Power System Security

Power system operation and control (15EE81)
Module-5
Power System Security
What is power system security?
Power system security may be looked upon as the probability of the system’s
operating point remaining within acceptable ranges, given the probabilities of
changes in the system (contingencies) and its environment.
T.E. Dy Liacco, ”The Adaptive Reliability Control System”, IEEE Trans. PAS, Vol.
PAS-86, No.5, May 1967, PP.517.531.
Dy Liacco first pointed out in 1967 that a power system may be identified to be
operating in a number of states.
Preventive State
Restorative State ENergency State
Figure: Operating States of the Power System
Preventive state
1. The preventive state is actually the normal state. The term ‘preventive’ was
used to stress the ‘Security’ aspect of the normal operation.
2. Normal operating condition usually means that all the apparatus are running
within their prescribed limits, and all the system variables are within acceptable
ranges.
3. The system should also continue to operate ‘normally’ even in the case of
credible contingencies. The operator should ‘foresee’ such contingencies
(disturbances) and take preventive control actions (as economically as possible)
such that the system integrity and quality of power supply is maintained.
Emergency state
1. The power system enters an emergency state when some of the components
operating limits are violated; some of the states wander outside the acceptable
Dept of EEE,GMIT Bharathinagara Page 15
ranges, or when the system frequency starts to decrease.
2. The control objective in the emergency state is to relieve system stress by
appropriate actions.
3. Economic considerations become secondary at this stage.
Restorative state
1. Restorative state is the condition when some parts (or whole) of the system has
lost power.
2. The control objective in this state is to steer the system to a normal state again by
taking appropriate actions.
L. H. Fink and K. Carlsen, ”Operating under stress and strain,”IEEE Spectrum,
March, 1978
Figure: State transition diagram (Fink and Carlsen)
1. Power system operation can be described by three sets of generic equations:

one differential, and two algebraic.
2. Of the two sets of algebraic equations, one comprises of equality
constraints(E), which is the balance between generation and load demand.
3. The other set consists of inequality constraints (I) which ensure that the
various components in the system and the states (e.g. voltages and currents)
remain within safe or acceptable limits.
4. If the generation falls below certain threshold, load increases beyond some
limit, or a potentially dangerous disturbance becomes imminent, the system is
said to enter the alert state.
5. Though the equality (E) and inequality (I) constraints are still maintained,
preventive controls should be brought into action to steer the system out of
the alert state.
6. If preventive control fails, or the disturbance is reverse, the system may enter
into an emergency state, though the demand is still met by the generation, one
or more component or state violate the prescribed operation limits. Emergency
control actions should immediately be brought into action to bring the system
back to the normal state.
7. If the emergency control actions also fail, the system may enter extremis state
which is characterized by disintegration of the entire system into smaller
islands, or a complete system blackout.
8. It may take anywhere between few seconds to few minutes for a system to
enter an extreme is state from a normal state.
9. The restoration process however is very slow. It may take several hours or even
days to bring the system back to normal.
Major components of security assessment
1. System monitoring
2. Contingency analysis
3. Preventive and corrective actions
System monitoring
1. The prerequisite for security assessment of a power system is the knowledge of the
system states. Monitoring the system is therefore the first step.
2. Measurement devices dispersed throughout the system help in getting a picture of
the current operating state. The measurements can be in the form of power
injections, power flows, voltage, current, status of circuit breakers, switches,
transformer taps, generator output etc., which are telemetered to the control centre.
3. Usually a state estimator is used in the control centre to process these telemetered
data and compute the best estimates of the system states.
4. Remote control of the circuit breakers, disconnector switches, transformer taps
etc. is generally possible. The entire measurement and control system is
commonly known as
supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system.
Contingency analysis
Once the current operating state is known, the next task is the contingency
analysis. Results of contingency analysis allow the system to be operated
defensively. Major components of contingency analysis are:

1. Contingency definition
2. Contingency selection
3. Contingency evaluation
Contingency definition involves preparing a list of probable contingencies.

1. Contingency selection process consists of selecting the set of most probable
contingencies in preferred; they need to be evaluated in terms of potential risk to
the system. Usually, fast power flow solution techniques such as DC power flow
are used to quickly evaluate the risks associated with each contingency.
2. Finally, the selected contingencies are ranked in order of their security, till no
violation of operating limits is observed.
Preventive and corrective actions
Preventive and corrective actions are needed to maintain a secure operation of a system or to
bring it to a secure operating state.
1. Corrective actions such as switching of VAR compensating devices, changing

transformer taps and phase shifters etc. are mainly automatic in nature, and
involve short duration.
2. Preventive actions such as generation rescheduling involve longer time scales.
Security-constrained optimal power flow is an example of rescheduling the
generations in the system in order to ensure a secure operation.
On-line security assessment
In earlier days, security assessment in a power system was mainly offline in nature.
Predefined set of rules or nomographs were used to assist the operators in the
decision-making process.
1. However, due to the highly interconnected nature of modern power systems, and
deregulated energy market scenarios, operating conditions and even the topology of
a power system changes frequently. Off-line techniques for security assessment are
therefore no- longer reliable in modern power systems.
2. On-line security assessment techniques use near-real-time measurements from
different locations in a power system, and continuously update the security
assessment of the system.

N. Balu et.al., ”On-line power system security analysis,”Proc. of the IEEE, Vol 80, No.
2, Feb. 1992, pp. 262-280.

DC power flow

Linear sensitivity factor
Analyzing in details a large number of contingencies is a difficult task.

1. An easy (approximate) way to quickly compute any possible violation of
operating limits is the one of linear sensitivity factors.
2. Two such sensitivity factors for checking line flow violations are generation
shift factors and line outage distribution factors.
Generation shift factors:

They calculate the effect of change in generation on the line flows, as shown below:
where ali is the linearized generation shift factor for the l th line for a change in output of
i th generator; ∆fl is the MW change in power flow in the l th line; ∆Pi is the change in
generation at the i th bus.
It is assumed here that the change in generation at the i th bus is picked up by the
reference bus. The new values of power flows in each line can be found from:
flnew = flold + ali ∆Pi ; ∀l = 1, 2, . . . , L (10)
where flold is the power flow in the l th line before the i th generator went out. Assuming
Pold to be the output of the i th generator before fault, above equation can be
expressedi as,

Once the new values of flows are computed for all the lines, they are compared with
corresponding line flow limits.
Operators are ‘alarmed’ in case of any limit violations.
1. In a practical power system, due to governor actions, the loss of generation at the
bus i may be compensated by their generators throughout the system.
2. A frequently used method is to assume that the loss of generation is distributed
among participating generators in proportion to their maximum MW rating.
Therefore, the proportion of generation pickup by the jth generator is given by,
k
where Pkmax is the maximum MW rating of the kth generator; NG is the number of
participating generators; γji is the proportionality factor for pickup on generating unit j
when unit i fails.
The new line flows are then given by,
Note: It is assumed here that no unit hits its generating limit.
Line outage distribution factors

Line outage distribution factors are used to quickly check line overloading as a result
of outage of any transmission line, and are defined as follows:
where dlk is the line outage distribution factor for line l after an outage of line k; ∆fl is
the change in MW flow in line l due to the outage of line k; f old is the flow in line k
beforek its outage.The new value of line flow is given by,
Algorithm for contingency analysis

Power system state estimation

Course road map

What is state estimation?

