Bilingualism and Multilingualism

Language Diversity, Language Diversity In Civil Society, Government Policies To Accommodate

Language Diversity, Evaluation Of Language Policies
A bilingual individual, generally, is someone who speaks two languages. An ideal or balanced
bilingual speaks each language as proficiently as an educated native speaker. This is often referred
to as an ideal type since few people are regarded as being able to reach this standard. Otherwise, a
bilingual may be anywhere on a continuum of skills.

Bilingualism

People use the term “bilingualism” in different ways. For some, it means an equal ability to
communicate in two languages. For others, it simply means the ability to communicate in two languages, but with
greater skills in one language. In fact, it is more common for bilingual people, even those who have been bilingual
since birth, to be somewhat "dominant" in one language

Literacy abilities may be an additional dimension to bilingualism, but they are often referred to
separately as biliteracy, leaving bilingualism to carry the weight of oral language abilities.

Bilingualism is a specific case of multilingualism, which has no ceiling on the number of languages
a speaker may dominate. The timing and sequence in which one learns each of the languages has
led to other distinctions between kinds of multilingualism.

Much of the linguistics literature, for example, identifies native language or mother tongue as a
first language, ignoring the possibility or diminishing the value of having more than one native
language or mother tongue.

Such a person is often referred to as a simultaneous bilingual, while someone who acquires the
second language after the first one is often referred to as a sequential bilingual ("early" if between
early childhood and puberty, and "late" if after puberty).

1.

Simultaneous bilingualism
: Learning two languages as "first languages". That is, a person who is a simultaneous bilingual goes from speaking
no languages at all directly to speaking two languages. Infants who are exposed to two languages from birth will
become simultaneous bilinguals.2.

Receptive bilingualism
: Being able to understand two languages but express oneself in only one. Children who had high exposure to a
second language throughout their lives, but have had little opportunity to use the language would fall in this category.
For example, many children in Chinese or Mexican immigrant households hear English on TV, in stores and so on,
but use their home language (Chinese or Spanish) in everyday communication. When they enter preschool or
kindergarten, these children are likely to make rapid progress in English because their receptive language skills in
English has been developed.
3.
Sequential bilingualism
: Learning one language after already established a first language. This is the situation for all those who become
bilingual as adults, as well as for many who became bilingual earlier in life.

The context of language acquisition leads naturally to distinguishing between "informal"

bilinguals, who acquire their languages outside of formal settings like schools, imitating the natural
processes of acquiring the mother tongue, and "formal" bilinguals, who generally learn the
language in schools or similar settings.

When these terms apply to groups, one speaks of bilingual or multilingual communities or nations.
The aggregate enumeration of the speakers in these groups (also referred to as language diversity
or demography) will often profile the number of monolingual and bilingual speakers of each
language. For example, there may be a multilingual community in which speakers are monolingual
in each of three languages. This would be rare, and the language groups would probably be isolated
from each other. More often than not, a multilingual community or nation has multilingual
individuals. If the situation involves social or political power, then a language group may be
referred to as a language minority (minority-language) group or a language majority (majority-
language) group, reflecting the power relationship to other groups in the society or political unit.

Effects of bilingualism on a child

Most of the effects of bilingualism on children have proved to be positive. For example, Raquenaud (2009)
lists the benefits of bilingualism that she found based on her own experience and research with regard to
children. The first benefit that Raquenaud (2009) mentions is that bilingualism bonds families. When
children are able to speak both of their parents' native languages, they automatically feel a lot closer to their
parents, because language is a very important part of bonding. It also keeps the children extended family
closer, because they are able to talk, for example, with their grandparents. That way the languages help
maintaining family and social relations. Bilingualism also has a positive effect on the child's academic
skills. Studies have shown that speaking two languages helps the brain to multitask, memorize and learn
new things more easily. Bilingual children also tend to be more global-minded from a young age, because
they have usually been surrounded by at least two different cultures their whole life, and that way they have
learned to understand and appreciate different cultures. One of the most important positive effects that
bilingualism has on children and their lives according to Raguenaud (2009:116) is the "competitive
advantage in the workplace" in the future. Today when the labour market has become global, it is often
required to speak a second language when applying for a job. The people that have been raised bilingual
can speak two languages fluently, which often helps them to find a job more easily than the ones who are
monolingual. Bilinguals also have better opportunities to work abroad. There are also some possible
negative effects of bilingualism on children. Fernald (2006:19-30) compares monolingual and bilingual
infants' competences of "distinguishing between the ambient language and another language they have
never been exposed to". The results are that monolingual infants distinguish characteristics of their native
language better and faster than bilingual infants. One of the reasons for these results discussed in the
research paper is that bilingual children "hear less speech in either languages than monolingual infants hear
in the single language they are exposed to" (Fernald 2006:24). However, this language delay does not last
very long, because bilingual children usually catch up to other children within a year or two.

