
Yello V1
w-1
V2
Yello V1
w-2
V2
Red V1
V2
CALCULATIONS
First order spectrum: N = 15000LIN/INCH
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The grating should be arranged in normal incidence position.
2. Readings of both venires should be noted to eliminate the error due to non-coincidence of
the centre of the circular scale with the venire scale.
3. While taking the observation the telescope and prism table should be clamped.
RESULT:
Wavelengths for different colours are calculated and the values obtained are given in
the table.
Color of the spectral line Wavelength, 𝜆

(A0)
Violet 3804A°
Blue 4408A°
Green 4960A°
Yellow – 1 5798A°
Yellow – 2 6063A°
Red 6199A°
61
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
1. What is meant by wavefront?
A. When a wave passes through a medium, the particles of the medium vibrate. The
continuous locus of all the particles vibrating in the same phase is called the wavefront.
2. How many types of wavefronts are there? How they are formed?
A. Depending on the shape of the source of light used, there are three types of wavefronts.
i) Cylindrical wavefront is formed from a slit. (i.e., from a linear source)
ii) Plane wavefront is formed when the source is at infinity.
iii) Spherical wavefront is formed from a point source.
3. What is meant by a normal spectrum and irrational spectrum?
A. The spectrum formed by a grating is called a normal spectrum because the spectral lines
differ in angle by small amounts which are directly proportional to difference in
wavelengths i.e. d𝜃 ∝d𝜆. The spectrum formed by a prism is called irrational spectrum.
4. Why is the prism spectrum more intense than the grating spectrum?
A. In the case of a prism, all the light is concentrated only in one spectrum while in case of
grating, the incident light is diffracted in the direct image (central maximum where no
spectrum is formed).
5. How does a prismatic spectrum differ from a grating spectra?
Prism spectrum Grating spectrum

It is formed by the property of
1 dispersion It is formed by diffraction
2 The prism forms only one The grating forms no. of spectra
spectrum of different orders which are
equally situated on both sides of
the central maximum.
3 The spectrum formed is bright as The grating spectrum is not so
the entire light is used for forming bright as most of the light is
a single spectrum. used in the formation
percentage of the light utilized
in forming several spectra.
4 Deviation is least for red and Deviation is least for violet and
greatest for violet. greatest for red.
62
The spectrum formed by a prism The spectrum formed by the
depends upon the material of the grating is independent of the
5 prism. material of the grating.
6. Are the spectra of different orders of the same intensity?

A. No, the intensity is maximum in the zero order and decreases with the increase of order
of the spectra.
7. How many order of images are formed when a pane transmission grating is used.
A. It depends upon the number of rulings on the grating.
8. What will happen if the width of the clear space and the ruled space is made equal?
A. Even order spectra (2,4,6…..) will be absent.
63
DISPERSIVE POWER OF DIFFRACTION GRATING
Expt. No: Date: ___________
Aim:
Measurement of the wavelength separation of sodium D-lines using a diffraction grating and
Splitting of sodium D-lines using diffraction grating
to calculate the angular dispersive power of the grating.
Apparatus: Spectrometer, prism, diffraction grating, sodium lamp with power supply.
ve: Measurement of the wavelength separation of sodium D-lines using a
on grating and toTheory:
calculate the angular dispersive power of the grating.
The sodium spectrum is dominated by the bright doublet known as the sodium D-lines at 589.0
tus: Spectrometer,
andprism,
589.6 diffraction
nanometersgrating, sodium
as shown lamp
in Fig. 1. with power supply.
y
he sodium spectrum is dominated by the bright
known as the sodium D-lines at 589.0 and 589.6
principal maxima for each spectral wavelength are given by
(e+b) sinθ = ± mλ (1)
ters as shown in Fig. 1. Using an appropriate
Where m is the order of principal maximum and θ is the angle of diffraction.
on grating the wavelength separation of these two
Angular dispersive power:
n be determined. A schematic for diffraction The
of angular dispersive power of the grating is defined as the rate of change of angle of
light (Na-D lines) with a plane transmission
diffraction with the change in wavelength. It is obtained by differentiating Eqn. 1 and is
given by
Figure 1: Sodium D-lines
is shown in Fig. 2.
dθ m
Using an appropriate diffraction grating the wavelengthdλseparation
= of these two lines can be
(e + b) cos θ
(2)
ion Grating: determined. A schematic for diffraction of sodium