How could the operator know the system?
The truth outlet here:

Power system state: x

The power system states are those parameters that can be used to
determine all other parameters of the power system
1. Node voltage phasor

a. Voltage magnitude Vk
b. Phase angle Θk
2. Transformer turn ratios

a. Turn ratio magnitude tkn
b. Phase shift angle φkn
3. Complex power flow
a. Active power flow Pkn, Pnk

b. Reactive power flow Qkn, Qnk
Analog measurements
1. Voltage magnitude
2. Current flow magnitude & injection
3. Active & reactive power
a. Branches & groups of branches
b. Injection at buses
c. In switches
d. In zero impedance branches
e. In branches of unknown impedance
4. Transformers

a. Magnitude of turns ratio
b. Phase shift angle of transformer
5. Synchronized phasors from
a. Phasor Measurement Unit
Network Topology Processing
Power system measurements: z

Measurement model
How to determine the states (x) given a set of measurements (z)?
z = h (x) + e
j j j
known unknown unknown
where
- x is the true state vector [V1,V2,…Vk, Θ1, Θ2,… Θk]
- z is the jth measurement

j
-h relates the jth measurement to states
j
-e is the measurement error
j
State Estimation Process

Why do we need state estimation?
Measurement correctness
1.Imperfections in
a.Current & Voltage transformer
b.Transducers
i.A/D conversions
ii.Tuning
c.RTU/IED Data storage
d.Rounding in calculations
e.Communication links
2.Result in uncertainties in the measurements
Measurement timeliness
1. Due to imperfections in SCADA system the measurements will be collected at

different points in time, time skew.
2. If several measurements are missing how long to wait for them?
3. Fortunately, not a problem during quansi-steady state.

4. State estimation is used for off-line applications
How can the states be estimated?
Approaches
1.Minimum variance metho
a. Minimize the sum of the squares of the weighted deviations of the state
calculated based on measurements from the true state
2.Maximum likelihood method
a. Maximizing the probability that the estimate equals to the

true state vector x
3.Weighted least square method (WLS)
a. Minimize the sum of the weighted squares of the estimated measurements

from the true state
Least square (Wiki)
1. "Least squares" means that the overall solution minimizes the sum of the
squares of the errors made in the results of every single equation.
2. The method of least squares is a standard approach to the approximate
solution of over determined system, i.e., sets of equations in which there
are more equations than unknowns.
3. The most important application is in data fitting.
4. Carl Friedrich Gauss is credited with developing the fundamentals of the
basis for least-squares analysis in 1795.
WLS state estimation
1. Fred Schweppe introduced state estimation to power systems in 1968.

2. He defined the state estimator as “a data processing algorithm for converting
redundant meter readings and other available information into an
estimate of the state of an electric power system”.
3. Today, state estimation is an essential part in almost every energy
management system throughout the world.

WLS state estimation model
z = h (x) + e
j j j
known unknown unknown

INTRODUCTION
Energy Management is the process of monitoring, coordinating and

controlling the generation, transmission and distribution of electrical energy. An
energy control centre utilizes the computer aided tools to monitor, control and
optimize the generation, transmission and distribution of electrical energy. The
functions of a typical control centre can be categorized into three subsystems as
shown in Figure 2.1 namely the data acquisition and processing subsystem, the
energy management / automatic generation control subsystem and the security
monitoring and control subsystem.
SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System) forms the

front end for Energy Management Systems (EMS). A simple SCADA provides the
raw data of the operating condition of the system to the control centre operators.
State Estimation forms the backbone for Energy Management System. Although
reliability remains a central issue, the need for the real time network models
becomes more important than before due to new energy market related functions
are to be added to the existing EMS. These models are based on the results yielded
by state estimation and are used in network applications such as security
monitoring, contingency analysis, optimal power flow, economic dispatch, unit
commitment, automatic generation control and economic interchange evaluation.

Data Acquisition and

Energy / Economy
Processing Subsystem
Functions Subsystem Parameter SCADA
Load Forecast Economic
Interchange Estimation
Unit Commitment
Evaluation Network
Topology
Economic State
Dispatch Automatic Estimation
Displays
Generation
Control
External
Equivalents
Security Monitoring
Optimal
Power Flow
And Control Subsystem
Security
Security Monitoring InExtremis
Dispatch Emergency Normal State
Controls Contingency Restorative
Analysis Controls
VAR
Environmental Alert State
Dispatch Preventive
Controls
Figure 2.1 Functional Diagram of Modern Energy Management

System
Important aspect of a system’s operation is obtaining a clear picture of

the state of the system. The possible states of the power system are Normal, Alert,
Emergency, InExtremis and Restorative (Kundur 2010). During a particular time
stamp, the power system would be in any one of the states. In the ‘Normal’ state,
all load and operating constraints are satisfied. The system is stable for any
foreseeable and probable contingency. In the ‘Alert’ state, all the load and
operating constraints are satisfied for the system, but not for one or more of the
possible contingencies from the list of predefined contingencies. Preventive
control actions are taken to bring the system from vulnerable operating state to a
normal secure operating state. If these preventive actions fail, then the system
moves to the ‘Emergency’ state. In case of the Emergency state, all the load
constraints are satisfied, but one or more operating constraints are violated. By
taking proper corrective control actions, the system state moves from emergency
operating state to the normal

or alert operating state. If the corrective control actions fail, the system moves to
the ‘InExtremis’ state wherein one or more load constraints and one or more
operating constraints are violated. Emergency control actions are taken which will
bring the emergency operating state to a ‘Restorative’ state. In order to bring back
the system from the ‘Restorative’ state to the normal or alert state, restorative
control actions are taken such that all operating constraints are satisfied, but one or
more loads are disconnected. All these controls are generally referred to as the
‘security controls’.
A state estimator is capable of filtering the information to provide a

more accurate picture of the status of the system. The state estimation can be
defined as a process which determines the operating state of the power system to
allow the system operator to make decisions aimed at maintaining the security of
the power system. Weighted Least Square (WLS) algorithm is normally used for
estimating the state of the system. The traditional objective of the state estimation
is to reduce measurement errors by utilizing the redundancy available in the most
measurement systems. In particular, the objectives are to reduce the variance of
the estimate and to improve the overall efficiency. The other major objectives of
traditional state estimation are (Alvarado 2001):
• Detection of erroneous measurements and bad data
• Detection of erroneous assumptions about the

system, particularly the status of switches and
breakers.
• Ability to provide information for unmetered or

unmonitored parts of the system.
• Use of redundancy in order to improve the parameters

for the electrical models of the system.

The various roles and functions of state estimation in Energy

Management System are shown in Figure 2.2 (Zhu et al 2009).
SCADA PHASOR TOPOLOGY PSEUDO
Conventional Network Old Estimates,
STATE
ESTIMATION
CONTINGENCY SECURITY OPTIMAL OTHER
Figure 2.2 Roles of State Estimation in EMS
From its limited use during 1980s to its expanded but not central role in
the operation of the system in 1990s, state estimation has now become nothing
less than the cornerstone upon which a modern control centre for a power system
is built. State estimation stands in between the real time information and power
system control and monitor applications, playing a very crucial role in the real time
power system control and operation (Zhu 2008). The SCADA data, phasor
measurement data, network model and the pseudo measurements form the input
for the power system state estimation algorithm. The applications such as
contingency analysis, security analysis, optimal power flow etc., are carried out
based on the estimates provided by the state estimator.