Bilingualism: Causes, advantages, and disadvantages.

Bilingualism is the state of speaking two or more languages by a speaker or a group of speakers,
it is a sociolinguistic phenomenon that is resulted from social behaviours which affected a person’s
way of speaking, in the popular view, being bilingual equals being able to speak two languages
perfectly; this is also the approach of Bloomfield (1935: 56), who defines bilingualism as ‘the
native-like control of two languages’. Contrary to this definition which includes only ‘perfect
bilinguals’ McNamara (1967a) proposes that a bilingual is anyone who possesses a minimal
competence in only one of the four language skills in a language other than his mother tongue.

Between these two extremes we could find a whole array of definitions as, for example, the one
proposed by Titone (1972), for whom bilingualism is the individual’s capacity to speak a second
language while following the concepts, and structures of that language rather than paraphrasing
his or her mother tongue. As the years passed each scholar concerned with this discipline had his
own view which are all correct to some extent, for the world once had Monolingualism as a norm,
but things always change.

The causes of this linguistic behaviour are many, but they can be divided into four major parts;
first, the choice. Choosing to become bilingual may have personal outcomes like an interest in a
language. Because all choices are motivated, the advantage of this choice may lead to the
development of better cognitive skills, studies has shown that children who are bilingual are
generally better achievers in school than their monolinguals pairs. Being bilingual also delays
cognitive damage like Alzheimer and Aphasia. The disadvantage of bilingualism however is being
receptive bilingual, i.e. understanding two languages but being able of speak only one. More to
this as advantage is getting more chances when looking for a job, but many professions are
dominated by one language, which creates some kind of bias, as a disadvantage.

Secondly, Geography. Choice is a relatively uncommon reason for becoming bilingual. However,
Geography plays a bigger role, it may seem as a forced way of being bilingual to some extent. In
many areas of the world small regions are home to several groups speaking different languages,
and being able to function in daily life often means having to learn a second or third language. The
advantage of this is cultural diversity for each language contains a culture, but in some regions this
diversity is stigmatized, for instance in the Kabyle region in Algeria where difference of language
is enough for national problems, heated debates, and most commonly disagreements.

Thirdly, Migration. Obviously, when people move to another country, they will have to learn to
speak the dominant language of that country if they want to be functional in that society. Migration
accounts for a very large proportion of bilinguals, in fact, though many of them do not become
fluent so much as simply capable in their adopted language, and still use their native language at
home, this may cause cultural bias as a disadvantage. Not always learning a second language is
welcomed, the minority group here which are bilingual in a monolingual speech community are
often seen as different (sometimes even as a threat), a consequence of prejudice. Like the case of
Arabs in France who are not always welcomed there and seen in a bad way when using their mother
tongue which reveals their origins.
Fourthly, Religious Reasons. Some religions regard their language to be holy “Language of God,”
and even when they are practiced in new areas or when the original language has fallen into disuse,
those seeking to pursue religious studies or practice that religion must still learn the holy language,
this may result in religious bias as a disadvantage, some religions may welcome bilingualism for
spreading their religion, other religions may not. They would be praising their language and
ignoring or discriminating others nations’ languages simply for being different.