Experimental setup: light (Na-D lines) with a plane transmission
grating
ngement consisting of is
a shown in Fig. 2.
large number of parallel slits experimental
The actual of the same width
set up and
is shown in Fig. 3.
d by equal opaque spaces is known as diffraction grating. It is usually made by

quidistant, extremely close tine grooves with a diamond point on an optically
ass plate. A photographic replica of a plate made in this way is often used as a
cial transmission grating.
or N parallel slits, each with a width e and separated by an opaque space of width
diffraction pattern consists of diffraction modulated interference fringes. The
(e+b) is called the grating element and N (= 1/ (e+b)) is the number of slits per
gth, which could typically be 300 to 12000 lines per inch. For a large number of
e diffraction pattern consists of extremely sharp (practically narrow lines)
l maxima, together with weak secondary maxima in between
Figure 2: Schematic the principal
for diffraction of sodium Na-D lines Figure 3: Experimental set up
. The various principal maxima are called orders.

Procedure :
ychromatic incident light falling normally on a plane transmission grating the 64
1. Follow the support manual for spectrometer provided in the appendix for basic
dated in Dec 2017 © NISER Page 1 the vernier constant of the spectrometer.
adjustment of spectrometer. Determine
Diffraction Grating:
An arrangement consisting of a large number of parallel slits of the same width and separated
by equal opaque spaces is known as diffraction grating. It is usually made by ruling equidistant,
extremely close tine grooves with a diamond point on an optically plane glass plate. A
photographic replica of a plate made in this way is often used as a commercial transmission
grating. For N parallel slits, each with a width e and separated by an opaque space of width b,
the diffraction pattern consists of diffraction modulated interference fringes. The quantity (e+b)
is called the grating element and N (= 1/ (e+b)) is the number of slits per unit length, which
could typically be 300 to 12000 lines per inch. For a large number of slits, the diffraction pattern
consists of extremely sharp (practically narrow lines) principal maxima, together with weak
secondary maxima in between the principal maxima. The various principal maxima are called
orders.
For polychromatic incident light falling normally on a plane transmission grating the principal
maxima for each spectral wavelength are given by
(e+b) sinθ = ± mλ --- (1)
Where m is the order of principal maximum and θ is the angle of diffraction.
principal maxima for each spectral wavelength are given by

(e+b) sinθ = ± mλ (1)
Them angular
Where is the order ofdispersive power
principal maximum and θ isof
thethe
angle grating is
of diffraction. defined as the rate of change of angle of
diffraction with the change in wavelength. It is obtained by differentiating Eqn. 1 and is given
The angular dispersive power of the grating is defined as the rate of change of angle of
by with the change in wavelength. It is obtained by differentiating Eqn. 1 and is

diffraction
given by
𝑑𝜃 𝑚
dθ
=
m
= − −(2)− (2)
dλ (e + b) cos θ 𝑑𝜆 (𝑒 + 𝑏)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Experimental setup:
Experimental setup:
The actual experimental set up is shown in Fig. 3.
The actual experimental set up is shown in Fig. 3.
Figure 2: Schematic for diffraction of sodium Na-D lines Figure 3: Experimental set up
Procedure :
1. Follow the support manual for spectrometer provided in the appendix for basic
adjustment of spectrometer. Determine the vernier constant of the spectrometer. 65
2. Now remove the prism from the turntable. The next step is to adjust the grating on
the turntable so that its lines are vertical, i.e. parallel to the axis of rotation or the
Procedure :
1. Follow the support manual for spectrometer provided in the appendix for basic adjustment
of spectrometer. Determine the vernier constant of the spectrometer.
2. Now remove the prism from the turntable. The next step is to adjust the grating on the
turntable so that its lines are vertical, i.e. parallel to the axis of rotation or the turntable.
Moreover, the light from the collimator should fall normally on the grating. To achieve this,
the telescope is brought directly in line with the collimator so that the centre of the direct image
of the slit falls on the intersection of the cross-wires (without mounting the grating). In this
setting of the telescope, its vernier reading is noted; let it be φ.
3. The telescope is now turned through 90° from this position in either direction so that the
reading of the vernier becomes (φ+90°) or (φ-90°). Now the axis of telescope is at right angles
to the direction of rays of light emerging from the collimator. The telescope is clamped in this
position.
4. The grating of known grating element is then mounted on the grating holder, which is fixed
on the turntable in such a way that the ruled surface of the grating is perpendicular to the line
joining two of the leveling screws (say Q and R).
5. The table is now rotated in the proper direction till the reflected image of the slit from the
grating surface coincides with the intersection of the cross-wires of the telescope.
6. By the help of two leveling screws (Q and R), perpendicular to which grating is fixed on the
table, the image is adjusted to be symmetrical on the horizontal cross- wires. The plane of the
grating, in this setting, makes an angle of 45° with the incident rays as well as with the telescope
axis.
7. The reading of vernier is now taken and with its help, the turntable is rotated through 45 0
from this position so that the ruled surface becomes exactly normal to the incident rays. The
turntable is now firmly clamped.
66
8. The final adjustment is to set the lines of the grating exactly parallel to the axis of rotation
of the telescope. The telescope is rotated and adjusted to view the first order diffraction pattern.
The third leveling screw (P) of the prism table is now worked to get the fringes (spectral lines)
symmetrically positioned with respect to the horizontal cross-wire.
9. If this adjustment is perfect, the centers of all the spectral lines on either side of the direct
one will be found to lie on the intersection of the cross-wires as the telescope is turned to view
them one after another. The rulings on the grating are now parallel to the axis rotation of the
telescope. The grating spectrometer is now fully ready to make the measurements. Do not
disturb any of the setting of the spectrometer henceforth throughout the experiment.
10. Look through the telescope to notice the first or second order (whichever you see is
completely resolved) D lines of sodium. That means you will see two yellow lines on both
sides of the direct image (which is a single line) of the slit at the center. Note down the positions
of the cross wire for each line on one side using the two verniers on the spectrometer. Use a
torch, if needed, to read the verniers. Repeat the above step by turning the telescope to the other
side too. Determine the diffraction angle,α, for all the two spectral lines.
11. Take two sets of reading for each D-line and calculate the corresponding wavelength λ 1
and λ 2 using Eq. 1.
Observation:
Number of lines on grating = --------; Grating element = ----------; Order, m=----
Left side Right side