STATE ESTIMATION CONCEPTS
State estimation is a digital processing scheme, which provides a real

time data for many of the central control and dispatch functions in a power system.
Its purpose is to improve the dispatch of energy, system reliability and planning
capabilities by understanding the operating state of the power system. In general
the state variables in power system are the voltage magnitudes and phase angles
at all the buses except the slack bus. In order to ensure secure and economical
operation of the power systems, the operator must be aware of the exact state of
the power system at regular intervals.
Today’s complex large scale power systems require highly sophisticated

techniques for monitoring and control to maintain the system in a secure and
reliable state. There is constant need to update information about the system to be
used for security assessment, load frequency control and a host of other purposes.
In this context, two aspects of the problem stand out prominently. Firstly, it is
uneconomical and in many cases not feasible to monitor all possible information
about the power system. Secondly, the measuring and equipments that are used
are subjected to random errors, which make the data highly suspicious from the
point of view of reliability.
The main objective of state estimation in power systems is therefore to

build a complete and reliable database. Such a database is obtained by feeding the
measured data to a central real time computer, which on the basis of a prewritten
mathematical program, filters the data and extends it to cover all information
regarding the system. In short, state estimation guarantees reliable information
even if some of the measurements are inaccurate. Thus, the central task of the
state estimator is to validate the information supplied to the system operator. The
major ingredients of

state estimation are: measurement devices located at strategic points on the
system, high speed data transfer system to convey the measured information to
the control centre, a real time computer with interfacing equipment to accept and
display information and efficient estimation algorithm.
The state of a system may be defined as the minimal amount of

information that one has to know about the system in order to predict its future
evaluation. From this view point, the complex voltages in all buses in a power
system are qualified to be assigned as state variables. Specifically, for an N bus
system, taking a particular bus (preferably the swing bus) as reference, we may
assign N voltage magnitudes and (N – 1) phase angles of voltages, which are to be
called as state variables. Thus, for an N bus system, the dimension of the state
vector is (2N – 1).
The rationale behind this choice is that, knowing these variables along
with the active and reactive power injections at the N buses (real Pi and reactive Qi
at all buses except Pi at the swing bus) and system parameters it is possible to
compute all measurements pertaining to the system. When observation errors are
present the success of state estimation depends on the redundancy of observed
data. Thus, if the state variables are ‘n’ (equal 2N – 1) in number and if ‘n’ load
injections at the buses are given then the problem reduces to a load flow
calculation.
State estimation is different from load flow studies in that the number of
input variables ‘m’ should be greater than (2N – 1), the dimension of the state
vector. It is this redundant information (number of unknown variables being less
than the number of defining equations) which is to be effectively used in some form
of averaging process to filter the data. The relationships between the different
variables involved in the state estimation are explicitly given in Figure 2.3.

error v
Measurement
Physical System State Estimator
System
u X Z X̂
X - True System State Vector Z

- Measurement Vector
u - Input Vector
v - Observation Vector
X̂ - Estimated State Vector
Figure 2.3 General Block diagram - State Estimation
The basic relation between Z, X and v is given as below:
Z = h(X) + v (2.1)
where h(X) is the non-linear function of the state X.
Depending on the number of measurements made available to the

control centres, the dimension ‘m’ of the measurement vector ‘Z’ may vary.
Different measurement schemes are identified with respect to state estimation for
an N bus system with M lines.
Case i: Z1 = h1(X) + v1 (2.2)
Z1 consists of (2N - 1) load injection measurements (active and reactive).

The dimension of Z1 is (2N - 1).
Case ii: Z2 = h2(X) + v2 (2.3)
Z2 consists of load injection measurements plus voltage magnitude

measurements at N buses. The dimension of is Z2 is (3N - 1).

Case iii: Z3 = h3(X) + v3 (2.4)
Z 3 consists of measurement of active and reactive line flows at both

ends of each line. Here the dimension of Z3 is 4M, where M is the
number of lines.
Case iv: Z4 = h4(X) + v4 (2.5)
Z4 consists of measurements as in Z3 plus voltage magnitude

measurements at N buses. Dimension of Z4 is (4M+N).
Case v: Z5 = h5(X) + v5 (2.6)
Z5 consists of maximum possible measurements. It comprises of (2N-1)

load injections, N voltage magnitudes, (N-1) voltage phase angles at N
buses and 4M line flows. The dimension of Z5 is (4N+4M-1).
A reliable state estimation is essential to guarantee a reliable operation

of the power system. The reliability of the estimation depends on the number, type
and location of the measurements. The first requirement to obtain a state
estimation is the observability of the system, i.e., the available measurement set
must contain enough information to obtain an estimate of all states of the system.
Also, in order to be reliable, the state estimator must be robust to the presence of
gross errors in the measurements and must be able to cope with the loss of some
of them.
London et al (2000) have proposed a method to identify the redundancy

level of each measurement associated to an observable power system. The
proposed method identifies the critical measurements and sets of measurements
that removed from the measurement set make the power system unobservable.
The redundancy level is very important to operators in

order to guide the search for adequate reinforcement of the available measurement
set. The robustness of state estimation can be guaranteed only if the level of
redundancy of the available measurements is high enough and properly distributed
throughout the system.
In other words, the information of each state can be extracted from

different measurements in such a way that the loss of some measurement does not
affect the observability of the system or the reliability of the estimation. A measure
of the redundancy may be denoted by the redundancy factor y, which is defined as:
Dimension of Z m
y= = (2.7)
Dimension of X n
In practice the range of the redundancy factor y, has been found useful
if its value is in between 1.5 and 2.8. i.e., 1.5 ≤ y ≤ 2.8. If too low value of y is
chosen then the measurement errors are inadequately filtered. If too high y is
chosen it leads to high investment cost in data acquisition.
RECENT TRENDS IN POWER SYSTEM STATE

ESTIMATION
Many researchers have analyzed the importance of state estimation in

real time monitoring of large scale power systems. Power system state estimation
provides an estimate for all metered and unmetered quantities. The main aim of
state estimation is to filter out small errors due to model approximations and
measurement inaccuracies and to detect and identify discordant measurements
called bad data. A state estimator is designed to process the real time meter
readings and handle all the uncertainties, producing a real time reliable database,
which is a true representation of the actual system. The different perspectives
with regard to the state estimation

problem can be widely classified as various solution methodologies, state estimation
in presence of FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System) devices, state estimation
using different optimization techniques and presently state estimation with PMU
data.
Kurzyn (1983) has proposed an efficient two level hierarchical state

estimation (HSE) algorithm, suitable for real time monitoring of large scale power
systems. As a first step, state estimation is carried out simultaneously and
independently for all subsystems. In the second step, the subsystem estimators are
coordinated to find the state estimation solution. The mean error of the proposed
hierarchical state estimation algorithm is close to the error of the weighted least
square algorithm and the error of the HSE algorithm does not necessarily increase
with the increasing number of subsystems. The method is very flexible, allowing
fast state estimation. Suitability of the method and the algorithm are examined
using two 220 kV networks. Several comparisons are made with the classical and
centralized state estimation methods to illustrate the practicality of the hierarchical
method.
Power system state estimation is usually formulated as a weighted least-

squares problem and solved iteratively by the normal equations method. Gu et al
(1983) refers to the power system state estimator as the heart of the data
processing activities in the modern electric utility energy control centre. The normal
equation solution methods for finding the state variables are well known to exhibit
a tendency to be numerically unstable on some networks. As a result, long
precision arithmetic is usually employed in solving the normal equations. In
extremely ill-conditioned cases, the state estimator may fail to converge. A suitable
numerical measure of matrix conditioning has been defined and a linear analysis of
the condition of some simple measured networks is performed. It provides an
insight into the cause of ill-conditioning

in realistic networks. The technique for arriving at a compromise between the
conflicting requirements of numerical stability (good conditioning) and sparsity has
been described. Thus an analysis on the sources of ill-conditioning in the power
system state estimation problem and an alternative solution by Peters and
Wilkinson state estimator algorithm that overcomes the ill-conditioning without
losing matrix sparsity has been presented.
Allemong (2005) has commented on the various requirements for the

successful implementation of state estimation in a utility Energy Management
System. The following requirements of three basic categories of information had
been enforced.
• A redundant, reliable and accurate measurement set
• Accurate network topology, constructed from the real

time states of the switching elements
• Accurate parameters of the network elements.
Pajic (2007) has proposed improvements in Power System State

Estimation and Contingency Constrained Optimal Power Flow (CCOPF) in stochastic
multiple contingencies framework. The existing Newton Orthogonal factorization
algorithms for state estimation are too slow and too fragile numerically. A new and
more robust method that is based on Trust Region Method (TRM) has been
proposed. TRM is based on a globalization of Newton’s method which is very often
the key to the success (finding a global minimum) of the algorithm. For the first
time, TRM has been tested on the power system state estimation problem.
Li et al (2011) have reviewed the algorithms for power system state

estimation namely the least square algorithm, fast decoupled method,

orthogonal transformation algorithm, state estimation algorithm based on
measurement transformation, district coordinated algorithm, etc. The advantages
and disadvantages of each method are also reviewed.
Researchers have also focused on the usage of various linear and

evolutionary programming algorithms for solving the power system state estimation
problem. Hybrid algorithms have also been proposed for estimating the state of the
system. The meta-heuristic methods are iterative techniques that can search not
only local optimal solutions but also a global optimal solution depending on the
problem domain and time limit. In the meta-heuristic methods, the techniques
frequently applied to the state estimation problem are Genetic Algorithms (GA),
Tabu Search (TS), Evolutionary Programming (EP), Simulated Annealing (SA),
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), etc. They are general purpose search
techniques based on the principles inspired from the chromosomes and particles
observed in natural systems and populations of living beings. These methods have
the advantage of searching the solution space more thoroughly.
Gremling and Passino (2000) describes Genetic Algorithm (GA) that can
perform on-line adaptive state estimation for linear and non-linear systems. The
construction of a genetic adaptive state estimator and the way in which GA evolves
the model in a state estimator in real time are discussed. The operation and
performance of the genetic adaptive state estimator has been illustrated. The
genetic adaptive state estimator has the potential to offer higher performance for
non-linear systems compared with the other methods. Hybrid Particle Swarm
Optimization based distribution state estimation have been proposed by Naka and
Fukuyama (2001). This method considers both non-linear characteristics of the
practical equipment and actual limited measurements in distribution systems and
estimates load and distributed generation output values at each node by minimizing
difference between

measured and calculated voltages and currents. The number of calculations
involved in the PSO and the HPSO, is found to vary minimally whereas the results
indicates that HPSO generates high quality solutions compared with the PSO.
In sequential state estimation, each measurement is processed

sequentially, by avoiding matrix procedures. They work for very small networks but
not for medium to large networks. In transformation methods, the measurements
are transformed into new ‘measurements’ that are functions of the state and of the
original measurements. The functional relationships are via the network structure of
the system. The WLS formulation may be decoupled by separating the
measurement set into real and reactive power groups and by using the same
simplifying assumptions as used in the fast decoupled load flow. The use of state
estimation techniques for real world process applications of significant size is
believed to be ground breaking and the developments described allow a new
generation of applications to be considered.
STATE ESTIMATION WITH PHASOR MEASUREMENT

UNITS
Phasor measurement units are devices which by employing widely used

satellite technology offer new opportunities in power system monitoring, protection,
analysis and control. Post-disturbance analyses are much improved due to precise
snapshots of the system states, which are obtained through Global Positioning
Satellite (GPS) synchronization. Advanced protection could be implemented based
upon synchronized phasor measurements with options for improving overall system
response to catastrophic events. The estimate obtained from the phasor
measurement unit provides the current operating state of the power system which
primarily helps in maintaining the

security of the power system and for several other applications. Synchronized
Phasor Measurement Unit is a monitoring device, which was first introduced in early
1980s. It gives the real time status of the power system operating conditions, which
is required for power system analysis and control. Real time monitoring of power
systems has become possible with the advent of phasor measurement units.
Recent developments in time synchronizing techniques coupled with the

computer based measurement technique have been explained by Phadke (1993).
This provides a novel opportunity to measure the phasor and phase angle
differences in real time. Measuring systems using digital computers are introduced
in the power industry. The author gives an insight into the measurement process,
its limitations and its potentialities after the advent of computer relaying. The
importance of the phase angle in electric power engineering has been emphasized.
PMU measures voltage and current phasors in a power system, which

has higher accuracy than conventional measurements. Synchronism among phasor
measurements is achieved by sampling of voltage and current waveforms using a
common synchronizing signal from the GPS. A PMU provides time-stamped
measurements of active power, reactive power, frequency, current, voltage
magnitude, and phase angle. The time-stamped characteristic of a PMU is one of its
most innovative features which makes it useful for many other applications such as
system protection, control and stability assessment, aid topology error
identification, parameter error detection and correction and improves the accuracy
of state estimation.
With regard to the unpredictable changes in the size and

interconnections of the power system network, optimal location of the phasor
measurement units has also to be changed in order to maintain the complete

network observability. State estimation results become more accurate with the
PMU data received from the optimally located PMUs in a power system network. By
strategically locating PMUs, the effects of measurement errors can be reduced. The
principal developments in state estimation and related areas are observability
analysis, erroneous data processing, network topology processing, topology
estimation, and parameter estimation.
The first prototype of the PMU was developed and tested in Virginia
Tech in the early 1980s. The first commercial phasor measurement unit, the
Macrodyne 1690 was developed in 1991. In the late 1990s, Bonneville Power
Administration (BPA) developed a Wide Area Measurement System (WAMS), which
initiated the usage of PMUs for large scale power systems. A PMU, when placed at
a bus, can provide a highly accurate measurement of the voltage phasor at that
bus, as well as the current phasors through the incident transmission lines
(depending on the available measurement channels). The major advantages of
using Synchronized Measurement Technology (SMT) are that the measurements
from widely dispersed locations can be synchronized with respect to a Global
Positioning System clock. The voltage phase angles can be measured directly which
was so far technically infeasible and the accuracy and speed of energy
management system applications (e.g., state estimation) increase manifold.
Bai et al (2006) have proposed the process-oriented state estimation

using innovation network graph based PMUs. Process-oriented state estimation is
being carried out using all the measurements within a period of time, which can
provide characteristic states. In order to develop the new method, the operating
process is divided into several processes and sub- processes according to the
topology change. In each process or sub-process, a characteristic state is derived
which can represent the average status of this

process or sub-process. In order to compute the expected states, an expected
innovation network graph is derived. The innovation network graph has good
robustness on the topology changes in the network. Instead of dealing with the
huge measurements within the process, an innovation network graph is computed
from where the expected states of the network can be derived. IEEE 5-Bus system
is used to illustrate the effectiveness of this method.
The key factor for widespread deployment of the PMUs is to provide

appropriate penetration and redundancy of synchronized measurements. Such
widespread deployment can be achieved when integrating the PMU function with
modern microprocessor based relays for metering, fault recording and sequence of
event recording capabilities (Kasztenny 2007). Zhu and Abur (2007) revisited the
state estimation problem formulation by assuming availability of at least one
phasor measurement unit in the system. The author investigates on the
requirements to ensure robust state estimation in the presence of single PMU
errors. The requirements are verified by implementing a GPS referenced state
estimator using test systems containing one or more PMU measurements. One of
the issues faced by the state estimators is the choice of reference bus phase angle
when phase angle measurements are present. This issue is easily resolved by
eliminating the reference phase angle from the conventional formulation. This
revised formulation will yield consistent state estimation results even when any one
of the phasor measurements is in error, provided that certain redundancy
conditions are satisfied.
Kamireddy (2008) has proposed a technique in which various sensors

distributed across different parts of the electric power grid will be able to provide
measurements to the control centre operator for situational awareness of the
system. The voltage transformer, current transformer, relay

and phasor measurement units are the types of sensors for power system
monitoring. The utilities monitor the operating condition of the system by
processing the measurements received from these sensors using a state estimator.
The measurements are refined and compensated for any lost data thus providing a
snapshot of the power system. Further analysis can be done based on the most
recent data and required state of the system. The electric power grid is vulnerable
to blackouts caused by physical disturbances, human errors and external disasters.
These disturbances can also cause loss of data, sensor failure or communication
link failure. Focus is towards comparing state estimation algorithms with loss of
measurement data. Weighted Least Square (WLS), Least Absolute Value (LAV) and
Iteratively Reweighted Least Squares (IRLS) implementation of Weighted Least
Absolute Value (WLAV) algorithms are compared for state estimation with clustered
and scattered loss of data.
Chakrabarti et al (2010) have proposed a comprehensive formulation of

the hybrid state estimator incorporating conventional, as well as PMU
measurements. The performance of the state estimators is compared in terms of
the convergence properties and the variance in the estimated states. Modern PMUs
have features like frequency measurement, measurement of derived quantities
(i.e., power components, power quality related indicators, etc.,) and monitoring of
the status of substation apparatus.
The properties of state estimation problem solution can be essentially

improved owing to the new phasor measurements provided by PMU. The PMUs are
the main measurement equipments of WAMS, that allows the electric power system
state to be controlled synchronously and with high accuracy. As compared to a
standard set of measurements received from SCADA, a PMU installed at a bus can
measure voltage phases at that bus and current phases in some or all branches
adjacent to this bus depending

on capacity of communication channels. The measurements obtained from PMU can
solve a number of problems concerning low redundancy of measurements and
considerably enhance the efficiency of state estimation problem solution. The
proposed methodology (Glazunova et al 2008) of joint use of PMU and SCADA
measurements for state estimation is checked on the test network. The results
show that PMU measurements allow one to essentially enhance the efficiency of
bad data detection in measurements and increase the accuracy of the estimates
obtained.
Valverde et al (2009) have proposed a multi area state estimator based

on wide area measurements where only boundary buses are considered in the
coordination level. The power injection measurements are not used during the
coordination level thus reducing the number of states and therefore size of the
problem. Instead a set of pseudo measurements are included whenever a power
injection measurement is available in boundary buses. The proposed methodology
can be used when information regarding the surrounding boundary buses is
unavailable at the coordination level and delivers similar quality of results compared
to those obtained when including internal buses adjacent to boundary buses, but
with reduced size, computation time and complexity at the coordination level.
Ghassemian et al (2009) have proposed new implementation and testing

strategies for phasor assisted state estimation of New York State Transmission
System. Phasor measurement units with GPS synchronization was incorporated into
the data acquisition subsystem of the energy management system. The modified
state estimator was subjected to pre-field and post-field installation testing. The
pre-field installation testing was done to verify the correctness of the solution
algorithm, to identify the impact of phasor metering accuracy on the quality of
estimator solution, to show the relative effectiveness of phasor measurements with
respect to other

measurements, to identify the effect of the reference bus selection, to detect the
impact of PMUs on the state estimator convergence and to establish the minimum
clock synchronization sampling accuracy required for the PMUs. The post-field
installation tests were conducted to identify the effectiveness of the PMUs in the
state estimator solution using the real time data as well as to detect the effect of
time skewing and measurement weights on the state estimator solution.
Hoffman et al (2010) have proposed practical state estimation

techniques for primarily radial distribution networks. From their view, the smart
meter information at the customer side may not be readily usable in state
estimation, but they can be used to verify its power quality and its voltage levels.
Measurements those are inaccurate due to meter, telemetry or other types of
errors will deteriorate the state estimation if they are not detected, identified and
eliminated. Thus, bad data detection and identification in state estimation will play
a crucial role to ensure the quality of state estimation results.
Chakrabarti et al (2010) have proposed a comprehensive formulation of

the hybrid state estimator in the presence of conventional and PMU measurements
and investigated three different methods of inclusion of current measurements by
PMUs in a power system state estimator. The three possible ways of including PMU
current measurements into the conventional state estimator are given as follows:
• Current phasor magnitude and phase angle

measurement.
• Real and imaginary part of the complex current

measurement.
• Pseudo-voltage measurement with the help of current

phasor measurement and known line parameters.

The performance of the state estimator in the presence of conventional
measurements and optimally placed PMUs is evaluated in terms of convergence
characteristics and estimator accuracy. Test results on the IEEE 14-Bus and IEEE
300-Bus systems are analyzed to determine the best possible method of inclusion
of PMU current phasor measurements.
Valverde et al (2010) have proposed a constrained formulation for

hybrid state estimation of power systems. The conventional and synchrophasor
measurements are simultaneously incorporated in the estimation problem without
using any transformation of measurements. This constrained formulation makes it
possible to take advantage of information from phasor measurement unit branch
current and voltage measurements, improving the accuracy of the estimator.
Hurtgen (2008) explains that observability is a crucial factor when trying

to solve the state estimation problem. A PMU placement method based on meta-
heuristics is proposed and compared to an integer programming method. A given
PMU placement can provide full observability or redundancy. The PMU configuration
can also take into account the zero injection nodes which further reduce the
number of PMUs needed to observe the network. Finally, a method is proposed to
determine the order of the PMU placement to gradually extend the observable
area.
Jaime De La Ree et al (2010) have explained about the uses of phasor

measurements for improved monitoring, protection and control of power networks.
In the early stages these measurements were used only for the post-event
monitoring. This was due to the difficulties faced with regard to the communication
channels required for real time monitoring, control and protection application. With
the occurrence of major blackouts in many power systems around the world, the
value of data provided by PMUs has

been recognized and installation of PMUs on power transmission networks of most
major power systems have become an important current activity.
After 1996 U.S West Coast blackouts and 2003 North Eastern U.S
blackouts, the PMU monitoring has become very essential for the post-fault analysis
of the events. One of the recommendations from the United States- Canada Task
force on the 14 August 2003 blackout is to “require use of time synchronized data
recorders” at all utilities. Hence the Eastern Interconnection Phasor Project [EIPP],
now known as North American Synchrophasor Project Initiative (NASPI) was
created. The EIPP performed the first real time wide area monitoring in U.S to solve
some interesting problems such as the determination of a common phase for the
whole eastern grid. With the PMU installation cost ranging from 10 K to 70 K,
(depending on the utility, location and availability of communication channels)
placing PMUs in the optimum locations is one of first steps of a wide area
monitoring system. At present, phasor measurement units are the most widely used
Synchronized Measurement Technology based devices for power system
applications.
Optimal Placement of Phasor Measurement Units
PMUs are increasingly being used in different parts of the world as the
major technology enabler of the Wide Area Monitoring, Protection and Control
system. The general objective of these PMU installation activities is to eventually
make a transition from the conventional supervisory control and data acquisition
based measurement system to a more advanced measurement system that will
utilize synchronized measurements from geographically distant locations and
increase the situational awareness by monitoring a wide area of the power system
in real time. The optimal placement of phasor measurement units is an off-line
problem to be solved during the planning stage and the results obtained such as
number of PMUs to be installed and their locations are considered as planning data.
Several researchers have proposed algorithms for solving power system state
estimation problem using

both SCADA and PMU data. From their analyses using different test cases, it is clear
that use of the data obtained from the optimally located PMUs in a network
shortens the computer time and increases the precision of the estimate obtained.
The main purpose of optimal PMU placement problem is to minimize the

number of installed PMUs and for an n-bus system the optimization problem is
given as follows:
n (2.8)
Minimize Σw x i i
Subject to f(X) ≤ î
where X is a binary decision variable vector, whose entries are defined as: xi =
{ 1, if a PMU is installed at bus i , 0 otherwise
wi is the installation cost of the PMU at bus i.
f(X) is a vector function representing the constraints, whose entries are

non-zero if the corresponding bus voltage is solvable using the given
measurement set and zero otherwise.
î is a vector whose entries are all equal to 1.
Several test cases are considered (6-Bus, Anderson and Fouad 9-Bus,
IEEE 14, IEEE 30 and IEEE 118-Bus systems) to solve for the optimal PMU
placement using Binary Integer Linear Programming (BILP) technique. Also real
time State Electricity Board systems such as 110kV (North and South), 230kV and
400kV sub networks are considered to find the Optimal PMU placement solution.
The Spanning Tree for different test systems considered has been
obtained (Sodhi and Srivastava 2008). Multi partitioning algorithm is applied

to form various blocks from the respective spanning tree. For each block the
objective function and the constraint equations are formulated and solved using
Integer Linear Programming. The number and location of PMUs for the IEEE test
systems and the different subsystems of State Electricity network are given in Table
2.1. It shows one of the optimum feasible solutions for the PMU placement
problem.
Table 2.1 Optimal Number and Location of

PMUs
Number
Network Location of PMUs
of PMUs
6-Bus system 2 3, 4
Anderson and Fouad 9-Bus system 3 4, 7, 9
IEEE 14-Bus system 4 2, 6, 7, 9
IEEE 30-Bus system 10 1, 2, 6, 9, 10, 12, 15, 19, 25, 27
IEEE 118-Bus system 32 2, 5, 9, 11, 12, 17, 21, 24, 25, 28,
34, 37, 40, 45, 49, 52, 56, 62, 63,
68, 73, 75, 77, 80, 85, 86, 90, 94,
101, 105, 110, 114
110 KV (North) 16 6, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 20, 24, 27, 29,
32, 40, 42, 45, 47, 48
110 KV (South) 14 2, 7, 14, 15, 16, 21, 27, 28, 32, 36,
43, 44, 48, 50
230 KV 3 3, 6, 8
400 KV 10 2, 6, 9, 17, 18, 20, 26, 29, 34, 36
Fang Chen et al (2008) have proposed a reduced state estimation model

including phasor measurement units. In the proposed model, each PMU can supply
two state variables, and hence the number of unknown state variables is
decreased. If a system of N buses is configured with NA number of PMUs, the
redundancy factor is raised as follows:
y = m / (2N-1-2NA) (2.9)
Correspondingly, the capability of state estimation to detect bad data is

improved. If the state variables supplied by PMU are accurate, then the
redundancy level of the system will be higher. The ability to measure the

voltage phasors at buses directly by PMU has implications on the traditional state
estimation. It is of no doubt that direct measurement of state can improve the
observability and the accuracy of state estimation.
State estimator provides the optimal estimate of the system state based
on the received measurements and the knowledge of the network model.
Measurements may include power injections (real / reactive), power flows (real /
reactive), bus voltage magnitude, line current magnitude and current injection
magnitude. PMUs provide two other types of measurements namely, the bus
voltage phasor and branch current phasor. Depending on the type of the PMUs, the
number of channels used for measuring voltage and current phasors will vary.
Generally, it is assumed that each PMU has enough channels to record the bus
voltage phasor at its associated bus and current phasors along all branches that are
incident to that bus.
Considering the IEEE 14-Bus system and IEEE 30-Bus system, the
redundancy factors with SCADA measurements and with measured data from PMUs
are given in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Estimation of Redundancy Factor with SCADA and PMU

Measured Data
SCADA Measured Data PMU Measured Data

IEEE 14 IEEE 30
IEEE 14 IEEE 30 Bus system Bus system
Parameters
Bus system Bus system
(4 PMUs) (10 PMUs)
Number of Buses (N) 14 30 14 30
Number of state variables
27 59 27 59
(n)
Number of measurements
42 81 38 100
(Nm)
Redundancy Factor (y) 1.56 1.37 1.407 1.69

If the redundancy factor is within the range, 1.5 ≤ y ≤ 2.8, the
measurement obtained from the state estimator is more accurate with less
investment cost in data acquisition. Redundancy seeks more than observability.
Additional measurement locations are needed to increase the redundancy and
strengthen the network observability. Regardless which state estimation formulation
is used, the accuracy of state estimation solutions is dependent on the quality of
data as well as measurement configuration and redundancy. The quality of data
can be improved by using high quality metering devices and communication
systems. On the other hand, the measurement configuration needs to be well
designed to ensure robust and accurate performance of the state estimator. The
locations and types of measurements should allow the state variables of the entire
network to be calculated uniquely, i.e. the network should be observable. There
should be enough redundancy to filter the inevitable random noise associated with
the data, and to detect and eliminate bad data in the observable areas. Low
redundancy causes the state estimators to be very sensitive to the noise and also
limits the bad data detection and identification capability.
Observability
Observability analysis is a fundamental component of real time state

estimation, which checks for enough available measurement in order to estimate all
the states of the electric power system. Two methods used to determine the
system observability are the numerical observability and topological observability
based methods. The topological observability based approaches utilize the graph
theoretical concept to find the optimal locations and thus to make the system
topologically observable. The topological methods are based on whether a spanning
tree of full rank can be constructed. The numerical methods rely on whether the
measurement information gain or Jacobian matrix is of full rank. If the voltage
of a node can be measured

directly or can be calculated by other voltage phasor and current phasor, the node
is observable. For making the system topologically observable using PMUs,
following rules are followed:
• If voltage phasor and current phasor at one end of a

branch are known, voltage phasor at the other end of
the branch can be calculated using Ohm’s law
• If voltage phasor at both the ends of a branch are

known, branch current can be calculated
• If there is zero injection bus without a PMU, whose

outgoing currents are known except for one, then the
unknown outgoing current can be calculated using
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
Complete observability refers to the PMU placement scenario when the

number and location of the PMUs are sufficient to determine the complete set of
state variables of the network being considered.
In the practical power system, the time required to send the

measurement from SCADA to the control centre is about 2 seconds whereas the
measurement from PMU needs only 40 milliseconds to reach the control centre
(Xue et al 2007). There will be 50 times measurements from PMU sent to the
control centre in the interval that two measurements from SCADA were sent to the
control centre. Thus the remedial actions in case of a contingency can be carried
out more faster and effectively.
Synchronized measurement devices are being deployed in certain parts

of the world and used in applications such as system monitoring, post disturbance
analysis, monitoring of inter-area oscillations and system modelling. In North
America more than two hundred PMUs have been installed and more are in the
pipeline under the North American

Synchrophasor Initiative (NASPI). A number of utilities in the United States, Canada
and Mexico are involved in this project. Central and Western European Countries
have started using PMUs extensively. Their major focus is on developing systematic
ways for monitoring and damping of inter-area oscillations, such as the feedback
control of High-Voltage DC (HVDC) links or Static Var Compensators (SVCs) by
using the PMU measurements.
In China, the State Grid Company and manufacturers have issued the
standard on PMUs and WAMS in 2005. More than 700 PMUs are already in
operation and according to the 11th five-year plan of the power grid, all 500kV
substations and 300MW and above power plants in the Chinese power grid will
install PMUs within the next five years. Major applications that are currently in use
are the real time visualization of the system dynamics and transmission capacity,
wide area data recording and playback and monitoring of inter-area low frequency
oscillations. The other major objectives for which the work is in progress include
applications such as enhanced state estimation, on-line security assessment,
adaptive protection and emergency control.
The PowerGrid, an Indian central transmission utility is planning to

install 20 to 25 PMUs at critical buses in different regional grids. The synchronized
measurements from these PMUs will be used for model validations and for the
development of a common state estimator combining the regional state estimators.
Based on the success of this stage, more PMUs are planned to be installed to
explore different advantages of SMT and develop remedial action schemes and
System Integrity Protection Schemes (SIPSs). Similarly Brazil, Russia and other
countries are also in the development of PMU related protection and control for
their power networks (Chakrabarti et al 2009).
The beneficial impacts of PMU data on state estimation depend on PMU

measurement accuracy and calibration, the number of PMUs, PMU

locations and related SCADA data accuracy (Wu and Giri 2006). The PMU data can
improve the estimation of inaccurate active power measurements close to a PMU
substation. The wrong measurement may come from the same substation or
neighbouring substations. PMU data with high accuracy is especially effective when
the measurement has a large error. PMU data has no obvious effect on reactive
power and voltage magnitude estimations if only the phase angle measurement is
used. Phasor measurement units should be installed in substations evenly
distributed in the whole system to achieve the best performance. The location of
the reference PMU has no impact on state estimation. A single PMU can not
necessarily improve state estimation performance. PMU data from the external
areas may help operators locate the outside problem quickly and prevent cascading
events. PMU data trend analysis can detect circuit breaker or switch status changes
in the network, which may improve the topology estimation and error detection.
STATE ESTIMATION IN PRESENCE OF FACTS DEVICES
Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS), based on either voltage or

current source converters (VSC / CSC), can be used to control steady state as well
as transient performance of the power systems. Interline Power-Flow Controller
(IPFC) is a voltage source converter based FACTS controller used for series
compensation with the unique capability of power flow management among multi-
lines of a substation. IPFC was first proposed by Gyugyi in 1998 and has the
capability to equalize both real and reactive power flow between transmission lines,
transfer power from overloaded to under loaded line, compensate against reactive
voltage drop and the corresponding reactive line power. Due to these features
there is an increasing interest in the analysis of IPFC in power system state
estimation. Traditional state estimation methods without integrating FACTS devices
will not be suitable for power systems with FACTS devices embedded in the
network.

Xu and Abur (2003) presented an algorithm for State estimation of
networks embedded with FACTS devices. State estimation formulation is modified
in order to incorporate the detailed model of the Unified Power- Flow Controller
(UPFC). This necessitates the use of equality and inequality constraints that
account for the limits associated with the device operation and ratings. The
proposed algorithm by them is not only used for state estimation but also can be
used for determining the controller settings of FACTS devices for a desired
operating condition. Initially they introduced a steady state model of the Unified
Power-Flow Controller with operating and parameter limits. The issues of network
observability and bad data analysis have been discussed using the proposed state
estimation algorithm for networks embedded with FACTS devices. Simulation
results on IEEE 14-Bus and 30- Bus systems are provided to illustrate the
performance of the algorithm as a state estimator in the presence of bad data and
also as a solver for determining UPFC settings for controlling power flows in a
power system.
Qifeng et al (2000) have proposed an efficient method suitable for state

estimation embedded with FACTS devices and Multi-Terminal DC (MTDC) systems,
called as the improved sequential method. The proposed approach is sequential in
nature and exhibits good convergence characteristics compared to conventional
techniques. The variables and measurement equations of the FACTS and MTDC
systems related to the problem formulation are discussed. FACTS devices and
MTDC systems can be included in the existing state estimation algorithms and
hence the model reduces the software development efforts and maintenance costs.
Since the method is developed from the WLS gain matrix, it maintains good
convergence property as the conventional WLS method. The effectiveness of the
algorithm has been demonstrated using test systems and the results are compared
with the other state estimators.

The dynamic behaviour of two different FACTS devices namely the
Interline Power-Flow Controller and the Unified Power-Flow Controller have been
discussed by Zhang and Yokoyama (2006). The small signal model of the Interline
Power-Flow Controller is developed and validated using detailed electromagnetic
transients simulation. Using this validated model, the damping capabilities of the IPFC
and the UPFC are compared and rationalized. The IPFC’s two series branches in
contrast to the UPFC's single series branch permit more opportunities for network
segmentation. Hence, the IPFC is found to have greater potential for improving the
system's dynamic performance.
With the FACTS devices incorporated, the power flow in the

interconnected power systems can be controlled flexibly. A model for state
estimation with IPFC is introduced with power injections and the effect of IPFC on
the power flow is transferred to the lines which are connected to it. The Interline
Power-Flow Controller employs a number of dc to ac inverters in order to offer
series compensation for each line. As a new concept for the compensation and
effective power flow management, it addresses the target of compensating a
number of transmission lines at a given substation.
Generally, the Interline Power-Flow Controller is a combination of two or

more independently controllable static synchronous series compensators (SSSC)
which are solid-state voltage source converters which inject an almost sinusoidal
voltage at variable magnitude and couples via a common DC link as shown in
Figure 2.4. Conventionally, series capacitive compensation fixed, thyristor controlled
or SSSC based IPFC is employed to increase the transmittable real power over a
given line and to balance the loading of a normally encountered multi-line
transmission system. They are controlled to provide a capability to directly transfer
independent real power

between the compensated lines while maintaining the desired distribution of reactive
flow in the line (Zhang and Yokoyama 2006).
Figure 2.4 Simplified Schematic of the IPFC

Model
In the simplified schematic of IPFC model, each compensating inverters

are linked together at their dc terminals. With this scheme, in addition to providing
series reactive compensation, any inverter can be controlled to supply real power to
the common dc link from its own transmission line.
Thus, an overall surplus power can be transferred from the underutilized

lines which can be used by other lines for real power compensation. Evidently, this
arrangement maintains the overall power balance at the common dc terminal by
appropriate control action. The injection power flow IPFC model is based on the
representation of IPFC in steady-state conditions by two voltage sources, each in
series with a reactance. A conventional Newton Raphson power flow program has
been modified in order to incorporate the power injection IPFC model. The simplest
IPFC consists of two back-to-back dc to ac converters, which in a substation are
connected in series with two transmission lines via transformers and the dc
terminals of the converters are connected together via a common dc link.

An IPFC can be represented in steady-state conditions by two voltage
sources representing fundamental components of output voltage waveforms of the
two converters and impedances being the leakage reactance of the two coupling
transformers. In the two voltage source model both the voltage sources, Vser are
controllable in both magnitudes and phase angles. Vser is defined as:
Vser = r Vi ejy (2.10)
The values of r and y are defined within specified limits given by

equation (2.11). The variable r represents certain percent of the voltage magnitude
Vi at bus i.
0 ≤ r ≤ rmax and 0 ≤ y ≤ 2n (2.11)
According to the operating principle of the IPFC, the operating constraint

representing the active power exchange (Pser) among the converters via the
common dc link is given by:
Pser2 = - Pser1 (2.12)
The above equality is valid when the losses are neglected. If the IPFC is
located between nodes i, j and k in a power system, the admittance matrix is
modified by adding a reactance equivalent to Xser between nodes i and j and nodes
i and k. The Jacobian matrix is modified by addition of appropriate injection powers.
The detailed solution steps of the proposed algorithm can be summarized as:
Step 1: Input system data and telemeter measurements
Step 2: Set iteration count k = 0

Step 3: Calculate system measurements
Step 4: Initialize the state vector v(0), e(0)
Step 5: Compute Jacobin matrix H(x(k)) with IPFC
Step 6: Obtain OV(k+1) and O 0(k+1) .
V(k+1)=OV(k)+OV(k+1) , 0(k+1)=O 0(k)+O 0(k+1)
Step7: Check for convergence.
If max {|OV(k+1)| , |O0(k+1)|} > €, set k = k + 1, go to Step 4 else
go to Step 8
Step 8: Print results.
Anderson and Fouad 9-Bus system shown in Figure 2.5 has been
considered to find the estimate of the state of the system with the IPFC
incorporated in the buses 4, 5, and 6.
Figure 2.5 Anderson Fouad 9-Bus System with IPFC
The estimates of the state of the system with and without IPFC are
given in Table 2.3. The solution is found to be more accurate, the computational effort
is reduced and there is an improvement in the voltage profile of the system
considered. The tolerance assumed for convergence is 10−4.

Table 2.3 State Estimation Results for 9-Bus
System
Bus Without IPFC With IPFC

No. V/pu 6(°) V/pu 6(°)
1 1.0400 0 1.0400 0
2 1.0250 9.280 1.0256 8.817
3 1.0250 4.665 1.0250 4.043
4 1.0258 -2.217 1.0259 -2.217
5 0.9956 -3.989 0.9972 -4.306
6 1.0127 -3.687 1.0129 -4.464
7 1.0258 3.720 1.0254 3.254
8 1.0159 0.728 1.0155 0.195
9 1.0324 1.967 1.0321 1.345
The algorithm retains good convergence property as the traditional WLS

method and it possesses the main merit of extending the state estimation algorithm
including the effects of Interline Power-Flow Controller.
CONCLUSION
The significance of state estimation for proper monitoring and control of

power system operations is reviewed. This chapter is dealt with the study and
application of phasor measurements in power system state estimation. The
importance of phasor measurements in state estimation has been envisaged. The
measurements from PMU are proven to increase the observability of power systems
by strategic placement of minimal number of phasor measurement units.
Due to the increase in the complex data to be handled in a power

system there is a need for flexible and expandable information integration
environment such that the interaction with different power utilities can be

done effectively and efficiently. The deregulation policies, ever increasing load demand
and changing conditions in the topological structure of a power system have resulted in
a requirement for integration of heterogeneous legacy power system applications as
well as new applications inside and outside an electric utility organization. Thus the
architectural model to be proposed needs to allow pluging-in of new services or
upgrading existing services in a granular fashion to address the new requirements.
The utilities tend to adopt on-line based approach for power system
analysis. With this approach a real time estimation of the system state variables are
continuously updated by distributed data measurements and adopted as reference for
the solution of system state equations. This analysis if integrated with advanced tool for
dynamic loadability assessment of power equipments, leads to an improvement of the
infrastructures allowing system operators to provide more realistic operational guidance in
planning, preventive and corrective actions aimed to mitigate the effect of critical
contingencies.
Information integration and interoperability are two serious problems in

distributed systems, which mainly include communication networks and communication
protocols. For this purpose the International Electro-technical Committee (IEC)
standards are proposed. Some of these standard protocols can be used over IP-based
WANs. However, future power systems, which contain many renewable energy sources
in all voltage levels, can employ the Internet / Intranet WAN for both control and
telemeter. There are several standards available which can be applied for the control and
telemeter over Internet / Intranet WAN. The standard protocols are to be compared and
the factors for choosing the right protocol for particular purpose are to be analyzed. In
the next chapter, a generalized service oriented model, which will be customized
exclusive for power system applications, is presented.


Power System Security

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Power system operation and control (15EE81)

Power System Security

What is power system security?

Restorative State ENergency State

Figure: Operating States of the Power System

Figure: State transition diagram (Fink and Carlsen)

1. Power system operation can be described by three sets of generic equations:

Major components of security assessment

Dept of EEE,GMIT Bharathinagara Page 17

Contingency definition involves preparing a list of probable contingencies.

Preventive and corrective actions

1. Corrective actions such as switching of VAR compensating devices, changing

On-line security assessment

Dept of EEE,GMIT Bharathinagara Page 18

Dept of EEE,GMIT Bharathinagara Page 19

Dept of EEE,GMIT Bharathinagara Page 20

Linear sensitivity factor

Analyzing in details a large number of contingencies is a difficult task.

Generation shift factors:

flnew = flold + ali ∆Pi ; ∀l = 1, 2, . . . , L (10)

Dept of EEE,GMIT Bharathinagara Page 21

Note: It is assumed here that no unit hits its generating limit.

Line outage distribution factors

Algorithm for contingency analysis

Power system state estimation

Dept of EEE,GMIT Bharathinagara Page 23

What is state estimation?

The truth outlet here:

Dept of EEE,GMIT Bharathinagara Page 24

Power system state: x

1. Node voltage phasor

2. Transformer turn ratios

3. Complex power flow

a. Active power flow Pkn, Pnk

Dept of EEE,GMIT Bharathinagara Page 25

Network Topology Processing

Power system measurements: z

Dept of EEE,GMIT Bharathinagara Page 26

known unknown unknown

- x is the true state vector [V1,V2,…Vk, Θ1, Θ2,… Θk]

- z is the jth measurement

State Estimation Process

Dept of EEE,GMIT Bharathinagara Page 27

Why do we need state estimation?

a.Current & Voltage transformer

c.RTU/IED Data storage

2.Result in uncertainties in the measurements

1. Due to imperfections in SCADA system the measurements will be collected at

Dept of EEE,GMIT Bharathinagara Page 28

How can the states be estimated?

1.Minimum variance metho

2.Maximum likelihood method

a. Maximizing the probability that the estimate equals to the

a. Minimize the sum of the weighted squares of the estimated measurements

Least square (Wiki)

WLS state estimation

1. Fred Schweppe introduced state estimation to power systems in 1968.

Dept of EEE,GMIT Bharathinagara Page 29

known unknown unknown