To conclude, bilingualism is the norm in the present day, and this fact may change someday, but
researchers in the field of bilingualism must be open and tolerant to the fact that all definitions
proposed by scholars concerning bilingualism whether being extreme or not are considered to be
correct, as this linguistic phenomenon is seen from different perspectives. On the other hand, as
far as advantages and disadvantages are concerned, one may conclude that the negative sides of
individual bilingualism are barely taken into account when being compared with the huge range
of positive effects. However, the case may not be the same for social bilingualism as this topic is
open to discussion.

Myths related to Bilingualism

1. Myth: Exposing children to multiple languages may cause delays in speech development.
Fact: According to BabyCenter, babies will begin to say one or two words around their first birthday.
These first words will likely be a variation of ‘mama’ or ‘dada.’ These are the same developmental
milestones as babies who learn two languages.

A bilingual toddler may speak a sentence in English, but mix in words from another language. Although it
may be harder for others to understand the child’s meaning, this does not signal that he is delayed.

By age two, a toddler’s vocabulary may consist of about 50 words. Parents of bilingual children should
include words from both languages when deciphering the total.

2. Myth: Speaking two languages may cultivate a speech disorder.

Fact: Bilingualism should never be blamed for a speech problem. This unvalidated fear should not
discourage parents from exposing their children to multiple languages. Should such an issue exist, it will
appear in both languages — not just one.

3. Myth: Learning two languages will confuse your child.

Fact: Bilingual children may mix up grammar rules, but this does not mean they are confused. They may
also use words from multiple languages in the same sentence. This is simply a normal part of bilingual
language development.

By age 4, a child will be able to understand the two languages are completely different — even though
she may blend words together in the same sentence. Eventually, however, she will learn to separate the
two languages correctly.
4. Myth: If a child is exposed to two languages, he cannot develop a strong identity.
Fact: Language is much more than a means of communication. It fosters culture, brings families together,
and helps develop a sense of community. When a child speaks to his Chinese grandparents in Mandarin
or orders ice cream in French while visiting his mother’s hometown in Quebec — these are special
moments that should be celebrated, not discouraged.

A bilingual child’s identity will stem from his unique ability to absorb multiple languages. Being bilingual
will be his identity, and there is no shame in that.

5. Myth: A child will never be fluent if she does not learn a second language when she is very young.
Fact: According to a study by Harvard University, children absorb languages best during the first three
years of age. That’s because this is a period of rapid brain development, whereby the brain retains
information deeply and easily. But despite these findings, older children and adults can still become fluent
in another language at a later age.

6. Myth: Bilingual children often have academic problems once they begin school.
Fact: Despite this popular misconception, there are many academic advantages to being bilingual. Better
problem-solving skills, multitasking ability and cognitive flexibility are all apparent in children who know
two or more languages.

In Canada, enrolment in French immersion programs has increased steadily over the years. Kids thrive
when they are in this type of academic setting — giving them a future advantage over monolingual
children. Bilingualism is an asset on post-secondary applications and for career development. For parents
who want to immerse their children in a second language, French immersion programs are an ideal start.

7. Myth: Children must be very smart to grow up bilingual.

Fact: Any child can be bilingual. No child is more ‘linguistically gifted’ than another — it all comes down
to language immersion and consistency. All kids are born ready to learn multiple methods of
communication. It simply comes down to whether you are ready to implement a change in your lifestyle
that fosters bilingualism.

Whether you decide to put your child in a French immersion program or speak to him regularly in another
language at home, young brains are wired to absorb a multitude of languages. Constant exposure and
stimulation are all a child needs to become fluent.

8. Myth: Parents must be fluent in a language if they want their child to grow up speaking it.
Fact: If you and your spouse are both monolingual, you may wonder if it’s even possible to raise your
child bilingual. Where will the child gain the exposure needed to develop a second language?
This is where parents must rely on outside sources to encourage fluency. Many immigrant families arrive
in a new country with small children, not knowing more than a few words of the dominant language. But
very quickly, their kids pick up the dominant language — even as the parents struggle to learn it.

This bilingualism is fostered through school, camp, and interaction with peers. These situations show it’s
fully possible for a child to learn another language, even if the parents do not necessarily speak it