Vernier 1 Vernier 2 Avg.
Sodium Vernier Vernier Vernier l
Vernier2(deg) 2θ(deg) 2θ(deg) θ(deg)
doublet 1(deg) 2(deg) 1(deg)
Msr Vsr Total Msr Vsr Total Msr Vsr Total Msr Vsr Total
D1 θ1= l1 =
D2 θ2= l2 =
67
Results:
1. Calculate λ1 and λ2 and the uncertainty of the result.
2. Calculate the difference λ2 ~ λ1 and compare with the literature value.
3. Calculate the angular dispersive power.
Precautions:
1. Once the collimator and the telescope are adjusted for parallel rays, their focusing should
not be disturbed throughout the experiment.
2. Once the grating is properly adjusted on the turntable it should be locked.
3. While taking measurements at different positions of the telescope. It must always be in

locked condition.
4. While rotating the telescope arm if the vernier crosses over 0 º (360º) on the circular main
scale take the angular difference appropriately.
68
DETERMINE THE RESOLVING POWER OF GRATING
Expt. No: Date: ___________
Aim:
To determine the resolving power of a grating plate.
Apparatus:
Spectrometer, diffraction grating, mercury light source, high voltage power supply, magnifying
lens, spirit level, torch light, etc.
Formula:
Experiment: 7
Resolving power 𝑹 = 𝝀/𝚫𝝀
Aim:
Where 𝑑𝜆 =difference in wavelength of the two spectral line to be resolved and 𝜆 = mean
Determine the resolving power of grating.
wavelength. Apparatus:
Spectrometer, diffraction grating, mercury light source, high voltage power supply,
magnifying lens, spirit level, torch light, etc.
Theory: Formula used:

𝜆
The diffraction
= grating, a useful device for analysing light sources, consists of a large number
𝑑𝜆
𝜆
of equally spaced parallel=𝑑𝜆
slits. A transmission grating can be made by cutting parallel lines on
Where 𝑑𝜆 =difference in wavelength of the two spectral line to be resolved and 𝜆 =mean
a glass plate wavelength.
with a precision ruling machine. The spaces between the lines are transparent to
the light and About experiment:
hence act as separate slits. A reflection grating can be made by cutting parallel
The diffraction grating, a useful device for analyzing light sources, consists of a large
lines on the surface
number of
of aequally
reflective material.
spaced parallel The
slits.reflection of light
A transmission from can
grating the spaces
be madebetween the
by cutting
parallel lines on a glass plate with a precision ruling machine. The spaces between the lines
lines is specular, and the reflection from the lines cut into the material is diffuse. Thus, the
are transparent to the light and hence act as separate slits. A reflection grating can be
made by cutting parallel lines on the surface of a reflective material. The reflection of light
spaces between the lines act as parallel sources of reflected light, like the slits in a transmission
from the spaces between the lines is specular, and the reflection from the lines cut into the
grating. material is diffuse. Thus, the spaces between the lines act as parallel sources of reflected
light, like the slits in a transmission grating.
Procedure:
1. Telescope Calibrate Slider : This slider helps the user to change the focus of
telescope.
2. Start Button : Helps the user to start the experiment after setting the focus of
telescope. The Start Button can be activated only if the focus of the telescope is
proper. 69
3. Light Toggle Button: Helps the user to switch the lamp ON or OFF.
4. Grating Toggle Button: Helps the user to place or remove the grating.
5. Telescope Angle Slider: This slider helps the user to change the angle of telescope.
Procedure:
1.Telescope Calibrate Slider : This slider helps the user to change the focus of telescope.
2. Start Button : Helps the user to start the experiment after setting the focus of telescope. The
Start Button can be activated only if the focus of the telescope is proper.
3. Light Toggle Button: Helps the user to switch the lamp ON or OFF.
4. Grating Toggle Button: Helps the user to place or remove the grating.
5. Telescope Angle Slider: This slider helps the user to change the angle of telescope. 20
6. Vernier Angle Slider: This slider helps the user to change the angle of the Vernier.
7. Telescope Angle Slider: Helps make minute changes of the telescope angle.
8. Calibrating Telescope Button: Helps the user to calibrate the telescope after starting the
experiment, if needed.
Observation:
Order of Sr No Reading on the Reading on the Mean d in cm
Spectrum left right
Calculation:
(i) Resolving power of grating for width d1 = n.N, 𝑑1=𝑛.𝑁0=1×𝑁0
(ii) Resolving power of grating for width 𝑑2 = n.N, 𝑑1=𝑛.𝑁0=1×𝑁0 .
Precaution:
1. While setting of the spectrometer, collimator and telescope should to set for parallel rays.
2. The grating setting is very carefully.
Result:
1. The resolving power of grating is ______.
70

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PHYSICS LABORATORY

I - B.Tech, I & II Semesters

Department of Basic Science and Humanities

RAGHU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Laboratory Name : Engineering Physics / Applied Physics

Lab Code : 20PH1101(ME,CE), 20PH1102 (ECE), 20PH2102 (EEE, CSE)

Faculty In-charge : Mr. Y. Venkata Rao

Associate Professor, Dept of B. S. & H.

SALIENT FEATURES OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

Course Context and Overview:

1. Intermediate I & II year physics practical’s

1. Physics Practical manual , Lorven Publicatuions.

PEO No. Program Educational Objectives

To have the knowledge and technical skills required to be and to remain

PO No. Program Outcomes

a An ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science, and engineering

S.No Course Objectives

Course Learning Outcomes:

S.No Course Learning Outcomes

Course Transferable Outcomes:

S.No Course Transferable Outcomes

CO1 Apply the working principles of laboratory experiments in optics, mechanics, 3

MECH CIVIL ECE CSE EEE

(Any 10 of the following listed 15 experiments)

ii) Vernier Scale:

iii) Least count of an instrument (L.C):

Value of one main scale division, S

i) Pitch of the screw:

ii) Least count of the screw guage (L.C):

BACK – LASH EROR:

ADJUSTMENTS OF THE SPECTROMETER

To determine the least count of the vernier of the spectrometer:

(i.e., mass per unit length, of the thread)

2. Longitudinal mode of vibration of thread

Frequency of the Longitudinal Transverse mode Average value

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

1. What is a tuning fork?

No. MICROSCOPE READINGS Diameter

Radius of curvature of Experimental Graph

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

4. Where are the interference fringes formed?

6. Why Newton’s rings are circular?

the angular displacement (From hook’s law) so that

of inertia “I” is given by I=

Length of Wire Time for 20 oscillation Time Per one

Table – 2: To measure the radius of the disc with Vernier calipers.

Table – 3: To measure the radius of the wire with screw gauge.

Zero Error =0 Correction = 0

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Expt. No. Date: ___________

2. Stewart and Gee’s type of tangent galvanometer:

2. To determine the angle of deflection θ of the magnetic needle:

3. To determine the radius a of the circular coil:

S.No. Position Distance Deflections Aver Tan F=H F=

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Where t = Thickness of the given paper to be determined.

No. of M.S.R V.C b = n × T.R = a + b Width of 5 fringes

Average width of the 5 fringes, x =

Thickness of the paper, t =

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS