Industrial Psychology

ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY
[Accredited with ‘A+’ Grade by NAAC (CGPA:3.64) in the Third Cycle

and Graded as Category–I University by MHRD-UGC]
(A State University Established by the Government of Tamil Nadu)
KARAIKUDI – 630 003
Directorate of Distance Education
B.Sc. (Psychology)
II - Semester
119 24
INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Authors:
Anoop Pandey, HSE Specialist, Indian Institute of Environment Health and Safety Management, New Delhi
Chudasama Dharmendra, HSE Specialist, Indian Institute of Environment Health and Safety Management, New Delhi
Units (1-2, 12)
J.S. Chandan, Retd Professor, Medgar Evers College, City University of New York
Units (3-4, 7-10)
Dr DK Bhattacharyya, Director, Camellia School of Business Management, Kolkata and Shantiniketan
Units (5, 6.0-6.2, 13)
Kavita Singh, Professor, Faculty of Management Studies, University of Delhi, Delhi
Units (6.3-6.9, 14)
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SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE
Industrial Psychology
Syllabi Mapping in Book
BLOCK I: INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR

Unit-1: Industrial psychology: Industrial psychology: Definition - Nature - Unit 1: Overview of Industrial
Scope - Objectives - Areas covered in industrial psychology Psychology
Unit-2: Contribution of industrial psychology - Basic Concepts - (Pages 1-15);
Foundations of industrial psychology. Unit 2: Contribution of
Unit-3: Individual Behaviour: Individual Behaviour: Individual Differences: Industrial Psychology
Meaning - Nature - Dimensions - Values of individual differences in industries (Pages 16-21);
Unit-4: Factors influencing Individual Behaviour: Factors influencing Unit 3: Individual Behaviour
Individual Behaviour: Personality - Learning - Ability - Perception - Attitude (Pages 22-27);
- Job Satisfaction: Factors influencing job satisfaction. Unit 4: Factors Influencing
Individual Behaviour
(Pages 28-46)
BLOCK II: MORALE AND BEHAVIOUR

Unit-5: Morale: Meaning - Types - Aspects - Characteristics of high and Unit 5: Morale
low morale - Essential requirements for high morale - Psychological (Pages 47-52);
requirements for high morale. Unit 6: Motivation
Unit-6: Motivation: Meaning of Motivation - Importance - Types - (Pages 53-86);
Motivation in industry - Monetary and non-monetary incentives. Fatigue, Unit 7: Group Behaviour
Boredom and Monotony: Meaning - Causes - Remedies. (Pages 87-107)
Unit-7: Group Behaviour: Group Behaviour: Groups: Meaning - Definition
of Group - Types - Group dynamics - Group norms - Group cohesiveness -
Advantages of group
BLOCK III: LEADERSHIP AND STRESS

Unit-8: Leadership: Definition of Leadership- Meaning - Types - Importance Unit 8: Leadership
of leadership - style of leadership- Qualities of a successful leader. (Pages 108-119);
Unit-9: Leadership Skill: Organisation of culture- Role model - Behaviour Unit 9: Leadership Skill
Adjustment- team Work-Performance- Creativity - Interpersonal Intra (Pages 120-138);
personal skill-cultural flexibility -communication -Self assessment of learning Unit 10: Stress
Unit-10: Stress: Meaning - Sources of stress - Causes of stress - Managing (Pages 139-160)
stress - Nature of stress- Stress management - Ethical dilemmas- Work
Environment Factors
BLOCK IV: LIFE AND WORKERS

Unit-11: Maladjusted Worker: Meaning - Causes of Maladjustment - Unit 11: Maladjusted Worker
Readjustment - Maladjustment worker (Pages 161-166);
Unit-12: Counselling: Meaning - Significance - Types and process - Unit 12: Counselling
Employee health, safety and security - Industrial accidents - Accident (Pages 167-195);
proneness - Prevention of accidents - Quality of Work
Unit 13: Life
Unit-13: Life: Meaning - Importance - Factors affecting quality of work life (Pages 196-201);
Unit-14: Work Motivation: Attitude of working culture -Behaviourism -Work Unit 14: Work Motivation
Place -Psychological Health (Pages 202-211)
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
BLOCK I: INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR
UNIT 1 OVERVIEW OF INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY 1-15
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Industrial Psychology: Definition, Nature and Scope
1.3 Areas Covered in Industrial Psychology
1.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
1.5 Summary
1.6 Key Words
1.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.8 Further Readings
UNIT 2 CONTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY 16-21
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Basic Concepts and Foundations
2.4 Summary
2.5 Key Words
UNIT 3 INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR 22-27
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Individual Behaviour: Overview
3.2.1 Individual Differences: Meaning, Nature, Dimensions and Values
3.4 Summary
3.5 Key Words
UNIT 4 FACTORS INFLUENCING INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR 28-46
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Factors Influencing Individual Behaviour: An Overview
4.2.1 Personality
4.2.2 Learning Ability
4.2.3 Perception
4.2.4 Attitude
4.3 Job Satisfaction: Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction
4.5 Summary
4.6 Key Words
BLOCK II: MORALE AND BEHAVIOUR

UNIT 5 MORALE 47-52
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Morale: Meaning, Types and Aspects
5.3 Characteristics of High and Low Morale and Essential
and Psychological Requirements for High Morale
5.5 Summary
5.6 Key Words
UNIT 6 MOTIVATION 53-86
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Meaning, Importance and Types of Motivation in Industry
6.3 Monetary and Non-Monetary Incentives
6.4 Fatigue, Boredom and Monotony: Meaning, Causes and Remedies
6.6 Summary
6.7 Key Words
UNIT 7 GROUP BEHAVIOUR 87-107
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Meaning, Definition and Advantages of Groups
7.3 Types of Groups
7.4 Group Dynamics
7.5 Group Norms
7.6 Group Cohesiveness
7.8 Summary
7.9 Key Words
BLOCK III: LEADERSHIP AND STRESS

UNIT 8 LEADERSHIP 108-119
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Definition, Meaning and Types of Leadership
8.3 Importance of Leadership and Qualities of a Successful Leader
8.4 Style of Leadership
8.6 Summary
8.7 Key Words
UNIT 9 LEADERSHIP SKILL 120-138
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Organization of Culture and Role Model
9.3 Behaviour Adjustment: Team Work Performance
9.4 Creativity
9.5 Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Skill and Cultural Flexibility
9.6 Self Assessment of Learning
9.8 Summary
9.9 Key Words
UNIT 10 STRESS 139-160
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Meaning of Stress
10.2.1 The General Adaptation Syndrome
10.3 Stress Responses
10.4 Basic forms of Stress: Frustration and Anxiety
10.5 Sources of Stress
10.6 Consequences of Job Stress
10.7 Managing Stress
10.8 Stress Management
10.10 Summary
10.11 Key Words
BLOCK IV: LIFE AND WORKERS

UNIT 11 MALADJUSTED WORKER 161-166
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Meaning and Causes of Maladjustment
11.3 Readjustment
11.5 Summary
11.6 Key Words
UNIT 12 COUNSELLING 167-195
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Counselling: Meaning, Significance, Types and Process
12.3 Employee Health, Safety and Security
12.4 Industrial Accidents: Accident Proneness and Prevention
12.6 Summary
12.7 Key Words
UNIT 13 LIFE 196-201
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Meaning and Importance of Quality of Work Life
13.3 Factors Affecting Quality of Work Life
13.5 Summary
13.6 Key Words
UNIT 14 WORK MOTIVATION 202-211
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Attitude of Working Culture and Behaviourism and Psychological Health
14.4 Summary
14.5 Key Words
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
Industrial psychology is a field of study that relates to the study of the behaviour
and performance of individuals in the setting of an organization. It is also called NOTES
organizational psychology since it is primarily applicable in the case of business
organizations. This field of study is quite complex as social and professional
relationships in the workplace are quite difficult to understand or work on. Industrial
psychology is a relatively new discipline that has evolved rapidly and revolutionized
the workplace within the last century.
Individuals who have adequate knowledge of industrial psychology can apply
for various positions in both the public and the private sectors. They can perform
the role of a human resource manager or officer in organizations and look after the
welfare of employees. This role expects them to work as a bridge between the
employer and employees.
This book, Industrial Psychology, has been designed keeping in mind the
self-instruction mode (SIM) format and follows a simple pattern, wherein each
unit of the book begins with the Introduction followed by the Objectives for the
topic. The content is then presented in a simple and easy-to-understand manner,
and is interspersed with Check Your Progress questions to reinforce the student’s
understanding of the topic. A list of Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises is
also provided at the end of each unit. The Summary and Key Words further act as
useful tools for students and are meant for effective recapitulation of the text.
Self-Instructional
Material 1
Overview of Industrial
Psychology
BLOCK - I
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR
NOTES
UNIT 1 OVERVIEW OF INDUSTRIAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Industrial Psychology: Definition, Nature and Scope
1.3 Areas Covered in Industrial Psychology
1.5 Summary
1.6 Key Words
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit discusses the branch of psychology known as ‘industrial psychology’.

This branch of psychology applies psychological theories and principles to
organizations/workplace. Often referred to as I-O psychology, i.e. industrial-
organizational psychology, the focus of this field is on increasing workplace
productivity and other related issues for instance, the well-being of employees,
both the physical and mental. The industrial-organizational psychologists undertake
various tasks such as studying the attitude and behaviour of the worker, evaluating
companies, and conducting leadership training. The main objective of this field of
study is to understand human behavior in the workplace and improve worker
productivity. Industrial psychologists research workplaces to find ways of increasing
worker satisfaction. These professionals design and implement workplace
procedures in order to improve employee efficiency.
Industrial psychology also functions as a means to design safe workplaces.
Industrial psychologists study the company’s operating procedures, equipment
used, and types of work performed in order to provide a safer work environment
to the employees.
1.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:

• Define industrial psychology Self-Instructional
Material 1
Overview of Industrial • Discuss the nature and scope of industrial psychology
Psychology
• Explain the objectives of industrial psychology
• Discuss the areas covered in industrial psychology
NOTES
1.2 INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY: DEFINITION,
NATURE AND SCOPE
Industrial psychology can be defined as the branch of psychology that deals with
study of the human behavior in an organization.
According to Blum (a psychologist), industrial psychology may be defined
as the simple application or for that matter the extension of psychological facts
and principles to the problems which cater to the human relations in the business
and industry.
Harrell defines industrial psychology as ‘an industrial psychology is the study
of people who are at work in the Industry or in the business’.
Industrial psychology is the branch of science that makes use of scientific
methods to study the social factors of human behaviour.
Industrial psychology makes use of experimental techniques and is therefore,
a scientific discipline. After careful observation, it makes a record of all the facts.
Once the classification of the interpreted data is performed, a final assumption is
drawn.
One can call industrial psychology factual since it designs the factual study
of behaviour besides determining behavior and even trying to find laws governing
it. These laws are universal like the situations of work and wages have an effect on
quality and also the quantity of production.
Principles of industrial psychology are very relevant in today’s times. The
reality is that a certain type of dissatisfaction and maladjustment always exists
below all labour tensions, the testing of which can be done anywhere.
Industrial psychology evaluates the cause and effect relationship.
Psychologists attempt to find out the cause and effect relationship in advertisements.
The laws of industrial psychology form predictions. Due to its nature of
looking for causal relationships that exist in human behavior, it can form predictions
associated with it also.
Harrell suggested the following, regarding the scope of psychology:
• Industrial psychology is associated with the physical aspects of the
working environment like the effect of light and the temperature on work
and safety.
• It is primarily the study of the principles and behaviour of human
relationships.
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2 Material
• Industrial psychology conducts the study on causes that lead to Overview of Industrial
Psychology
differences, disinterest, motives and attitudes which ultimately influence
the morale.
• Industrial psychology studies those factors that create the cooperation
NOTES
between the labour and the management.
The scope of industrial psychology can be understood further as follows:
• Economic, social and psychological aspects of an industry:
Industrial psychology studies the economic, social and psychological
factors of human behaviour. It also performs a study of the economic
factors and many other factors in the communal life of a worker that can
have immense psychological impact.
• Study of the physical aspects of work environment: Industrial
workers are greatly affected by the work environment. Proper work
conditions involve clean air, appropriate water arrangement for some
essential tests, lesser noise, clean environment, sufficient lighting,
appropriate sanitation, good employer and employee relationship, etc.
For example, psychological suggestions can prove to be extremely helpful
in light arrangements and even the intensity of the light, the colour of
walls, machines, floor and ceiling.
• Principles of human relationships: The competence of industrial
workers is greatly dependent on the nature of their particular relationships
with the management. The presence of trade unions that protects the
interest of the employees forbids an industrialist from fulfilling his own
desires without keeping the interests of his employees in mind. Industrial
psychology makes an attempt to discover the principles to improve
human relationships in an industry.
• Study of aptitudes and motives: It is vital to study the rules related to
the appropriate attitudes in an industrial environment. One instance of
the study that an industrial psychology performed is the Hawthorne study
in the Western Electric Company to study the influence of the attitude of
workers on the production.
• Study of the principles of mental health: The mental health or the
status of the workers is greatly affected by the work environment and
the method of their interaction with other workers. Industrial psychology
performs a study of factors that affect the mental health of a worker. It
also lays down principles for maintaining the mental health of workers.
• Study of the relations: It also studies human relations and discovers
general principles which enable the improvement of social relations of
the workers and management.
Self-Instructional
Material 3
Overview of Industrial Principles of Industrial Psychology
Psychology
Organization theory can be defined as ‘the study of structure, fine-tuning and
performance of the organization and the behavior of groups and individuals in an
NOTES organization’.
These organization theories can be classified as follows:
1. Classical organization theory
2. Neo-Classical organization theory
3. Modern organization theory
1. Classical organization theory
The Classical organization theory can be defined as ‘the beginning of systematic
study of the organization’. The Classical writers saw the organization as a machine
and human beings as the various constituents of that machine.
Some of the significant characteristics of the Classical organization theory
are as follows:
• This theory is known to maximize weakness and control.
• It lays stress on the errors being detected and their following specific
reaction.
• Stability of the employees is the primary objective of the organization.
This is made central in character and the combination of the system is
accomplished with the help of an authority and the control of central mechanism.
Classical organization theory is based on the following four precepts:
(i) Division of labour: A task is divided into various parts for ensuring
efficiency. It enables workers to specialize in a particular part of work.
This is the focal point of organization theory. The primary process of
setting up associations begins with the division of labour.
(ii) Functional process: This is the division an organization into specific
parts including the flow of authority and responsibility in the
organization.
(iii) Structure: It includes organizing tasks associated with one another
by handing over tasks, determining roles and then designing
associations between people. One can term this as a logical conclusion
of authority and responsibility at various stages in an organization.
(iv) Span of control: It indicates the number of people reporting directly
to the superiors. Thus, it indicates the number of subordinates one
superior can supervise effectively.
2. Neo-Classical organization theory
The theory makes an attempt at rectifying the errors that exist in the Classical
Self-Instructional
theory. This is based on the human relations approach.
4 Material
The significant intention of the theory are as follows: Overview of Industrial
Psychology
• An organization is usually a social system.
• Social environment of the job affects people.
• In the case of formal organizations, informal organization is also known NOTES
to exist and influence its functioning.
• Conflict exists between the organizational and individual goals which
enhances the significance of integration between these two.
• Communication is very important as it carries information related to the
working of the organization besides the feelings and emotions of the
workers.
• Team work is important for the cooperation and effective functioning of
the organization.
3. Modern organization theory
The modern organization theory depends completely on the Systems and
Contingency approach. It is the outcome of constant research and integration.
The vital constituents of this theory are as follows:
• Parts of the system with interdependency
• Linking process
• Goals of the organization
Parts of the system with interdependency
The significant parts of a system can be termed as follows:
• Individuals
• Formal organization
• Informal organization
• Physical environment where an individual works
• Reciprocal pattern of behaviour
Linking process
Every part of a system requires it to be functioning in a coordinated method to
provide a composite picture of the organization. Linking processes can be as
follows:
• Communication
• Balance
• Decision-making
Communication through action is evoked by several other parts of the system.
The different parts of the organization are held together through communication.
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Material 5
Overview of Industrial Balance refers to an equilibrating mechanism where different parts of an
Psychology
organization maintain harmonious and structured relations with one another.
Decision-making may be termed as selection which is based on certain
criteria from two or more alternatives.
NOTES
Goals of the organization
Every organization has certain goals and objectives. The goals of an organization
include growth, stability and constant interaction.
The criticism of the Classical organization theory is as follows:
• Span of control: It recommends various span of management, but
optionally an operational approach recommends that such a case does
not exist. Wider span of management is comparatively better for the
smooth working of an organization.
• Unity of command: The Classical theory states a reporting relationship
between a worker and his supervisor. However, the trend has now
undergone change and members of the organization service supervision
from various personnel in the staff.
• Structure: A conflict exists between positions in the hierarchical structure
as given in the Classical theory.
o Bureaucracy: Detailed rules and control reduce the satisfaction and
efficiency of workers.
o Scalar-functional principle: A presumption of authority, levels the
potential of the people who do not perform very well according to the
neo-Classical theory. It is simply impossible to accomplish an exact
feel of the potential to match it with authority.
Comparisons between Neo-Classical theory and Classical theory
The comparisons between Neo-Classical theory over Classical theory are as
follows:
• Flat structure: Neo-Classical theory recommends a flat structure as against
the tall organizational structure that the Classical theory suggests. These
kinds of problems are faced by those organizations that have a tall structure,
short durations of control, communication problem, a greater difference
between decision makers and implementers, instigation problems etc.
• Decentralization: Neo-Classical theory recommends decentralization in
an organization in which departmental concepts of a Classical theory are
made use of in a wider and analytical manner.
• Informal organization: This kind of organization is formed for fulfilling the
psychological requirement of its employees. This factor has been totally
ignored by Classical theory.
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6 Material
Criticisms of Neo-Classical organization theory Overview of Industrial
Psychology
The Neo-Classical organization theory has been criticized for several reasons.
These reasons are as follows:
• A disagreement of the benefits amongst different groups in the organization NOTES
that are structural in character have not been dealt with sufficiently in Neo-
Classical theory.
• Various types of structures and formats of organization stated by Neo-
Classical theory cannot be applied in all circumstances. Thus, the applications
of humanistic organizations can be limited.
• This is not a new theory. Everything that the Neo-Classical model states is
stated in the Classical model as well. The only difference is that the Neo-
Classical model is a modified version.
Criticisms of modern organization theory
The modern organization theory has been criticized for several reasons. These
reasons are as follows:
• An abstract theory: This theory was seen as being abstract. It showed
that there is an interrelation between the various parts of an organization.
However, it does not show an exact association amongst its various parts.
• Lack of a universal applicability: This theory does not offer any such
action framework that can be implemented to every kind of organization
system. It does not find any application even in smaller organizations. In
compliance with the Contingency or Situational approach, there simply
cannot be any specific management action or design that would be suitable
for every kind of situation. This specific action is one which has the suitable
internal process of an organization adjoining an external environment and
internal requirements.
Organizational Behaviour
Once can refer to an organizational behaviour (OB) as ‘a study and application of
knowledge about the way in which people, individuals and groups act in an
organization’. This is generally performed with the help of systematic approach.
This means that it gives an interpretation of the people – organization association
with regard to a complete person, an entire group, a complete organization and a
whole social system. Its objective is that of building enhanced associations by
getting human aims, organizational objectives and social objectives as well.
As the definition states, an organizational behaviour engulfs a broad range
of topics, like the human behaviour, change, leadership, teams, etc.
Self-Instructional
Material 7
Overview of Industrial Models of organizational behaviour
Psychology
There may be four extremely important models or frameworks which enable the
functioning of an organization. These models are as follows:
NOTES 1. Autocratic model: This model is based on the fact that power lies
completely with the managerial direction of authority. The employees in this
model are obedience oriented and depend on their superior. The primary
need of an employee in this model is survival. Performance result is least.
2. Custodial model: The basis of this model is financial resource. The finances
are managed by the management. The employees in this model are interested
in their security and facilities for which they depend on the organization.
The employees feel secure when their needs are fulfilled. This results in
passive cooperation.
3. Supportive model: This model is based on leadership with managerial
orientation of support. The interest of the employees in this model is job
performance and participation. The status and recognition of the employees
is decided by their needs being met. Enthusiasm and a revived motivation is
the result.
4. Collegial model: This model is based on an association with a managerial
orientation of teamwork. The orientation of the employee in this model is
towards a responsible behaviour and self-discipline. The need fulfilled is
self-actualization. Moderate enthusiasm is the outcome.
Despite there being four different models, almost no organization follows any one
model completely. This is usually a principle one, with one or more than one domain
overlapping the other model.
Social System, Culture and Individualization
A social system is a complicated set of human associations that interact in several
ways.
Within an organization, the social system involves all the people within it and
their personal association with each other and with the external world. The
behaviour of a single member may have a direct or indirect effect on others.
The social system is without any boundaries due to which there is a free
exchange of the products, concepts, culture, etc. with the environment that surrounds
it. Culture is a predictable behaviour of society encompassing the ideas, customs,
knowledge and practices. It affects human behaviour, and rarely does it enter into
their thoughts consciously.
The people depend upon the culture since it provides them with stability,
security and understanding. It also enables them to respond to a certain
circumstance. This is the reason for people fearing change. They have apprehensions
regarding the stability of the system, loss of security, no understanding of the new
Self-Instructional
8 Material
processes. Also, they will have no clue about how to react or respond to a particular Overview of Industrial
Psychology
situation.
Individualization takes place when the employees exert an influence in a
successful manner on the social system by challenging the culture.
NOTES
Fig. 1.1 An Impact of Individualization on the Organization
The chart illustrated in Figure 1.1 shows as to how individualization affects

the different organizations:
• Very little socialization and very little individualization create isolation.
• Very high socialization and a very little individualization create conformity.
• Very little socialization and very high individualization lead to rebellion.
• Most of the organizations wish to create high socialization and high
individualization for achieving a progressive environment.
This is what is needed to survive in an extremely competitive environment.
People must grow with the growth of organization but doing the right thing when
the others want to follow some easy path.
This might be a balancing act.
Individualism favours an individual is rights, the not very closely knitted
social networks, self-respect, personal rewards and careers.
Socialization or collectivism favours the group and harmony, and asks
‘What’s best for the organization?’An organization requires people to challenge,
question and experiment while still maintaining organizational culture that binds
them closely together into a social system.
Check Your Progress

1. Define industrial psychology.
2. What is organization theory?
Self-Instructional
Material 9
Psychology 1.3 AREAS COVERED IN INDUSTRIAL
PSYCHOLOGY
NOTES The applications of industrial psychology can be elaborated as follows:

1. Solution of labour problems: A conflict between the management and
workers is a very normal practice in almost all organizations. Seldom, it
may turn extremely violent resulting in the loss of money and the lives of the
management and workers as well. Industrial psychology plays a great role
during this time and can prove to be extremely helpful. It therefore studies
such conflicts thus helping solve such problems.
2. Prevention of accidents: Industrial psychology provides certain valuable
suggestions which help in the prevention of accidents. Psychologists have
thus discovered and have suggested types of machines which should be
designed, installed, arranged and operated inside a factory. The main purpose
is to prevent the occurrence of accidents in an industrial environment.
3. Attitude measurement: If the worker possesses a favourable attitude
related to his work then he is supposed to do it interestingly in an appropriate
way, or else, even the very best of conditions cannot make him to perform
his best. The study and measurement of a worker’s aptitude can be done
by help of a psychologist which is of great use for the industrialists.
4. Maintenance of morale: For maintaining a certain level of the production
and improving the quality of production, it is extremely necessary to maintain
high level of morale among the workers in the industry. A morale is influenced
by large number of psychological factors such as- the affection, freedom,
an availability of proper leadership etc. The psychologists, after carefully
studying these so-called factors may give certain valuable suggestions for
maintaining the morale.
5. Creation of proper leadership: In an industrial set up, the supervisor
should not only be the official rather he should also be capable of playing
the role of a good leader. Otherwise he will not be capable of getting the
work done from the workers properly and will also not be able to encourage
them to work hard. Thus, psychology can be of immense help in an industrial
field by charting out the qualities that are essential for a leadership and it
further explains the development of such qualities.
6. Measurement of the individual difference: Individual differences can
be solved by using wide variety of psychological tests. Thus, once again the
assistance from psychologists proves to be of immense value.
7. Study of efficiency: In any industry, all the workers don’t have the same
degree of efficiency and it’s not required also, as there may be various
kinds of functions required to be performed in an organization, requiring
Self-Instructional
10 Material
varying level of the efficiency. The psychologists help in finding out persons Overview of Industrial
Psychology
with the requisite efficiency for performing some specific kind of a function.
8. Usage of psychological tests: These days, the psychological tests are
brought into use for selecting the most qualified and capable person for a
NOTES
certain job. The important tests may be the intelligent test, interest test,
aptitude test, and personality test etc.
9. Motion and time study: The time needed to finish a specific job is not
same for the different people. In the present scenario, the time and the
motion studies are conducted in order to find out efficiency of the individuals
and the machines as well. The labor and the time are both saved by analyzing
the motion studies so as to isolate the essential movements and then to
concentrate upon them. The time study helps in economizing the time that is
spent in a certain operation.
10. Aid in an industrial training: The efficiency of the worker may be
considerably improved by giving him the proper training. The trained people
may not avoid accidents only but may also improve the quality as well as
the quantity of production, and they work better than the people who are
not trained. For this reason, various kinds of the training programmes are
now designed for different jobs with the help of the psychologists.
11. Suggestions concerning the motives: The employee motivation may be
supplied through an increase in the wages, the promotion, the praises etc. A
special study of a motivation is the one of the main tasks of a psychologist.
The psychologist finds out as to how a worker may be motivated for
improving the quality and the quantity of his production and secondly how
the workers can be prevented from going on strikes etc.
12. Study of fatigue and monotony: The psychologists conducted extensive
study for finding the causes of both the fatigue and the monotony and ways
by which they can be eliminated.
13. Vocational guidance: This involves finding out the individual capabilities
through the psychological tests and then suggesting an individual, the
profession he is best suited for. In most progressive nations, the individual is
provided such guidance regarding the various professions that he can take
up suitably and profitably.
14. Advertisement and the selling: In the industry, a psychologist’s advice is
not restricted to only suggesting the methods for improving the production.
It also extends to suggesting the methods for advertisement and selling. The
advertisement is based on the psychology of an appeal. The psychologists
after studying these so called factors, gives suggestions regarding the subject
matter and layout of an advertisement. The modern industry in addition to
this tries to make the most of these psychological ideas in selling process.
The psychologist analyses the purpose of buying and selling the things and
then gives suggestions regarding selling.
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Psychology
Check Your Progress
3. Mention two applications of industrial psychology.
NOTES 4. What influences the morale of the employees?
1.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS
1. Harrell defines industrial psychology as ‘an industrial psychology is the study

2. Organization theory can be defined as ‘the study of structure, fine-tuning
and performance of the organization and the behavior of groups and
individuals in an organization’.
3. Two applications of industrial psychology are solution of labour problems
and prevention of accidents.
4. The morale of employees is influenced by large number of psychological
factors such as the affection, freedom and availability of proper leadership.
1.5 SUMMARY
• Industrial psychology can be defined as the branch of psychology that deals

with study of the human behavior in an organization.
• According to Blum (a psychologist), industrial psychology may be defined
as the simple application or for that matter the extension of psychological
facts and principles to the problems which cater to the human relations in
the business and industry.
• Harrell defines industrial psychology as ‘an industrial psychology is the study
• Industrial psychology is the branch of science that makes use of scientific
methods to study the social factors of human behaviour.
• One can call industrial psychology factual since it designs the factual study
of behaviour besides determining behavior and even trying to find laws
governing it.
• Industrial psychology evaluates the cause and effect relationship.
Psychologists attempt to find out the cause and effect relationship in
advertisements.
• The laws of industrial psychology form predictions. Due to its nature of
looking for causal relationships that exist in human behavior, it can form
predictions associated with it also.
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• Industrial psychology is associated with the physical aspects of the working Overview of Industrial
Psychology
environment like the effect of light and the temperature on work and safety.
• It is primarily the study of the principles and behaviour of human relationships.
• Industrial psychology conducts the study on causes that lead to differences, NOTES
disinterest, motives and attitudes which ultimately influence the morale.
• Industrial psychology studies those factors that create the cooperation
between the labour and the management.
• Industrial psychology studies the economic, social and psychological factors
of human behaviour. It also performs a study of the economic factors and
many other factors in the communal life of a worker that can have immense
psychological impact.
• The competence of industrial workers is greatly dependent on the nature of
their particular relationships with the management. Industrial psychology
makes an attempt to discover the principles to improve human relationships
in an industry.
• The mental health or the status of the workers is greatly affected by the
work environment and the method of their interaction with other workers.
Industrial psychology performs a study of factors that affect the mental health
of a worker.
• Organization theory can be defined as ‘the study of structure, fine-tuning
and performance of the organization and the behavior of groups and
individuals in an organization’.
• The Classical organization theory can be defined as ‘the beginning of
systematic study of the organization’.
• Neo-Classical organization theory makes an attempt at rectifying the errors
that exist in the Classical theory. This is based on the human relations
approach.
• The modern organization theory depends completely on the Systems and
Contingency approach. It is the outcome of constant research and
integration.
• Every organization has certain goals and objectives. The goals of an
organization include growth, stability and constant interaction.
• Neo-Classical theory recommends a flat structure as against the tall
organizational structure that the Classical theory suggests.
• Neo-Classical theory recommends decentralization in an organization in
which departmental concepts of a Classical theory are made use of in a
wider and analytical manner.
• Informal organization: This kind of organization is formed for fulfilling the
psychological requirement of its employees. This factor has been totally
ignored by Classical theory.
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Overview of Industrial • A disagreement of the benefits amongst different groups in the organization
Psychology
that are structural in character have not been dealt with sufficiently in Neo-
Classical theory.
• Various types of structures and formats of organization stated by Neo-
NOTES
Classical theory cannot be applied in all circumstances. Thus, the applications
of humanistic organizations can be limited.
• This is not a new theory. Everything that the Neo-Classical model states is
stated in the Classical model as well. The only difference is that the Neo-
Classical model is a modified version.
1.6 KEY WORDS
• Psychology: It is the scientific study of the human mind and its functions,
especially those affecting behaviour in a given context.
• Neo-Classical: It is of, relating to, or constituting a revival or adaptation
of the classical especially in literature, music, art, or architecture.
• Theory: It is a supposition, or a system of ideas intended to explain
something, especially one based on general principles independent of the
thing to be explained.
1.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES
Short Answer Questions

1. State the principles of industrial psychology.
2. Write a short note on neo-classical organization theory.
3. Why was classical organization theory criticized?
4. State the applications of industrial psychology.
Long Answer Questions
1. Classify organization theories. Discuss classical and modern organization
theories in detail.
2. What is the meaning of industrial psychology? Discuss its nature and scope
in detail.
3. Compare neo-classical theory and classical theory.
4. What is organizational behaviour? Discuss its models in detail.
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1.8 FURTHER READINGS Psychology
Ghosh, P.K. 1980. Industrial Psychology. New Delhi: Himalaya Publishing House.
Randall, Ray, John Arnold, Fiona Patterson and Ivan Robertson. 2016. Work NOTES
Psychology: Understanding Human Behaviour in the Workplace.
London: Pearson.
Sharma, Ram Nath and S.S. Chandra. 2004. Advanced Industrial Psychology,
Volume 1. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Distributors.
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Contribution of
UNIT 2 CONTRIBUTION
OF INDUSTRIAL
NOTES
PSYCHOLOGY
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Basic Concepts and Foundations
2.4 Summary
2.5 Key Words
2.0 INTRODUCTION
In order to be successful and profitable, a workplace must operate smoothly and

efficiently. In businesses that lay emphasis on employee happiness and healthy, the
quality of a better life is a priority and the organizational infrastructure is strong. In
such businesses, if conflicts arise, a swift and effective resolution is provided.
Industrial psychologists receive specialized training in the science of studying
human behavior in the workplace. This training provides them with a deep
knowledge of issues that are critical to business success and a positive work
environment. These psychologists use quantitative research and evaluation methods
to apply best practices within a company and teach people how to work better.
The research conducted can be in the form of direct observation of how an individual
or a team functions in a work place or can be in the form of a survey designed to
identify issues affecting workplace behavior. This research is significantly aimed at
increasing employee productivity, increasing overall workplace quality, or getting
to the root of a work-related issue that is interfering with performance and other
such processes.
2.1 OBJECTIVES

• Explain the basic concepts and foundations
• Discuss the causes of individual differences
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Contribution of
2.2 BASIC CONCEPTS AND FOUNDATIONS Industrial Psychology
Skinner says that, ‘In today’s time we think of individual differences as a measurable
aspect of an entire personality’. The definition makes it very clear that industrial NOTES
psychology understands each aspect of the human personality. Various individuals
show dissimilarities in physical and mental growth, nature, rate of learning, potential,
interest, personality, etc.
Types of individual differences
• Average intelligence: Certain differences exist among individuals because
of their level of intelligence.
• Particular skills: Individual differences connected to particular skills are
vital since certain professions need some types of specific skills.
• Difference associated with background: The existing difference in the
working environment is an outcome of the various facilities and communities
to which the people belong.
• Alacrity in learning: A difference in eagerness of learning is evident amongst
the individuals. It is also dependent on the maturity and the educational
background.
• Differences in sex: A study reveals the sources of difference between
man and woman, which are as follows:
(i) A woman displays enhanced skills when making differentiating sensory
things like taste, smell etc. On the other hand, man displays more
skills when size and weight judgments have to be made.
(ii) The handwriting of a female is far better than that of a male whereas a
man is more logical.
(iii) A man commits three times the mistakes committed by a woman when
speaking.
• Nationality: The study of this factor results in the conclusion that various
nations are different with respect to nature as well.
• Economic situation: Economic differences create differences in the interests,
are character of individuals as well.
• Difference in personality: Terman categorized people in nine classes on
the basis of their intelligence. These nine classes are as follows:
1. Genius
2. Nearly genius
3. Superior intelligence
4. Superior
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Contribution of 5. Average
6. Backward
7. Feeble-minded
NOTES 8. Dull
9. Idiot
Causes of individual differences
There are certain individual variables which lead to individual differences. Situational
variables also cause individual differences.
1. Individual variables
Individual variables are as follows:
(i) Age
(ii) Physical development
(iii) Heredity
(iv) Sentiments of personality
(v) Effect of rakes
(vi) Effect of nation
(vii) Intelligence
(viii) Emotional stability
(ix) Temperament
(x) Differences related to learning
(xi) Cultural background
(xii) Attitude
2. Situational variables
Such variables are again categorized into job variables and organizational variables.
On the basis of the two, the individuals may be divided into the following:
(i) Rational – economic man: A rational – economic man is one who strives
to make contributions for the maximization of economic interest. The features
of this individual are as follows:
• He is motivated by economic incentives.
• He can be motivated by financial motivation techniques.
• He believes on the Classical organizational team.
• His productivity increases when all his primary economic and financial
requirements are met.
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(ii) Social man: The characteristics of a social man are as follows: Contribution of
• A social man is a part of the society.
• His activities are influenced by social forces.
• This man values social relationships more than the economic motives of NOTES
his own.
• He obeys the orders of the management.
(iii) Organization man: William H. White defined the organization man as the
one ‘who sacrifices his individuality for the sake of group and organization
as well’. This kind of man has a firm belief in faithfulness towards an
organization besides co-operation with his co-workers. The characteristics
of this man are as follows:
• The individual contributes towards the production of ‘whole’ which is
more than the sum of each of its parts.
• A sense of belonging is the eventual requirement for this individual.
• The eventual assumption is that the organization cares for the interests
of an individual and therefore there must not be any kind of disagreement
between the organization and the individual.
(iv) Self-actualizing man: The features of a self-actualizing man are as follows:
• This man undergoes change from immaturity to maturity while he self-
actuates himself resulting in the requirement for several modifications.
• This man is generally self-motivated and self-contented. Thus, any
incentive or control forced on him externally will fail to intimidate him.
• A conflict between a self-actualizing man and the formal organization
often exists as the organization does not permit him fulfill his self-
actualization needs.
(v) Complex man: A complex man displays the following characteristics:
• The complex variables motivate this man.
• This man can learn the various objectives as a result of his interaction
with the organization.
Check Your Progress

1. Mention one factor that result in individual differences.
2. How did Terman categorize people?
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Contribution of
Industrial Psychology 2.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS
NOTES 1. Different average intelligence leads to individual differences.

2. Terman categorized people in nine classes on the basis of their intelligence.
2.4 SUMMARY
• Skinner says that, ‘In today’s time we think of individual differences as a

measurable aspect of an entire personality’.
• Various individuals show dissimilarities in physical and mental growth, nature,
rate of learning, potential, interest, personality, etc.
• Certain differences exist among individuals because of their level of
intelligence.
• The existing difference in the working environment is an outcome of the
various facilities and communities to which the people belong.
• A difference in eagerness of learning is evident amongst the individuals. It is
also dependent on the maturity and the educational background.
• Economic differences create differences in the interests, are character of
individuals as well.
• Terman categorized people in nine classes on the basis of their intelligence.
• There are certain individual variables which lead to individual differences.
Situational variables also cause individual differences.
• A rational – economic man is one who strives to make contributions for the
maximization of economic interest.
• William H. White defined the organization man as the one ‘who sacrifices
his individuality for the sake of group and organization as well’.
2.5 KEY WORDS
• Self-actualization: It is the realization or fulfilment of one’s talents and

potentialities, especially considered as a drive or need present in everyone.
• Variable: It is an element, feature, or factor that is liable to vary or change.
• Heredity: It refers to the passing on of physical or mental characteristics
genetically from one generation to another.
• Personality: It is the combination of characteristics or qualities that form
an individual’s distinctive character.
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Contribution of
2.6 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND Industrial Psychology
EXERCISES
Short Answer Questions NOTES
1. Describe the various types of individual differences.

2. What do you understand by situational variables?
1. What are the causes of individual differences? Discuss in detail.
2.7 FURTHER READINGS
Randall, Ray, John Arnold, Fiona Patterson and Ivan Robertson. 2016. Work
London: Pearson.
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Material 21
UNIT 3 INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR

NOTES Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Individual Behaviour: Overview
3.4 Summary
3.5 Key Words
3.0 INTRODUCTION
It is a known fact that no two individuals are exactly the same in terms of personality
or behaviour. Each individual reacts to a common situation in various different
ways. A lot of external and internal factors influence this behaviour which is displayed
by individuals at home and at work place.
It has been established that certain characteristics of behaviour are genetic
in nature and human beings inherit a certain degree of similarity to other individuals,
as well as uniqueness in the form of genes and chromosomes. Some of the
characteristics such as physical traits including physical height, slimness, dexterity,
intellectual capacity and the ability to learn and logicalize are all inherited and have
a wide impact on behavioural patterns. In this unit, you will study about individual
behaviour in depth.
3.1 OBJECTIVES

• Explain the meaning of individual behaviour
• Discuss the meaning and nature of individual differences
3.2 INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR: OVERVIEW
According to R.S. Dwivedi, the structures of the nervous system play a significant
part in the emerging pattern of behaviour thus bringing about the integration of
human behaviour and personality. Some psychologists believe that some aspects
of human behaviour can be explained in terms of neural activity and neuro-
physiological processes. Dwivedi further explains:
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‘Integration of human behaviour takes place because of the constant Individual Behaviour
functioning of receptors, effectors and connectors. Here the nervous system is

primarily involved in the connecting process. The numerous receptor cells attached
to the individual’s sense organs tend to convert physical and chemical events from
the environment into neural events while the several effector cells attached to the NOTES
muscles and glands convert these neural events into responses’.
These responses result in behavioural activity ranging from simple reflex
action to the complex creative activity.
In this section we study how ability, which includes intelligence and other biological
characteristics such as age, gender and race influence the performance and job
satisfaction of employees.
Ability
This can be defined as the individual’s capacity to perform the tasks he has been
given. Abilities can be divided into intellectual abilities and physical abilities.
Intellectual abilities
• There are the abilities required to perform mental tasks.
• IQ tests such as SAT, GMAT are designed to ascertain intellectual levels
for college admissions.
• Jobs differ in the requirement of intellectual abilities. For example, the more
information sharing needs in a job, the more intelligence and verbal abilities
will be required.
• New research focuses on ‘multiple intelligences’ which breaks down
intelligence into four sub parts of - cognitive, social, emotional and cultural.
• The various dimensions of intellectual ability are number aptitude, verbal
comprehension, perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning,
spatial visualization and memory.
Physical Abilities
• These abilities require the capacity to do tasks which demand stamina,
dexterity and strength.
• Physical strength can be ascertained or tested with the bodily requirements
of the task.
• Physical abilities are divided into strength, flexibility and other factors.
• Strength factors are dynamic strength, trunk strength, static strength, and
explosive strength.
• Flexibility factors include extent flexibility and dynamic flexibility.
• Other factors are body coordination, balance and stamina. Self-Instructional
Material 23
Individual Behaviour Employee performance is enhanced when there is a high ability fit, but care
must be taken that focus is not directed only towards the employees’ abilities or
the abilities required by the job, there should be an equal balance of both.
When the employee is overqualified for the job, even though the performance
NOTES
will be satisfactory, there will be a decline in the job satisfaction of the employee
as he will soon get bored or frustrated by the tasks on hand. On the other hand, if
the employee has to deliver a higher quality of performance than he is able, then
too there will be lack of motivation, inefficient production of work and overall
frustration experienced.
Biographical characteristics
Various biographical factors also have an impact on the performance and job
satisfaction levels of the employee.
Age
The relationship between age and job performance is becoming more important
• The older you are the more settled in a job and thus less likely to change or
quit jobs.
• Generally, older employees have a lower rate of absenteeism, other than
for unavoidable circumstances as they are more responsible. They also
have more responsibilities at home and are thus more careful about quitting
or changing jobs.
• Some other research however shows that a U-shaped pattern emerging,
whereby there is a difference between professionals and non-professionals
as they age. Professionals tend to be increasingly satisfied with their jobs as
they age. Non-professionals on the other hand experience a fall in job
satisfaction towards their middle age, which rises again as they age.
Gender
Evidence based on research shows that there is very little difference between men
and women that will affect their job satisfaction.
• There are no differences between males and females employed in work
involving problem-solving skills, analytical skills, and both have an equal
amount of motivational and competitive spirit in them.
• There is sometimes a difference seen in the preference of work schedules
as women generally have families to attend to.
• Some studies have found that women produce a higher turnover but this is
not very well substantiated.
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Marital status Individual Behaviour
There is not enough research to substantiate whether marital status impacts job
performance and satisfaction. Married employees are generally more satisfied and
have lower absentee rates and higher turnovers than their unmarried colleagues. NOTES
Tenure
Research has proved that tenure and turnover are negatively related, as being
approved for tenure and the seniority being recognized is a very important factor
leading to job satisfaction and high performance.
Check Your Progress

1. Define ability.
2. List the sub-parts of intelligence.

QUESTIONS
1. Ability can be defined as the individual’s capacity to perform the tasks he

has been given.
2. The four sub-parts of intelligence are cognitive, social, emotional and cultural.
3.4 SUMMARY
• It has been established that certain characteristics of behaviour are genetic

in nature and a human being inherits a certain degree of similarity to other
individuals, as well as uniqueness in the form of genes and chromosomes.
• Some of the characteristics such as physical traits including physical height,
slimness, dexterity, intellectual capacity and the ability to learn and logicalize
are all inherited and have a wide impact on behavioural patterns.
• According to R.S. Dwivedi, the structures of the nervous system play a
significant part in the emerging pattern of behaviour thus bringing about the
integration of human behaviour and personality.
• ‘Integration of human behaviour takes place because of the constant
functioning of receptors, effectors and connectors.
• The numerous receptor cells attached to the individual’s sense organs tend
to convert physical and chemical events from the environment into neural
events while the several effector cells attached to the muscles and glands
convert these neural events into responses
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Material 25
Individual Behaviour • These responses result in behavioural activity ranging from simple reflex
action to the complex creative activity.
• Ability can be defined as the individual’s capacity to perform the tasks he
has been given. Abilities can be divided into intellectual abilities and physical
NOTES
abilities.
• IQ tests such as SAT, GMAT are designed to ascertain intellectual levels
for college admissions.
• The various dimensions of intellectual ability are number aptitude, verbal
comprehension, perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning,
spatial visualization and memory.
• Physical strength can be ascertained or tested with the bodily requirements
of the task.
• Strength factors are dynamic strength, trunk strength, static strength, and
explosive strength.
• Employee performance is enhanced when there is a high ability fit, but care
must be taken that focus is not directed only towards the employees’ abilities
or the abilities required by the job, there should be an equal balance of
both.
• When the employee is overqualified for the job, even though the performance
will be satisfactory, there will be a decline in the job satisfaction of the
employee as he will soon get bored or frustrated by the tasks on hand.
• On the other hand, if the employee has to deliver a higher quality of
performance than he is able, then too there will be lack of motivation,
inefficient production of work and overall frustration experienced.
• Various biographical factors also have an impact on the performance and
job satisfaction levels of the employee.
• Generally, older employees have a lower rate of absenteeism, other than
for unavoidable circumstances as they are more responsible.
• Some other research however shows that a U-shaped pattern emerging,
whereby there is a difference between professionals and non-professionals
as they age.
• Evidence based on research shows that there is very little difference between
men and women that will affect their job satisfaction.
• There is not enough research to substantiate whether marital status impacts
job performance and satisfaction.
• Married employees are generally more satisfied and have lower absentee
rates and higher turnovers than their unmarried colleagues.
• Research has proved that tenure and turnover are negatively related, as
being approved for tenure and the seniority being recognized is a very
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important factor leading to job satisfaction and high performance.
26 Material
3.5 KEY WORDS
• Performance: It is the accomplishment of a given task measured against

pre-set known standards of accuracy, completeness, cost, and speed. NOTES
• Intellectual: It is one’s ability to think and understand things, especially
complicated ideas.
• IQ: It is the abbreviation for intelligence quotient which is a measure of
someone’s intelligence estimated through special tests.

EXERCISES

1. Define ability. What are intellectual abilities?
2. Discuss physical abilities of individuals.
1. What do you understand by individual behaviour? What factors influence
this behaviour?
2. Analyse the biographical factors that have an impact on the performance
and job satisfaction levels of the employee.
London: Pearson.
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Material 27
Factors Influencing
UNIT 4 FACTORS INFLUENCING
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR
NOTES
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Factors Influencing Individual Behaviour: An Overview
4.2.1 Personality
4.2.3 Perception
4.2.4 Attitude
4.3 Job Satisfaction: Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction
4.5 Summary
4.6 Key Words
4.0 INTRODUCTION
The way an individual addresses a situation is influenced by many factors. The key
factors influencing an individual’s attitude in personal as well as social life are as
follows:
• Abilities
• Attribution
• Perception
• Attitude
Each individual has a unique personality which defines his or her conduct and
behaviour in a work place setting. Different approaches have been made to define
personality but there is no agreement on a single definition of personality. Though
there is diversity of views but even then, all psychologists agree on certain common
basic characteristics. One basic fact is that personality is unique. No two individuals,
even identical twins, have alike personality. The second basic fact regarding
personality is that it is the product of its own functioning. What we do today,
depends on our accumulated experiences of the past. The experiences are
accumulated day after day and shape our personality by continuous interaction
with the external environment. The third common characteristic of most definitions
is that they stress the need to understand the meaning of individual differences.
Personality is what makes individuals unique: it is only through the study of
personality that the relevant differences among individuals can be made clear.
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This units highlights the factors that influence individual behaviour.
28 Material
Factors Influencing
4.1 OBJECTIVES Individual Behaviour

• Describe the factors influencing individual behaviour NOTES
• Explain the concepts of personality, learning ability, perception and attitude
• Discuss the meaning of and factors influencing job satisfaction
4.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING INDIVIDUAL

BEHAVIOUR: AN OVERVIEW
This section discusses the factors that influence individual behaviour in depth.
4.2.1 Personality
There is no topic in the field of psychology which is more fascinating than personality.
Tremendous research has been done on the topic, but no final conclusions have
been drawn as regards the nature of personality. If you ask a man, the meaning of
the term personality, he would not be able to give answer to this simple question in
clear and definite terms because the human personality is so complex a phenomenon
that it can be interpreted in many ways.
The term personality has been defined in various ways by the psychologists
who worked on the problem of personality and the variables influencing its
development.
Meaning of Personality
The meaning and definition of any term is arbitrary. This also holds true in case of
the word personality. To arrive at its meaning, we have to trace the historical root
of the word. The term personality has been derived from the Latin word ‘Persona’
that was associated with Greek theatre in ancient times. Persona means a mask
which the Greek actors commonly used to wear covering their faces when they
worked on the stage. In our own country, actors in Ram Lila and Krishna Lila
use masks when they enact the role of a particular character from the epics.
The mask, worn by the actors, was called persona. According to the concept
of mask, personality was thought to be the effect and influence which the individual
wearing a mask left on the audience. Even today, for a layman, personality means
the effect which an individual leaves on other people. Precisely, we can say that
the mask or persona of the actor implied a cover for the real person behind it. It
was developed on the basis of Plato’s idealistic philosophy who believed that
personality is a mere facade for some substance.
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Factors Influencing Some Definitions
1. Personality as a stimulus: Some psychologists define personality in terms
of its social stimulus value. How an individual affects other persons with
NOTES whom he comes in contact, whether he is impressive or repulsive, or has a
dominating or submissive personality. Personality, from this point of view,
becomes identical to reputation and impression, mostly in terms of physical
appearance, clothing, conversation and etiquette. Generally, we use this
concept of personality in selecting applicants for various jobs and courses.
The interviewers take into consideration the total picture of an individual’s
organized behaviour.
2 Summative approach: The second approach of defining personality
emphasizes the importance of sum total of different processes and activities
of the individual as, for example, innate dispositions, habits, impulses and
emotions, etc. This approach was criticized by Gestalt psychologists who
objected to the idea of aggregation or sum total of parts without introducing
the concept of organization and integration of parts into a total whole.
3. Integrative approach: The definitions of this category lay emphasis on
the integrative of personality and its definite pattern of organization. Warren’s
dictionary defines personality as: ‘Personality is the integrative organization
of all the cognitive, affective, conative and physical characteristics of an
individual as it manifests itself in focal distinction from others.’
G.W. Hartman said, ‘Personality is integrated organization of all the pervasive
characteristics of an individual as it manifests itself in focal distinctiveness to
others.’
4. Totality view: This approach to define personality puts more emphasis on
integration than the first category of definitions given above. It forgets the
part. According to this view, the general characterization or pattern of an
individual’s total behaviour is his personality. A man’s personality is the total
picture of his organized behaviour, especially, as it can be characterized by
his fellowmen in a consistent way. Mark Sherman in his book, Personality:
Inquiry and Application (1979) has defined personality as, ‘the
characteristic pattern of behaviours, cognitions and emotions which may be
experienced by the individual and/or manifest to others.’
5. Personality as adjustment: An individual, since his birth, attempts to adjust
to his environment. Behaviour of an individual can be defined as an
adjustment to his environment. Every individual develops his own unique
way of adjustment in the society. According to this approach, personality is
an individual’s characteristic pattern of behaviour. An individual, through his
continuous reactions, attempts to adjust himself in his environment. We can
say that sum of the individual’s movements as he adapts himself to the
environment is his personality.
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We have described the various approaches to define the term personality. Factors Influencing
We will now examine important definitions of personality.
Fredenburgh in his book, The Psychology of Personality and Adjustment
tried to summarize the various definitions in a single definition which runs as,
NOTES
‘Personality is a stable system of complex characteristics by which the life
pattern of the individual may be identified.’
Allport an American psychologist (1961) who devoted most of his time for
research on personality defines: ‘Personality is the dynamic organization
within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his
unique adjustment to his environment.’
The definition given byAllport is very comprehensive and includes all aspects
of an individual’s personality. Some terms used in the definition need
explanation. Dynamic means that personality is undergoing a constant change
but is still organized. It constitutes two types of systems, psycho (mental)
and physical, and these two systems interact with internal and external
environment. The word ‘determine’ lays emphasis that it is the psychophysical
system that activates the organism for action. The unique adjustment of the
individual to his environment means that each individual employ different
methods of adjustment resulting in unique adjustment.
Guilford (1959) defines personality as, ‘An individual’s personality, then, is
his unique pattern of traits .... A trait is any distinguishable, relatively enduring
way in which one individual differs from another.’
Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour or potential
behaviour as a result of direct or indirect experience. There are two primary
elements in this definition that must both be present in order to identify the process
of learning. First is the element that the change must be relatively permanent. This
means that after “learning”, our behaviour must be different, either better or worse
as compared to our behaviour prior to this experience of learning. For example, if
you have taken a course in “word processing” and you have learned how to use a
computer to do word processing, then this change is long lasting as long as you
continue to exhibit this changed behaviour that means that you continue to use the
computer for this purpose. Similarly, you “learn” to drive a car or learn to use
chopsticks for eating your Chinese food that you did not know before “learning”.
The second aspect of the definition is that this change must occur due to
some kind of experience or practice. This learning is not caused by biological
maturation. For example, a child does not learn to walk, it is a natural biological
phenomenon because the child gains strength as he grows older. Similarly, we do
not learn to eat or drink. Accordingly, learning must be because of some interaction
with the environment and some feedback from such environment that affects
behaviour. This experience does not have to be direct experience such as a secretary
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Factors Influencing enrolling for a typing course and increasing her typing speed. It can also be due to
indirect experience of observing behaviour changes in others. For example, if you
find out that your co-workers who come late to work are severely reprimanded
by their supervisors, you would tend to come to work on time. This is an indirect
NOTES experience.
Some incidents do not change the behaviour but only the behaviour potential.
For example, if someone is thinking of using drugs, but has not actually used them
and he finds out that a friend of his died because of drugs then he will not get
involved with drugs. This experience has changed his behaviour potential.
It must be understood that the learning itself is not observable, but only the
change in behaviour is observable that is the direct result of the process of learning.
This change in behaviour must be differentiated from changes in behaviour because
of other causes. The causes of such changes include aging, such as being stronger
or improvement in memory in the early formative years, instinctive response
tendencies such as a timid person being brave at the time of a crisis and such
temporary factors as fatigue or use of drugs. Accordingly, as a unique determinant
of behaviour, learning cannot take place unless the learner actually experiences
what has to be learned.
4.2.3 Perception
Perception is the process through which the information from outside environment
is selected, received, organized and interpreted to make it meaningful. This input
of meaningful information results in decisions and actions. It is a result of a complex
interaction of various senses such as feeling, seeing, hearing, thinking and comparing
with known aspects of life in order to make some sense of the world around us.
The quality or accuracy of a person’s perception is an important factor in determining
the quality of the decision and action. Perception has been explained byAjit Singh1
as follows:
“Perception refers to interpretation of sensory data. In other words, sensation
involves detecting the presence of a stimulus whereas perception involves
understanding what the stimulus means. For example, when we see some thing,
the visual stimulus is the light energy reflected from the external world and the
eye becomes the sensor. This visual image of the external thing becomes
perception when it is interpreted in the visual cortex of the brain. Thus, visual
perception refers to interpreting the image of the external world projected on the
retina of the eye and constructing a model of the three dimensional world.”
Perception is primarily an individual process so that different people may
perceive an identical situation differently. “All that glitters is not gold” and “things
are not what they seem”, are all reflections of various perceptions about the same
situation. People behave on the basis of what they perceive reality to be and not
necessarily as what reality is.
The following two examples amply illustrate the difference between what
reality is, and as is perceived by different individuals. The first example involves
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32 Material
“The President was working alone, very late at night, in a hotel room while Factors Influencing
on a trip. He opened the door, beckoned to a waiting aide and ordered, “Get me
Coffee.” The aide immediately responded to the directive. Most of the activities at
the hotel including the kitchen, were not operating at such a late hour. Hotel personnel
had to be called in and a fresh pot of coffee was brewed. All of these activities NOTES
took some time and the President kept asking about “coffee” while waiting. Finally,
a tray was made up with a carafe of coffee, cream, sugar and some sweet rolls
and was rushed to the President’s suite. It was only at this point that the aide
learned that the President did not want coffee to drink, but rather wanted to talk to
an assistant whose name was Coffee.” The second example is quoted by an author,
from his personal experience and it is given as follows:
“I was in a supermarket when a girl about eight years old came running
around a corner. She looked back and screamed, “Stop! Stop! you are killing
him. You are killing my father!”. I dropped my things and hurried in the direction
from which the girl had come. As I turned the corner, I was greeted by a grisly
scene. A man was stretched out on the floor and another was on top of him. The
man on the top must have been six feet six inches tall and must have weighed 300
pounds. He looked only half human. He had his victim by the throat and was
beating his head against the floor. There was blood everywhere. I ran for the store
manager.
By the time the manager and I returned to the scene, the police were just
arriving. It took quite a while to straighten things out, but here are the facts that
emerged. The man on the floor was a diabetic who had suffered an insulin reaction.
As a result, he passed out and hit his head as he went down. This caused the cut
(actually quite a minor one) that accounted for the “blood everywhere”. The “man
on the top” had seen the diabetic man fall and was trying to prevent him from
injuring himself further while unconscious. He also had been loosening the man’s
collar.
If I had not returned, I would have sworn in court that I had seen a murder.
This perhaps is understandable. But I will never probably recover from the shock
I felt when I met the “murderer”. This is the man, you will recall that I had seen a
few moments before, in broad daylight as a huge, vicious creature. The man was
not a stranger. He was my neighbour. I had seen him dozens of times before and
knew him by name. He is a rather small man”.
These two examples illustrate rather dramatically, what an important role
perception plays in our understanding of the world around us and our decisions
based upon such perceptions. Both these examples bring to light three influences
on the concept of perception about these and other incidents. These influences
are:
1. The characteristics of the perceiver.
2. The characteristics of the perceived.
3. The characteristics of the situation.
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Factors Influencing The characteristics of the perceiver include such factors as needs,
values, experience and attitudes. The characteristics of the perceived
include his appearance, communication and personal behaviour and the
NOTES characteristics of the situation include physical location, social setting and
organizational setting. These influences are shown diagramatically as follows:
Major Influences on the Perception Process
These influences are explained in more detail as follows:

Characteristics of the Perceiver
A person’s needs, habits, impact of past experiences, ethics and values, attitudes
and personality, all influence the perception process. For example, a person with
strong ego needs would look at other people or situations either as ego satisfying
or ego threatening, thus perhaps making the perceptions inaccurate. Similarly, less
secure people often find faults with others. Secure persons tend to see others as
warm and friendly.
Our ethics and values and our cultural upbringing also play an important
role in our perception about others. A non-smoker may prejudge a smoker.
Similarly, it is difficult to perceive the personality of a person raised in another
culture, because our judgement is based upon our own values.
As an example, a negative attitude towards unions may inhibit the manager
towards honest and straight-forward talks with the unions during labour-
management negotiations. Similarly, a personnel manager who is biased against
women, minorities or handicapped persons will be very sensitive to them during
an employment interview. This happens because when we don’t like a person,
then we always look for negative aspects of that person.
Our attitude towards others is also influenced by our previous experiences
with them. For example, if an employee was promised a bonus or a promotion on
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certain accomplishments and did not receive the promised rewards in spite of Factors Influencing
such accomplishments, then he would perceive the manager with distrust.
Characteristics of the Perceived
It may defy logic and objectivity, but we cannot deny that our perceptions about NOTES
others are influenced by their physical characteristics such as appearance, facial
expressions, age, gender, manner of communication as well as personality traits
and other forms of behaviours. For example, when we see a person who appears
to be assertive and confident, we assume him to be an executive or a leader.
People dressed in business suits are generally thought to be professionals while
people dressed in ordinary work clothes are assumed to be lower level employees.
Both verbal and non-verbal communication affect our perception about
others. The choice of words and precision of language can form impressions about
the education and sophistication of the person. The tone of voice sometimes
indicates the mood of the person at a given time. The depth of conversation and
choice of topics provide clues to people’s intelligence. The body language or
expressive behaviour such as how people sit and the movement of their eyes or a
smile can indicate whether people are nervous or self-confident.
Similarly, the status or occupation of a person creates an impression in our
minds. We are awed by people of fame, wealth or professional status. We tend to
behave in a more respectful way when we are introduced to a president of a large
corporation or a judge of the supreme court or a movie celebrity. When we meet
a person, who is described to us as warm and friendly, we treat him differently as
compared to meeting a person who is known to be cold and calculating.
Characteristics of the Situation
Physical, social and organizational settings of a situation or event can also influence
perceptions. For example, if you meet some lady for the first time and she is with
another person whom you respect and admire, you will create a favourable image
about her in your mind as compared to a situation in which you see her with a
person whom you intensely dislike. Of course, these initial impressions may change
over a period of time, but the saying that the “first impression is the last impression”
is very valid. Location of a given event is also an important factor in determining
behaviour. You will behave with your boss differently at a social function than in
the office. In an organizational setting where people are given an opportunity to
interact in a friendly and sociable work situation, they become more trustworthy
and less defensive.
4.2.4 Attitude
One of the chief objectives of education is the development of desirable attitudes
in students. It is, therefore, obvious that the teachers must understand the various
dimensions of an attitude. It is also to be kept in view that different kinds of attitudes
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Factors Influencing need to be developed in students—attitude towards studies, attitude towards self,
attitude towards colleagues, attitude towards certain ideals, etc.
In the words of Anastasi an American psychologist, ‘An attitude is often
defined as a tendency to react favourably or unfavourably towards a designated
NOTES
class of stimuli, such as a national or a racial group, a custom or an institution.’
According to another psychologist Frank Freeman, ‘An attitude is a
dispositional readiness to respond to certain institutions, persons or objects in a
consistent manner which has been learnt and has become one’s typical mode of
response. An attitude has a well-defined object of reference. For example, one’s
views regarding class of food or drink (such as fish and liquors), sports, mathematics
or democracy are attitudes.’
Thurstone stated, ‘Attitude denotes the sum-total of a man’s inclinations
and feelings, prejudice or bias, pre-conceived notions, ideas, fears, threats about
any specific topic. Thus, a man’s attitude about pacifism means here all that he
feels and thinks about peace and war. It is admittedly a subjective and personal
affair.’
Characteristics of Attitude
• It is a point of view, substantiated or otherwise, true or false, which one
holds towards an idea, object or person
• It includes certain aspects of personality such as interests, appreciations
and social conduct
• An attitude is learnt
• An attitude is adopted
• An attitude has aspects, such as, direction, intensity, generality or specificity
A number of scales have been prepared for the measurement of attitude.
The two most frequently used methods for the measurement of social attitude
are:
• The Method of Equal Appearing Intervals developed by Thurstone
• The Method of Summated Ratings developed by Likert.
A number of statements are included in the tests.
Check Your Progress

1. Define personality.
2. What is learning?
3. What factors are included in the characteristics of a perceiver?
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Factors Influencing
4.3 JOB SATISFACTION: FACTORS Individual Behaviour
INFLUENCING JOB SATISFACTION
Job satisfaction can be defined as the extent of positive feelings or attitudes that NOTES
individuals have towards their jobs. When a person says that he has high job
satisfaction, it means that he really likes his job, feels good about it and values his
job highly.
It has been established that highly satisfied workers have better physical
and mental well-being. It is highly debatable as to which one is the cause, and
which one is the effect, but they are known to be correlational. On the other hand,
serious job dissatisfaction results in stress and tension that is usually the cause of a
variety of physiological disorders.
Consequences of Job Dissatisfaction
Job satisfaction or dissatisfaction is of great concern to management since there
seems to be a relationship between job satisfaction and job performance. Job
dissatisfaction produces low morale among workers and low morale at work is
highly undesirable. Accordingly, managers must be constantly watching for any
signs of low morale and job dissatisfaction and take corrective action as soon as
possible. Some of the indicators of low morale are:
Employee unrest: Unrest is a general condition of unhappiness with job and may
manifest itself in a number of ways. The worker may not attend to his job properly,
may be involved in daydreaming, be forgetful or just may not care. He may start
complaining about work conditions and find faults with everything that goes on in
the work environment. He may register formal grievances excessively and start
coming late to work or be absent from work periodically. Sometimes, this unrest
becomes so frustrating that it may lead to such undesirable habits as excessive
drinking. At its extreme, unrest may affect the mental health and well-being of the
worker.
If this unrest affects a sufficient number of workers they may take collective
action such as go-slows, work stoppages, strikes and other allied group actions.
Absenteeism: Job satisfaction is highly related to absenteeism. Studies have found
that less satisfied employees are more likely to be absent from work due to
“avoidable reasons”. This is known as voluntary absenteeism as against involuntary
absenteeism due to illness or other emergency reasons that are unavoidable and
are not related to job satisfaction.
In an interesting experiment, Frank Smith studied the attendance rate of
salaried employees at Sears Roebuck Company on a day of severe blizzard and
found that highly satisfied employees were more likely to exert the high level of
effort necessary to get to work. In such work units where job satisfaction was
low, attendance at work was much lower.
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Factors Influencing Management must be concerned with excessive absenteeism for it disrupts
production and business operations.
Tardiness: Similar to absenteeism, tardiness is also generally believed to reflect
job dissatisfaction. It is assumed that this tardiness is not due to some explainable
NOTES
reason such as getting children ready for school but only due to the fact that
employees really do not care much for the job. This is indicated by such employee
tardiness as spending excessive time in rest rooms, lingering in the parking lot
before coming to work, spending too much time on personal telephone calls, and
in general, an attitude of passing time at work rather than spending time for useful
productivity. Similarly, when students come habitually late to class, it can be assumed
that they are dissatisfied with the course or with the professor teaching that course.
Employee turnover: High employee turnover disrupts normal operations and
continuously replacing the employees who leave is costly and both technically and
economically undesirable. According to Arnold and Feldman,18 organizational
units with the lowest average satisfaction levels tend to have the highest turnover
rates.
Managerial concern ought to be for such turnover, that is primarily the result
of dissatisfactory organizational climate. There are other reasons for voluntary
turnover such as alternative places of employment, geographical constraints, family
responsibilities, highly marketable employee’s special skills and simply an
environment change. Additionally if such turnover is among poor performers, then
the change may be in the best interests of the organization.
Turnover may be voluntary that is initiated by the employee and may be due
to job dissatisfaction or other personal reasons beyond management control. It
may be initiated by management and may be due to unsatisfactory conduct exhibited
by employees such as incompetence, violation of rules, dishonesty, laziness,
insubordination and habitual absenteeism. Turnover could also be due to
modernization of plant, lack of orders for the product, materials shortage or generally
hard economic times. In any case, the matter of turnover should be seriously
investigated, and corrective measures taken wherever necessary.
Union activity: Studies have shown that satisfied employees are generally not
interested in unions and they do not perceive them as necessary. The evidence is
strong that job dissatisfaction is a major cause of unionization. Furthermore, the
employees feel that individually they are unable to influence changes that would
result in the elimination of such factors that cause job dissatisfaction. This job
dissatisfaction is primarily caused by lower level needs in Maslow’s model of
hierarchal needs, such as working conditions and job security rather than higher
level needs such as creativity or challenging opportunities. The level of union
activities is related to level of job dissatisfaction. Lower levels of jobs dissatisfaction
may result in grievances while higher levels of job dissatisfaction may result in
employee strikes.
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Early retirement: Studies have been conducted by Schmitt and McLain to establish Factors Influencing
relationship between early retirement and job satisfaction. There has been evidence
that employees who choose early retirement tend to hold less positive attitudes
towards their jobs. Employees with higher level positions with challenging work
opportunities are less likely to seek early retirement than employees with lower NOTES
level jobs.
A job satisfaction: Job satisfaction results from the employee’s perception that
the job content and context actually provide what an employee values in the work
situation. It can be defined as “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting
from the appraisal of one’s job or job experience.” This positive emotional state is
highly contributory to an employee’s physical and mental well-being.
Organizationally speaking, high level of job satisfaction reflects a highly favourable
organizational climate resulting in attracting and retaining better workers.
Sources of Job Satisfaction
Many research studies have been conducted on the subject of job satisfaction and
employee morale in order to establish some of the causes that result in job
satisfaction. These studies have revealed that certain variables are consistently
correlated with job satisfaction. Some of these factors have been grouped into
four identifiable, discrete categories. These are as follows:
1. Organizational factors.
2. Work environmental factors.
3. Factors related to work itself.
4. Personal factors.
Organizational Factors
Some of the organizational factors as sources of job satisfaction are:
Salaries and wages: Salaries and wages play a significant role in determining the
level of job satisfaction irrespective of the level of position that an employee holds
in the organization. Studies conducted by Locke indicate that pay is the primary
determinant of job satisfaction, especially when it is perceived as fair and equitable
compared to others and relative to employee’s own efforts and contributions. Pay
is also the prime mover since it satisfies the first level needs of Maslow’s model of
motivation. It is also considered a symbol of achievement since higher pay reflects
a higher degree of contribution towards organizational operations and welfare.
Promotions: Promotional opportunities are another source of job satisfaction,
specially at higher level jobs, because a promotion indicates an employee’s worth
to the organization that is highly morale boosting. A promotion also involves a
positive change in higher salary, less supervision, more challenging work assignments,
increased responsibility and decision-making freedom. Promotion is a source of
job satisfaction for executives more than for lower level jobs such as secretaries
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Factors Influencing because executive promotion brings with it far better benefits than in the case of
lower level administrative jobs.
Company policies: Organizational structure and organization policies play an
important role in establishing an environment that is conducive to job satisfaction.
NOTES
A highly authoritative and autocratic structure may produce more resentment on
the part of employees who may want more open and democratic style of leadership.
Organization policies usually govern employee behaviour and depending upon
how strict or liberal these policies are, can generate positive or negative feelings
about the organization. Liberal and fair policies are usually associated with job
satisfaction. Employees who feel unduly constrained because of strict policies or
feel that they are not treated fairly, would not be happy with the job.
Work Environment
The work environment factors include the following:
Supervisory style: It has been established that wherever the supervisors are
friendly and supportive of workers, there is job satisfaction. Conversely, it can
also be established that satisfied employees themselves create a social environment
at work where supervisors are more considerate towards such employees. In any
case, a close relationship between the supervisor and the worker and worker
participation in decision making about such issues that directly concern the worker,
are highly conducive to job satisfaction.
Work group: The group size and the quality of interpersonal relations within the
group play a significant role in worker happiness. Larger group sizes usually lead
to lower level of job satisfaction due to the fact that large groups lead to poor
interpersonal communication, reduced feeling of togetherness and difficulty in getting
to know each other more closely. Smaller groups provide greater opportunity for
building mutual trust and understanding.
Work group also serves as a social, moral and emotional support system
for the employee. If the people in the group exhibit similar societal characteristics,
such as attitudes and beliefs, they tend to be drawn closer to each other resulting
in a work climate that improves job satisfaction.
Working conditions: Good working conditions are highly desirable because
they lead to greater physical comfort. People put a high premium on a clean and
orderly work station and factors such as heating, air conditioning, humidity, lighting,
noise level, availability of adequate tools and equipment and desirable work
schedules, all contribute to higher level of satisfaction. While such desirable
conditions are taken for granted, and may not contribute heavily towards job
satisfaction, poor working conditions become a source of job dissatisfaction, simply
because they lead to physical discomfort and physical danger.
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Work Itself Factors Influencing
By and large, the work itself plays a major role in determining the level of job
satisfaction. The job content has two aspects. One is the “job scope” that involves
the amount of responsibility, work pace and the feedback provided. The higher NOTES
the level of these factors, the higher the job scope and thus higher the level of
satisfaction. The second aspect is variety. It has been found that a moderate amount
of variety is most effective. Excessive variety produces confusion and stress and
too little variety causes monotony and fatigue that are dissatisfiers. Additionally,
lack of autonomy and freedom over work methods and work pace creates a
sense of helplessness. It is not very motivating for the employees to have their
every step and every action determined by their supervisor. It is highly dehumanizing
and causes dissatisfaction.
Role ambiguity and role conflict are to be avoided because employees feel
very unhappy if they do not know exactly what their task is and what is expected
of them.
Personal Factors
While the external environment within the organization and the nature of the job
are important determinants of job satisfaction, personal attributes of individual
employees play a very important role as to whether they are happy at the job or
not. People with generally negative attitudes about life and pessimists always
complain about everything including the job. No matter how good the job is, such
people always find something wrong with it to complain about.
Age, seniority and tenure have considerable influence on job satisfaction, It
is expected that as people grow older, they usually come up the corporate ladder
with the passage of time and move into more challenging and responsible positions.
Meeting these challenges and succeeding is a high source of satisfaction. Even if
they do not move up in their position, it is equally natural to assume that with age,
people become more mature and realistic and less idealistic so that they are willing
to accept available resources and rewards and be satisfied about the situation.
Employees who do not move up at all with time are more likely to be dissatisfied
with their jobs.
Tenure assures job security, and the feeling of job security is highly satisfactory
to employees. This means that they can plan for the future without fear of losing
the job. Thus, employees with tenure are expected to be highly satisfied with their
jobs.
Equally important is the intrinsic source of satisfaction that comes from within
the person and is a function of the employee’s personality. Some of the personality
traits that are directly related to increased job satisfaction are self-assurance, self-
esteem, maturity, decisiveness, sense of autonomy, challenge and reponsiblity. It
can be concluded that the higher the person is on Maslow’s model of hierarchical
needs, the higher is the job satisfaction.
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Factors Influencing
Check Your Progress
4. What is job satisfaction?
NOTES 5. What is the relation between absenteeism and job satisfaction?

QUESTIONS
1. Guilford (1959) defines personality as, ‘An individual’s personality, then, is

2. Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour or
potential behaviour as a result of direct or indirect experience.
3. The characteristics of the perceiver include such factors as needs, values,
experience and attitudes.
4. Job satisfaction can be defined as the extent of positive feelings or attitudes
that individuals have towards their jobs.
5. Job satisfaction is highly related to absenteeism. Studies have found that
less satisfied employees are more likely to be absent from work due to
“avoidable reasons”.
4.5 SUMMARY
• The term personality has been defined in various ways by the psychologists
who worked on the problem of personality and the variables influencing its
development.
• The term personality has been derived from the Latin word ‘Persona’ that
was associated with Greek theatre in ancient times.
• Persona means a mask which the Greek actors commonly used to wear
covering their faces when they worked on the stage.
• Some psychologists define personality in terms of its social stimulus value.
How an individual affects other person with whom he comes in contact,
whether he is impressive or repulsive, or has a dominating or submissive
personality.
• Generally, we use this concept of personality in selecting applicants for
various jobs and courses.
• The second approach of defining personality emphasizes the importance of
sum total of different processes and activities of the individual as, for example,
innate dispositions, habits, impulses and emotions, etc.
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• This approach was criticized by Gestalt psychologists who objected to the Factors Influencing
idea of aggregation or sum total of parts without introducing the concept of
organization and integration of parts into a total whole.
• G.W. Hartman said ‘Personality is integrated organization of all the pervasive
NOTES
characteristics of an individual as it manifests itself in focal distinctiveness to
others.’
• Mark Sherman in his book, Personality: Inquiry and Application (1979)
has defined personality as, ‘the characteristic pattern of behaviours,
cognitions and emotions which may be experienced by the individual and/
or manifest to others.
• Behaviour of an individual can be defined as an adjustment to his environment.
Every individual develops his own unique way of adjustment in the society.
• An individual, through his continuous reactions, attempts to adjust himself in
his environment.
• Fredenburgh in his book, The Psychology of Personality and Adjustment
tried to summarize the various definitions in a single definition which runs as,
‘Personality is a stable system of complex characteristics by which the life
pattern of the individual may be identified.’
• Allport an American psychologist (1961) who devoted most of his time for
research on personality defines: ‘Personality is the dynamic organization
within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his
unique adjustment to his environment.’
• Dynamic means that personality is undergoing a constant change but is still
organized.
• It constitutes two types of systems, psycho (mental) and physical, and these
two systems interact with internal and external environment.
• The word ‘determine’ lays emphasis that it is the psychophysical system
that activates the organism for action.
• Guilford (1959) defines personality as, ‘An individual’s personality, then, is
• One basic fact is that personality is unique. No two individuals, even identical
twins, have alike personality. The second basic fact regarding personality is
that it is the product of its own functioning.
• The third common characteristic of most definitions is that they stress the
need to understand the meaning of individual differences.
• Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour or
potential behaviour as a result of direct or indirect experience.
• There are two primary elements in this definition that must both be present
in order to identify the process of learning.
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Factors Influencing • First is the element that the change must be relatively permanent.
• The second aspect of the definition is that this change must occur due to
some kind of experience or practice.
NOTES • It must be understood that the learning itself is not observable, but only the
change in behaviour is observable that is the direct result of the process of
learning.
• Perception is the process through which the information from outside
environment is selected, received, organized and interpreted to make it
meaningful.
• The quality or accuracy of a person’s perception is an important factor in
determining the quality of the decision and action.
• The characteristics of the perceiver include such factors as needs, values,
experience and attitudes.
• The characteristics of the perceived include his appearance, communication
and personal behaviour and the characteristics of the situation include physical
location, social setting and organizational setting.
• A person’s needs, habits, impact of past experiences, ethics and values,
attitudes and personality, all influence the perception process.
• Both verbal and non-verbal communication affect our perception about
others.
• Physical, social and organizational settings of a situation or event can also
influence perceptions.
• One of the chief objectives of education is the development of desirable
attitudes in students.
• In the words of Anastasi an American psychologist, ‘An attitude is often
defined as a tendency to react favourably or unfavourably towards a
designated class of stimuli, such as a national or a racial group, a custom or
an institution.’
• Job satisfaction can be defined as the extent of positive feelings or attitudes
that individuals have towards their jobs.
• Job dissatisfaction produces low morale among workers and low morale at
work is highly undesirable.
• Job satisfaction is highly related to absenteeism. Studies have found that
less satisfied employees are more likely to be absent from work due to
“avoidable reasons”.
• Job satisfaction results from the employee’s perception that the job content
and context actually provide what an employee values in the work situation.
• It can be defined as “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting
from the appraisal of one’s job or job experience.”
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• Certain variables are consistently correlated with job satisfaction. Some of Factors Influencing
these factors have been grouped into four identifiable, discrete categories.
• Salaries and wages play a significant role in determining the level of job
satisfaction irrespective of the level of position that an employee holds in the
NOTES
organization.
• Promotional opportunities are another source of job satisfaction, specially
at higher level jobs, because a promotion indicates an employee’s worth to
the organization that is highly morale boosting.
• Organizational structure and organization policies play an important role in
establishing an environment that is conducive to job satisfaction.
• A highly authoritative and autocratic structure may produce more resentment
on the part of employees who may want more open and democratic style of
leadership.
• Good working conditions are highly desirable because they lead to greater
physical comfort.
• By and large, the work itself plays a major role in determining the level of
job satisfaction. The job content has two aspects.
• One is the “job scope” that involves the amount of responsibility, work
pace and the feedback provided. The higher the level of these factors, the
higher the job scope and thus higher the level of satisfaction.
• The second aspect is variety. It has been found that a moderate amount of
variety is most effective.
4.6 KEY WORDS
• Employee: It refers to a person employed for wages or salary, especially

at non-executive level.
• Interpersonal: It is relating to relationships or communication between
people.
• Salary: It is a fixed regular payment, typically paid on a monthly basis but
often expressed as an annual sum, made by an employer to an employee,
especially a professional or white-collar worker.

EXERCISES

1. What do you understand by learning ability?
2. What is attitude? Discuss its characteristics.
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Factors Influencing 3. What is the meaning of job satisfaction? What are its consequences?
4. What is the importance of personal attributes in shaping job satisfaction?
NOTES
1. Describe the meaning of personality in detail. What are its definitions as
given by various psychologists?
2. Explain the meaning of perception. Describe the characteristics of the
perceiver, perceived and the situation.
3. What are the sources of job satisfaction? Discuss in detail.
London: Pearson.
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Morale
BLOCK - II
MORALE AND BEHAVIOUR
NOTES
UNIT 5 MORALE
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Morale: Meaning, Types and Aspects
5.3 Characteristics of High and Low Morale and Essential
and Psychological Requirements for High Morale
5.5 Summary
5.6 Key Words
5.0 INTRODUCTION
The most valuable asset of any organization is its human resource. Human resource
is the sum of inherent abilities, acquired knowledge and skills represented by the
talents and aptitudes of the employed persons in an organization. Therefore, it is
imperative that to achieve organizational goal, human resources are utilized to the
maximum.
The attitudes, feelings and emotions of employees play a vital role in
determining their behaviour and performance at the work place. Which in turn
determine the success and growth of the organization. Morale is a very widely
used term. It generally refers to esprit de corps, a feeling of enthusiasm, zeal and
confidence in individuals or groups that they will be able to cope with the tasks
assigned to them.
A person’s enthusiasm for his job reflects his attitude towards work,
environment and to his employer, and his willingness to strive for the goals set for
him by the organization in which he is employed. Feelings, emotions, sentiments,
attitudes, and motives combine and result in a specific behaviour; and this is what
is referred to as employee morale. It represents the attitudes of individuals and
groups in an organisation towards their work environment and towards voluntary
cooperation to the full extent of their capabilities for the fulfillment of organisational
goals. A positive or negative morale is what influences the performance of an
employee.
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Morale
5.1 OBJECTIVES

NOTES • Explain the meaning, types and aspects of morale
• Discuss the characteristics of high and low morale
• Explain the essential and psychological requirements for high morale
5.2 MORALE: MEANING, TYPES AND ASPECTS
Edwin Flippo (1961) defined, morale as ‘… a mental condition or attitude of

individual and groups which determine their willingness to cooperate.’Yoder Dale
(1972), on the other hand, explained morale as ‘the overall tone, climate or
atmosphere of work perhaps regularly sensed by the members. If workers appear
to feel enthusiastic and optimistic about group activities, if they have a sense of
mission about their job, if they are friendly with each other, they are described as
having a good or high morale. If they seem to be dissatisfied, irritated, cranky,
critical, restless and pessimistic, they are described as having poor or low morale.’
Elton Mayo defined it as ‘the maintenance of cooperative living’, which means a
sense of belongingness. On the other hand, many authors defined morale as a
‘pursuit of a common purpose’, attitude, individual and group job satisfaction,
participative attitudes, team spirit, etc. Whatever may be the way of defining, it is
evident that morale is a cognitive concept, encompassing feelings, attitudes and
sentiments, which together contribute to a general feeling of satisfaction in the
workplace.
Like morale, motivation is also a cognitive concept, but it is different from
morale on certain important aspects. Motivation stimulates individuals into action
to achieve desired goals. It is, therefore, functions of need and drives. It mobilizes
energy, which enhances the potential for morale. Morale on the other hand, is the
individual or group attitude towards a particular subject. It contributes to general
feeling of satisfaction at the workplace. It is, therefore, is the function of freedom
or restraint towards some goal. It mobilizes sentiments, which form an important
part of organizational climate. Attitudes and sentiments, i.e., morale, per se, affect
productivity. High morale is an index of good human relations, which, inter alia,
reduces labour turnover, absenteeism, indiscipline, grievances, etc.
Factors which affect morale are primarily attitude and job satisfaction level
of individual employees. From the organizational point of view, such factors can
be delineated into, organizational goals, leadership style, attitude of co-workers,
nature of work, work environment and the employee himself.
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Morale
5.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH AND
LOW MORALE AND ESSENTIAL AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS
FOR HIGH MORALE NOTES
High morale is, conventionally, considered as a contributor to high productivity,

but such correlation may not be always true. This is because the high productivity
may be the outcome of many other organizational initiatives, which may be
independent of employee morale. Hence, even with low employee morale, high
productivity is achievable. This can be illustrated using the model of Prof. Keith
Davis, which goes as follows:
Cause Group YEARS

1994 1995 1997 1998
No. of Percent No. of Percenta No. of Percenta No. of Percenta

disputes age to disputes ge to total disputes ge to total disputes ge total
total
Wages and 354 29.4 320 30 305 23.4 233 21.2
Allowances
Personnel 194 16.2 195 18.3 261 20.0 175 16.0
Retrenchment 19 1.6 10 0.9 7 0.5 8 0.7
Lay-off 3 0.2 4 0.4 7 0.5 6 0.6
Indiscipline 185 15.2 145 13.6 246 18.9 225 18.9
Violence 20 1.7 14 1.3 13 1.0 7 0.6
Leave and Hours of 17 1.4 21 2.0 31 2.4 14 1.3
Work/shift Working
Bonus 92 7.8 79 7.4 112 86 123 11.2
Gherao 1 0.1 1 0.1 – – – –
Non-implementation 37 3.1 43 4.0 43 3.3 32 2.9
of Agreements,
Awards, etc.
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Morale Charter of Demands 55 4.6 61 5.7 68 5.2 97 8.8
Workload 10 0.8 10 0.9 9 0.7 6 0.6
Surplus Labour 1 0.1 – – 1 0.1 – –
Betterment of 16 1.3 18 1.7 34 2.6 12 1.1
Amenities
NOTES
Suspension/Change of 1 0.1 – – – – 1 0.1
Manufacturing
Process
Standing 50 4.2 52 4.9 34 2.6 13 1.2
Orders/Rules/Service/
Conditions/Safety
Measures
Others 118 9.8 57 5.4 85 6.5 89 8.1
Not Known 21 1.7 29 2.7 37 2.8 49 4.5
Total 201 100 1066 100 1305 100 109 100
Check Your Progress

1. State one difference between motivation and morale.
2. What are the two factors which affect morale?

QUESTIONS
1. Motivation stimulates individuals into action to achieve desired goals. It is,

therefore, functions of need and drives. It mobilizes energy, which enhances
the potential for morale. Morale on the other hand, is the individual or group
attitude towards a particular subject.
2. Factors which affect morale are primarily attitude and job satisfaction level
of individual employees.
5.5 SUMMARY
• Edwin Flippo (1961) defined, morale as ‘… a mental condition or attitude

of individual and groups which determine their willingness to cooperate.’
• Yoder Dale (1972), on the other hand, explained morale as ‘the overall
tone, climate or atmosphere of work perhaps regularly sensed by the
members.
• If workers appear to feel enthusiastic and optimistic about group activities,
if they have a sense of mission about their job, if they are friendly with each
other, they are described as having a good or high morale.
• If they seem to be dissatisfied, irritated, cranky, critical, restless and
pessimistic, they are described as having poor or low morale.’
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• Elton Mayo defined it as ‘the maintenance of cooperative living’, which Morale
means a sense of belongingness.

• On the other hand, many authors defined morale as a ‘pursuit of a common
purpose’, attitude, individual and group job satisfaction, participative
NOTES
attitudes, team spirit, etc.
• Like morale, motivation is also a cognitive concept but it is different from
morale on certain important aspects.
• Motivation stimulates individuals into action to achieve desired goals. It is,
therefore, functions of need and drives.
• Morale on the other hand, is the individual or group attitude towards a
particular subject. It contributes to general feeling of satisfaction at the
workplace.
• High morale is an index of good human relations, which, inter alia, reduces
labour turnover, absenteeism, indiscipline, grievances, etc.
• Factors which affect morale are primarily attitude and job satisfaction level
of individual employees.
• High morale is, conventionally, considered as a contributor to high
productivity, but such correlation may not be always true.
• This is because the high productivity may be the outcome of many other
organizational initiatives, which may be independent of employee morale.
Hence, even with low employee morale, high productivity is achievable.
5.6 KEY WORDS
• Productivity: It is the effectiveness of productive effort, especially in industry,

as measured in terms of the rate of output per unit of input.
• Morale: It refers to the confidence, enthusiasm, and discipline of a person
or group at a particular time.
• Leadership: It is a process by which an executive can direct, guide and
influence the behavior and work of others towards accomplishment of
specific goals in a given situation.

EXERCISES

1. What do you understand by morale?
2. What is considered as high morale?
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Morale Long Answer Questions
1. Differentiate between morale and motivation.
2. Give a diagrammatic description of characteristics of high and low morale
NOTES and essential and psychological requirements for high morale.
London: Pearson.
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Motivation
UNIT 6 MOTIVATION
Structure NOTES
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Meaning, Importance and Types of Motivation in Industry
6.3 Monetary and Non-Monetary Incentives
6.4 Fatigue, Boredom and Monotony: Meaning, Causes and Remedies
6.6 Summary
6.7 Key Words
6.0 INTRODUCTION
A key element in personnel management is motivation. It is important for employees

to stay motivated in order to achieve their personal as well as organizational goals.
Motivation is an important factor that encourages employees to give their best
performance to fulfil their roles. Motivation is directly proportional to performance.
A strong positive motivation will enable the increased output of employees, but a
negative motivation will reduce their performance.
According to Likert, “It is the core of management which shows that every
human being gives him a sense of worth in face-to face groups which are most
important to him….A supervisor should strive to treat individuals with dignity and
a recognition of their personal worth.” Motivation is a psychological phenomenon.
When a person feels the lack of certain needs, he works more to satisfy those
needs. The need satisfying ego motivates a person to do better than he normally
does.
Motivation in management describes ways in which managers promote
productivity in their employees.
6.1 OBJECTIVES

• Explain the meaning, importance and types of motivation
• Discuss the concept of motivation in industry
• Describe the meaning of fatigue, boredom and monotony
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Motivation
6.2 MEANING, IMPORTANCE AND TYPES OF
MOTIVATION IN INDUSTRY
NOTES To motivate means to incite. It is to create a desire to do a thing or to create a

willingness to work in the manner in which we want a work to be done. It is
distinct from the capacity to work. Yet in another way, it can be defined as a force
that gives rise to behaviour—or influence the behaviour to do a thing. It is feeling
or urge to do or not to do a thing to fulfil certain needs. Various management gurus
like, Taylor, Mayo, Follet, Fayol, Maslow, McGregor, Herzberg, Chris Argyris,
McClelland and many others have contributed to the theories of motivation. Here,
however, our principal concern is to consider only behavioural aspects of motivation.
Motivation Elements
Motivational perceptions of all type of employees throughout the world are fast
changing in response to a number of key variables. The conventional motivational
reinforcers, either extrinsic or intrinsic are gradually losing importance. What exactly
can motivate an individual again varies with time and space. In India also, it is not
at all possible to identify and indicate one single motivational tool commonly
applicable to various cross-section of employees. However, we can try to appreciate
the relative importance of one or the other tool for a particular segment of employees
belonging to some homogenous organizations.
Here we have discussed motivational elements in detail, supported by various
leading theoretical and empirical works.
Theories of Motivation
By now it has been established that motivational factors are perceived needs of
the employees, satisfaction of which contribute to employees’ performance and
productivity. However, motivation, per se, can be better defined as a process of
governing choices. This process may be internal or external to the individual, that
arouses enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain course of action. Motivation
process starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or a need that
activates a behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive. All the definitions,
therefore, authenticate that motivation is a behavioural syndrome, which develops
when there is a perceived incongruence in employees’ needs and expectations.
With the widening of such perceived gap, employees feel demotivated and reduce
their level of performance and productivity. On the contrary, if the gap gets reduced,
employees feel motivated and contribute their best for achieving organizational
objectives. From the organizational point of view, motivation process follows
certain defined steps, which as a continuum, need to be periodically reviewed and
strategized to ensure the proper renewal of the process. This helps to maintain the
motivation of employees, which are evident from their behavioural congruence,
matching organizational objectives.
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In the first stage, it is important to identify the need deficiency of employees, Motivation
if any. Need deficiency centres around extrinsic and intrinsic needs. Extrinsic needs
are those which are related to material and tangible gains. Increased pay, incentives,
bonus, better medical facilities, better retirement benefits, better canteen facilities
are some examples of extrinsic needs. Intrinsic needs, on the other hand, are those NOTES
which are related to the mental satisfaction and are abstract in nature. Increased
status, challenge, sense of belongings, scope for growth and creativity, recognition,
sense of achievement, etc., are examples of such needs. Identification of need
deficiency is possible through direct observation of employees’ behaviour and
through a survey using structured questionnaire response. However, employees,
by and large, feel sensitized about giving responses to a survey questionnaire,
obviously fearing they will get identified for giving any response that criticizes
organizational policy. Confidentiality in survey responses can be ensured through
a secret opinion poll, where questionnaire does not require any employees’ identity.
However, for better results, it is always desirable to integrate survey findings with
personal interview, which can be in the form of an open discussion with employees
by their respective seniors. Some organizations try to document such information
from 360degree Performance Appraisal, incorporating certain items in the appraisal
form itself. The existence of need deficiency can also be understood from the
trend of employees’ performance, developing a performance index or productivity
index.
In the second phase of motivational process, organizations try to identify
appropriate strategy to close the perceived need gap of their employees. There
are many innovative ways to close such need gap without impairing the budget
much. To take an example, the need for an increase in the pay structure can be
ensured by reducing deferred benefits, i.e, Non-wage Labour Cost (NWLC) and
including such reduced amount to the current pay structure of the employees. This
is particularly important for those organizations who mostly employ young people
in exploratory age group (less than thirty-five years). Similarly, making pay and
performance linked also facilitates the development of a proper compensation
structure to reward and motivate good performers. Similarly, the gap of intrinsic
needs can be reduced, by adopting an enabling organizational structure, which
among others foster creativity and growth.
Thus, in the third phase of motivational process, organizations enforce goal-
directed behaviour. Goal-directed behaviour enhances performance and productivity
of employees, which further influence compensation strategy and other motivational
reinforcers.
Likewise, the cycle continues as an ongoing process in an organization, as
at the end of the continuum, needs are again re-evaluated to understand the emerging
need deficiency, if any. In Figure-6.1 below, we have illustrated the model as a
continuum.
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Motivation
NOTES
Fig. 6.1 Motivation Model
Important Objectives of Motivation

Motivation enhances performance and improves productivity. Therefore, motivation
fulfils following important objectives of an organization:
(i) Motivation ensures productive use of resource. Physical, financial and human
resources are the important resource constituents for an organization. Proper
utilization of such resources is only possible when people in the organization
feel motivated. Motivation leads to goal-directed behaviour, which in turn
facilitates productive utilization of all such resources. Important measures
for the productive use of resources are Total Factor Productivity Indices
and Labour Productivity Indices.
(ii) The second important objective of motivation is increased efficiency of
people. Efficiency of motivated people increases, as it augments their
willingness to work. Increased efficiency also contributes to cost reduction.
(iii) Thirdly, a motivated employee also becomes quality conscious, as
behaviourally he identifies himself with the organization and always tries to
take an extra care for his jobs. Motivation, therefore, also strengthens quality
objectives of an organization.
(iv) Fourthly, by promoting goal-directed behaviour, motivated employees also
help to realize organizational objectives and strategies.
(v) Motivation also promotes friendly work culture, increased morale, increased
sense of responsibility, sense of belongings, integration of individual identity
with organizational identity, team work, participative decision making, etc.
All these together create an environment for creativity and growth and truly
transform an organization as enabling one.
(vi) Finally, motivation ensures organizational stability by reducing employee
turnover and absenteeism.
Mechanism of Motivation
The word ‘motivation’ is used to describe the drive that impels an employee to
work. Therefore, the process starts with physiological (extrinsic) or psychological
(intrinsic) needs, satisfaction of which activates the drive to achieve a goal. Thus,
the mechanism of motivation starts with a need, which activates a drive towards a
Self-Instructional goal. This we can explain using Figure 6.2.
56 Material
Motivation
NOTES
Fig. 6.2 Mechanism of Motivation
At this stage, it is important to understand the basic differences between the

terms motive, motivation and motivating. Motive is the inner state that activates
and directs the behaviour of individuals towards certain goals. The inner state of
an individual is created out of the perceived need imbalance. The degree of
imbalance decides a strong motive or a weak motive and accordingly, an individual
propels himself into action. Thus, motives create drives that energize people into
action. While motive energizes action, motivation is the actual action or work
behaviour. The degree of work behaviour decides the level of motivation. If an
employee performs well, putting his best efforts, we consider his motivation as
high, whereas, in the reverse case, we consider it as low. Motivating, as is used in
motivating environment, implies inducements to energize work behaviour. This is a
managerial role, as it satisfies both individual and organizational needs. Mangers
always try to sustain the motivating environment to get the work done in an effective
and efficient manner. For this purpose, managers need to understand the degree
of motive strength of employees. We have already explained the process of
identification of need deficiency. Since, needs or motives are the reasons for a
work behaviour, the managers, for effective decisions, need to plot the motives
with the degree of importance, which can be done in the following manner.
Fig. 6.3 Different Motives
(A, B, C, D, E and F denote different motives, which may be compensation, promotional

opportunities, functional autonomy, creativity, challenge and flexibility in policies)
Using the Pareto diagram, a manager can optimize the motive strength as
Pareto principle suggests every problem (for us it is the motive strength) is the
result of few causes and all causes are not equally important, ‘a vital few: trivial
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Material 57
Motivation many’. This means by taking care of 10–15 per cent of motive strengths, managers
can reduce the need gaps in 70–80 per cent areas. This is because of
interdependence and interrelationships in motive strengths. A typical Pareto diagram
looks as follows:
NOTES
Fig. 6.4 Pareto Graph
Importance of Motivation in Organizations

As already explained, motivation is a part of directing function of organization.
When managers act as good motivators, he/she can influence the members of the
organization to feel motivated and deliver the desired results. Thus, motivation
exerts the ‘learned influences on human behaviour.’ It is the degree to which an
individual wants and chooses to engage in certain behaviours. Why is individual
behaviour so important in trying to understand and influence motivation? The
answer lies in following reasons:
• Every individual has a set of needs and a different set of goals
• Individuals behave in a way as to satisfy their needs and fulfil their goals.
Therefore, individuals behave differently
• Businesses, as organizations, are in a position to offer some of the satisfactions
that individuals seek, for example, relationships, sense of belonging,
intellectual stimulation, mental and physical challenge, and self-development
For organizations, motivation is important because motivated employees contribute
to:
• Higher productivity, (i.e., they produce more for a given level of resources
than poorly-motivated workers)
• Better quality work with less wastage
• A greater sense of urgency (things happen quicker when they need to)
• More employee feedback and suggestions are made for improvements
(motivated workers take more ‘ownership’ of their ‘work’)
• More feedback demanded from superiors and management
• Working at 80–95 per cent of their ability
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Theories of Motivation Motivation
We have already discussed theories of motivation in brief. Here, we will discuss

major theories of motivation with some critical notes. Before we proceed further,
let us examine the process of development of the theory of work motivation as NOTES
given in Figure 6.5.
Frederick W. Taylor (1856–1917)
Taylor, considered to be the father of scientific management, observed the prosperity
of management and workforce are interdependent. People are inherently capable
to do hard work, but they show such qualities irregularly. To harness such
potentiality pay and rewards (incentives) must be linked to the achievement of
‘optimum goals’. While good performers get rewards and better pay, bad
performers loose on this count.
Elton W. Mayo (1880–1949)
Mayo and his associates through a series of experiments, known as Hawthorne
Experiments (Western Electric Co., USA, 1927–1932) established that work
satisfaction and hence, the performance is basically not economic. It depends
more on working conditions and attitudes, communications, positive management
response and encouragement, working environment, etc.
Fig. 6.5 Work Motivation

Source: Luthans, Fred. 1998. Organisational Behaviour, 8th edition, Pp, 169. Boston:
Irwin/McGraw-Hill.
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Motivation Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)
Maslow, through his Need Hierarchy Theory established that motivation of people
arises from levels, a hierarchy of needs. The essence of his theory can be
NOTES summarized as follows:
1. Wants and desires of human beings influence their behaviour. Already satisfied
wants and desires do not act as motivators. People show their motive or
behaviour to fulfil their unsatisfied wants and desires.
2. Needs of the people are arranged in order of their perceived priority or
hierarchy. Perceived need factors of people vary.
3. People can advance from one level of need hierarchy to another, only when
their preceding need factors are satisfied. To take an example, without
satisfaction of lower-order needs like, physiological and safety, people
cannot advance to the satisfaction of belongings or social needs.
4. More the people advance to the higher-order needs, the more they display
their satisfaction and motivation to work.
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory divides human needs into five distinct categories
as follows:
Fig. 6.6 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological needs are the basic needs of human beings which are essential
to sustain or survive. Such needs include food, water, air, clothing, shelter, etc.
From the organizational point of view such needs are met through salary and basic
working conditions.
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Safety needs ensure protection from economic and physical environment. Motivation
People expect some reasonableness in their perceived environment, which minimizes

the degree of uncertainty. Job security, degree of continuity, order, structure and
predictability are precisely the nature of such needs. Organizations fulfil such needs
of the employees by ensuring a protective work environment. Need for NOTES
belongingness and love arises after satisfaction of earlier two lower order of needs.
This kind of needs is also known as social needs. People in this need level develop
a strong sense of affiliation and get concerned with love, affection, belongingness,
acceptance and friendship. Organizations meet such needs by providing appropriate
work culture to help employees identify with the organization.
At self-esteem need level, employees look for satisfaction of their esteem
or egoistic needs. Esteem needs pertain to self-respect and respect or esteem
from others. Self-respect is ensured by achieving competence, confidence, personal
strength, adequacy, success, independence and freedom. While respect from others
come from prestige, recognition, acceptance, attention, status, reputation and
appreciation, organizations, to fulfil such needs of employees, provide challenging
work assignments, performance feedback, performance recognition, participative
work culture, empowerment, participation in decision making, etc.
At the self-actualization need stage, employees desire to become what they
are capable of becoming. They want to create something of their own using their
talent, capacities and potentialities. Organizations try to fulfil such needs of
employees by nurturing an environment that fosters creativity and growth.
Critical Evaluation of Need Hierarchy Theory
Concepts of needs help the managers to understand the human behaviour at work.
It also accounts for interpersonal variations in human work. Another important
aspect is that it is dynamic as the model defines motivation as a constant changing
force.
Despite above advantages, the theory is criticized for following reasons:
1. The theory has no empirical support. Moreover, it is not a theory of
work motivation. Maslow even did not intend to relate his theory to
work motivation. Maslow’s theory was in fact popularized by Douglas
McGregor and others, as work motivation theory.
2. It is not possible to put needs in strict defined levels. In fact, hierarchy of
needs is simply a misnomer. An employee who is motivated by self-
actualization need may still have lower-order needs like food and shelter.
3. The theory is not culturally aligned. It is more specific to western culture
than anything else. However, work is perceived differently in different
culture. Hence, motivations to work are different in different countries;
sometimes it even varies within a country, from one individual work
group to another. Therefore, the theory cannot hold good for
heterogeneous work groups.
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Motivation 4. Maslow’s existential philosophy is questioned as people may not like to
remain content and plateaued with the satisfaction of their lower order
needs. They may like to move further up in the hierarchy.
5. Diagnosing need deficiency for employees, following Maslow’s approach
NOTES
is time consuming. Even after such diagnosis, it may not help an
organization to develop a tailor-made model for employee motivation.
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory or Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Frederick Herzberg (1959), extending the work of Maslow, developed the Content
Theory of Motivation. His study is based on responses of 200 accountants and
engineers, drawn from eleven industries in Pittsburgh area in the USA. Using critical
incident method, he had asked the samples to respond on two aspects as follows:
(i) When did they feel particularly good about their job
(ii) When did they feel exceptionally bad about their job
Herzberg found that the samples described different types of conditions for good
and bad feelings. Factors responsible for job satisfaction are quite different from
the factors they perceive as contributors to job dissatisfaction. It means that
employees are dissatisfied about their jobs not because of the absence of the
factors that they consider to be satisfying in their jobs. Their reported good feelings
were found to be associated with job experiences and job content. While, their
reported bad feelings were found to be associated with the peripheral aspects of
job. Since, his study was based on a two-factor hypothesis, we call his theory
two-factor theory. As his study established that opposite of satisfaction is not
dissatisfaction and removing dissatisfying elements from a job does not necessarily
make the job satisfying, he has classified the factors into two categories:
(i) Motivation factors
(ii) Hygienic or Maintenance factors
Herzberg mentioned six motivation factors as given in the following:
(i) Recognition
(ii) Advancement
(iii) Responsibility
(iv) Achievement
(v) Possibility of growth
(vi) Job content or work itself
Presence of these factors in the job creates a motivating environment but the
absence of these factors does not cause dissatisfaction.
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Similarly, Herzberg mentioned ten hygiene or maintenance factors as follows: Motivation
(i) Company policy and administration

(ii) Technical supervision
(iii) Interpersonal relations with subordinates NOTES
(iv) Salary
(v) Job security
(vi) Personal life
(vii) Working conditions
(viii) Status
(ix) Interpersonal relations with supervisors
(x) Interpersonal relations with peers
These factors are context factors. Their existence just creates an environment
for doing work. However, factors by itself cannot motivate people to work. In
Herzberg’s words, their absence can dissatisfy people but their presence, per se,
cannot satisfy people.
The crux of the Two-factor Theory of motivation therefore, is that managers
should be concerned about both the satisfying and dissatisfying factors. Mere
improvement of hygienic factors cannot guarantee a motivating environment. In
Figure 6.7, we have presented the essence of Herzberg theory, using a diagram.
Fig. 6.7 Hygiene Factors and Motivators
Critical Evaluation of Herzberg’s Theory

Herzberg’s theory is first of its kind based on field research unlike Maslow’s work,
which was based on clinical observations (laboratory-based findings), Herzberg
did his study to understand motivation in work environment. Secondly, Herzberg’s
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Motivation study recommends actions for managers to improve motivation in work
environment. His emphasis on content factors, shifts the focus from traditional
concept, where money was viewed as the most potent factor for work motivation.
Thirdly, Herzberg had also contributed to the alternative approach to motivation
NOTES by job enrichment. Finally, Herzberg had considered two dimensions of the
employees’ needs, instead of the absolute categorization into five distinct levels,
as was done by Maslow.
Despite all the above listed merits, Herzberg’s theory has also been subjected
to following criticisms:
(i) It is limited by its methodology. When things go well, people tend to
take credit for the success. Contrarily, they attribute failures to the
external environment.
(ii) Herzberg’s theory is also method bound. We cannot get the same
results by using other methods. Critical incident method, by nature,
may cause people only to recall the recent incidents or experiences.
Moreover, while narrating a critical incident, respondents get wide
flexibility to give vent to their opinions rather than the realities. Thus,
according to many survey findings were more of opinions than actual
happenings.
(iii) Herzberg’s model talks more about job satisfaction than job
motivation.
(iv) The theory ignores situational variables as it is not backed by adequate
research in different work environments.
(v) Even though the theory assumes a relationship between job satisfaction
and productivity, the methodology applied by Herzberg limits its focus
only on job satisfaction and not on productivity.
Comparison of Maslow and Herzberg’s Models
Herzberg’s framework is compatible with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Maslow
referred to the needs or motives, whereas, Herzberg dealt with goals or incentives
which tend to satisfy those needs. To illustrate, hygiene or maintenance factors of
Herzberg are satisfied by physiological, safety and belongingness needs of Maslow,
while motivation factors of Herzberg tend to be satisfied by self-esteem and self-
actualization needs of Maslow. It is for this reason Herzberg’s theory is often
considered, as an extension of Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory. Despite such
similarities, there are some major differences between the two theories. Maslow’s
need hierarchy is a sequential arrangement of needs, whereas, Herzberg’s model
does not have any such hierarchical arrangement. Maslow believed that any
unsatisfied need, irrespective of its level of hierarchy, can be a potential motivation.
On the contrary, Herzberg believed that only the higher-order needs serve as
motivators.
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Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham (1975) developed a Job Characteristic Motivation
Model on Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory, showing how a good job design can
lead to internal motivation of the employees and contribute to better job
performance. The theory postulates that five job characteristics lead to three
psychological states, which affect the motivation and satisfaction of the employees. NOTES
The five job characteristics are: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy
and feedback.
Skill variety is the extent or range of skills, abilities and talents of employees.
The more they are able to utilize skills in the job, the greater their level of satisfaction.
Hence, jobs are to be designed in a way that ensures the utilization of wide variety
of skills of individuals. Task identity signifies the extent of involvement of employees
in the job. This enables an individual to identify himself in the total creation, which
gives him a sense of pride and satisfaction. Task significance, on the other hand,
denotes significance of a job on the life of others—both within and outside the
organization. A positive significance of a job gives psychological satisfaction to the
person who does it. Autonomy is the extent of freedom given for a job. The degree
of autonomy depends on the extent of independence given to an employee in
deciding about job scheduling, formulating the procedures, decision making without
interference of others. The more the job autonomy, the greater the job satisfaction
and so also motivation. Feedback provides the opportunity to assess the right or
wrong for doing a job.
The three psychological states, which an individual experiences, are as follows:
Skill variety, task identity and task significance provide experienced
meaningfulness. Autonomy provides ‘experienced responsibility’, whereas,
feedback ensures ‘experienced knowledge of results’.
Once an employee experiences arousal of these three psychological states,
they feel intrinsically rewarded, which results into intrinsic motivation.
Hackman and Oldham developed a Motivating Potential Score (MPS),
based on their study, which measures the propensity of a job to become motivating.
The formula is presented below:
ERG Theory
Clayton Alderfer (1972) of Yale University developed ERG Theory based on the
empirical research. He modified Maslow’s five levels of needs to three levels and
labelled them as needs for Existence, Relatedness and Growth. The name ERG
has been derived from the first letters of each such need.
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Motivation ERG theory differs from Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory in following
ways:
(i) Instead of five need hierarchies, ERG Theory considers only three
need hierarchies.
NOTES
(ii) Need Hierarchy Theory postulates rigid progression from one need
level to another, whereas, ERG Theory assumes that more than one
need may be operative simultaneously. This means an employee
working on growth need, may even remain unsatisfied in relatedness
and existence needs.
(iii) Basic postulate of ERG theory is that it works on Frustration–
Regression Model. If for any reason, employees continually become
frustrated to satisfy their needs at one level, they intensify their desire
to satisfy lower level needs. It is like a failure to get recognition is
compensated by the desire to make more money. Contrarily, Maslow
suggests people stay at a certain need level, till they are able to satisfy
the same.
Critical Evaluation of ERG Theory
ERG Theory is pragmatic in its approach, as it takes into consideration the individual
differences among people. Individual differences in terms of education, family
background and culture can alter the motive strength vis-à-vis the perceived need
factors. The theory is more appealing, intuitive and logical than Maslow’s Need
Hierarchy Theory. Despite such advantages, the theory does not offer any clearcut
guidelines. It just indicates that people get motivated to behave in a particular way
to satisfy one of the three sets of needs, i.e., the need for existence, the need for
relatedness and the need for growth. Moreover, the theory is yet to be backed by
adequate research.
McClelland’s Three Needs Theory (nAch, nAff, nPow) or Achievement
Motivation Theory
David C. McClelland (1976), through his twenty years of study at Harvard
University, documented differences in needs of the people in three important areas
as under:
(a) Achievement need (nAch): People in this need category drive to excel,
to achieve in relation to a set of standards. They like challenge and
like to succeed in a competitive environment. They willingly work
hard and volunteer for work which stretches their ability fully. This
category of people does not get motivated by money. They feel more
motivated with a sense of accomplishment and achievement.
(b) Affiliation Need (nAff): This need emerges from the desire for friendly
and close interpersonal relationships. Obviously, they try to fulfil such
needs with satisfying relationships with the organization, peer groups,
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work teams, etc. Since this need group people try to identify them Motivation
with the organization, they always prefer to foster a friendly work

culture and try to meet their needs through friendly relations.
(c) Power Need (nPow): People in this need group always try to get
NOTES
satisfaction by controlling others. This need emerges from the drive
for superiority. Obviously, people in this need category look for
leadership positions in the organization.
Evaluation of the Theory
McClelland highlighted the importance of matching individual and the job. People
with high achievement need always prefer challenging job assignments, whereas,
people with low achievement need, prefer a job situation that ensures stability,
security and predictability. Organizations by manipulating the achievement need
can get the complex jobs accomplished by high achievers. However, McClelland’s
work is criticized on many important counts like, how a sense of achievement or
other associated motives can be inculcated in an adult employee. McClelland
contends that this can be taught, and thus, motives related to achievement, etc.,
can be developed in an adult. This contention is not tenable in the psychological
literature. Secondly, McClelland contends that needs can be changed through
education and training; however, psychologists contend needs are permanently
acquired.
Third, Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT) used for the study by McClelland
is also subject to criticism as the interpretation of responses using TAT can be
subjective, depending on the personal thoughts and opinions of the researcher.
Theory X and Theory Y
Douglas McGregor (1990) of MIT defined organizations as psychological entities.
Therefore, organizations can be characterized by their assumptions about what
motivates people. The basic hypothesis is that managerial decisions and actions
are based on certain assumptions about human nature and human behaviour.
McGregor proposed two distinct views and assumptions about human behaviour.
A group of people was categorized by him under Theory ‘X’ and positive behaviour
group people was categorized under Theory ‘Y’. Employees labelled as Theory
‘X’ dislike work, are lazy, dislike responsibility and they need to be coerced to get
the work done. Employees labelled Theory ‘Y’ like work, creativity, responsibility
and they can exercise self-direction. Motivational implications of McGregor’s
analysis, therefore, can be best analysed in the context of Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Theory. Theory X–labelled people can be motivated by the satisfaction of lower-
order needs, whereas, Theory Y–labelled people can be motivated by the
satisfaction of higher-order needs.
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Motivation Attributes of different people falling under Theory X and Theory Y categories
as observed by Maslow are presented in the chart below:
S. Theory X attributes S. Theory Y attributes
No. No.
NOTES 1. The average human being 1. People of this group exercise self-
inherently dislikes work and will direction and self-control in
always try to avoid work. achieving objectives to which they
have committed.
2. People with such inherent 2. Commitment to objective is a

characteristics must be coerced, function of reward associated with
controlled, directed and their achievement.
threatened with punishment to get
work done from them.
3. The average human being prefers 3. The average human being learns
to be directed, avoids (under proper conditions) not only
responsibility, less ambitious and, to accept but to seek responsibility.
above all, likes security.
4. For motivating this group of 4. They have the capacity of

people, an organization has to imagination, intensity and
enforce strict control and creativity in the solution of
restrict the motivational organizational problems.
reinforcements only to those
areas that fulfil their lower-order
needs.
5. Organizations are able to only

partially utilize their potentials.
6. People with these attributes need to

be developed so that they can
release their potential towards
common objects. These people, by
and large, can be motivated with the
satisfaction of their higher-order
needs.
Cognitive or Process Theories of Motivation

Content theories of motivation lay emphasis on the importance of inner needs in
motivation. On the contrary, cognitive models or process theories of motivation
put emphasis on the idea that people take conscious decisions about their job
behaviour. Therefore, to motivate, the process theory suggests that organizations
must understand how an individual takes decisions and what efforts he puts for the
job. Expectancy Theory, Equity Theory and Performance Satisfaction Model are
the important approaches to understand the cognitive or process theories of
motivation.
Expectancy Theory
This theory essentially emphasizes that people feel increasingly motivated if they
perceive that:
(i) their effort will result in successful performance
(ii) successful performance will ensure desired results
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Expectancy Theory has different names like, Instrumentality Theory, Path- Motivation
Goal Theory and Valence–Instrumentality–Expectancy (VIE) Theory. It has its

roots in the cognitive concepts of Kurt Lewin and Edward Tolman and in the
choice behaviour and utility concepts from the Classical Economic Theory.
However, it was Victor H. Vroom (1964), who formulated the Expectancy Theory, NOTES
as an alternative to content models, for work motivation. The theory identified
relationships among variables, which affect individual behaviour in a dynamic
environment. It was an attempt to capture how people determine their extent of
effort for a job and how such effort gets influenced by their perceived expectation.
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an
expectation of outcome, which is likely to accrue upon the accomplishment of the
job. So, motivation is the product of strength of one’s desire (valence) and
perceived probability of getting some thing good (expectancy). We can show
such relationships as under:
Valence is the degree of desirability of certain outcomes. It is, therefore, the

strength of an individual’s preference for a particular outcome, which may either
be a promotion or a pay rise or recognition, etc., after he successfully accomplishes
the job. Since people may have positive or negative preferences for an outcome,
valence may be negative or positive. Hence valance may vary from –1 to +1.
Expectancy is the perceived possibility of a particular outcome that would
follow after an action. It is, therefore, the strength of belief that an act will be
followed by particular outcomes. The strength of expectations is based on the
past experience. People expect what will happen in the future on the basis of what
has occurred in the past. As expectancy is an action-outcome association it may
range from zero to one. If employees perceive no possibility of an outcome from
certain acts, their expectancy would be zero, whereas, on the contrary, the value
of expectancy would be one, when they feel (from their experience of action-
outcome relationship) that they are likely to achieve something.
Vroom has used one more term in between expectancy and valence, which
is usefulness or instrumentality. Instrumentality is the belief that the first-level outcome
would lead to the second-level outcome.
To take an example, one may be motivated for a performance of the superior
level, for his desire to get promoted. Here, the first-level outcome (superior-level
performance) is seen as being instrumental for the second-level outcome
(promotion).
Therefore, the strength of motivation to perform a certain act will depend
on the sum of the products of the valences (including instrumentality) and the
expectancies, which can be represented as follows: Self-Instructional
Material 69
Motivation
Motivation Strength = åV ´ I ´ E
Evaluation of the Theory: It is believed that content theories oversimplified
the complex process of work motivation, whereas on the contrary, Vroom’s model
NOTES highlights the importance of organizational behaviour, clarifying the relationship
between the employees and the organizations. His model has generated research
interests among the corporate and academic circles. The theory also has a cognitive
dimension as individuals are viewed as thinking and rational beings, and they just
do not simply act for the satisfaction of their unfulfilled needs.
Despite such unique features in Vroom’s approach, his theory was also
criticized for following aspects:
(i) It needs to be adequately tested in different work environment.
(ii) Employees may not always take a conscious decision. It was observed
that they were also prone to take unthoughtful decisions, and later on,
they tried to rationalize the action with their own logic.
(iii) Linkages between efforts-performance and performance-rewards may
not be linear. Organizational policies may further complicate the
process. To take an example, promotion may be on seniority,
educational background, etc.
(iv) The theory is complex. In real life situation, managers may face time
and resource constraints to implement it.
Equity Theory
This theory owes its origin to several contributors like Festinger, Heider, Homans,
Jacques, Patchen, Weick, etc. However, James Stacy Adams’ contribution is much
discussed in the literature on motivation. The theory proposes that in a work
environment, motivation is influenced by one’s perception of how equitably he or
she is treated compared to others. The theory is also known as ‘Social Comparison
Theory or ‘Inequity Theory’. Perceptively, employees try to reduce their inequity
through such comparison or by establishing a hypothetical exchange relationship.
An individual accounts for the amount of work he puts in and corresponding rewards
he gets for the same. He then compares the efforts and rewards of similarly placed
person in the organization. If equity exists, the individual feels good or complacent
about the situation. In case of inequity, it propels him into action to create a condition
of equity. Since inequity propels action, it is the motivator. The greater the perceived
inequity, the greater the motivation to reduce it. While doing so, individuals can
make any of the following choices:
(i) Change or alter inputs
(ii) Change or alter outcomes
(iii) Distort inputs and outcomes
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(iv) Distort inputs and outcomes of others (whom they compare) Motivation
(v) Select a different referent (to compare)

(vi) Withdraw from the field
Evaluation of the Theory: It is a promising theory of work motivation as well as job NOTES
satisfaction. For this reason, it has generated extensive research. Since the basic
theory works on the perception in a social comparison process, it is, by default,
dynamic because inequity in perceived perception motivates employees to restore
equity.
However, the theory is criticized for following reasons:
(i) It is complex and difficult in application
(ii) Perceptions are difficult to measure or assess
(iii) Choosing a ‘comparison other’ may not be always correct
(iv) A given factor may be an input as well as an outcome
(v) The study is based on laboratory experiments rather than in real-life
situations in organizations
Performance Satisfaction Theory
Layman W. Porter and Edward W. Lawler (1968) based on Vroom’s Expectancy
Model, observed that performance leads to satisfaction contrary to our belief that
satisfaction leads to performance. Other interesting observations made by them
are that motivation (efforts), performance (accomplishment) and satisfaction are
separate variables. This again is, in contrast, to our belief that motivation leads to
performance, which in turn leads to satisfaction. Efforts (force or motivation) do
not directly lead to a performance. It is mediated by abilities, traits and role
perceptions. After performance, rewards that follow and the way they are perceived,
determine the satisfaction. The theory is illustrated in Figure 6.8.
Whether an individual will make an effort depends on the interaction between
the value of reward (Box 1) and the perceived effort-reward probability (Box 2).
Effort (Box 3) is the motivation. Performance (accomplishment) (Box 6) is not the
direct consequence of effort. It is the product of effort (Box 3) abilities and traits
(Box 4) and role perceptions (Box 5). Performance leads to certain outcomes in
the form of intrinsic rewards (Box 7A) and extrinsic rewards (Box 7B). Both
intrinsic and extrinsic rewards provide satisfaction (Box-9). However, such reward-
satisfaction relationship is moderated by the perceived equitability of rewards
(Box 8).
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Motivation
NOTES
Fig. 6.8 Performance Satisfaction Theory
Attribution Theory and Locus of Control

Harold Kelley advocated Attribution Theory and Locus of Control, which are
mainly concerned with the cognitive process by which an individual interprets
behaviour attributing to certain parts of the relevant environment. Such casual
relationships or attributes are interpreted by an individual for his own behaviour or
for others’ behaviour. Fritz Heider contended that both perceived internal forces
(ability, efforts and fatigue) and external forces (others’ supervision, machines,
methods, climate, rules and procedures) together determine the behaviour of an
individual. Since, the perceived causes are the determinants of work behaviour
and there are differences in the perception of the people, they behave differently in
a given situation. The concept of locus of control is different from the concept of
attribution. While Attribution Theory is concerned with the identification of the
causes of one’s own, as well as, others’ behaviour, Locus of Control Theory is
applicable to oneself only. Employees may perceive that their own behaviours are
internally or externally controlled. Since, the external control factors (which
influenced their own behaviour) are beyond their own control, employees believe
that their rewards and punishments are dependent on factors like fate, luck or
chance. For internal control factors, they feel they can influence their outcomes
through their own ability, skills or effort. Julian Rotter (1966) developed a twenty-
three-item scale for the measurement of locus of control known as Internal-External
(1 – E) Scale.
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Goal Setting Theory Motivation
Edwin Locke (1968) considered two cognitive determinants of behaviour— values

and intentions (goals). Emotions and desires represent the form of values and
value judgements. Intentions are goals to satisfy desires or emotions (values). Goal NOTES
Setting Theory results in consequences, feedback and reinforcement. The study
suggests that individuals are willing to work hard when they know what is required
from them. Setting specific attainable goals is related to the high level of performance.
Miscellaneous Theories on Motivation
Apart from the theories of motivation listed above, there are certain other theories,
which, however, revolve around the core content or process theories. Those can
be briefly discussed.
H.A. Murray (1938) discussed about Manifest Needs Theory, which is
basically a multivariate approach to the structure of needs. The basic difference
between Murray’s formulation and formulations of Maslow and Alderfer is that
Murray does not suggest a hierarchical order of various types of needs. Based on
several years of clinical observations at the Harvard Psychological Clinic, Murray
argues that intensities of various personality-related needs, taken together, represent
a central motivating force.
R.W. White’s Competence Motive Theory (1959), (quite similar to the
Power Motive Theory of Adler) relates motivation to the desire of employees for
mastery over physical and social environs (Cornell Study).
S. Schachter’s Affiliation Motivation Theory (1959) relates motivation to
the strong need for affiliation.
C. Argyris’ Maturity-Immaturity Theory (1957) relates motivation to an
environment which serves both the needs of the organization and the needs of the
members of the organization (Yale study).
W.F. Whyte’s Money Motivation Theory (1955) suggests that people are
motivated primarily by the desire to make money. However, Whyte contends that
monetary incentives should not be considered in isolation from other non-monetary
incentives.
R. Likert and D. Katz’s Michigan studies (1948) have emphasized the vital
point that a productivity-motivated work-team is really a function of a particular
type of supervisory style. Since, productivity has its root in the motivation of
employees, it can be harnessed by carefully designing an organization, in which the
individual develops a feeling that he has some importance in the organizations.
Leon C. Megginson, for the sake of our convenience, has classified the
leading theories of motivation into three groups that are stated below.
(i) Perspective Theories: Taylor’s Scientific Management Approach,
various human relations theories, McGregor’s Theory Y and Theory
X, which, in reality, tell management to motivate people.
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Motivation (ii) Content Theories: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory, Herzberg’s
Two-factor Theory, McClelland’s Achievement Need Theory, etc.,
which try to identify the causes of behaviour.
(iii) Process Theories: Various behaviouristic theories, which believe in
NOTES
stimulus-response relationship vis-a-vis motivation (e.g., Skinner’s
Behaviour Modification Theory) and Cognitive Theories (e.g., Vroom’s
Expectancy Theory and Porter-Lawler’s Future-Oriented Expectancy
Theory) which deal with the genesis of behaviour.
The brief discussions above regarding different motivation theories, studies
and experiments, taken together, reflect our basic understanding of the concept of
motivation and related aspects in a systematic manner.
Our next phase of discussion has mainly focused on the relevant Indian
studies in this field in order to understand the underlying motive forces determining
the behaviour and performance of the Indian employees.
In India, not many empirical studies on motivation and its related aspects
have been carried out. There are some studies on the industrial workers and some
on technical personnel, supervisors and managers. Most of the studies in India
have attempted to find out the job-satisfaction variables, which have been construed
as the motivational variables.
The first such study in India is by S.K. Bose (1951) on industrial workers
and that has paved the way for other researchers to investigate into the perceived
importance of job-factors to workers.
Most of the studies relating to the industrial workers, during the period
1951–1971, have rated adequate earnings, job security and personal life as the
main factors which determine their behaviour.
H.C. Ganguli’s study (1964) on first-line supervisors (N* = 44), has ranked
incentive, adequate income, promotional opportunities, job security and sympathetic
treatment from superiors as the important job-factors vis-à-vis motivation.
D.K. Lahiri and S. Srivastava’s study (1967), on the middle-management
personnel (N=93), has ranked good organizational policies and administration,
better scope for promotion, good salary, good superior-subordinate relationship
and opportunity for growth as the major determinants of satisfaction.
M.P. Sawalapurkar and others’ study (1968), on middle-level managers
(N=30), has ranked nine job-factors in the following order of importance: job
content, opportunity for advancement, job security, superior, company, working
conditions, facilities, working hours, and grievance alleviation. N indicates number
of people surveyed, i.e., the sample size.
O. Padaki and A.M. Dolke’s study (1970), on job attitudes of supervisors
(N=15) (based on Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory), has found the lack of
recognition, unfavorable superior-subordinate relationship, lack of technically-
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competent supervision, unfavorable organizational policies and administration and Motivation
inadequate salary as the major dissatisfying factors. Another study conducted by

them has also found more or less the same as perceived dissatisfaction.
G.V.S. Rao’s study (1970), on bank managers (N=60), with a view to
NOTES
testing the Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory, has found promotion, company policies
and salary on the dissatisfaction scale.
L. Narain’s study (1971), on public-sector managers (N=1213), has ranked
eight factors in the following order of importance: feeling of worthwhile
accomplishments, recognition, decision-making authority, opportunity for personnel
growth and development, promotional opportunity, prestige of the organization in
the community, pay and fringe benefits and job security. So, as far as the need-
deficiencies are concerned, he has found that promotion, recognition and personal
growth and development respectively show very high degrees of dissatisfaction in
that order.
S.K. Bhattacharyya’s study (1972), on managers (N=210), has shown lack
of participation in goal-setting, inadequate pay, inadequate job-authority and ‘lack
of opportunity given to help people’ on the dissatisfaction scale.
D.M. Pestonjee and G. Basu’s study (1972), on executives (N=80), has
shown promotion and growth, recognition, prestige, organizational policies and
administration and autonomy as the major determinants of satisfaction.
S. Singhal and H.S. Upadhyay’s study (1972) on supervisors (N=22), has
also found opportunities for promotion, job security, working conditions, work
group, opportunities for training, competent and sympathetic supervisors, adequate
income and other facilitates, etc., as major motivational factors.
K.G. Agarwal (1977) has sharply criticized the Indian studies on work
motivation, alleging that such researches suffer from a number of inconsistencies
mainly because those have been carried out practically as a part of the job done
for the employees with a view to helping them reduce production costs. Thus, the
measures, suggested by such researchers, have always proved to be short-term
remedies, and much-spoken-about theories on motivation have come more like
fads or fashions than something substantial and lasting. Thinking in line with U.
Pareek (1974), he has developed a Stratification Model of Work Motivation with
variables like, social system, self-status and role. Pareek has assumed the societal
system as a very important variable in the field of motivation that causes or
determines that behaviour of an individual in an organization.
B.R. Sharma’s study (1981), on administrators in Delhi (N = 67), has found
power-motive as the main guiding force for motivation.
Sharma’s study (1982), on supervisors (N = 3378), drawing samples from
fifty manufacturing organizations, both in the public sector and the private sector,
has obtained score values for different factors that influence motivation.
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Motivation The score values are presented below:
Superintendent-management relations 63.21%
Monetary benefits 60.30%
Objectivity and rationality 56.00%
NOTES
Recognition and appreciation 51.32%
Welfare facilities 48.39%
Scope for advancement 47.32%
Grievance handling 45.83%
Training and education 43.46%
Participative Management 39.68%
The study has been carried out on a three-point scale—low, medium and
high frequencies.
S. Neelamegham and D.K. Vaid’s study (1986), on motivation of the sales
force
(N=116), has found the highest need-deficiencies with respect to prospects
of promotion and recognition for good work.
It is important to note that the major Indian studies are on supervisory and
managerial personnel. Another important feature of the Indian studies is that most
of the studies have been carried out with a small sample, using only conventional
methods like ranking, percentage calculation, etc. Some studies have been carried
out simply to authenticate Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory, while some others are
highly opinionated studies without much adherence to the norms of sampling and
survey methods. Even, in most of the cases, suitable structured close-ended
questionnaire was not administered. Those are simple inferences after informal
discussions with the samples, mostly drawn without following any proper sampling
procedure. Another feature is that most of the studies are based on experiences of
single industrial units. Representative results are difficult to obtain from a survey
based on a small sample drawn from a single unit.
Check Your Progress

1. What is the third phase of motivational process?
2. State one objective of motivation.
3. Who developed the content theory of motivation?
6.3 MONETARY AND NON-MONETARY

INCENTIVES
As has been discussed, rewards play an important role in the process of motivating
employees in an organization. Rewards fulfil a variety of needs, influence emotion,
and shape or represent a person’s self-identity. In order to motivate employees
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successfully, managers need to be knowledgeable about the types of rewards that Motivation
can be provided to employees. Organizations reward their employees for their

membership and seniority, job status, competencies, and performance.
Rewards Based on Membership and Seniority NOTES
The duration for which an employee stays in an organization, thereby determining
his seniority, affects the kind of pay-packet that he is likely to receive. Many
organizations reward their employees on the basis of the number of years they
have served in the organization. Japanese firms typically increase every employee’s
pay rate for each year on the job or for age, although some companies are moving
towards performance-based pay (Park 1996). Many Indian organizations try to
use a combination of both seniority and performance based-pay.
Seniority-based rewards are attractive for the applicants and also provide a
level of security that minimizes stress and builds loyalty (Newman and Krzystofiak
1998). The problem with seniority-based rewards is that they do not directly
motivate job performance. They also discourage poor performers from quitting as
they do not have better job options available. Instead, the good performers are
attracted to better-paying jobs.
Rewards Based on Job Status
Companies try to evaluate the worth of each job in the process of job evaluation.
Jobs which require high skills and abilities, have more responsibility, and difficult
working conditions are placed higher in the order of importance and are rewarded
more. Government-based jobs generally rely on the pay commission
recommendations to reward high status. In the private sector, people at higher
status jobs are rewarded with large offices, company-paid vehicles, and other
attractive perks.
Rewards which are based on status motivate employees to work harder to
compete for the higher position in the organizational hierarchy. This also minimizes
pay discrimination between the sexes by ensuring that jobs dominated by women
receive similar pay as the jobs dominated by men in the organization. However,
status-based rewards may create a psychological distance between employees
and management, thereby inhibiting communications across these groups. They
also encourage traditional hierarchy and are inconsistent with flatter organizational
structures and the increasing emphasis on knowledge. Sometimes, the employees
may create a façade of doing a good job by rewriting their job description and not
by raising their productivity.
Rewards Based on Competency
Competencies are the skills, knowledge, and other underlying characteristics that
lead to superior performance (Kochanski 1997). Competency-based rewards
are the organizational rewards that are not based on status or position, but on
skills, competence, and abilities of the employees. The employees are rewarded
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Motivation for their competencies such as customer service, technical knowledge, and creativity
(Lawler 2000).
Skill-based pay plans represent a variation of competency-based pay. In
skill-based pay plans, employees’ pay rates increase with the number of skill
NOTES
modules they master (Murray and Gerhart 2000). Through special training and
job rotation, employees learn how to operate another machine or complete another
set of tasks. An employee’s pay rate depends on the number of skill modules that
he has mastered, not on the specific jobs performed on a particular day.
Rewards based on competency and skills improve flexibility as employees
possess a variety of skills to move into different jobs as required. The quality of
product or service also enhances because employees possess multiple skills to
perform tasks.
This also facilitates continuous learning on the part of the employees leading
to longer employability. The only problem that can arise is the subjectivity arising
out of the measurement of competencies, particularly when the competencies are
personality traits or values (Crumpley 1997).
Rewards Based on Performance
The rewards based on performance can be classified into individual rewards,
team rewards, and organizational rewards (Table 6.1).
Table 6.1 Types of Rewards Based on Performance
Individual Reward Team Reward Organizational Reward

• Piece rate • Gain sharing • Stock ownership
• Commissions • Bonuses • Stock options
• Royalties • Profit sharing
• Bonuses
Individual rewards
Piece rates are the wage rates calculated based on the number of units produced
by the employees. The reward paid on the basis of sales volume is called
commission. When a percentage of revenue is paid to the individual from the
resource or work assigned to him, it is called royalty. Bonuses are offered for
accomplishing specific tasks or achieving certain goals.
Team rewards
Most companies now prefer to enforce a team-based reward system in place of
individual rewards. One of the most popular team-based rewards is the gain-
sharing plan. Gain-sharing motivates team members to reduce costs and increase
labour efficiency in their work processes. Gain-sharing enhances team dynamics
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and pay satisfaction. They also add to strong effort–performance expectancy as Motivation
most of the activities are under the control of the team. In other words, team
members quickly learn that their work efficiencies increase the size of the gain-
sharing bonus (Cooper and Dyck 1992).
NOTES
Organizational rewards
The most common organizational rewards are:
Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs) These plans encourage employees
to buy shares in the company, usually at a discounted price or with a zero-interest
loan from the company. Employees are subsequently rewarded through dividends
and market appreciation of these shares. It enables them to own stocks of their
company and enjoy tax benefits. They can also use the ESOPs as security to
obtain loans from financial institutions.
Organizations strategically plan their ESOP structure. It is a special incentive
structure where a company creates a trust and makes regular contributions to the
trust in the form of shares or cash. If the contribution is made in cash, the trustee-
manager buys the company’s shares from the secondary market. Each employee
has a separate account to which the shares are credited. When an employee leaves
the company, he receives the shares in his account. If the shares are not traded in
the secondary market, the company has to buy back the shares from the employee
at a fair price. They make annual contributions in a special trust set up for ESOPs.
For example, Infosys has created an employee welfare trust to allocate shares to
its employees. The company contributes to the trust, and the employees generally
do not pay for these shares. The company continues to contribute to the trust until
the employee quits, dies, retires or his services are terminated. Another example is
that of Tata Technologies which provides fresh recruits with the benefit of ESOPs
since they are the first to initiate work in a new venture.
Stock options These options give employees the right to purchase company stock
at a future date at a predetermined price. Under a stock option plan, a company
assigns options to its employees. The option gives employees the right to buy
shares at a specified price during a specified period. These options are not traded
on stock exchanges.
A company may, for instance, grant each employee the right to buy 500
shares at ‘100 after 2 years. Employees will exercise their options only if the stock
price in the secondary market is higher than ‘100. If the secondary market price is
lower, the option will be allowed to lapse. Stock options are typical examples of
employee benefit plans in India. For example, Wipro provides its employees with
the Wipro Employee Restricted Stock Unit Plan 2004, which is given to all eligible
employees of the company, all its subsidiaries as well as to all the directors except
promoter directors and directors who directly or indirectly hold more than 10% of
the outstanding equity shares of the company. The objectives of this stock option
are to attract, retain, and motivate talented employees; encourage employees to
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Motivation align individual performance with company objectives; reward employee
performance with ownership in proportion to their contribution; and align employee
interests with those of the organization.
Profit-sharing plans These plans consist of paying bonuses to the employees on
NOTES
the basis of the previous year’s corporate profits. It is the process of sharing the
profits earned by the organization with all the employees. Indirectly, all organizations
follow the profit-sharing plan by giving out dividends.
Most companies that follow profit-sharing programmes report consistent
productivity improvement. Profit-sharing increases productivity as it increases
involvement in decision making, partly because of the financial incentives and partly
because of the greater perceived employee ownership within firms. Profit-sharing
incentive plans are practised in retail and FMCG sectors. Other sectors too
implement the plan based on organizational policies.
Procter & Gamble was the first company in the United States to introduce
a profit-sharing programme, in 1887. Today, approximately 25% of the company
is owned by its former and current employees. Even workers in the manufacturing
plants often own hundreds of thousands of dollars in company stock, thanks to a
lucrative profit-sharing plan. In return, the company gets an assurance that top-of-
the-line employees (who could possibly make more in base salary elsewhere) will
remain with the company for years to come.
Organizational rewards create an ownership culture in which employees
feel aligned with the organization’s success. Profit sharing helps to automatically
adjust employee compensation with the firm’s prosperity, thereby reducing the
need for layoffs or negotiated pay reductions during recessions (Cheluis and Smith
1990).
The main disadvantage is that employees often perceive a weak connection
between individual performance and corporate profits or the value of company
shares. The rewards also fail to motivate employees when profits are negligible
and when stock prices decline in bear markets. Morale may suffer in companies in
such conditions (Leckey 2001).
6.4 FATIGUE, BOREDOM AND MONOTONY:

MEANING, CAUSES AND REMEDIES
The occurrence of boredom in our day-to-day lives especially in the work place
should motivate the behavioral scientists to seek increased understanding of the
phenomenon and how it affects quality of life. It is fairly visible that the occurrence
of boredom is widespread, and job-related boredom has considerable negative
impact upon organizational goals and societal functioning. In-fact it also has a
negative impact on the individual’s health and well-being. The consequences of
increased intensity of boredom leads to consequences such as performance
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decrements and changes in attitude and in physical and cognitive functioning Motivation
occurring within the individual.

Each of these changes suggests an area where more research is needed to
understand fully the effects of boredom and the conditions under which they occur.
NOTES
Effects on Performance
Though it is often assumed that the general impact of boredom, fatigue and monotony
on work performance is fairly negative; conclusions about the effect of boredom
on performance have often been reached by evaluating performance over a period
of time on tasks that are assumed to be boring rather than by directly measuring
boredom itself. Performance efficiency under boring conditions is apparently related
to the amount of effort expended, although the person successful in maintaining
performance pays a higher toll in the level of irritation, fatigue, and physiological
changes experienced as increasingly greater effort is required.
Lowered performance on boring jobs is generally attributed to shifts in
attention “away from the task. Theories of arousal suggest that attentional shifts
may be a function “of increased reticular activation initiated to break up perceptual
sets. Alternately, shifts in attention may represent a deliberate behavioral
compensation for a decrease in arousal.
Still unresolved is the question of when, and under what conditions, brief
attentional shifts may fulfill an adaptive function without detrimental effects. Also,
the extent to which boredom is reflected in a performance decrement probably
depends more upon the interaction of the task demands with the coping strategies
of the person than upon individual skill level. By developing an in-depth
understanding of the meaning of boredom in organizations, organization members
can learn to constructively confront their boredom, thereby expanding their
awareness and improving employee performances.
Check Your Progress

4. What are competency-based rewards?
5. Define piece rate.

QUESTIONS
1. In the third phase of motivational process, organizations enforce goal-

directed behaviour.
2. One objective of motivation is to ensure productive use of resource.
3. Frederick Herzberg (1959), extending the work of Maslow, developed the
content theory of motivation.
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Motivation 4. Competency-based rewards are the organizational rewards that are not
based on status or position, but on skills, competence, and abilities of the
employees.
5. Piece rates are the wage rates calculated based on the number of units
NOTES
produced by the employees.
6.6 SUMMARY
• To motivate means to incite. It is to create a desire to do a thing or to create

a willingness to work in the manner in which we want a work to be done.
It is distinct from the capacity to work.
• Various management gurus like, Taylor, Mayo, Follet, Fayol, Maslow,
McGregor, Herzberg, Chris Argyris, McClelland and many others have
contributed to the theories of motivation.
• Motivational perceptions of all type of employees throughout the world are
fast changing in response to a number of key variables.
• Motivation process starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency
or a need that activates a behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or
incentive.
• All the definitions, therefore, authenticate that motivation is a behavioural
syndrome, which develops when there is a perceived incongruence in
employees’ needs and expectations.
• In the first stage, it is important to identify the need deficiency of employees,
if any. Need deficiency centres around extrinsic and intrinsic needs. Extrinsic
needs are those which are related to material and tangible gains.
• In the second phase of motivational process, organizations try to identify
appropriate strategy to close the perceived need gap of their employees.
• In the third phase of motivational process, organizations enforce goal-
directed behaviour.
• Goal-directed behaviour enhances performance and productivity of
employees, which further influence compensation strategy and other
motivational reinforcers.
• Motivation enhances performance and improves productivity.
• Motivation ensures productive use of resource. Physical, financial and human
resources are the important resource constituents for an organization.
• The second important objective of motivation is increased efficiency of
people.
• Motivation also promotes friendly work culture, increased morale, increased
sense of responsibility, sense of belongings, integration of individual identity
with organizational identity, team work, participative decision making, etc.
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• The word ‘motivation’ is used to describe the drive that impels an employee Motivation
to work. Therefore, the process starts with physiological (extrinsic) or

psychological (intrinsic) needs, satisfaction of which activates the drive to
achieve a goal.
NOTES
• Motive is the inner state that activates and directs the behaviour of individuals
towards certain goals.
• Using the Pareto diagram, a manager can optimize the motive strength as
Pareto principle suggests every problem (for us it is the motive strength) is
the result of few causes and all causes are not equally important, ‘a vital
few: trivial many’.
• Taylor, considered to be the father of scientific management, observed the
prosperity of management and workforce are interdependent. People are
inherently capable to do hard work, but they show such qualities irregularly.
• Mayo and his associates through a series of experiments, known as
Hawthorne Experiments (Western Electric Co., USA, 1927–1932)
established that work satisfaction and hence, the performance is basically
not economic.
• Maslow, through his Need Hierarchy Theory established that motivation of
people arises from levels, a hierarchy of needs.
• Physiological needs are the basic needs of human beings which are essential
to sustain or survive.
• At self-esteem need level, employees look for satisfaction of their esteem
or egoistic needs. Esteem needs pertain to self-respect and respect or esteem
from others.
• At the self-actualization need stage, employees desire to become what they
are capable of becoming. They want to create something of their own using
their talent, capacities and potentialities.
• Concepts of needs help the managers to understand the human behaviour
at work. It also accounts for interpersonal variations in human work.
• Frederick Herzberg (1959), extending the work of Maslow, developed the
Content Theory of Motivation.
• The crux of the Two-factor Theory of motivation therefore, is that managers
should be concerned about both the satisfying and dissatisfying factors.
• Herzberg’s theory is first of its kind based on field research unlike Maslow’s
work, which was based on clinical observations (laboratory-based findings),
Herzberg did his study to understand motivation in work environment.
• Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham (1975) developed a Job Characteristic
Model on Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory, showing how a good job design
can lead to internal motivation of the employees and contribute to better
job performance.
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Motivation • The theory postulates that five job characteristics lead to three psychological
states, which affect the motivation and satisfaction of the employees.
• The five job characteristics are: skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy and feedback.
NOTES
• Skill variety is the extent or range of skills, abilities and talents of employees.
The more they are able to utilize skills in the job, the greater their level of
satisfaction.
• Clayton Alderfer (1972) of Yale University developed ERG Theory based
on the empirical research. He modified Maslow’s five levels of needs to
three levels and labelled them as needs for Existence, Relatedness and
Growth.
• McClelland highlighted the importance of matching individual and the job.
• People with high achievement need always prefer challenging job
assignments, whereas, people with low achievement need, prefer a job
situation that ensures stability, security and predictability.
• Douglas McGregor (1990) of MIT defined organizations as psychological
entities. Therefore, organizations can be characterized by their assumptions
about what motivates people.
• Content theories of motivation lay emphasis on the importance of inner
needs in motivation.
• On the contrary, cognitive models or process theories of motivation put
emphasis on the idea that people take conscious decisions about their job
behaviour.
• Expectancy Theory has different names like, Instrumentality Theory, Path-
Goal Theory and Valence–Instrumentality–Expectancy (VIE) Theory.
• Valence is the degree of desirability of certain outcomes. It is, therefore, the
strength of an individual’s preference for a particular outcome, which may
either be a promotion or a pay rise or recognition, etc., after he successfully
accomplishes the job.
• Expectancy is the perceived possibility of a particular outcome that would
follow after an action.
• Vroom has used one more term in between expectancy and valence, which
is usefulness or instrumentality. Instrumentality is the belief that the first-
level outcome would lead to the second-level outcome.
• Layman W. Porter and Edward W. Lawler (1968) based on Vroom’s
Expectancy Model, observed that performance leads to satisfaction contrary
to our belief that satisfaction leads to performance.
• Harold Kelley advocated Attribution Theory and Locus of Control, which
are mainly concerned with the cognitive process by which an individual
interprets behaviour attributing to certain parts of the relevant environment.
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• The concept of locus of control is different from the concept of attribution. Motivation
• While Attribution Theory is concerned with the identification of the causes

of one’s own, as well as, others’ behaviour, Locus of Control Theory is
applicable to oneself only.
NOTES
• Since, the external control factors (which influenced their own behaviour)
are beyond their own control, employees believe that their rewards and
punishments are dependent on factors like fate, luck or chance.
• Edwin Locke (1968) considered two cognitive determinants of behaviour—
values and intentions (goals). Emotions and desires represent the form of
values and value judgements.
• H.A. Murray (1938) discussed about Manifest Needs Theory, which is
basically a multivariate approach to the structure of needs.
• The basic difference between Murray’s formulation and formulations of
Maslow and Alderfer is that Murray does not suggest a hierarchical order
of various types of needs.
• R.W. White’s Competence Motive Theory (1959), (quite similar to the
Power Motive Theory of Adler) relates motivation to the desire of employees
for mastery over physical and social environs (Cornell Study).
• S. Schachter’s Affiliation Motivation Theory (1959) relates motivation to
the strong need for affiliation.
• C. Argyris’ Maturity-Immaturity Theory (1957) relates motivation to an
environment which serves both the needs of the organization and the needs
of the members of the organization (Yale study).
• W.F. Whyte’s Money Motivation Theory (1955) suggests that people are
motivated primarily by the desire to make money.
• S. Neelamegham and D.K. Vaid’s study (1986), on motivation of the sales
force
• (N=116), has found the highest need-deficiencies with respect to prospects
of promotion and recognition for good work.
• It is important to note that the major Indian studies are on supervisory and
managerial personnel.
• Another important feature of the Indian studies is that most of the studies
have been carried out with a small sample, using only conventional methods
like ranking, percentage calculation, etc.
6.7 KEY WORDS
• Compensation: It is the total cash and non-cash payments that you give to
an employee in exchange for the work they do for your business.
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Motivation • FMCG: Fast-Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) are products that are
sold quickly and at a relatively low cost.
• Inequity: It means lack of fairness or justice.
NOTES
EXERCISES

1. Briefly discuss the concept of motivation in the industry.
2. What are theories of motivation?
3. Discuss Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory or Motivation-Hygiene Theory.
Give its critical evaluation.
4. Draw a comparative study between Maslow and Herzberg’s Models.
5. Write a short note on Attribution Theory and Locus of Control.
6. What are the various miscellaneous theories on motivation?
1. Explain the meaning and types of motivation in the industry. What are the
objectives of motivation?
2. Describe any three theories of motivation in detail.
3. Critically examine the ERG theory.
4. Give a detailed description of cognitive or process theories of motivation.
5. Discuss the Indian studies on motivation theories.
London: Pearson.
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Group Behaviour
UNIT 7 GROUP BEHAVIOUR

Structure NOTES
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Meaning, Definition and Advantages of Groups
7.3 Types of Groups
7.4 Group Dynamics
7.5 Group Norms
7.6 Group Cohesiveness
7.8 Summary
7.9 Key Words
7.0 INTRODUCTION
When two or more interdependent individuals come together and interact to achieve
particular objectives it is known as a group. The course of action that all the
members of the group collectively take is called group behavior. Groups can be
classified into types namely formal groups and informal groups. The formal groups
work towards achieving organizational goals.
These groups are created by the organization and have designated work
assignments and specific tasks. Formal groups are further divided into two sub-
groups which are command group and interest group.
On the other hand, as the term suggests, informal groups are formed with
friendships and common interests. Just like formal groups, this group too can be
further divided into two sub-groups known as task group and friendship group.
This unit discuss the meaning, and other dynamics of groups in detail.
7.1 OBJECTIVES

• Discuss meaning, definition and advantages of groups
• Explain types of groups
• Describe group dynamics and group norms
• Assess and explain group cohesiveness
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Group Behaviour
7.2 MEANING, DEFINITION AND ADVANTAGES
OF GROUPS
NOTES In general, a number of people together at a given place and given time can be
considered a group. People in a bus or the same compartment of a train or students
in a class are all known as groups. However, from an organizational point of view,
a group has a different meaning and definition. According to Marvin Shaw, “A
group is two or more persons who are interacting with one another in such a
manner that each person influences and is influenced by each other person.” There
are two key elements in this definition that are essential. First is the “interaction”
among group members. For example, co-workers may work side by side on
related tasks, but if they do not interact with each other, they are not a group in the
organizational sense. The second element is the influence of one group member on
every other group member. This means that the group members are mutually
dependent with respect to the attainment of one or more common goals.
While all individuals in the group are primarily required to direct their efforts
towards common organizational goals, there may be situations where individuals
within the group are more interested in the achievement of their personal goals,
thus making the organizational goals secondary. For example, a member of the
high school basketball team may be more interested in highlighting his own
performance in order to win a college scholarship irrespective of whether the
entire team wins or not, even though all members of the team interact with each
other and influence each other’s performance.
It should be noted that in order for the group members to interact with each
other effectively, the group size should be reasonably small. It is difficult to interact
closely with each other when the group size is very large. In fact, the dynamics of
large groups are significantly different from the dynamics of small groups.
Accordingly, our concern is primarily with groups of reasonable size.
Reasons for Group Formation
Why do individuals form themselves into groups? What are the reasons for forming
or joining a group and what are the benefits to such individuals who become a part
of the group? There are many factors that influence the formation of the group,
the most important being that the individual need satisfaction. This means that the
members expect affiliation with the group to satisfy a need. This need is primarily
a social need for love, affection and friendship, which is the third level need in
Maslow’s model of hierarchical needs. But the need could also be economic in
nature because of economic group incentives, that are generally financially more
generous than individual incentives. Also, being a member of a union is economically
advantageous because unions can fight for higher pay and fringe benefits more
effectively.
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The most basic theory explaining group affiliation is the geographic proximity. Group Behaviour
For example, individuals working in the same area are more likely to form a group
than those who are not physically located together. Similarly, students sitting near
each other in a classroom are more likely to form into a group than students sitting
at opposite ends of the classroom. NOTES
According of George Homans, there are three elements that form the
foundations of groups. These are activities, interactions and sentiments. These
three elements are inter-related. An improvement in one element will trigger an
improvement in others. For example, the more activities persons share, that means
improvement in the first element, the more interaction will take place and stronger
will be their sentiments.
While there are many reasons why individuals would either form or join a
group, some reasons standout. A sense of belonging and interpersonal attraction
may be so strong that some people are willing to pay a high price for joining an
exclusive country club, golf club or flying club. Some of the more important reasons
are illustrated as follows.
Personal Characteristics
People are more likely to form groups with others who share similar beliefs, values,
and attitudes. As the saying goes, “birds of a feather fly together”, so the groups
form around common political and cultural philosophies, ethnic and religious
affiliations and such factors as age, sex, intelligence or similar interests and hobbies.
For example, salesmen who are high need achievers may want to interact with
other high achiever salesmen. There is also a contradictory saying that, “opposites
attract each other”. There may be situations where some dominant individuals
may seek the company of submissive individuals specially when this grouping leads
to achievement of a common goal. For example, if a vice-president and a low-
level clerk of the same company lose their jobs, they may form a group to fight the
company together.
Interests and Goals
Interests and goals that are common and require cooperation with others for
achievement of such goals are a powerful force behind such group formation.
Individuals with common goals tend to work together. For example, within an
organization, the salesmen form a group, so do the production people and the
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Group Behaviour accounting people. Even though the salesmen may have individual goals, their
organizational goal is common.
Some goals simply cannot be achieved by individuals alone and they require
group cooperative activity. For example, the sky-scrapers cannot be built by one
NOTES
person alone. It requires group efforts in all areas of building. Similarly, there are a
number of groups involved in constructing and sending a satellite into space. If
these individuals in the group with a common group and organizational goal also
have similar personal characteristics, then the group cohesion can be strengthened,
and group efforts can be improved. Some groups form because of similar intellectual
and recreational goals and pursuits. Golf clubs, chess clubs and hunting clubs are
some of the groups with recreational pursuits. Groups are often organized to
accomplish some problem solving and decision-making tasks such as designing
political strategies or designing computers.
The goals can also be social and emotional in nature. Thus, the groups are
formed because of the individual’s need for safety and security, sense of belonging
and affiliation and self-esteem. Safety and security needs of individuals are satisfied
though groups. Even from the early days, men used to go out hunting for food
together in groups to face outside threats from animals and other hostile
environments. Group formation is likely when the environment becomes hostile
and threatening. For example, in times of floods, fire or other natural disasters,
neighbours who may not be even speaking with each other form effective groups
to help and shelter the people affected by such disasters. In an organizational
setting, individual workers join unions because the unions have the ability to meet
their needs and interests as well as protect them from threats of being fired.
A sense of belonging is the third level need in Maslow’s model of hierarchical
needs. It is an emotional need for friendship, love, affection and affiliation with
others. Most people have strong a need for being with others who can understand,
support and help them when they are in need and render them moral and emotional
support in times of difficulty. The concept of family and friends fills this need.
Membership of prestigious groups is a source of enhanced self-esteem.
The members of the group feel good about themselves by virtue of the group’s
power, prestige and social standing. For example, being in United States Marines
or SWAT team can be a source of pride for the members.
Opportunity for Interaction
When people are provided with an opportunity to interact, they may discover that
they have a lot in common, thus necessitating the formation of a group. This
interaction leads to friendships and group formation, for example, in college
dormitories, apartment complexes and sometimes in the compartment of a train or
on cruise ships where people are together and have an opportunity to form informal
groups.
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In an organizational setting, management generally tries to create a physical Group Behaviour
as well as psychological environment to induce interaction. Sometimes, the offices

are designed in such a manner that people who need to interact with each other
can do so and they are assigned work space close to each other. Common cafeterias
and coffee breaks given at the same time increases opportunity for interaction. NOTES
Influence and Power

There is a saying in India that, “while a single one is just a one, two single ones
make it an eleven”. We all know that there is strength in unity. Henry Fayol’s last of
the fourteen principles of effective administration is “Espirt de Corps”, which means
the “power of spirt of togetherness”. There is another saying supporting the same
sentiment, “united we stand, divided we fall”.
Most managers listen to a complaint of employees when the employees
approach the managers together. The same managers may not listen to individual
complaints. In the case of one college, that the author knows, there were many
individual faculty complaints against the President of the college for some of his
decisions and actions, as well as against many aspects of the physical and conceptual
academic environment of the college. But the President refused to listen or show
sympathy for the needs and desires of faculty on individual basis. But when the
faculty as group in the form of “faculty organization” approached the President
with their problems and difficulties and the President still refused to listen, he was
forced to resign, because of the power of the group.
Groups also provide opportunities for individual members to become leaders
of the group and influence other members of the group with their views and
reasoning. As a leader of a group, he may influence people outside the group or
other groups. Leaders of certain groups are often called upon to speak to other
groups thus giving them an opportunity to express their own view points and
ideologies. These leaders may also find that their leadership roles give them
increased public visibility and may prove to be stepping stones for enhancement of
their own careers.
7.3 TYPES OF GROUPS
From an organizational behaviour point of view, there are basically two types of
groups. These are: formal groups and informal groups.
Formal Groups
A group is formal when it is purposely designed to accomplish an organizational
objective or task. It is created via a formal authority for some defined purpose.
A formal group can be a command group or a functional group that is relatively
permanent and is composed of managers and their subordinates who meet regularly
to discuss general and specific ideas to improve product or service. A typical
command group in an organization chart may be illustrated as follows. Self-Instructional
Material 91
Group Behaviour
NOTES
The formal groups usually work under a single supervisor, even though the
structure of these groups may vary. For example, in one form of group such as in
production, the members of the work group depend on each other as well as on
the supervisor and in another form of group, such as sales force, the members of
the group work fairly independently and their common contact may be the district
sales manager.
Other types of formal groups include task forces and committees. The task
forces are temporary in nature and are set up for some special projects. The
committees can be permanent, such as a planning committee, a finance committee
or a budget committee and may become an integral part of the organizational
structure. A committee can also be temporary such as a special task force that is
set up for a particular purpose and is then disbanded when the purpose is achieved.
For example, the committee to re-elect the President is temporary in nature and is
disbanded after the election.
Informal Groups
Whereas formal groups are established by organizations to achieve some specific
objectives, the informal groups are formed by the members of such groups by
themselves. They emerge naturally, in response to the common interests of
organizational members. They are formed spontaneously, without any formal
designation, and with common interests such as self-defence, work assistance
and social interaction. They exist outside the formal authority system and without
any set rigid rules. Though officially unrecognized, they exist in the shadow of the
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formal structure as a network of personal and social relations, that must be Group Behaviour
understood and respected by the management.

The informal work groups are based upon socio-psychological support
and reasoning and depend upon member’s interaction, communication, personal
NOTES
likings and dislikings and social contacts within as well as outside the organization.
How powerful are these informal groups can be seen from the fact that if one
member of the group is fired, sometimes all workers go on strike in support of that
member of the group. The bonds between members are very strong and these
bonds bring in a sense of belonging and togetherness. This togetherness can have
a powerful influence on productivity and job satisfaction, since employees motivate
each other and share each other’s burden by training those who are new and by
looking up to old timers for guidance, advice and assistance.
Informal groups generally result due to personal bonds and social interaction
among people who work together at the same place and may have similarities as
well as differences in their nature and their outlook. These groups have their own
leaders and followers, group goals, social roles and working patterns. They have
their own unwritten rules and a code of conduct, that every member implicitly
accepts. Members trust and help each other. For example, in a department of a
college, the departmental secretary may wield more authority in some areas than
even the chairperson as in the case of typing exams and typing course outlines.
Thus a professor who has a good rapport with the secretary, as a member of the
informal group, would have the papers typed sooner than others.
The leadership of the informal groups develops from within rather than a
formal election. An individual, who is working in a group for a long time and has a
good rapport with other members, may emerge as a leader due to his technical
expertise and his seniority. For any problem within the group, either technical or
social, the members would go to this leader rather than the formally assigned
supervisor.
Some of the other aspects of informal groups are as follows:
Group norms: Parallel to performance and other standards established by the
formal organizational structure, the informal groups have their own norms as rules
of conduct and a standard of behaviour that is expected of all members. These
norms may be established in consultation with the management, so that group
goals do not conflict with the organizational goals. For example, if one member of
the group is unproductive or talks ill about the organization, he may be sanctioned
by other members either by reprimand or ridicule or simply by the “silent treatment”.
Similarly, if one member is overly productive in order to be in the good books of
management personally, thus making the other members look bad, he could be
similarly sanctioned in order to bring him back in line. A study conducted by P.C.
De La Porte showed that the group norms that are favourable to the organization
are: organizational pride, team work, honesty, security, planning, customer relations
and so on. The norms about profitability and supervision were unfavourable to the
organization. Self-Instructional
Material 93
Group Behaviour Groups roles: There is an unwritten assignment within the group as to which task
will be done by whom and under what conditions. Some job roles are assigned by
the management by matching the job description with the person’s qualifications
and some other roles develop within the group. For example, some members may
NOTES informally be technical advisors to others as to how to do the job better and
others may act as arbitrators in social problems or other differences that may arise
among members.
Group goals: The goal of the informal group, whether it be profitability that conflicts
with the organizational goals or customer service which is in accord, heavily
influences productivity. It is necessary to integrate the group goals with the
organizational goals for the purpose of improvement and success.
Leadership: The informal leader emerges from the group either because of his
personal charisma, his social status or his technical expertise. He is not formally
elected but is accepted in the minds and hearts of the workers. These leaders
influence the behaviour of others and remain leaders as long as they are sincere to
the group interests.
Group cohesiveness: Cohesiveness refers to the degree and strength of
interpersonal attraction among members of the group. High degree of cohesion is
highly motivating in achieving the group goals. Members help each other and support
each other. The degree of cohesiveness depends upon the commonness of the
perceived group goal, the size of the group and the ability of the group leader to
facilitate cohesion. Group cohesion also has synergetic effects where, together
they produce much more by the collective efforts than the sum product of the
individual efforts. (Detailed discussion of groups cohesiveness follows later.)
The informal groups are powerful instruments in all organizations and
sometimes they can make the difference between success and failure. When the
group members “want” to do a job, it is always done better than when they “have”
to do it because of instructions from the superiors. A cooperative group makes the
supervision easier thus lengthening the effective span of management. The group is
also there to make sure that the basic principles of the formal organization are not
violated. For example, if a manager misuses his authority and promotes an
unqualified person, the informal group may use its influence in making sure that it
does not happen. The informal group also serves as an additional channel of
communication to the management about conditions of work when such information
may not be available through official channels.
One problem with an informal group is that it is primarily centered towards
human elements, that can be highly unpredictable affecting the smooth operations
of the organization. Due to rules and procedures being unwritten, they can change
from situation to situation. Also the informal group can be considered subversive
in nature if their goals conflict with the formal organizational goals. In such situations,
managers often view them with doubt and suspicion. They tend to see informal
groups as potentially harmful to the formal organization. For that reason, some
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mangers seek the support of informal groups and their leaders in order to reduce Group Behaviour
such a threat. They tend to view such informal groups as valid, stable and structurally
sound and hence show consideration and respect for their existence and their
views.
NOTES
Check Your Progress
1. What is the most basic theory which explains group affiliation?
2. Name the three elements that form the foundations of groups.
7.4 GROUP DYNAMICS
The phrase, ‘group dynamics’, came into being in 1944 when Curt Lewin set up
the Research Centre for Group Dynamics, to meet the need of making a scientific
approach to understanding the dynamics of groups.
Definitions of Group Dynamics
In the words of D Cartwright and A Zhander, “Group dynamics should be defined
as a field of inquiry dedicated to advancing knowledge about the nature of groups,
laws of their development, and their interrelations with individuals, other groups
and larger institutions.”
According to Good’s Dictionary of Education, “Group dynamics implies an
interactive psychological relationship in which members of a group develop a
common perception based on feelings and emotions.”
Kretch and Crutchfield viewed group dynamics “as changes that place within
the group.”
In the words of Otto Klineberg, “It is not easy to define or limit the important
area of group dynamics. From one point of view, it represents a field of enquiry, a
series of inter- related problems; from another it includes a set of techniques; from
a third, a theory, of the groups and of interaction within groups.”
The focal point of all the above-mentioned definitions is ‘inter-relation’ or
‘interaction’ among the members of the group.
Meaning of Group Dynamics
The term group dynamics consists of two words, i.e., group and dynamics.
The meaning of a group has already been explained in the previous section.
The word dynamics has its origin from a Greek word, which means force.
Therefore, group dynamics refers to forces operating with the groups. It studies
these forces, the factors that give rise to them, conditions that give them the particular
structure and then modify or change it, the sources that govern the flux of status,
position and role of relationships among members. When a group of people is
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Group Behaviour formed with a common goal, a kind of social force is created. Group dynamics is
related to the field theory of Lewin, which assumes a man’s behaviour to be a
function of the field existing at the time of the occurrence of behaviour. The concept
of field is very dynamic which takes into account the total influence of time, place
NOTES and circumstances of human organism.
Thus, group dynamics may be conceived as the study of group processes,
their objective analysis and measurement and the effect of group membership on
individual members.
The scientific study of group processes, or group dynamics is of great concern
to educators since it corrects the earlier overemphasis of educational psychology
on an individual learner. Findings apply not only to class work, and to student
activities, but also to interviews with students and parents, to faculty meetings and
committees, parent-teacher associations, educational conferences, and various
aspects of educational administration.
Behaviour is not static. Group dynamics means the change of behaviour
through interaction in the group.
Group Dynamics in the Classroom
I A Gates was of the view that group dynamics offered the best means available
for the development of three types of skills, namely, (i) Skills essential for democratic
living, (ii) Skills essential for better social understanding, and (iii) Skills for preparing
the individual members of the group for democratic leadership.
According to D Segal, group dynamics is the process by which one must
consider other individuals in a group, and a problem at the same time, and it not
only tends to increase understanding to the problem, but also creates a solution
which the individual practises in bringing about emotional balance.
A wise teacher can make his classroom teaching, easier and effective, if he
can direct group dynamics into constructive paths. Through group discussion and
activity methods, he can give the individual student a chance to participate actively
and to contribute to group work in the class.
The teacher is expected to understand the various forces working in the
classroom so that he makes use of the forces in his teaching. He must know how
adolescents form groups and should know the structure of these groups in general.
He must understand the pattern of friendship or preferences of the members of the
various groups. The teacher must detect ‘stars’, as well as the ‘isolates’ in the
group to take appropriate action for adjustment.
The teacher must ensure that groups are not formed on the basis of caste,
creed or religion, etc.
It the teacher is well-equipped with the basic knowledge of group dynamics,
he would be in a better position to improve the emotional and social climate in the
class.
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Group dynamics is also influenced by sympathy, suggestion and imitation. Group Behaviour
Sympathy enables the member of a group to perceive the psychological

state of the other member. He begins to feel as others feel.
Suggestion plays a big role in influencing the group behaviour. The suggestions NOTES
put forward by the leader of the group are readily accepted.
The behaviour of the leader of the group is imitated by the members of the
group.
It would be desirable for a teacher to throw some light on the qualities of
leadership so that students choose their leaders wisely and the teacher is able to
influence the class through its leaders. However, it must be stressed, that teacher
must remain neutral in the selection of leaders.
The recent studies have made it clear that for bringing about changes in the
individual, we must bring about changes in the characteristics of the group. The
teachers, therefore, should adopt group methods in the class and through these
influence the attitudes of the members of the group. Group training is better than
individual training.
Some specific group techniques which could be utilized for improvement of
the group process are:
(i) Buzz session in which a small group of five or six students participate,
is organized for purposes of stimulating discussion.
(ii) Role playing, in which problems of handling a situation are dramatized
for the benefit of the group.
(iii) Brain storming, in which a group in organized for stimulating discussion.
(iv) Catharsis, in which a planned group expression of problems of concern
to the group is provided.
(v) Recreational experiences in which opportunities are provided for
participation in dramatics, picnics, parties, etc., to improve the morale
of the group.
7.5 GROUP NORMS
Group norms are the informal guidelines of behaviour and a code of conduct that
provides some order and conformity to group activities and operations. These
rules are expected to be followed by all the group members. These norms and
rules usually develop gradually and informally as group members learn as to what
behaviours are necessary for the group to function effectively. These norms may
include a code of dress for meetings or being on time for the meetings and behaving
in a predictable manner both within and outside the group meetings. This
predictability of behaviour also causes higher degree of cohesiveness within the
group. Predictability reduces chaos, ambiguity and conflict. Discomfort would be
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Group Behaviour high in a committee or a task group, if the group members are not sure as to how
each member would behave. Norms also identify the values and ethics of the
group members. They are established on the basis of what is right and decent and
expected of professionals. For example, some companies have very rigorous dress
NOTES standards, tolerating no deviation, such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation
(FBI).
There are basically two types of norms. These are:
Behaviour norms: These are rules and guidelines defining the day-to-day
behaviour of people at work. This behaviour pattern may include punctuality as a
habit, completing any given assignments within the required time frame-work, not
losing temper, showing respect for other member’s opinions, not monopolizing
the conversation and so on. Certain professionalism is expected from all members
and this professionalism is predictable form of behaviour.
Work norms: Work norms regulate the performance and productivity of individual
members. An overly ambitious worker who produces more is considered as much
a deviate from the norms as a worker who is an under producer. Work norms
usually put an acceptable level of productivity, within reasonable tolerances so
that comparatively poor performers can also be accommodated and that they do
not become a burden on their peers. Workers performing below the lower
acceptable level are generally informally reprimanded and encouraged to produce
more. On the other hand, rate-busters who perform above the upper acceptable
limit set by the group are also ostracized for encouraging the management to raise
its expectations.
In addition to productivity, work norms may also define the extent of time
spent on the job. For example, if coffee breaks are allowed for 15 minutes in the
morning, then those members who do not take coffee breaks at all as well as
those members who take longer coffee breaks are considered as disobeying the
group norms. Thus, groups will often want to regulate not only how much workers
produce, but also how many hours they put in on the job. Some work norms are
strengthened when management tends to exploit some of the members of the
groups. Thus, norms might also define the limits placed upon worker interaction
and cooperation with superiors.
Other work norms might involve loyalty or confidentiality on the part of
members. Workers are not expected to report about fellow workers to supervisors.
Similarly, confidentiality is a powerful group norm so that no matter how much
tension there may be between workers and management, the workers will not
divulge company secrets to competing organizations.
Group norms are generally reinforced if all members agree to abide by
them and the members will agree if they firmly believe that adherence to such
norms will facilitate group goals achievement or ensure group survival and
additionally, such norms do not conflict with individual values and principles. Also,
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the norms are reinforced if the members value their membership in the group and Group Behaviour
do not like the outcomes of violating them. The outcome of violating the group
norms must be sufficiently consequential in order to discourage members to deviate
from them.
NOTES
The groups enforce compliance with norms in many ways. They can reward
people who comply with group norms by appreciating them, by listening to them
in a respectful manner and by making them leaders of the group. Also, they can
take negative actions against those persons who deviate from group norms in the
form of ridicule or “silent treatment” or by withdrawing privileges or by ultimate
action of expelling them from the membership of the group.
7.6 GROUP COHESIVENESS
Cohesiveness defines the degree of closeness that the members feel with the group.
It identifies the strength of the member’s desires to remain in the group and the
degree of commitment to the group. The extent of cohesiveness depends upon
many factors including the compatibility of individual goals with group goals. The
more the members are attracted to each other and the more the group goals align
with their individual goals, the greater the group’s cohesiveness.8 Similarly, less
attraction of members towards each other will lessen the strength of cohesiveness.
There may be situations where an individual may become a member of a country
club for the sake of his own prestige or career enhancement or for making selective
friends for his business interests. These reasons for joining the group will undermine
the strength of cohesiveness.
Factors Contributing to Group Cohesiveness
There are many factors that foster the cohesion of the group. Some of the more
important factors are illustrated below:
These factors are explained in more detail as follows:

Time together: It is quite natural that the more time people spend together, the
more they will get to know each other and more tendency there will be to get
closer to each other, thus strengthening the degree of cohesiveness. This is based
upon the assumption that you will spend more time with only those whom you like
personally and want to continue interacting with them. These interactions typically
lead to common interests and increased attraction. The idea of long courtships or
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Group Behaviour the idea that couples live together before marriage is primarily to ensure that there
will be a high degree of cohesiveness in the marriage if the couple gets to know
each other well by spending more time together and in close proximity to each
other.
NOTES
In an organizational setting, people who work near each other are more
likely to spend more time together. For example, among clerical workers in one
organization, it was found that distance between their desks was the single most
important determinant of the rate of interaction among them.
Group size: Since continuous and close interaction among members is a
fundamental necessity for cohesiveness, it would be natural to assume that large
groups restrict the extent of communication and interaction with each other, thus
resulting in the reduction of degree of cohesiveness. Another problem with large
size groups is that there is a likelihood of forming small groups within the large
groups. This would result in the dilution of the common group goal thus increasing
the extent of power politics play. This tends to decrease the overall cohesiveness.
Another interesting aspect about group cohesion depends upon whether
the group is all male, all female or mixed. Studies showed that if all members were
of the same sex then smell groups had better cohesion than large ones. But when
the groups were made up of both males and females, then larger groups had
better cohesion. It seems that people like to join mixed groups than single sex
groups and an opportunity to interact with a larger set of both sexes increases
cohesiveness.
Difficulty in entry: Some groups are not easy to join. The members are very
carefully selected, and the selected member feels a sense of pride and
accomplishment. The more difficult it is to get into a group, the more cohesive that
group becomes. The reason being that in exclusive and elite groups the members
are selected on the basis of certain characteristics and these characteristics being
common to all add to the degree of liking and attraction towards each other. The
more exclusive the group, the more is the closeness among members. Accordingly,
individuals like to join such exclusive groups. That is one reason, for example,
why many bright students want to study at Harvard and Princeton universities.
Similarly, exclusive yacht clubs and golf clubs have applicants on their waiting lists
for many years before they are accepted.
Threat and competition: Whenever the common group goal is threatened,
cohesiveness increases. Also, such cohesiveness increases the importance of the
goals. When we fight for a goal then the goal gets the highest priority. For example,
when a hostile group wants to take over a corporation, the Board of Directors of
the corporation suddenly becomes a united front against the threats and their
cohesiveness reaches its peak. Similarly, management threats frequently bring
together an otherwise disarrayed union. Thus, the threatening party will have less
chance of success when faced with a unified force.
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Many organizations, when faced with tough competition ask their members Group Behaviour
to stand together and make sacrifices in benefit cuts in order to meet the competition
and the members have been known to do that. This reflects the extent of
cohesiveness among the members of the organization.
NOTES
Previous successes: When a group achieves a meaningful goal, the cohesiveness
of the group increases because the success is shared by all the members and each
one feels responsible for the achievement. For example, when a sports team wins
an important game, everyone in the team congratulates every other member of the
team for this success. Specially, if a group has a series of successes, it builds a
united team spirit. For this reason, successful companies find it easier to hire new
talented employees. Similarly, prestigious universities are never short of applicants
for admission. This proves the adage that everyone loves a winner.
Similarity of attitudes and values: One of the strongest sources of group
cohesiveness is the similarity in values, morals, beliefs and code of conduct. We
enjoy the company of others who hold similar opinions and characteristics as
ourselves. That is one reason why interfaith marriages are discouraged. Similarity
of interests is especially important when the group’s primary goal is that of creating
a friendly interpersonal climate. This increases group cohesiveness. This factor
may not be so important if the goal is task oriented. For example, if an army unit
has to win a strategic battle, then the successful task accomplishment becomes the
cohesive factor rather than the similarity of interests because the unit may consist
of black soldiers and white soldiers who may not have much in common.
Consequences of Cohesiveness
These positive outcomes of group cohesiveness are explained in more detail as

follows:
More participation: Because group cohesiveness involves close interpersonal
relationship, the members consider the group as their own, just like a family and
they are motivated to participate actively in group affairs and activities. Members
also try to assist and support other members of the group in times of need and this
strengthens the bonds of friendship. The turnover rate of members is very low, and
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Group Behaviour they look forward to group meetings and group activities as it gives them an
opportunity of social interaction in addition to devising strategies for achieving
individual and group goals.
More conformity: While all individuals who are in the group are unique in many
NOTES
ways with their own norms, values, beliefs and attitudes and sometimes these
characteristics may be in conflict with the group norms, the members usually make
sacrifices in order to conform to group norms. The cohesive group is generally
able to put subtle pressure on the individual member who “deviated” from the
group norms in order to bring him back to the mainstream. For example, if a
member is working too hard or is playing politics to enhance his personal objectives,
the group might put social pressure on him to comply with the group norms. If
these pressures do not succeed, then the member may be dropped from the group
in order to maintain cohesiveness among other members.
More success: Success and cohesiveness are interdependent factors. Cohesiveness
makes the goal achievement easier and goal achievement adds to cohesiveness.
In general, cohesive groups are more successful in achieving their goals. The reason
for this relationship is that a high degree of cohesiveness involves a high degree of
communication, participation and conformity to group norms and this results in
successes in achieving them. Thus, such coordinated efforts tend to result in
successes in achieving such goals.
More influence: Individual members will respond favourably to the demands of
the cohesive groups in comparison to less cohesive groups. An informally accepted
and respected leader of the group can have quite an autocratic authority and
influence over the group members specially when confronting an external threat.
Thus, the leader will have considerable influence over the members in shaping
their opinions and operations. For example, during negotiations between the union
and management, if the union leader is satisfied that he has reached an equitable
settlement, he will advise the union members to accept it and even if some members
are not happy about such an agreement, they will accept it because of the leader’s
sincerity and influence.
More communication: Communication reduces conflict. The better the
communication, the less likely is any misunderstanding among members. Because
the members of the cohesive groups share common values and goals, they are
inclined to greater communicativeness. Since communication is key to understanding,
respect and closeness, it tends to foster and cement positive social relations as
well as deep personal relationships.
More personal satisfaction: Satisfaction, though a state of mind, is primarily
influenced by positive external factors. These factors include friendliness, respect
from other members and self-respect, support, opportunity to interact, achievement,
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protection against threats and a feeling of security. Members of cohesive groups Group Behaviour
report that they are more satisfied than members of less cohesive groups. This is
expected since the members of a cohesive group will not stay as members if they
were dissatisfied.
NOTES
High productivity: It is quite easy to understand that unity has synergetic effect.
The group effort is expected to bring better results than the sum efforts of individual
members. However, the outcome of the efforts is a function of not only group
cohesiveness but also group compliance with the organizational goals. According
or Richard M. Steers, “specifically, when cohesiveness is high, and acceptance of
organizational goals is high; performance will probably be high. Similar results
would be expected for low cohesiveness and high goal acceptance, although the
results may not be as strong. On the other hand, performance would not be expected
to be high when cohesiveness is high and goal acceptance is low. In that case,
group effort will probably be directed away from organizational goals and towards
goals valued by the group. Finally, when both cohesiveness and goal acceptance
are low, effort will probably become dissipated, leading to low productivity.”
Studies conducted by Katz and Kahan11 with respect to participation by
workers as a group in a Swedish truck factory showed that cohesiveness and
togetherness experienced by group members had a significant positive impact on
performance outcome. Members of the group identified more strongly with goals
and worked harder to improve productivity.
Check Your Progress

3. What is the origin of the term “group dynamics”?
4. What are group norms?
5. What is cohesiveness?
6. What happens when a group achieves a meaningful goal?

QUESTIONS
1. The most basic theory that explains group affiliation is the geographic
proximity.
2. According of George Homans, there are three elements that form the
foundations of groups. These are activities, interactions and sentiments.
3. The phrase, ‘group dynamics’, came into being in 1944 when Curt Lewin
set up the Research Centre for Group Dynamics, to meet the need of making
a scientific approach to understanding the dynamics of groups.
4. Group norms are the informal guidelines of behaviour and a code of conduct
that provides some order and conformity to group activities and operations.
Self-Instructional
Material 103
Group Behaviour 5. Cohesiveness defines the degree of closeness that the members feel with
the group.
6. When a group achieves a meaningful goal, the cohesiveness of the group
increases because the success is shared by all the members and each one
NOTES
feels responsible for the achievement.
7.8 SUMMARY
• In general, a number of people together at a given place and given time can
be considered a group.
• According to Marvin Shaw,1 “A group is two or more persons who are
interacting with one another in such a manner that each person influences
and is influenced by each other person.”
• There are two key elements in this definition that are essential. First is the
“interaction” among group members. The second element is the influence
of one group member on every other group member.
• While all individuals in the group are primarily required to direct their efforts
towards common organizational goals, there may be situations where
individuals within the group are more interested in the achievement of their
personal goals, thus making the organizational goals secondary.
• The most basic theory explaining group affiliation is the geographic proximity.
• For example, individuals working in the same area are more likely to form
a group than those who are not physically located together.
• According of George Homans,3 there are three elements that form the
foundations of groups. These are activities, interactions and sentiments.
• People are more likely to form groups with others who share similar beliefs,
values, and attitudes.
• Interests and goals that are common and require cooperation with others
for achievement of such goals are a powerful force behind such group
formation. Individuals with common goals tend to work together.
• Groups are often organized to accomplish some problem solving and
decision-making tasks such as designing political strategies or designing
computers.
• The goals can also be social and emotional in nature. Thus, the groups are
formed because of the individual’s need for safety and security, sense of
belonging and affiliation and self-esteem.
• A sense of belonging is the third level need in Maslow’s model of hierarchical
needs. It is an emotional need for friendship, love, affection and affiliation
with others.
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• In an organizational setting, management generally tries to create a physical Group Behaviour
as well as psychological environment to induce interaction.

• Groups also provide opportunities for individual members to become leaders
of the group and influence other members of the group with their views and
NOTES
reasoning.
• From an organizational behaviour point of view, there are basically two
types of groups. These are: formal groups and informal groups.
• A group is formal when it is purposely designed to accomplish an
organizational objective or task. It is created via a formal authority for some
defined purpose.
• A formal group can be a command group or a functional group that is relatively
permanent and is composed of managers and their subordinates who meet
regularly to discuss general and specific ideas to improve product or service.
• Other types of formal groups include task forces and committees. The task
forces are temporary in nature and are set up for some special projects.
• The committees can be permanent, such as a planning committee, a finance
committee or a budget committee and may become an integral part of the
organizational structure.
• Whereas formal groups are established by organizations to achieve some
specific objectives, the informal groups are formed by the members of such
groups by themselves.
• They emerge naturally, in response to the common interests of organizational
members.
• They are formed spontaneously, without any formal designation, and with
common interests such as self-defence, work assistance and social interaction.
• The informal work groups are based upon socio-psychological support
and reasoning and depend upon member’s interaction, communication,
personal likings and disliking and social contacts within as well as outside
the organization.
• The leadership of the informal groups develops from within rather than a
formal election.
• An individual, who is working in a group for a long time and has a good
rapport with other members, may emerge as a leader due to his technical
expertise and his seniority.
• Parallel to performance and other standards established by the formal
organizational structure, the informal groups have their own norms as rules
of conduct and a standard of behaviour that is expected of all members.
• The goal of the informal group, whether it be profitability that conflicts with
the organizational goals or customer service which is in accord, heavily
influences productivity.
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Group Behaviour • Cohesiveness refers to the degree and strength of interpersonal attraction
among members of the group.
• The degree of cohesiveness depends upon the commonness of the perceived
group goal, the size of the group and the ability of the group leader to
NOTES facilitate cohesion.
• One problem with an informal group is that it is primarily centered towards
human elements, that can be highly unpredictable affecting the smooth
operations of the organization.
• The phrase, ‘group dynamics’, came into being in 1944 when Curt Lewin
set up the Research Centre for Group Dynamics, to meet the need of making
a scientific approach to understanding the dynamics of groups.
• In the words of D Cartwright and A Zhander, “Group dynamics should be
defined as a field of inquiry dedicated to advancing knowledge about the
nature of groups, laws of their development, and their interrelations with
individuals, other groups and larger institutions.”
• According to Good’s Dictionary of Education, “Group dynamics implies
an interactive psychological relationship in which members of a group develop
a common perception based on feelings and emotions.”
• Kretch and Crutchfield viewed group dynamics “as changes that place within
the group.”
• Thus, group dynamics may be conceived as the study of group processes,
their objective analysis and measurement and the effect of group membership
on individual members.
• Behaviour is not static. Group dynamics means the change of behaviour
through interaction in the group.
• Group norms are the informal guidelines of behaviour and a code of conduct
that provides some order and conformity to group activities and operations.
• When a group achieves a meaningful goal, the cohesiveness of the group
increases because the success is shared by all the members and each one
feels responsible for the achievement.
• One of the strongest sources of group cohesiveness is the similarity in values,
morals, beliefs and code of conduct.
• In general, cohesive groups are more successful in achieving their goals.
The reason for this relationship is that a high degree of cohesiveness involves
a high degree of communication, participation and conformity to group norms
and this results in successes in achieving them.
7.9 KEY WORDS
• Satisfaction: It is fulfilment of one’s wishes, expectations, or needs, or the

pleasure derived from this.
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• Behaviour: It is the way in which one acts or conducts oneself, especially Group Behaviour
towards others.
• Principle: It is a fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation
for a system of belief or behaviour or for a chain of reasoning.
NOTES

EXERCISES

1. What is a group?
2. Why is a group formation needed?
3. Write a short note on various aspects of informal groups.
4. Briefly discuss group dynamics in the classroom.
5. What is the consequences of group cohesiveness.
1. What are the characteristics that make people to come together to form
groups? Give a detailed answer.
2. Describe the different types of groups in detail.
3. Define group dynamics. How can group process improve?
4. What are group norms? Discuss the types of group norms in detail?
5. Describe group cohesiveness. What factors contribute to group
cohesiveness?
London: Pearson.
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Leadership
BLOCK - III
LEADERSHIP AND STRESS
NOTES
UNIT 8 LEADERSHIP
Structure
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Definition, Meaning and Types of Leadership
8.3 Importance of Leadership and Qualities of a Successful Leader
8.4 Style of Leadership
8.6 Summary
8.7 Key Words
8.0 INTRODUCTION
Leadership means different things to different people around the world. Different
situations also call for different kind of leadership.
In business, a vision is a realistic goal about where the you and the
organization want to be in the future. Vision lays the way forward, gives direction,
sets priorities, and provides a marker in order for you to be able to tell that you
have achieved what you earlier set out to achieve.
Leadership is the ability of a company’s management to set and achieve
challenging objectives, both in the short and in the long run, take swift and decisive
action, outperform the competition, and inspire others to perform well. It is a bit
difficult to quantify leadership and the qualitative aspects of a company, compared
to quantitative metrics that are commonly tracked and much easier to compare
between companies.
Effective leadership includes strong character. Successful leaders exhibit
honesty, integrity, trustworthiness and ethics. Clear communication skills are an
important pre-requisite for a strong leadership. Leaders speak with and listen to
staff members, respond to questions and concerns, and are empathetic. Leaders
use effective communication skills for moving the company forward and achieving
new levels of success.
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Leadership
8.1 OBJECTIVES

• Explain the meaning and types of leadership NOTES
• Discuss the importance of leadership
• Assess the qualities of a successful leader
• Describe the style of leadership
8.2 DEFINITION, MEANING AND TYPES OF

LEADERSHIP
Leadership is an integral part of management and plays a vital role in managerial

operations. If there is any single factor that differentiates between successful and
unsuccessful organizations, it is dynamic and effective leadership. Perhaps, it would
be a valid assumption to state that the major cause of most business failures would
be ineffective leadership. All managers, in a way, are business leaders, even though
management primarily relies on formal position power to influence people whereas
leadership stems from a social influence process. However, management is an
integral component of technical as well as social processes.
Leadership is not an attribute of business alone. In the army, in the
government, in universities, in hospitals and anywhere else where people work in
groups, the leadership function emerges. There must be somebody to guide that
group. The group leader may also be an informal leader, one who emerges from
the ranks of the group according to consensus of the members.
Leadership may be defined as the art of influencing and inspiring subordinates
to perform their duties willingly, competently and enthusiastically for achievement
of group objectives. Most management writers agree that, “leadership is the process
of influencing the activities of an individual or a group in efforts towards goal
achievement in a given situation.”
It is important to have the element of willingness in the above definition. This
element differentiates successful and effective leaders from the “common run of
the managers”. Motivating and influencing people to move towards a common
goal are all essential elements of management but the “willingness” of the followers
to be led, highlights a special quality that puts a leader high above others.
Based on these elements of the leadership function, the leadership may be
defined as:
L = F (f, g, w, s) where leadership (L) is a function (F) of
f = followers
g = goal
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Leadership w = a measure of willingness on the part of subordinates, and
s = a given situation
Formal and Informal Leadership
NOTES
Leadership can be formal or informal. The formal leadership occurs when a person
is appointed or elected as an authority figure. For example, anyone who is
appointed to the job of a manager is also given the authority to exercise formal
leadership in relationship to his subordinates. Similarly, a formally elected leader
of a country or a state acquires the authority of leadership in giving direction to the
country or state.
The informal leadership emerges when a person uses interpersonal influence
in a group without designated authority or power. These leaders emerge in certain
situations because of their charm, intelligence, skills or other traits and to whom
other people turn to for advice, direction and guidance. Religious and civic leaders
fit into this category. Successful managers who exercise their given authority in a
formal way are also capable of exercising informal leadership relationships with
people both within as well as outside the organization.
8.3 IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP AND

QUALITIES OF A SUCCESSFUL LEADER
A leader has certain inherent qualities and traits that assist him in playing a directing
role and wielding commanding influence over others. Some of these traits according
to Jago are:
1. Energy, drive
2. Appearance, presentability
3. A sense of co-operation
4. Enthusiasm
5. Personality–height and weight
6. Initiative
7. Intelligence
8. Judgement
9. Self-confidence
10. Sociability
11. Tact and diplomacy
12. Moral courage and integrity
13. Will power and flexibility
14. Emotional stability
15. Knowledge of human relations
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These traits are not universal in nature, nor do all the leaders have all these Leadership
traits. Not all these traits work all the time. While some of these characteristics
differentiate successful managers and leaders from unsuccessful ones, it is the
behaviour of the leaders, either as a result of these characteristics or otherwise,
that is more tangible and obvious and less abstract in nature. The leadership NOTES
behaviour is directly related to individual and group work activity, loyalty of the
group, absenteeism, turnover and employee morale. These are some of the
indicators, that some degree reflects the effectiveness of leadership behaviour.
Many studies have been conducted in order to identify and separate such
characteristics and personal traits that are unique to the behaviour of successful
leaders. These traits could then be set up as standards against which the profiles of
leaders could be matched and judged. However, such attempts have not been
successful. According to Ralph Stogdill, who studied the subject of leadership
most extensively, “a person does not become a leader by virtue of the possession
of some combination of traits, but the pattern of personal characteristics of the
leader must bear some relevant relationship to the characteristics, activities and
goals of the followers.”
8.4 STYLE OF LEADERSHIP
The leadership styles can be classified according to the philosophy of the leaders.
What the leader does determines how well he leads. A style of leadership is a
“relatively enduring set of behaviours which is a characteristic of the individual,
regardless of the situation.” Some of the more significant leadership styles are
discussed as follows:
Autocratic or Dictatorial Leadership
Autocratic leaders keep the decision-making authority and control in their own
hands and assume full responsibility for all actions. Also, they structure the entire
work situation in their own way and expect the workers to follow their orders and
tolerate no deviation from their orders. The subordinates are required to implement
instructions of their leaders without question. They are entirely dependent on their
leader and the output suffers in the absence of the leader.
The autocratic leadership style ranges from tough and highly dictatorial to
paternalistic, depending upon whether the leader’s motivational approach is threat
and punishment or appreciation and rewards. In highly autocratic situations, the
subordinates develop a sense of insecurity, frustration, low morale and they are
induced to avoid responsibility, initiative and innovative behaviour. The autocratic
leader believes that his leadership is based upon the authority conferred upon him
by some source such as his position, knowledge, strength or the power to punish
and reward. Some of the advantages and disadvantages of autocratic leadership
are as follows:
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Leadership Advantages
1. Autocratic leadership is useful when the subordinates are new on the job
and have had no experience either in the managerial decision-making process
NOTES or in performing without active supervision.
2. It can increase efficiency and even morale and get quicker results, especially
in a crisis or emergency when the decision must be taken immediately.
3. The paternalistic leadership is useful when the subordinates are not interested
in seeking responsibility or when they feel insecure at the job or when they
work better under clear and detailed directives.
4. It is useful when the chain of command and the division of work is clear and
understood by all and there is little room for error in the final accomplishment.
Disadvantages
1. One-way communication without feedback leads to misunderstanding and
communications breakdown.
2. An autocratic leader makes his own decisions that can be very dangerous
in this age of technological and sociological complexity.
3. Since it inhibits the subordinate’s freedom, it fails to develop his commitment
to the goals and objectives of the organization.
4. Since it creates an environment that provides for worker resentment, it
creates problems with their morale resulting in poor productivity in the long
run.
5. It is unsuitable when the workforce is knowledgeable about their jobs and
the job calls for teamwork and cooperative spirit.
Participative or Democratic Leadership
In this type of leadership, the subordinates are consulted, and their feedback is
taken into the decision-making process. The leader’s job is primarily of a moderator,
even though he makes the final decision and he alone is responsible for the results.
The management recognizes that the subordinates are equipped with talents and
abilities and that they are capable of bringing new ideas and new methodologies to
work setting. Thus, the group members are encouraged to demonstrate initiative
and creativity and take intelligent interest in setting plans and policies and have
maximum participation in decision making. This ensures better management-labour
relations, higher morale and greater job satisfaction. This type of leadership is
especially effective when the workforce is experienced and dedicated and is able
to work independently with least directives, thereby developing a climate that is
conducive to growth and development of the organization as well as the individual
personality. The feasibility and usefulness of the participative decision-making style
is dependent on the following factors:
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1. Since participative decision-making process is time consuming, there should Leadership
be no urgency to the decision.

2. The cost of participation of subordinates in the decision making should not
be more than the benefits derived from the decision.
NOTES
3. The input from the subordinates should be free from any fear of repercussions
in case such input is in conflict with the views held by the management.
4. The participation of subordinates should not be of such a degree as to be
perceived as a threat to the formal authority of management.
5. Subordinates should be sufficiently responsible so that there is no leakage
of confidential information to outside elements.
Advantages
1. Active participation in the managerial operations by labour assures rising
productivity and satisfaction.
2. Workers develop a greater sense of self-esteem due to importance given to
their ideas and their contributions.
3. The employees become more committed to changes that may be brought
by policy changes, since they themselves participated in bringing about these
changes.
4. The leadership induces confidence, cooperation and loyalty among workers.
5. It results in higher employee morale.
6. It increases the participants’ understanding of each other that results in greater
tolerance and patience towards others.
It has been demonstrated by numerous researchers28 that participation by
subordinates improves quality of work, enhances an easy acceptance of changes
in the organization and improves morale and loyalty.
Notwithstanding numerous advantages and great reliance on participative
leadership, it has several disadvantages also.
Disadvantages
(a) The democratic leadership requires some favourable conditions in that the
labour must be literate, informed and organized. This is not always possible.
(b) This approach assumes that all workers are genuinely interested in the
organization and that their individual goals are successfully fused with the
organizational goals. This assumption may not always be valid.
(c) There must be total trust on the part of management as well as employees.
Some employees may consider this approach simply an attempt to manipulate
them. Accordingly, the employees must be fully receptive to this approach
to make it meaningful.
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Leadership (d) Some group members may feel alienated if their ideas are not accepted for
action. This may create a feeling of frustration and ill-will.
(e) This approach is very time consuming and too may viewpoints and ideas
may make coming to a decision more difficult and may be a source of
NOTES
frustration to impatient management.
(f) Some managers may be uncomfortable with this approach because they
may fear an erosion of their power base and their control over labour.
(g) This approach relies heavily on incentives and motivation of recognition,
appreciation, status and prestige. However, labour may be interested in
financial incentives instead of prestige.
Laissez-faire or Free-reign Leadership
In this type of leadership, the leader is just a figure-head and does not give any
direction but delegates the authority to subordinates so that they must plan, motivate,
control and otherwise be responsible for their own actions. The leader acts
principally as a liaison between the group and the outside elements and supplies
necessary materials and information to group members. He lets the subordinates
develop their own techniques for accomplishing goals within the generalized
organizational policies and objectives. The leader participates very little and instead
of leading and directing, he becomes just one of the members. He does not attempt
to intervene or regulate or control and there is complete group or individual freedom
in decision making. This type of leadership is highly effective when the group
members are highly intelligent and are fully aware of their roles and responsibilities
and have the knowledge and skills to accomplish these tasks without direct
supervision.
This type of leadership is evident in research laboratories where the scientists
are fairly free to conduct their research and make their decisions. Similarly, in a
university or a college, the chairperson of a division does not interfere in the
professor’s teaching method, but only assigns the courses to be taught. From then
onwards, the professors are very much their own leaders.
Advantages
(a) It creates an environment of freedom, individuality as well as team spirit.
(b) It is highly creative with a free and informal work environment.
(c) This approach is very useful where people are highly motivated and
achievement oriented.
Disadvantages
(a) It may result in disorganized activities that may lead to inefficiency and chaos.
(b) Insecurity and frustration may develop due to lack of specific decision-
making authority and guidance.
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(c) The team spirit may suffer due to possible presence of some uncooperative Leadership
members.
(d) Some members may put their own interests above the group and team
interests.
NOTES
Personal Characteristics of Leaders
Leadership is an intangible quality and its effectiveness can best be judged by the
behaviour and attitudes of followers. Even though, personal backgrounds and
personalities differ widely, some of the factors such as education and socio-economic
status are poor indicators of judgments of successful leaders. However, some
behavioural characteristics may be common to most of the successful and effective
leaders. Some of these characteristics are:
Ability to inspire others: This ability may be due to an internal “charisma” that
is an inborn trait and may not be a learnable factor.
Problem solving skills: An effective leader has developed the patience and
ability to look at the problem from various angles and get down to the cause of the
problem and he tries to solve the problem from its roots rather than the symptoms
of the problem.
Emotional maturity: Emotional stability and maturity is a major ingredient for
effective leadership. It pertains to good adjustment to life, calm, cool and calculated
reaction to undesirable situations and obstacles and normal acceptance of success
as well as failure. Such leaders are self-confident, rational and are open hearted
towards differences in opinions and opposing viewpoints. They generally have a
happy family life and have a balanced outlook towards life and the world. They
are warm and sensitive and not vindictive in nature.
Ability to understand human behaviour: A leader must understand the needs,
desires and behaviour of his subordinates and show respect for such desires. He
is emotionally supportive and is careful enough to avoid ego threatening behaviour.
He must give credit to subordinates when their efforts are successful.
Verbal assertiveness: A leader must be an effective orator and must be confident
of his views and opinions. He must communicate his views honestly and in a straight
forward manner without fear of consequences.
Willingness to take risks: Routine work, no matter how well-done, never makes
a leader. Successful leaders always charter the unknown. They must accept and
seek new challenges. However, the risks must be calculated ones and outcomes
of actions be reasonably predicted. Should these risks result in failure, a leader
must take full blame and responsibility and not shift blame on others, even though
they may be operative factors. He must be willing to tolerate frustration and defeat
and learn from these failures.
Dedication to organizational goals: A leader must demonstrate his dedication
and commitment to the organization’s mission, goals and objectives by hard work
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Leadership and self-sacrifice. He must make sure that his followers fully understand the
organizational objectives and are equally dedicated and willing to work for these
objectives.
Skill in the art of compromise: Settling differences is a vital part of leadership
NOTES
and genuine differences must be solved by compromise and consensus. This will
induce faith in the fairness of the leader. He must be willing to give in where necessary
and must be able to take criticism with grace. However, he must not compromise
for the sake of compromising or just smooth sailing but must be willing to take a
stand on controversial issues and accept the consequences of his stand.
Check Your Progress

1. Define leadership.
2. Name the types of leaderships.
3. How are leadership styles classified?
4. State one disadvantage of dictatorial leadership.
5. What is the role of subordinates in democratic leadership?

QUESTIONS
1. Leadership is the process of influencing the activities of an individual or a

group in efforts towards goal achievement in a given situation.”
2. Leadership is of two types namely, formal and informal.
3. The leadership styles can be classified according to the philosophy of the
leaders.
4. One disadvantage of dictatorial leadership is that one-way communication
without feedback leads to misunderstanding and communications
breakdown.
5. In democratic leadership, the subordinates are consulted, and their feedback
is taken into the decision-making process.
8.6 SUMMARY
• Leadership is an integral part of management and plays a vital role in

managerial operations. If there is any single factor that differentiates between
successful and unsuccessful organizations, it is dynamic and effective
leadership.
• Leadership may be defined as the art of influencing and inspiring subordinates
to perform their duties willingly, competently and enthusiastically for
Self-Instructional achievement of group objectives.
116 Material
• Most management writers agree that, “leadership is the process of influencing Leadership
the activities of an individual or a group in efforts towards goal achievement

in a given situation.”
• Motivating and influencing people to move towards a common goal are all
NOTES
essential elements of management but the “willingness” of the followers to
be led, highlights a special quality that puts a leader high above others.
• Leadership can be formal or informal. The formal leadership occurs when a
person is appointed or elected as an authority figure.
• The informal leadership emerges when a person uses interpersonal influence
in a group without designated authority or power.
• A leader has certain inherent qualities and traits that assist him in playing a
directing role and wielding commanding influence over others.
• These traits are not universal in nature, nor do all the leaders have all these
traits.
• The leadership behaviour is directly related to individual and group work
activity, loyalty of the group, absenteeism, turnover and employee morale.
• According to Ralph Stogdill,3 who studied the subject of leadership most
extensively, “a person does not become a leader by virtue of the possession
of some combination of traits, but the pattern of personal characteristics of
the leader must bear some relevant relationship to the characteristics, activities
and goals of the followers.”
• The leadership styles can be classified according to the philosophy of the
leaders.
• Autocratic leaders keep the decision-making authority and control in their
own hands and assume full responsibility for all actions.
• The autocratic leadership style ranges from tough and highly dictatorial to
paternalistic, depending upon whether the leader’s motivational approach
is threat and punishment or appreciation and rewards.
• In highly autocratic situations, the subordinates develop a sense of insecurity,
frustration, low morale and they are induced to avoid responsibility, initiative
and innovative behaviour.
• The autocratic leader believes that his leadership is based upon the authority
conferred upon him by some source such as his position, knowledge, strength
or the power to punish and reward.
• Autocratic leadership is useful when the subordinates are new on the job
and have had no experience either in the managerial decision-making process
or in performing without active supervision.
• The paternalistic leadership is useful when the subordinates are not interested
in seeking responsibility or when they feel insecure at the job or when they
work better under clear and detailed directives.
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Material 117
Leadership • One-way communication without feedback leads to misunderstanding and
communications breakdown.
• An autocratic leader makes his own decisions that can be very dangerous
in this age of technological and sociological complexity.
NOTES
• Participative or Democratic Leadership: In this type of leadership, the
subordinates are consulted, and their feedback is taken into the decision-
making process.
• The leader’s job is primarily of a moderator, even though he makes the final
decision and he alone is responsible for the results.
• This type of leadership is especially effective when the workforce is
experienced and dedicated and is able to work independently with least
directives, thereby developing a climate that is conducive to growth and
development of the organization as well as the individual personality.
• Active participation in the managerial operations by labour assures rising
productivity and satisfaction.
• The democratic leadership requires some favourable conditions in that the
labour must be literate, informed and organized. This is not always possible.
• Laissez-faire or Free-reign Leadership: In this type of leadership, the leader
is just a figure-head and does not give any direction but delegates the
authority to subordinates so that they must plan, motivate, control and
otherwise be responsible for their own actions.
• Leadership is an intangible quality and its effectiveness can best be judged
by the behaviour and attitudes of followers.
8.7 KEY WORDS
• Risk: To be at risk means to be in a situation where something unpleasant

might happen.
• Laissez-faire: It is the policy of leaving things to take their own course,
without interfering.
• Manager: It refers to a person responsible for controlling or administering
an organization or group of staff.

EXERCISES

1. What is leadership? Give a brief explanation of the types of leadership.
2. What are the qualities of a good leader?
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3. Describe the characteristics of participative or democratic leadership. Leadership
4. Write a descriptive note on the personal characteristics of leaders.

NOTES
1. Are leadership traits universal? Critically examine.
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of autocratic or dictatorial
leadership.
3. Assess the advantages and disadvantages of participative or democratic
leadership.
4. What is a laissez-faire or free-reign leadership? What are its advantages
and disadvantages?
London: Pearson.
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Leadership Skill
UNIT 9 LEADERSHIP SKILL

NOTES Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Organization of Culture and Role Model
9.3 Behaviour Adjustment: Team Work Performance
9.4 Creativity
9.5 Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Skill and Cultural Flexibility
9.6 Self Assessment of Learning
9.8 Summary
9.9 Key Words
9.0 INTRODUCTION
Organizing other people to reach a common goal involves using leadership skills.
Leadership skills require you to motivate others to complete a series of tasks,
often according to a schedule, irrespective of whether you are at a managerial
position or leading a project. The combination of a set of different skills working
together form a leadership.
Every organization values effective and efficient leaders. These leaders build
strong teams within a business and ensure projects, initiatives or other work
functions are timely completed and performed successfully. Leadership skills can
be improved and inculcated by each and every one. These skills involve multiple
interpersonal and communication skills. The results of both effective and ineffective
leaders in an organization is fairly visible to all. Effective leaders increase employee
engagement, support a positive environment and help remove difficulties for their
team. Good leadership is also contagious and inspires other employees to apply
positive leadership traits in their own work.
9.1 OBJECTIVES

• Describe organization of culture and role model
• Explain behaviour adjustment and team work performance
• Discuss the concept of creativity
• Assess interpersonal and intrapersonal skill and cultural flexibility
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Leadership Skill
9.2 ORGANIZATION OF CULTURE AND ROLE
MODEL
Culture can be considered as a constellation of factors that are learned through NOTES
our interaction with the environment and during our developmental and growth
years. A growing baby learns a basic set of values, ideas, perceptions, preferences,
concept of morality, code of conduct and so on through family and cultural
socialization and such prevailing culture with which the member of the family is
associated determines many of the responses that an individual makes in a given
situation.
The organizational culture is a system of shared beliefs and attitudes that
develop within an organization and guides the behaviour of its members. It is also
known as “corporate culture”, and has a major impact on the performance of
organizations and specially on the quality of work life experienced by the employees
at all levels of the organizational hierarchy. The corporate culture “consists of the
norms, values and unwritten rules of conduct of an organization as well as
management styles, priorities, beliefs and interpersonal behaviours that prevail.
Together they create a climate that influences how well people communicate, plan
and make decisions.” Strong corporate values let people know what is expected
of them. There are clear guidelines as to how employees are to behave generally
within the organization and their expected code of conduct outside the organization.
Also, if the employees understand the basic philosophy of the organization, then
they are more likely to make decisions that will support these standards set by the
organization and reinforce corporate values.
The word “culture” has been derived metaphorically from the idea of
“cultivation”, the process of tilling and developing land. When we talk about culture,
we are typically referring to the pattern of development reflected in a society’s
system of knowledge, ideology, values, laws, social norms and day-to-day rituals.
Since the pattern of development differs from society to society, the cultural
phenomenon varies according to a given society’s stage of development.
Accordingly, culture varies from one society to another requiring a study of cross-
national and cross-cultural phenomenon within organizations. For example,
Japanese work culture is very different from American work culture. In America,
the ethics of competitive individualism shapes the organizational management and
operational performance. The industrial and economic performance in America is
taken as a kind of a game in which each individual desires to be a “winner” in
order to receive a reward for successful behaviour. This work culture is a
continuation of general culture and family upbringing where children are encouraged
to “think for themselves”, and show a sense of assertion and independence.
The Japanese culture, on the other hand, encourages individuals as a part of
the team thus encouraging interdependence, shared concerns and mutual help.
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Leadership Skill The organization is viewed as a family to which workers frequently make life long
commitments as they see the organization as an extension of their own families.
The authority relations are often paternalistic in nature and strong links exist between
the welfare of the individual, the corporation and the nation.
NOTES
Origins of Organizational Culture
While culture has been a continuous development of values and attitudes over
many generations, at least the organizational culture can be partially traced back
to the values held by the founders of the organization. Such founders are usually
dynamic personalities with strong values and a clear vision as to where they want
to take their organizations. These founders usually selected their associates and
their employees who had a similar value system so that these values became an
integral part of the organization.
Secondly, the organizational culture is influenced by the external environment
and the interaction between the organization and the external environment. For
example, one organization may create a niche for itself for extremely high quality
defect-free product as a result of competitive forces and customer demand, while
another organization may opt for moderate quality but lower prices. The work
cultures at these two types of organizations would accordingly differ and would
be influenced by external forces such as customer demand.
Thirdly, work culture is also a function of the nature of the work and mission
and the goals of the organization. For example, in a professional, research oriented
small organization, the workers may be more informal at all hierarchical levels of
the organization, the dress code may not be strictly observed, and the employees
may be encouraged to be independent and innovative. In contrast, other
organizations may have a strictly enforced formal classical hierarchical structure
with clearly established channels of communications and strict adherence to work
rules. Accordingly, the organizational culture of these two types of organizations
would be different.
Much has been written and talked about Japanese management styles. Almost
invariably, the economic success of Japanese society is associated with Japanese
culture. The cultural aspect of organizational performance came into focus with
Theory Z, proposed by William Ouchi in 1981. Even though Theory Z draws
heavily on Japanese approach to management, it is more a combination of the
current American as well as Japanese style of managing an organization. Basically,
Ouchi’s approach to management calls for:
Consensus decision making
• Worker participation in all phases of organizational operations.
• Genuine concern for the overall well-being of employees.
• Life time job security.
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The importance of strong culture as a driving force for organizational success was Leadership Skill
emphasised by Peters and Waterman in their well-received book, “In Search of

Excellence”. They observed:
“Without exception, the dominance and coherence of culture proved to be
NOTES
an essential quality of the excellent companies. Moreover, the stronger the culture
and the more it was directed towards the marketplace, the less need was there for
policy manuals, organization charts and detailed procedures and rules. In these
companies, people, way down the line know what they are supposed to do in
most situations because the handful of guiding values is crystal clear.”
9.3 BEHAVIOUR ADJUSTMENT: TEAM WORK

PERFORMANCE
We have discussed earlier that human behaviour is a function of the person and his
environment where the “person” is primarily shaped by general biological
characteristics, and environment that generates external stimuli. It does not include
the possibility of randomness of human behaviour and it assumes that all human
behaviour is goal directed so that a measurable correlation exists between the
goals and behaviour. The external stimulus is most important since it excites the
internal processes to activate and the behaviour takes place, so that an external
input is necessary to elicit behavioural responses.
The basic input-output model can be described as S<–>0–>B model where
S stands for the stimuli generated by the external environment as input, O stands
for human organism that is activated by physiological as well as psychological
processes, and B stands for behaviour as the output. Before behaviour is exhibited,
there is mutual interaction between the stimulus and the organism and except for
reflex actions, the organism “decides” as to the type of behaviour outcome. This
interaction results in perception and it becomes the cause of human behaviour.
Another input-output model has been proposed by Kolasa that describes
human behaviour in terms of a systems model that may describe the process in a
more objective manner. The input from the external environment is processed and
analyzed through a central processing function that is similar to human organism
“O” in the previous model except that this central processing region is the crucial
region of cognition consisting of perception and such core processes as thinking,
reasoning, logic, problem solving and decision making.
Here the stimuli form the input and is transformed into information by various
sensory organs. This information is organized by the central information processing
function in a manner that is meaningful to the individual. This organization takes
place through the perceptual processes that are formed through experience in the
social setting and is a function of the personality traits as far as the values and the
utility of information is concerned. The second step in the behavioural sequence is
the analysis of the information, choice of alternatives in dealing with the information,
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Leadership Skill then selecting the most beneficial alternative to the individual and taking action.
This step is known as decision-making and action taking and becomes the output
of the system and this output reflects the behaviour of the person.
NOTES Behaviour and Performance

According to Schermerhorn, Hunt and Osborn performance is a reflection of 3
characteristics. These are:
• Individual’s “capacity” to perform
• Individual’s “willingness” to perform
• Organizational support
While organizational support basically provides an individual with an “opportunity”
to perform that does affect behaviour to some degree, the “capacity” and the
“willingness” are directly associated with the human behaviour.
The capacity to perform is an outcome of such competency characteristics
as ability and aptitude that can be considered as inherited characteristics of
behaviour. Ability, that is partly a measure of intelligence, is the basic and important
ingredient for effective performance and all the motivation and organizational efforts
will not be of any help towards performance if the basic ability does not exist.
Accordingly, job performance is facilitated when ability matches the requirements.
Even when the ability fits the task requirements, it does not necessarily
result in high performance. To achieve high levels of performance, the individuals
must show willingness to perform and put in adequate work effort. The effort or
the degree of willingness to perform effectively would depend upon the degree of
motivation of the individual. This motivation that is a behavioural concept defines
the forces within the individual that account for the direction and level of effort
relating to a given task. For example, in a classroom setting, all students generally
come from a similar background, similar age, and similar abilities and are exposed
to the same instructor and similar study requirements, but all students will not get
similar grades because some students will be highly motivated to work harder
than the others.
Organizational support and resources affect human behaviour in a significant
way and the performance is influenced by this behaviour. Physical facilities and
technology in the organizational structure, as well as advice and direction from the
leaders are highly conducive to positive outlook towards work, resulting in high
quality performance. Inadequate support systems such as rush jobs, unavailability
of best tools to perform work with unclear guidance and instructions; are all negative
influences on behaviour and performance. Some of the symptoms of inadequate
organizational support are given as follows:
• Inadequate budgets.
• Inadequate tools, equipment, supplies.
• Lack of time.
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• Unclear instructions and job-related information. Leadership Skill
• Unfair levels of expected performance.

• Lack of job-related authority.
• Lack of required services and help from others. NOTES
• Inflexibility of procedures.
Check Your Progress

1. What does the corporate culture consist of?
2. What brought the cultural aspect of organizational performance into focus?
9.4 CREATIVITY
Creativity and critical thinking is essential for making effective and unique decisions.
The degree and depth of creativity would greatly influence the quality of the decisions
and consequently the results of actions that are based upon such decisions. Creative
thinking is important to bring about novel and unique ideas and critical thinking is
necessary to criticize and test these ideas so that they are feasible and optimally
beneficial.
Creativity, though not tangible, is an essential ingredient of organizational
growth. Without creativity, organizations would be stale, non-dynamic entities and
their employees would stagnate into nothingness. Creative and bold decisions have
contributed significantly to product improvement in inventing a new use for an
existing product as well as inventing a new product or service.
Creativity can be defined as, “socially recognized achievement in which
there are novel products to which one can point as evidence such as inventions,
theories, buildings, published writings, paintings and sculptures and films, laws,
institutions, medical and surgical treatments and so on”.
Creativity and creative ideas must be socially useful and recognized. Some
ideas may be creative but so eccentric that they may not have any socially
redeemable value. Accordingly, the utility and usefulness would determine the value
of creativity. This usefulness may be materially beneficial or intellectually stimulating.
Creativity primarily means originality in ideas. An original idea is considered
to be the one that has never occurred before. If such an idea is the outcome of
some established procedure of manipulating variables, it may not be considered
original. Only when a pattern of manipulations has never been applied to a given
situation before, can the results be considered new and original. A young school
student, when asked, “why do we build brick houses rather than wooden houses?”
replied that it was done to save the forests. This was a novel response. The routine
response would have been that a brick house is stronger and more resistant to fire.
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Leadership Skill Accordingly, originality can be associated with “those ideas that result from
manipulations of variables that have not followed a rigid formula and in which the
ideas have other sources of strength.”2 The world as we know it now would not
have been possible without creative ideas put into production. The steam engine
NOTES that revolutionized the world of travel was a novel application of an existing idea
that steam under pressure tries to escape. We also have a much better control of
the world than our ancestors had and this has been because of discovery and
inventions that seem to be based upon a strong element of originality. Heavy rains
and typhoons, once considered as acts of God are now fairly predictable because
of original inventions in the field of meteorology. Advances in medical sciences
have saved millions of lives and tremendously increased the average life span. We
still have a lot of areas to cover within this world and out of it in outer space, and
original ideas are being generated daily and put into practice.
The Creative Process
Is creativity a direct function of intelligence? Are there some recognizable
characteristics and traits of creative people? Studies have shown that intelligence
does play an important role in creativity. It is believed that while people with high
IQs show different levels of creativity, those with low IQs are likely to exhibit low
creativity levels. Other characteristics that may have some bearing on creativity
include such measures as family educational background, social status, liberal or
conservative thinking, divorced or broken family, opportunity for the child to think
independently and act responsibly from the very childhood and so on. It is indeed
difficult to isolate creativity either as an inborn and inherited trait or a phenomenon
that can be learned through established processes by acquiring sustained
knowledge in the area where creativity is expected to take place. However, it can
be reasonably established that creative breakthroughs rarely occur to people who
are not prepared for them. The level of creativity is also a function of the degree of
such preparation. Perhaps, it took a long time and considerable and consistent
effort to invent the telephone that was highly creative. On the other hand, the
creation of push button telephone was less cumbersome, once a telephone was
invented, and perhaps not as creative.
The creative process generally follows the following broad outline:
Preparation Preparation involves a hard and concentrated look at the problem
at hand and its various parameters in order to develop a breakthrough solution.
Scientists work in their labs, sometimes for many years, before they get a creative
idea. The general tendency of the scientists is to look at the various tentative
solutions available for a problem. These tentative solutions are generally routine
and known solutions and hence do not lead to new and unique outcomes. The
more tentative solutions there are, the more difficult it would be to generate another
different solution. It is the generation of this new solution that differentiates a creative
thinker from a non-creative thinker. The non-creative thinker would be satisfied
with a satisfactory and known solution. It is the creative thinker who will continue
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to look for a different and unique solution. Accordingly, preparation in the form of Leadership Skill
education, training and research is an essential foundation to build creativity.

Incubation Incubation is a time of thought and reflection and is generally a period
when the conscious attention is turned away from the problem at hand. The main
NOTES
idea is the observation that some creative and innovative ideas come to mind
when you are not really thinking about them—a kind of result of thinking by the
“unconscious mind”. It is something like “sleeping over” the issue and not thinking
about it. Creative people use many different methods to provide this incubation
period. They may go fishing or read a book or take a nap. This incubation period
is unpredictable in timing and duration. It may take a day or many years. The main
idea is that the conscious mind usually looks for familiar channels that are known
and thus not new or creative. But the unconscious mind, free from the constraints
of the conscious mind, is able to look at the issue from new angles or put information
together into new combinations.
Persistence Merely providing incubation period does not necessarily result in
creative breakthroughs. Sometimes persistent effort is necessary. Persistent effort
would make it more likely that more and new information would be added to the
decision maker’s frame of reference or the problem could be redefined that could
generate new and different conclusions. This is especially true about highly creative
persons. According to Daniel Goleman,4 “the picture of the exceptionally creative
person shows that at its high levels, creativity involves important sacrifices. For
people at the most exceptional level, creativity is a pervasive, almost compulsive
preoccupation; innovative activities dominate their lives often to the detriment of
other aspects of living”. Persistence means not only total involvement in the area of
issues under consideration but also requires courage and perseverance in the face
of repeated failures or criticism. Most new ideas in the beginning meet with
resistance, for example, when instant coffee was first introduced in the consumer
market, it was resisted by housewives who felt that their self-concept and self-
esteem were threatened so that they would be known as lazy and non-caring for
the family. Accordingly, highly creative persons remain committed to their ideas no
matter what the cost or the consequences.
Insight Insight is the actual point of breakthrough achieved as a result of
preparation and incubation. It is the tentative outcome of persistent efforts and
thinking when the individual believes that he has found a unique solution to the
problem under study. This is the result of extensive analysis of various factors and
various combination of factors, even though the creative idea generally comes up
suddenly and unexpectedly. It is a kind of “eureka” state, that brings excitement
where the person finds what he was looking for and which was deluding him
previously.
Verification Now the “insight” or the new idea has to be tested to make sure
that the idea is valid and feasible. It is a kind of a critical stage because if an idea is
put into practice without measuring its potential utility in a significant manner, then
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Leadership Skill it could turn out to be the wrong decision. The idea may fail in the critical stage so
other ideas may have to be created. A scientist must verify his hypothesis through
critical analysis or through laboratory procedures, whichever is necessary and if
the hypothesis cannot be proven, the scientist must formulate alternate hypothesis.
NOTES Similarly, if a manufacturer has a unique idea for a new product, he should not put
the product into the market until he has criticized, verified and tested the idea for
its marketability.
Enhancing Creativity
Organizations interested in maintaining and enhancing creativity recognize that
excessive disciplines, excessive rigidity in structure and too much control inhibit
creativity. Generally speaking, creativity needs freedom from constraints and
especially from time pressures, even though in certain situations, people do develop
breakthroughs under time constraints. Creative people are intrinsically motivated,
and they tend to do their best within free and supportive environments. Intrinsic
motivation comes into play when we are truly aware of our interest, personal
challenge and internal satisfaction in our work. Studies were conducted by Teresa
M. Amabile,5 and her colleagues in training children to focus on their intrinsic
motives for doing various types of school work and to minimise the importance of
extrinsic constraints. The children under study were allowed to watch video tapes
in which the adults asked some other children what they liked to do in school and
why. The children in the video tape replied with statements of interest, excitement
and deep involvement in some aspect of their studies. To these children, getting
better grades was not as important as “really trying to enjoy your work”. The
message of the video tapes was clear: it is nice to get approval and rewards for
your work, but the most important factor is to be aware of the intrinsically interesting,
satisfying and challenging aspects of whatever you are doing. This video tape
training of the children under study was highly successful. They showed higher
level of intrinsic motivation than those children who were not so trained. These
children with intrinsic motivation did not show any less creativity, even when there
were extrinsic constraints. Accordingly, one way to enhance creativity is through
proper training by offering training programmes and training workshops. This is
especially true in areas where relevant education and knowledge is required to be
creative such as mathematics or medicine.
In general, there are two techniques of creativity enhancement that have been
studied carefully. These techniques are brainstorming and Synectics.
Brainstorming: Brainstorming is a technique for stimulating imaginative and novel
ideas.6 It involves a group of people, usually between five and ten sitting around a
table, in a class room setting, generating ideas in the form of free association. This
generates a variety of ideas and solutions. The leader of the group briefly defines
the problem and encourages the participants to suggest as many innovative, extreme
and even wild ideas as possible and they are not allowed to discourage or criticize
the ideas of others, no matter how far fetched such ideas may be. The idea of
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brainstorming is to create a climate in which people feel free to suggest whatever Leadership Skill
comes into their heads without caring for its feasibility. This encourages free-wheeling
and one idea sometimes leads to another idea. This free association and unrestricted
thinking may generate some novel idea and a unique solution that may not have
been thought of before. NOTES
Synectics: Creativity assists in developing a variety of alternatives. It is basically
the generation of new ideas or using old ideas in a new way from unsuspecting
angles. Synectics approach assists in generating such ideas. As Barron7 put it:
“Synectics in operation depends heavily on two mechanisms: making the strange
familiar and making the familiar strange. The first of these is a search for similarity,
so that when confronted with a new problem, we ask ourselves whether it is not
an old problem, had we but the wit to see it. Seeing even partial resemblances
may lead to the application of familiar methods in solving the new problem. Making
the familiar strange is a way of shedding preconceptions and perceptual habits.
Innocence of vision, a certain naivete and ingenuousness characterize the creative
individual. If these qualities can be cultivated, the novelty of invention and problem
solution should be increased”.
9.5 INTERPERSONAL AND INTRAPERSONAL

SKILL AND CULTURAL FLEXIBILITY
Interpersonal communication refers to communication that takes place between two

or more individuals. On the other hand, intrapersonal communication means
communication that takes place within the self.
Individuals who have strong interpersonal communication is proficient
in speaking with others. They are capable enough to deliver their message across
efficiently and effectively. People with good interpersonal communication are good
listeners and are also active participants while conveying as well as receiving a
message. Employers continually seek employees with great interpersonal
communication skills.
Some interpersonal skills are as follows:
• Active listening
• Positive attitude
• Collaborative mindset
• Clear verbal communication
• Receptive to feedback
Intrapersonal communication is communication that happens within an
individual. It consists of self-talk, self-concept, introspection, and personal
reflection. It can take several forms. Working through a problem in the privacy of
your own mind is a form of intrapersonal communication.
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Leadership Skill Despite that fact that intrapersonal communication and interpersonal
communication are both communication oriented, they are different from each
other and operate on different frequencies altogether.
NOTES
9.6 SELF ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING
Several attempts have been made to define learning. The following definitions give
a comprehensive view of learning.
1. According to R S Woodworth (1945), “Any activity can be called learning
so far as it develops the individual (in any respect, good or bad) and makes
his behaviour and experiences different from what that would otherwise
have been.”
2. H L Kingsley and R Garry, (1946) said, “Learning is the process by
which behaviour (in the broader sense) originates or changes through practice
and training.”
3. Gates and Others (1946) observed, “Learning is the modification in
behaviour to meet environmental requirements.”
4. F S Freeman (1958) defined, Learning is the process of developing the
ability to respond adequately to a situation which may or may not have
been properly encountered.”
5. B L Hilgard (1958) was of the view, “Learning is the process by which an
activity originates or is changed through reacting to an encountered situation,
provided that the characteristics of the change in activity cannot be explained
on the basis of native responses, tendencies, maturation or temporary states
of the organism (e.g., fatigue or drugs, etc.)”
6. H Faigan (1958) believed, “Learning is a sequence of mental events or
conditions leading to changes in the learner. As a sequence of events, the
learning process is as follows:
(i) The individual has needs and is therefore in a state of readiness to
respond. These are antecedent conditions within the learner.
(ii) He meets a learning situation or problem. A new interpretation is
required because previously learned responses are not adequate for
reaching the goal and satisfying his need. He encounters something
new or unexpected, and must search for a different response.
(iii) He interprets the situation with reference to his goals, and tries a
response or responses which seem to satisfy his need. The way he
perceives the situation and the response he makes depends both on
his ‘readiness’ and on the external conditions of the situation.
(iv) If his response leads to devised goals or satisfaction, he will tend to
interpret and respond to similar future situations in the same way. If
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not, he keeps on trying and reinterpreting until consequences are Leadership Skill
attained. The learning process is this whole sequence!”

7. H J Klausmeir (1961) said, “Learning is a process whereby a change in
behaviour results from some form of experience, activity, training,
NOTES
observation and the like.”
8. H P Smith (1962) observed, “Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour
or the strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as the result of
experience.”
9. According to E A Peel (1962), “Learning is a change in the individual
following upon changes in the environment.”
10. Hunter and Hilgard (1964) said, “Learning is the process by which an
organism in satisfying its motivations, adopts and adjusts its behaviour, in
order to overcome obstacles or barriers.”
11. Blair, Jones and Simpson (1964) defined “Any change of behaviour which
is a result of experience, and which causes people to face later situations
differently may be called learning.”
12. Pressey, Robinson and Horrocks (1967) wrote, “Learning is an episode
in which a motivated individual attempts to adapt his behaviour to succeed
in a situation which he perceives as requiring action to attain a goal.”
13. W C Morse and G M Wingo (1968) observed, “Learning can be defined
as changing one’s potential for seeing, feeling, and doing through experiences
partly perceptual, partly intellectual, partly emotional and partly motor.”
14. According to J F Travers (1972), “Learning is a process that results in the
modification of behaviour.”
15. Crow and Crow (1973) said, “Learning is the acquisition of habits,
knowledge and attitudes. It involves new ways of doing things, and it operates
in an individual’s attempts to overcome obstacles or to readjust to new
situations. It represents progressive change in behaviour. It enables him to
satisfy interests to attain goals.”
16. C V Good in Dictionary of Education (1973), explained the term ‘learning’
as a “Change in response or behaviour (such as innovation, elimination or
modification of responses, involving some degree of performance) caused
partly or wholly by experience, such experience being in the main conscious,
but sometimes including significant unconscious components, as is common
in motor learning or in reaction to unrecognized or subliminal stimuli; includes
behaviour changes in the emotional sphere, but more commonly refers to
the acquisition of symbolic knowledge or motor skills, does not include
psychological changes, such as fatigue or temporary sensory resistance or
non-functioning after continued stimulations.”
17. M L Bigge (1976) observed, “Learning may be considered as a change in
insights, behaviour, perception, motivation or a combination of these.” Self-Instructional
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Leadership Skill 18. Bernhardt in Practical Psychology wrote, “Learning is more or less
permanent modification of an individual activity in a given situation, due to
the practice in attempts to achieve some goal or solve some problem.”
19. According to Colvin,—”Learning is the modification of the reactions of an
NOTES
organism through experience.”
20. Cronbach defined learning to be a change in behaviour as a result of
experience.”
21. Eason viewed, “Learning includes changes in behaviour that are determined
primarily by the individual’s interaction with his environment.”
22. Gooch said, “Learning, as we measure it, is a change in performance which
occurs under the condition of practice.”
23. Harrimn defined, “Learning is the improvement in efficiency of adjustment
as a result of practice, insight, observation, imitation and conditioning.”
24. Heidgerken explained, “Learning is not an addition of new experience
per se, nor is it an old experience summed up, rather it is the synthesis of
old and the new experiences which result in completely new organization or
pattern of experience.”
25. According to Kimble, “Learning is a relatively permanent change in
behavioural potentiality that occurs as a result of a reinforced practice.”
26. M H Marx observed, “Learning is a relatively enduring change in behaviour
which is a function of prior behaviour (usually called practice).”
Key Phrases used in the Definitions of Learning
An analysis of the above mentioned definitions would reveal the following key
words and phrases in learning:
(i) Modification of behaviour,
(ii) Practice for behaviour,
(iii) Training for behaviour,
(iv) Changes in environment,
(v) Motivated individual, i.e., the learner,
(vi) Attainment of a goal,
(vii) Acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes,
(viii) New ways of doing things,
(ix) Overcoming obstacles,
(x) Readjusting to new situation.
(xi) Ability to respond,
(xii) Satisfaction of needs through encountering something new,
(xiii) Trying and reinterpreting the situation for the satisfaction of needs,
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(xiv) Acquisition of new behaviour, Leadership Skill
(xv) Strengthening of old behaviour,

(xvi) Weakening of old behaviour,
(xvii) Satisfaction of motivations by adopting and adjusting behaviour, NOTES
(xviii) Overcoming obstacles,
(xix) Changes in the individual through changes in the environment,
(xx) Adopting behaviour to the situation,
(xxi) Permanent modifications in the behaviour,
(xxii) Changes in behaviour as a result of reinforcement,
(xxiii) Changes occurring in behaviour through practice,
(xxiv) Improvement in the efficiency of adjustment through practice,
(xxv) Learning as the synthesis of old and new experiences.
It may be stated that learning should enable us to make the best use of the things
around us. If a man has not learnt the art of living harmoniously with others, he
would be beset with difficulties than the person who has learnt to establish social
relations with his fellows. So the acquisition of abilities, which enable us to adjust
ourselves in an effective manner in an environment and to control it successfully, is
said to be the aim of learning.
Main Characteristics of Learning
Yoakman and Simpson enumerated nine general characteristics of learning as below:
(i) Learning is Growth: The word growth is generally associated not only
with the body which is growing physically, but with the mental growth of an
individual. Through his daily activities, a child grows both mentally and
physically. Therefore, we say that learning is growth through experience.
(ii) Learning is Adjustment: Learning helps the individual to adjust himself
adequately to new situations. Children come across new situations which
demand effective solutions. Life is full of experiences, and each experience
leaves behind some effects in the mind, which in turn, modify our behaviour.
(iii) Learning is Experience: Learning is not mere addition to knowledge and
acquisition of facts and skills through drill and repetition. It is the
reorganization of experience.
(iv) Learning is Purposeful: True learning is based on purpose. Purpose plays
a big role in learning. According to Ryburn, “This purpose is always connected
with the use of some instinctive power, with the use of the energy with
which we are endowed with birth.” We do not learn anything and everything
that comes in our way, in a haphazard manner. All school activities should
be purposeful so that a child feels the real urge for learning.
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Leadership Skill (v) Learning is Intelligence: Meaningless efforts do not produce permanent
result as work done mechanically is without any soul. When a child learns
something unintelligently, he is likely to forget it soon. He does not assimilate
but simply memorizes. Only efforts made intelligently have lasting effects.
NOTES
(vi) Learning is Activity: Learning does not take place without a purpose and
self-activity. In the teaching-learning process, the activity of the learner counts
more than the activity of the teacher. This is the main principle of learning
and it has been recommended by all modem educationists. In fact, all
progressive methods of education such as the Dalton, the Project, the
Montessori and the Basic are based on this.
(vii) Learning is Both Individual and Social: Learning is more than an
individual activity, it is a social activity too. An individual’s mind is affected
by the group mind consciously as well as unconsciously, as he is influenced
by his friends, relatives, classmates, parents, etc., and learns their ideas,
feelings and notions. Social agencies like the family, church, playmates, social
networking including media, have a tremendous influence on a child’s mind.
(viii) Learning is the Product of the Environment: Environment plays an
important role in the growth and development of an individual. A conducive
healthy and educative environment should be provided for effective learning.
(ix) True Learning Affects the Conduct of the Learner: There is a change
in the mental structure of the learner after every experience.
When and Where Learning Takes Place
Learning is not limited to school only; it begins long before and may continue long
after school days. Thus the ability to speak one’s mother tongue begins in early
infancy. On the other hand, the ability to practise a profession, such as that of a
doctor, is acquired after leaving the medical college. Similarly, one learns the art of
walking before one goes to school. The behaviour towards the one’s family is
learnt at home, but to behave as a member of society, is learnt in school.
Self-Assessment Learning
Self-assessment entails a wide variety of mechanisms and techniques through which
learners describe (i.e., assess) and possibly assign merit or worth to (i.e., evaluate)
the qualities of their own learning processes and products. Educational research
has identified various types of self-assessment implementations, considering different
features. Over the years, there has been a focus for “summative” purposes of self-
assessment (e.g. students “guessing” their score that was compared to the teacher’s
or peer’s). However since the inception of formative assessment in the last few
years, more attention has been paid to formative purposes, where the focus is on
using self-assessment to increase students’ learning and self-regulated learning.
Presently, two meta-analyses support the effect of self-assessment interventions
in achievement and self-regulated learning and self-efficacy.
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Leadership Skill
Check Your Progress

3. What is incubation?
4. Name the two techniques of creativity enhancement. NOTES
5. Define brainstorming.

QUESTIONS
1. The corporate culture consists of the norms, values and unwritten rules of
conduct of an organization as well as management styles, priorities, beliefs
and interpersonal behaviours that prevail.
2. The cultural aspect of organizational performance came into focus with
Theory Z, proposed by William Ouchi in 1981.
3. Incubation is a time of thought and reflection and is generally a period when
the conscious attention is turned away from the problem at hand.
4. In general, there are two techniques of creativity enhancement that have
been studied carefully. These techniques are brainstorming and Synectics.
5. Brainstorming is a technique for stimulating imaginative and novel ideas.
9.8 SUMMARY
• The organizational culture is a system of shared beliefs and attitudes that

develop within an organization and guides the behaviour of its members
• It is also known as “corporate culture” and has a major impact on the
performance of organizations and specially on the quality of work life
experienced by the employees at all levels of the organizational hierarchy.
• The corporate culture “consists of the norms, values and unwritten rules of
conduct of an organization as well as management styles, priorities, beliefs
and interpersonal behaviours that prevail.
• If the employees understand the basic philosophy of the organization, then
they are more likely to make decisions that will support these standards set
by the organization and reinforce corporate values.
• The word “culture” has been derived metaphorically from the idea of
“cultivation”, the process of tilling and developing land.
• While culture has been a continuous development of values and attitudes
over many generations, at least the organizational culture can be partially
traced back to the values held by the founders of the organization.
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Leadership Skill • The organizational culture is influenced by the external environment and the
interaction between the organization and the external environment.
• Work culture is also a function of the nature of the work and mission and
the goals of the organization.
NOTES
• The cultural aspect of organizational performance came into focus with
Theory Z, proposed by William Ouchi in 1981.
• The importance of strong culture as a driving force for organizational success
was emphasised by Peters and Waterman in their well-received book, “In
Search of Excellence”.
• According to Schermerhorn, Hunt and Osborn17 performance is a reflection
of 3 characteristics.
• While organizational support basically provides an individual with an
“opportunity” to perform that does affect behaviour to some degree, the
“capacity” and the “willingness” are directly associated with the human
behaviour.
• The capacity to perform is an outcome of such competency characteristics
as ability and aptitude that can be considered as inherited characteristics of
behaviour.
• Ability, that is partly a measure of intelligence, is the basic and important
ingredient for effective performance and all the motivation and organizational
efforts will not be of any help towards performance if the basic ability does
not exist.
• To achieve high levels of performance, the individuals must show willingness
to perform and put in adequate work effort.
• The effort or the degree of willingness to perform effectively would depend
upon the degree of motivation of the individual.
• This motivation that is a behavioural concept defines the forces within the
individual that account for the direction and level of effort relating to a given
task.
• Inadequate support systems such as rush jobs, unavailability of best tools
to perform work with unclear guidance and instructions; are all negative
influences on behaviour and performance.
• Creativity and critical thinking is essential for making effective and unique
decisions. The degree and depth of creativity would greatly influence the
quality of the decisions and consequently the results of actions that are
based upon such decisions.
• Creativity can be defined as, “socially recognized achievement in which
there are novel products to which one can point as evidence such as
inventions, theories, buildings, published writings, paintings and sculptures
and films, laws, institutions, medical and surgical treatments and so on”.
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• Creativity primarily means originality in ideas. An original idea is considered Leadership Skill
to be the one that has never occurred before.

• Incubation is a time of thought and reflection and is generally a period when
the conscious attention is turned away from the problem at hand.
NOTES
• Insight is the actual point of breakthrough achieved as a result of preparation
and incubation. It is the tentative outcome of persistent efforts and thinking
when the individual believes that he has found a unique solution to the problem
under study.
• Organizations interested in maintaining and enhancing creativity recognize
that excessive disciplines, excessive rigidity in structure and too much control
inhibit creativity.
• In general, there are two techniques of creativity enhancement that have
been studied carefully. These techniques are brainstorming and Synectics.
• Brainstorming is a technique for stimulating imaginative and novel ideas.
• It involves a group of people, usually between five and ten sitting around a
table, in a class room setting, generating ideas in the form of free association.
• Creativity assists in developing a variety of alternatives. It is basically the
generation of new ideas or using old ideas in a new way from unsuspecting
angles. Synectics approach assists in generating such ideas.
• Interpersonal communication refers to communication that takes place
between two or more individuals. On the other hand, intrapersonal
communication means communication that takes place within the self.
9.9 KEY WORDS
• Feedback: It is information about reactions to a product, a person’s

performance of a task, etc. which is used as a basis for improvement.
• Synectics: It is a problem-solving technique which seeks to promote creative
thinking, typically among small groups of people of diverse expertise.
• Stimuli: It refers to something that incites to action or exertion or quickens
action, feeling, thought, etc.
• Consensus: It refers to a generally accepted opinion or decision among a
group of people.

EXERCISES

1. Define culture. What do you understand by organizational culture.
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Leadership Skill 2. What is the origin of organizational culture?
3. List some of the symptoms of inadequate organizational support.
4. Write a short note on interpersonal and intrapersonal skill and cultural
NOTES flexibility.
1. What is performance? How does behaviour impact performance?
2. Write a descriptive note on creativity and the creative process.
3. How can one enhance creativity?
London: Pearson.
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Stress
UNIT 10 STRESS
Structure NOTES
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Meaning of Stress
10.3 Stress Responses
10.4 Basic forms of Stress: Frustration and Anxiety
10.5 Sources of Stress
10.6 Consequences of Job Stress
10.7 Managing Stress
10.8 Stress Management
10.10 Summary
10.11 Key Words
10.0 INTRODUCTION
Stress is a state of mind that reflects certain biochemical reactions in the human
body and is projected by a sense of anxiety, tension and depression and is caused
by such demands by the environmental forces or internal forces that cannot be met
by the resources available to the person. The intensity of such demands that require
a readjustment of resources or operational styles would determine the extent of
stress. Such environmental events or conditions that have the potential to induce
stress are known as “stressors”.
10.1 OBJECTIVES

• Explain the meaning and forms of stress
• Discuss the General Adaptation Syndrome
• Assess the sources of stress
• Analyse the consequences of stress
• Describe how to cope with stress
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Stress
10.2 MEANING OF STRESS
Medical researcher Hans Selye first used the term “stress” to describe the body’s
NOTES biological response mechanisms. He defined stress as “the nonspecific response
of the body to any demand”. It must be understood that for the stress to occur, the
response should be non-specific. All responses require utilization of energy. Any
demand made on the body that is for some specific activity that is natural, expected
and a part of daily routine, does not necessarily create stress. Even walking, thinking,
writing and doing physical activities that are a part of personal and organizational
existence, require energy consumption of the body but are not necessarily stress
producing forces.
Stress does not necessarily occur due to undesirable developments. All
situations that produce increased demand on a vital activity requiring adaptation to
a new situation, produce stress in the form of a stereotyped pattern of bio-chemical,
functional and structural changes in the human organism. These situations could be
fear, pain, fatigue, emotional arousal, humiliation, frustration, need for concentration,
loss of blood, drugs, loss of a loved one, non-occurrence of an expected event
and even unexpected successes that require a change in the operational style.
Source: Henry L. Tossi, John R. Rizzo and Stephen J. Carroll, Managing Organizational Behavior,
Ballinger Publishing Co., 1986, p. 296.
The stress created by desirable and successful events is called “eustress”

and the stress created by undesirable outcomes is known as “distress”. It is primarily
the distress form of stress that requires examination and steps to cope with it.
Eustress is a positive, healthy and developmental stress response. Thus, just as
tension on muscles causes them to strengthen, some level of stress may lead to
better performance and a more adjusted personality. Since we learn how to deal
with our problems better, it improves our capacity to confront distress better.
However, even though some levels of stress are necessary for psychological growth,
creative activities and the acquisitions of new skills such as learning to drive a car
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or learning the use of a computer, it is the highly stressful situations that weaken a Stress
person’s physical and psychological capacity to cope with the stressors that have
dysfunctional consequences. Just as high-level stress is damaging to the physical
and psychological well-being of the person, extremely low levels of stress are
equally undesirable for they cause boredom, and result in lack of stimulation, NOTES
innovation and challenges. Thus, moderate level of stress is necessary for higher
level of performance. The following diagram shows the relationship between the
level of performance and degree of stress.
Source: Henry L. Tossi ..... See second revised edition.

The General Adaptation Syndrome refers to a general development of responses
to stressful events in the form of physiological, psychological and behavioural
responses believed to follow a fairly consistent pattern and consists of three stages.
The first stage is known as “alarm” stage and it occurs at the first sign of stress. It
results in physiological changes in the body as a warning and preparation against
stress. During this initial stage, muscles become tense, blood pressure rises, pupils
dilate and there is increase in hormone flow such as adrenaline from endocrine
glands. The second stage in bodily responses is that of resistance. In this stage, the
body’s energies tend to resist the stress so that the physiological and psychological
equilibrium can be maintained. If this resistance is successful, then the stress will
disappear. However, if the stress is of a high degree and continues long enough,
then the body’s capacity for adaptation becomes exhausted. In this third stage of
exhaustion, the person is unable to cope with the stress and the individual
experiences physical and mental pressures that result in such illness as continuous
headaches, ulcers and high blood pressure. It is this last stage that presents the
greatest threat to the individual’s well-being.
10.3 STRESS RESPONSES
As mentioned briefly above in the General Adaptation syndrome, the process of

stress elicits three types of responses. These are: physiological, psychological and
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Stress Physiological Responses
As soon as stress appears, the brain reacts, and immediate biochemical changes
take place in heart beat and heightening of practically all the senses. The long
NOTES terms physiological effects are more disturbing. Serious health problems occur as
body confronts stress over a long period of time. The stress could lead to
breakdowns in the body’s immune systems and may result in serious health
problems such as high blood pressure, ulcers and heart attack. In general, according
to Baron, “taking all evidence into account though, it seems reasonable to conclude
that high level of stress can result in physical changes that threaten our health and
well-being”.
Psychological Responses
There are some people who can handle stress better than others. People who
tend to be highly affected by stress tend to be depressed and lack self-confidence
and self-esteem. They tend to believe that they are helpless and elicit sympathy
from others. They have greater fear of the unknown and an increased sense of
futility, tension and neurotic tendencies. They become irritated quickly, are impatient
and tend to blame everybody else for their own problems. They are more worried
about their job security and their job commitment is very low.
Behavioural Responses
According to Cohen,4 people under constant stress behave differently as compared
to people who are emotionally well-balanced. Stress is usually associated with
increased use of alcohol, smoking, eating and sometimes drugs. People under
stress may gain weight and thus behave differently. Their behaviour becomes highly
defensive or highly aggressive towards others and inter-personal relationships are
highly affected. Stress induces irritation and lack of patience and these elements
are exhibited in behavioural patterns. The person may become an introvert, may
withdraw from social situations and may avoid communication with others resulting
in social isolation.
10.4 BASIC FORMS OF STRESS: FRUSTRATION

AND ANXIETY
Frustration is a form of behaviour that occurs when a person wishes to achieve a

certain objective or pursue a certain course of action but is prevented from doing
so. It refers to an obstruction or impediment to goal oriented behaviour. Examples
of frustration include a salesman continuously failing to make a sale, a professor
continuously applying for a promotion and failing to get it or inability to get
subordinates to act according to our wishes. There are several factors that cause
frustration. First is the unnecessary delay in achieving the goal, even when the goal
is eventually available. Delay in getting a promotion, delay in finishing a report and
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even waiting for a friend after the due time can cause frustration. The second Stress
factor causing frustration is the lack of resources. Sometimes the goals are not
achieved because individuals lack the physical, personal or interpersonal resources.
A professor who is burdened with administrative duties and does not get enough
time to do research that is necessary for promotion may become frustrated because NOTES
of such time constraints. The third cause of frustration may be the actual failure in
achieving the goal. A lost client, a poor evaluation by superiors, failure in the exam
or failure to get a promotion are all causes of frustration that are manifested in
stress.
A second form of stress is the “anxiety” which is a feeling of inability and
helplessness in formulating appropriate responses or plans for dealing with the
anticipated negative outcomes. It occurs when a decision has to be made but the
outcome of the decision could have positive as well as negative consequences.
For example, should you cheat in the exam or not, not knowing whether you will
get through or get caught? These are some anxious moments. Anxiety also occurs
when all your options result in undesirable consequences. For example, if you are
working with a company for a long time and have built roots in the community
where you live and your company is moving to a different far off location and you
have the choice of either moving with the company or losing the job. Both of these
alternatives make you feel uncomfortable and hence become a cause of anxiety.
What causes anxiety in work environment? According to Hammer and Organ:
“Difference in power in organization which leave people with a feeling of
vulnerability to administrative decisions adversely affecting them, frequent changes
in organizations, which make existing behavior plans obsolete, competition, which
creates the inevitability that some persons lose “face”, esteem and status, and job
ambiguity (especially when it is coupled with pressure). To these may be added
some related factors, such as lack of job feedback, volatility in the organization’s
economic environment, job insecurity and high visibility of one’s performance
(success as well as failure). Obviously, personal non-organizational factors come
into play as well, such as physical illness, problems at home, unrealistically high
personal goals and estrangement from one’s colleagues or one’s peer group”.
Accordingly, there are a number of factors, both organizational as well as
individualistic, that cause frustration and anxiety.
10.5 SOURCES OF STRESS
There are two major sources of stress. These are organizational sources and
personal sources. Both these categories are considered in detail:
Organizational Sources
Almost every aspect of work can be a stressor for someone. Even though there
are many factors in the work environment that have some influence on the extent
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Stress of stress that people experience at the job, the following factors have been shown
to be particularly strong in inducing stress.
Stressors intrinsic to the job The nature of the job itself can determine the type
and degree of stress that can be induced. Some jobs lead to more stress-related
NOTES
responses than others. For example, such jobs as that of a police officer, or air
traffic controller are often considered to be low-stress jobs.
In general, high stress occupations are those in which the employees have
little control over their operations, work under time constraints and have major
responsibilities for human or financial resources. Persons working under threatening
working conditions such as temperature extremes, pollution, uncomfortable lighting
and ventilation and loud noise are also vulnerable to high stress.
According to one study, some of the high-stress jobs are: foreman, manager,
inspector, waitress or waiter and clinical lab technician. On the contrary, some of
the low stress jobs are: college professor, personnel worker, craft worker, farm
labourer and so on.
Studies conducted by Karasek and his colleagues at Columbia University
showed a higher risk of coronary disease as a consequence of stress in some jobs
and less in others. They identified two job factors that affect the level of such risk.
These factors are the “level of psychological demand” and the “level of decision
control” over work. People with high psychological demands and low decision
control are constantly under pressure, for they must meet the demands imposed
upon them without having any say in it. For example, a waitress in a restaurant
must wait on the customer as well as depend upon the cook. She is subjected to
demands both by the customer as well as the cook with no control over it and thus
is subjected to high pressure and risk. According to this study, some of the jobs
are categorised as follows:
(a) Low psychological demand/Low decision control —some of the jobs
are: janitor, night watchman, truck driver, billing clerk and so on.
(b) Low psychological demand/high decision control. The jobs in this
category are: auto repair man, sales clerk, peddler, scientist and so
on.
(c) High psychological demand/High decision control. This category
contains jobs such as: sales manager, bank officer, physician, school
teacher and so on.
(d) High psychological demand/Low decision control. These jobs carry
maximum strain and are those of: waitress, telephone operator, cook,
assembly line worker and so on.
Role ambiguity: A role is a set of activities associated with a certain position in
the organization or in the society. According to Kahn, if these work activities are
ill-defined, then the person who is carrying out these activities will not behave as
others expect him to, because his role is not clearly defined. Thus, when there is a
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lot of uncertainty regarding job definitions or job expectations, then people Stress
experience role ambiguity.

Role ambiguity is particularly strong among managerial jobs where
responsibilities are more general in nature and role definitions and task specifications
NOTES
are not clear. This role ambiguity is especially prevalent among companies that
have merged or acquired other companies while keeping the employees. Thus,
employees become uncertain of what exactly they are supposed to do and exactly
whom they should report to. This role ambiguity causes stress. French and Caplan,
summarised their study findings as follows:
“In summary, role ambiguity, which appears, to be widespread, (1) produce
psychological strain and dissatisfaction, (2) leads to under-utilization of human
resources, and (3) leads to feeling of futility on how to cope with the organizational
environment.”
Role conflict: Role conflict occurs when two or more persons have different and
sometimes opposing expectation of a given individual. Thus, there are two or
more sets of pressures on the individual so that it is not possible to satisfy all of
them. In other words, role conflict occurs when contradictory demands are
simultaneously placed upon an employee. For example, an architect may be
expected to produce creative designs, while on the other hand, there may be time
constraints put upon him, both roles being in conflict with each other. Similarly, a
contractor may ask a carpenter to do something that may be different than what
the city building code prescribe, thus causing a role conflict.
Another type of role conflict is the inter-role conflict where an individual
plays more than one role simultaneously in his life and the demands of these roles
conflict with each other. For example, a father may know that his son has committed
a crime but does not inform the police or a police officer may be invited to his
brother’s wedding party where the guests use drugs that is against the law.
Studies conducted by Robert Kahn and his colleagues at the University of
Michigan regarding role conflict, lead to the following conclusion:
“Contradictory role expectations give rise to opposing role pressures (role
conflict), which generally have the following effects on the emotional experience
of the focal person: intensified internal conflicts, increased tension associated with
various aspects of the job, reduced satisfaction with the job and its various
components, and decreased confidence in superiors and in the organization as a
whole. The strain experienced by those in conflict situations leads to various coping
responses such as social and psychological withdrawal (reduction in communication
and attributed influence) among them.
Finally, the presence of conflict in one’s role tends to undermine his relations
with his role senders to produce weaker bonds of trust, respect and attraction. It
is quite clear that role conflicts are costly for the person in emotional and interpersonal
terms. They may be costly to the organization, which depends on effective
coordination and collaboration within and among its parts”.
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Stress Role overload: Role overload occurs when the work requirements are so
excessive that employees feel that they do not have adequate time or ability to
meet such requirements. Working under time pressure is especially stressful whether
it is meeting a deadline for a report or studying near the exam period. The
NOTES physiological symptoms of stress increase significantly prior to deadline and
decrease sharply after the deadline has passed. The role overload can occur either
when there is too much work to complete in a given time or when it is too difficult
to accomplish because of lack of skills and ability.
Role underload: Role underload occurs when a person’s ability is underutilised
so that either there is too little work or there is too little variety in the work. If a
salesman with high inter-personal skills is given a job in a department store where
there are not too many customers, then he will feel that his ability is not being
properly utilised. Similarly, assembly line workers whose jobs are routine and
highly monotonous also experience role underload.
Role underload leads to excessive absenteeism and such workers show
very little interest in the organizational activities. It results in low self-esteem and
low work satisfaction. This creates stress with increased frequency of nervous
complaints and other health problems.
Stress as reflected in role overload and underload can be reflected
diagrammatically as follows:
Responsibility for people: Any type of responsibility can be a burden upon an

individual. For example, organizational responsibility for such factors as budgets,
equipment and projects can cause stress. However, it is the responsibility for people
working for you that is a cause for continuous concern. As a manager, your
effectiveness is a function of quality performance of your subordinates. Hence,
you will be held responsible for anything that goes wrong, which creates stress
and this stress is intensified when the manager has a limited degree of control over
the subordinates. As noted by French and Caplan.
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“If there is any truth to the adage that ‘man’s greatest enemy is himself’, it Stress
can be found in these data—it is the responsibility which organizational members

have for other organizational members, rather than the responsibility for impersonal
aspects of the organization, which constitutes the more significant organizational
stress.” NOTES
Lack of participation: When the employees are invited to participate in decision
making process in their areas of concern then the employees perceive that they
have more control over their own environment thus reducing the extent of role
conflict and role ambiguity that cause stress. For example, in a work situation
where high role conflict is created because of inconsistent demands from the
superiors, the stress created by such high role conflict is reduced if the subordinates
and superiors can participate and work together in reducing such inconsistencies.
Participation in decision making also helps in reducing role ambiguity and role
overload resulting in reduced stress.
Interpersonal Relationships
The effectiveness of the organization is influenced by the nature of the relations
among group members. One of the major sources of stress in organizational setting
is poor interpersonal relationships, be it within the group or with superiors or
subordinates. When interpersonal relationships are not very cordial, the employees
develop a general sense of anxiety when they have to deal with each other or
depend upon each other such as a group task or departmental meetings where
they have to interact with each other.
Sayings like “too much familiarity breeds contempt” have validity in that too
much prolonged contact with other people can cause stress. This stress is further
intensified when the people we come in contact with are in distress themselves.
For example, we become distressed when our friends have problems. Parents are
generally under great tension when their children do not do well in schools or
when they get involved in drugs. For this reason, employees in such professions as
health care and social services report the highest level of stress. According to
Albrecht, doctors have the highest rate of alcoholism among all the professions
and psychiatrists have the highest rate of suicide.
When a person has to deal with people in other departments, conflict may
also occur. For example, assume that there is a professor from Business Division
who is up for promotion that is to be decided by a committee comprised of
representatives from all divisions. If the professor does not get the promotion he
may feel that the representatives from the Humanities Division or Social Sciences
Division do not appreciate the requirements in the Business Division, thus causing
conflict and stress. As another example, the X-ray technicians in a hospital may
not be able to deal with the service demands of the doctors and surgeons, thus
creating stress and tension.
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Stress Much of the quality of interpersonal relationships also depends upon the
organizational climate. An organizational climate may be conducive to a relaxed
style of working or it may be tense and crisis-oriented. The employees are
continuously tense, if the organizational climate in general is unfriendly, hostile or
NOTES totally task oriented.
Personal Factors in Stress
Events in personal life cannot be isolated from events in work life. A person with
an unhappy family life seldom expresses a positive attitude at work. Much of the
stress brought about by non-work situations may be due to divorce, marriage,
death of a loved one, financial difficulties and many other socio-cultural relationships.
These difficulties are stress producers specially if they are unexpected. For example,
we know that children leave home when they grow up or when they go to college
so that this is expected, and this separation does not necessarily cause stress. On
the other side, problems at work can manifest in stress in personal life. Thus, job
stress and life stress are often related in that high stress in one area can induce or
increase stress in the other.
Some of the specific non-work stressors are:
Job concern Job and career variables can become stressors when they become
sources of concern, anxiety or frustration to the individual. One of the major
concerns is the lack of job security. Except for jobs with tenure or strong union
support, very few employees have job security. This insecurity increases during
times of recessions or impending recessions. The prospect of losing a job, especially
when you have a family and your social roots are well-established, is very stressful.
Another reason for job related stress may be the perception of the employee
regarding his status on the job. Persons who are not promoted when due or persons
who feel that their jobs are beneath their qualifications may feel that they are not
using their potential to the best and may become anxious about it. This is especially
true for middle aged men and women when that time itself becomes a period of
soul searching and self-doubt. Career progress then becomes a focal point.
Relocation When an employee has to relocate geographically because of a
transfer or promotion, it disrupts the routine of his daily life, causing concern and
stress. The fear of working in a new location, unpredictability about new work
environment, and the prospect of creating new relationships always cause some
anxiety. Relocation also creates problems for the spouses and children of employees.
They are also uprooted from schools, friends and jobs. It is especially difficult for
them because generally the family moves with the husband’s job and they do not
have much say in it. The stress related to this geographic mobility is greater when
the wife also has a job and she has to leave the job to go with the family. Uncertainty
about getting a new job at the new location creates some degree of stress. Thus
the more changes that occur in a person’s social relationships and family life because
of relocation, the greater the person’s stress will be.
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Changes in life structure The structure of life and process of living has many Stress
facets. Some of these facets are socio-cultural in nature such as family, religion,
race, education, economic situation as well as a person’s interaction with the socio-
cultural world in the role of a husband, a parent, a friend or a citizen. In addition,
the life structure may change as we grow older from one period to another such as NOTES
childhood to adolescence and so on. As we grow older, our responsibility to
ourselves as well as others changes and increases. The higher the responsibility,
the greater the stress.
The extent of stress is also determined by the ability to cope with stress or
the kind of sources a person seeks to deal with stress. For example, people who
have strong faith in God and His Will find it easier to deal with such stressful
situations as the loss of a loved one. Similarly, family and friends are source of
great comfort at such times of crisis.
The pace of life would also determine whether a person’s life is stable or
turbulent. As the responsibilities increase, so does the capacity to execute them.
Professions such as those of doctors or businessmen are more stressful and hectic
than those of say, college teaching.
The degree of stress created by certain events in life can be assessed by
“Social Readjustment Rating Scale” developed by Thomas Holmes and Richard
Rake. In order to construct the stress impact scale, they asked people to rate as
to how long it would take to adjust to certain stressful events and how severe the
adjustment to these events would be. From the responses, they developed a ranking
and a weighting for each of these stress producing events. For example, the death
of a spouse was considered to be the most stress producing event. The following
table shows the ranking of some of these events.
Life Event Weight
Death of a spouse 100
Divorce 73
Jail term 63
Death of a close family member 63
Marriage 50
Fired from work 47
Pregnancy 40
Sex difficulties 39
Child leaving home 29
Change in residence 20
Christmas 12
If an individual accumulates a large number of stressor points in a relatively

short period of time, it is more likely that stress would be obvious. The higher the
number of points, the more likely that stress will result in serious illness.
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Stress
Check Your Progress

1. What is the first stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome?
NOTES 2. Define frustration.
3. List the major sources of stress.
4. When does role conflict occur?
5. How can we assess the degree of stress?
10.6 CONSEQUENCES OF JOB STRESS
As has been discussed, the conditions that create stressful situations for employees
are fairly constant: fear of losing the job, work overload, lack of participation in
decisions regarding their own work environment, non-supportive supervisors, and
co-workers, limited job opportunities and so on. The stress is acute specially for
current generation middle managers whose jobs are more uncertain, and who
have less control over their destinies as compared with senior level managers,
furthermore their stress coping capabilities are reduced because they are generally
more mobile, less religious, marry later in life and have fewer children-factors that
act as a buffer and reduce the impact of stress.
According to Business Week
“Stress. From the corner office to the factory floor, it is epidemic in US business.
Competition, Bloody Monday layoffs, mergers and acquisitions—all are taking
their toll in derailed careers, broken families and emotional disorders. Signs are
everywhere. Employees drink to excess and slip disastrously in their performance.
They erupt into fits of uncontrollable rage at work and abuse their families at
home. A few commit suicide.”
It is important to deal with stress at an early stage. Early warning signs such
as headaches, back pain, irritability, insomnia, absenteeism from work or alcoholism
should be taken seriously. Otherwise they could lead to serious emotional disorders
as well as physiological problems such as ulcers and heart disease. When stress is
left untreated for a long time, it can develop into anxiety and depression. According
to Business Week again, stress and depression share a common chemistry in the
brain. A hormone called Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH) puts a shield of
defense against stress. Even after the stress subsides, the body keeps releasing the
hormone, sometimes for years. When stress gets out of hand, it results in severe
depression, and depression if untreated can be fatal. Depressed individuals make
up some 60% of all suicides.
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Physiological Reaction to Stress Stress
High degree of stress is typically accompanied by severe anxiety, frustration and

depression. There is evidence that work stress is associated with heart irregularities,
high levels of blood pressure and high levels of cholesterol. Studies conducted by NOTES
Stole, regarding the effects of a plant closing in Detroit showed an “alarming rise in
anxiety and illness”, with at least fifty per cent of employees suffering from ulcers,
arthritis, serious hypertension, alcoholism and depression.
Some of the physiological symptoms of stress, anxiety and depression are as
follows:
Stress: Irritability, insomnia, alcohol and food abuse. Physical changes including
rapid breathing and heart rate, tensed muscles. Prolonged stress can
cause muscular twitches, skin problems, baldness and sexual problems
such as impotence.
Anxiety: Excessive worry, irritability, anger, nervousness as well as inability to
concentrate or sleep. Physical changes include palpitations, chest pain
and dizziness.
Depression: Feelings of sadness, hopelessness, guilt and worthlessness, loss of
interest in activities, change in appetite or weight, difficulty in
concentrating and suicidal thoughts.
Also, there is strong evidence that job stress contributes directly to life threatening
diseases and in fact shortens one’s life.
Stress and Job Performance
One of the major concerns of management is the negative impact stress has on
performance. People under high stress tend to withdraw from the contact with the
stressor in the form of turnover and absenteeism. In extreme cases it may result in
sabotage. Workers sometimes create mechanical failure in order to take a break
from strain of monotonous work. Any factor that causes negative effects on our
physical and psychological well-being is also expected to affect our work behaviour.
Exposure to strong and enduring stress influences important aspects of our behaviour
at job thus affecting productivity.
The relationship between stress and performance appears to be rather
complex. It is affected by the difficulty of the task being performed, the nature of
the specific stressor involved and a wide range of personal and situational factors.
However, in general, productivity is considered to be at a peak with moderate
level of stress. Performance is poor at low level of stress as well as at high level of
stress. At low level of stress, the person may not be sufficiently energized and may
not be whole-heartedly involved in his work, resulting in low productivity. As the
level of stress increases from low levels to moderate levels, the performance level
also increases to reach the peak level. An optimum level of stress exists for any
task. If the stress continues to increase from this level, the person becomes too
agitated and frustrated, resulting in performance deterioration. Self-Instructional
Material 151
Stress It has been believed that the relationship between stress and performance is
curvilinear. It follows an inverted U-shaped curve as shown previously and
reproduced here.
NOTES
However, the validity of the clear-cut relationship is being questioned and

some behaviour scientists believe that performance actually decreases when stress
increases from low levels to moderate levels, even though the rate of decrease in
performance is less than the rate of decrease when stress increases from moderate
to high levels. This relationship is shown as below:
Stress also impairs the ability to make effective decisions. People under
stress are in a state of irritation and are unable to concentrate. They become
impatient and are more likely to avoid or postpone making decisions. They are
less likely to seek new information and are more likely to forget some important
pieces of available information. As a result, the quality of decisions they make
suffers, and the cost of a wrong decision can be very high.
Job Burnout
Job burnout is the extreme case of physical, emotional and mental exhaustion,
when stressors seem to be unavoidable and sources of relief seem to be unavailable.
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People feel totally drained and dread going to work. They develop negative feelings
152 Material
about their jobs and about their life in general. This burnout is a direct result of Stress
prolonged exposure to intense stress.

Physical exhaustion results in general feelings of tiredness and people exhibit
such symptoms as low energy, frequent headaches, sleeplessness and changes in
NOTES
eating habits.
Emotional exhaustion results in feelings of depression, helplessness, and
hopelessness. People who are emotionally exhausted develop a feeling of
worthlessness and tend to believe that life has no meaning or goal.
Mental exhaustion result in low self-esteem and develops negative attitudes
towards life and job. People tend to feel inadequate and incompetent and they
often dislike their colleagues, their co-workers or their clients.
Recent studies have shown that burnout seems to be the most common
among professionals who must deal extensively with other people. Job burnout is
most visible among professionals such as managers, lawyers, nurses, accountants
and social workers. It has been estimated that 20% of such professionals suffer
from job burnout.
10.7 MANAGING STRESS
We know that some stress is necessary for optimum efficiency. We also have a
general idea as to the level of stress that is destructive to job performance.
Accordingly, it is necessary for individuals, as well as management to take steps to
reduce stress to acceptable levels.
Individual Strategies
It is necessary for physical and psychological well-being of the person to reduce
or eliminate the negative effects of stress. It is possible to manage stress, at least in
the sense that a person can either avoid stressful conditions, change them or learn
to cope with them. There are a number of ways by which stress can be managed
so that the person has control over his life. Some of these strategies deal with the
individual himself and focus on improving his physical and mental strength to deal
with stress from all sources and some strategies deal specifically with job related
stress.
Some of the stress reducing strategies that strengthen the individual’s well-being
are:
Readjust life goals Because of the severe competition to “get ahead”, most
individuals set very high standards and goals for themselves. They are always
trying to do too much in too little time. They have tremendous fear of failing and
they are running to nowhere. These high expectations and limited resources to
reach such expectations result in stress. Accordingly, people must readjust their
goals and make sure they have the ability and proper resources to reach such
goals. Perhaps the goals should be established after resources have been analysed. Self-Instructional
Material 153
Stress Social support There is a saying that, “a friend in need is a friend indeed”. Good
friends become highly supportive during the times of stress and crisis. Close and
reliable friends may give a sympathetic hearing to your problems, a more objective
assessment of the situation and support your sagging self-confidence or self-esteem.
NOTES Many people turn to God for support during times of difficulties, believing God to
be their “best friend”. The idea of confession to a priest in the Catholic religion is
primarily meant to receive moral support for stress created by some individual
actions. Thus God, priests, family, friends can all be a source of great comfort
during times of stress.
Plan your life in advance While the attitude of “whatever will be, will be” is a
way to accept the unexpected difficulties in life, it is better to project events in life
and plan to confront them when they occur. Many times, people create situations
that induce stress because they either did not plan or they did a bad job of planning.
For example, students who plan the pace of their studies during the semester
seldom find exams excessively stressful. Accordingly, if we plan the proper utilization
of our resources of time and money, the chances are that we will have less stress.
Physiological fitness There is evidence to suggest that individuals who exercise
and so strengthen their endurance and cardiovascular system, are much less likely
to suffer from certain types of stress-related illnesses. As the correlation between
physical fitness and stress resistance has become clear, many organizations have
added facilities for physical exercise in their premises. With proper exercise, diet
control and non-smoking habits, blood pressure and cholesterol levels become
low and the body becomes more resistant to pressures. People are more likely to
get physically sick or emotionally depressed if they are overweight or poorly
nourished.
Yoga During the last twenty-five years, there has been a growing interest in yoga
as a stress reduction strategy. The word “yoga” means union and according to
Amarjit Sethi, it “implies union with the ultimate where the process of desiring has
come to an end and where stress is non-existent”. To a common man, yoga is a
structured set of exercises and body movements with deep breathing and mind
concentration, so that it is a way of getting away from the stressors. To a serious
student of yoga, it is a methodology to integrate body and mind forces to bring
them into a state of harmony with the ultimate goal of being in unison with the
Infinite. At the lower levels of physical and mental fitness, yoga consists of certain
postural habits (known as asanas) and these postures are non-dynamic, passive
and stable, resulting in increased flexibility of skeletal structure. This in turn stimulates
the nervous system. Accordingly, with proper “asanas” and controlled breathing,
the neuromuscular coordination is strengthened, affecting glandular activity that is
responsible for physical as well as mental health. Thus, the development of a sound
mind in a sound body improves the stress coping capabilities.
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Meditation Stress
Meditation involves concentration of mind away from stress producing areas, sitting
in a comfortable position, closing the eyes and clearing the mind from all disturbing
thoughts. Any form of concentration that redirects our thought processes away NOTES
from daily concerns can be considered meditation. Primarily, it involves silently
repeating a single syllable or “mantra” over and over gain. This concentration on
“mantra” shuts out other distractions and results in physical and mental relaxation
at its peak. The place of meditation should be such that the meditator is not disturbed
by any outside force such as telephone, children or visitors. This technique was
popularised by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, an Indian mystic, and the method is known
as “Transcendental Meditation” or TM.
Another form of meditation that has grown popular is Benson’s method or
“Relaxation Response.” This technique is similar to TM and is designed to elicit
“relaxation response” that is considered to be opposite to “stress response”. The
basic idea is to block extraneous and distracting thoughts from one’s mind. It is a
form of breathing meditation, where the meditator consciously thinks of a word or
a symbol on every out breath. The idea is to dwell upon a particular word or
sound or to gaze at a symbol or even concentrate on a particular feeling. Relaxation
response should become an integral part of behaviour so that life stresses are
effectively countered. Benson recommends “relaxation response” breaks instead
of coffee breaks to rejuvenate workers.
Biofeedback Biofeedback is a methodology designed to alter undesirable
physiological responses through psychological strategies. Sophisticated electronic
instruments are used to measure small undesirable changes caused by stress. Then
a state of relaxation is induced in order to bring back such bodily functions to a
normal non-stress state. For example, whenever blood pressure is registered as
too high, individuals then try to relax to bring the blood pressure down. This tendency
to relax is voluntary on the part of the individual. The potential benefit of biofeedback
is the human ability to bring some of the bodily functions under voluntary control.
These functions include heart rates, brain waves, muscle tension, blood pressure
and stomach acidity. Changes in these functions are most often caused by stress.
By measuring these changes precisely through the system of biofeedback, an
individual can respond to these changes effectively. Thus, stress management can
be voluntarily practiced by individuals.
10.8 STRESS MANAGEMENT
While it is necessary for individuals to design their own strategies to reduce stress
to an acceptable level, it is equally important for organizations to develop programs
that will help employees reduce their stress. This will help in controlling employee
turnover, absenteeism, and as a result, productivity will improve. Some of the
steps that organizations can take are:
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Stress Health maintenance Many organizations provide facilities at their premises for
physical fitness such as gyms, swimming pools, as well as psychological counselling.
They hold seminars, workshops and lectures to help employees in understanding
the nature and sources of stress, its ramifications and possible ways to reduce its
NOTES negative effects. Workshops are designed in a manner that they are therapeutic in
nature to help individuals who are already experiencing stress problems. Most
programmes involve one or more of the following techniques: biofeedback,
meditation, muscular relaxation exercises, and skill training areas such as time
management, interpersonal skills, training to think positively about life and its
problems and looking at sources of stress realistically and analytically.
Selection and placement The basic hiring process should be based upon matching
of skills, personality and work requirements. Being placed in a job that is not
compatible with your ability and temperament, can be highly frustrating and stress
producing. The applicants should be hired not only on the basis of educational
background and past relative experience but the criteria for selection could also
include the applicant’s ability to handle role ambiguity and role conflict when present.
Accordingly, during the process of hiring, some personality tests can be designed
to evaluate the candidate’s stamina for stress.
Job enrichment Redesigning the job should be in such a manner as to use the
maximum potential of the employee with emphasis on employee involvement in
such redesigning. This will help reduce stress caused by monotony, routine work,
role ambiguity, work overload or underload. Job enrichment enhances motivation
and leads to more challenging assignment, improved task significance, more
responsibility, more meaningful work and more control of the employee over his
own work environment. It also improves feedback to the employee regarding his
performance and this will reduce uncertainty. Since stress occurs when work is
important and there is some uncertainty surrounding it, a redesigned job will help
overcome this stress and enhance “quality of work life”.
Effective and equitable performance appraisal and reward systems It is
necessary that performance be appraised in an objective and non-biased manner
and the rewards be clearly and proportionately related to performance. The
employee must know what is expected of him and for what exactly he is responsible
and accountable. This will reduce role conflict. Employees’ contribution to the
organization must be well recognised, appreciated and rewarded. This will instill
enthusiasm and a sense of dedication and belonging which in itself is a stress fighting
phenomenon. This also strengthens the bonds of interpersonal relationships between
the employees and the superiors and helps in clear and open communication.
Participation in decision making If the employees are invited to participate in
making decisions involving their own work setting, within the organizational
guidelines, this would make the employees feel that they are their own boss, a
factor that is associated with less negative reactions to stress. Participation increases
job involvement and reduces ambiguity and conflict—the two stress producing
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agents. This would also result in closer cooperation among superiors and
156 Material
subordinates and a better work environment, especially when the superiors support Stress
their subordinates.
Building teamwork The management must create a work environment in which
the members of the work group consider themselves as members of the same
NOTES
family. There should be no provision for interpersonal conflict within the group nor
for conflict between an individual and the group. Such conflicts are causes of
stress and should be prevented from building or eliminated if they develop.
Accordingly, such groups should be developed that are more productive and
mutually supportive. Members of the group would seek each other for social
support, which is a necessary ingredient for diluting stress.
Check Your Progress

6. Define job burnout.
7. What is biofeedback?

QUESTIONS
1. The first stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome is known as “alarm”
stage and it occurs at the first sign of stress.
2. Frustration is a form of behaviour that occurs when a person wishes to
achieve a certain objective or pursue a certain course of action but is
prevented from doing so.
3. There are two major sources of stress. These are organizational sources
and personal sources.
4. Role conflict occurs when two or more persons have different and sometimes
opposing expectation of a given individual.
5. The degree of stress created by certain events in life can be assessed by
“Social Readjustment Rating Scale” developed by Thomas Holmes and
Richard Rake.
6. Job burnout is the extreme case of physical, emotional and mental exhaustion,
when stressors seem to be unavoidable and sources of relief seem to be
unavailable.
7. Biofeedback is a methodology designed to alter undesirable physiological
responses through psychological strategies.
10.10 SUMMARY
• Stress is a state of mind that reflects certain biochemical reactions in the

human body and is projected by a sense of anxiety, tension and depression
and is caused by such demands by the environmental forces or internal
forces that cannot be met by the resources available to the person. Self-Instructional
Material 157
• Medical researcher Hans Selye first used the term “stress” to describe the
Stress body’s biological response mechanisms. He defined stress as “the nonspecific
response of the body to any demand”.
• All situations that produce increased demand on a vital activity requiring
adaptation to a new situation, produce stress in the form of a stereotyped
NOTES pattern of bio-chemical, functional and structural changes in the human
organism.
• The stress created by desirable and successful events is called “eustress”
and the stress created by undesirable outcomes is known as “distress”.
• The General Adaptation Syndrome refers to a general development of
responses to stressful events in the form of physiological, psychological and
behavioural responses believed to follow a fairly consistent pattern and
consists of three stages.
• The first stage is known as “alarm” stage and it occurs at the first sign of
stress.
• The second stage in bodily responses is that of resistance.
• In third stage of exhaustion, the person is unable to cope with the stress and
the individual experiences physical and mental pressures that result in such
illness as continuous headaches, ulcers and high blood pressure.
• The General Adaptation syndrome, the process of stress elicits three types
of responses. These are: physiological, psychological and behavioural
responses.
• According to Cohen,4 people under constant stress behave differently as
compared to people who are emotionally well-balanced.
• Frustration is a form of behaviour that occurs when a person wishes to
achieve a certain objective or pursue a certain course of action but is
prevented from doing so. It refers to an obstruction or impediment to goal
oriented behaviour.
• There are several factors that cause frustration. First is the unnecessary
delay in achieving the goal, even when the goal is eventually available.
• The second factor causing frustration is the lack of resources. Sometimes
the goals are not achieved because individuals lack the physical, personal
or interpersonal resources.
• A second form of stress is the “anxiety” which is a feeling of inability and
helplessness in formulating appropriate responses or plans for dealing with
the anticipated negative outcomes.
• There are two major sources of stress. These are organizational sources
and personal sources.
• In general, high stress occupations are those in which the employees have
little control over their operations, work under time constraints and have
major responsibilities for human or financial resources.
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158 Material
• Studies conducted by Karasek and his colleagues at Columbia University Stress
showed a higher risk of coronary disease as a consequence of stress in

some jobs and less in others.
• They identified two job factors that affect the level of such risk. These factors
NOTES
are the “level of psychological demand” and the “level of decision control”
over work.
• A role is a set of activities associated with a certain position in the organization
or in the society.
• According to Kahn, if these work activities are ill-defined, then the person
who is carrying out these activities will not behave as others expect him to,
because his role is not clearly defined.
• Role conflict occurs when two or more persons have different and sometimes
opposing expectation of a given individual.
• Another type of role conflict is the inter-role conflict where an individual
plays more than one role simultaneously in his life and the demands of these
roles conflict with each other.
• Role overload occurs when the work requirements are so excessive that
employees feel that they do not have adequate time or ability to meet such
requirements.
• The degree of stress created by certain events in life can be assessed by
“Social Readjustment Rating Scale” developed by Thomas Holmes and
Richard Rake.
• High degree of stress is typically accompanied by severe anxiety, frustration
and depression.
• There is evidence that work stress is associated with heart irregularities,
high levels of blood pressure and high levels of cholesterol.
• Studies conducted by Stole, regarding the effects of a plant closing in Detroit
showed an “alarming rise in anxiety and illness”, with at least fifty per cent of
employees suffering from ulcers, arthritis, serious hypertension, alcoholism
and depression.
• One of the major concerns of management is the negative impact stress has
on performance. People under high stress tend to withdraw from the contact
with the stressor in the form of turnover and absenteeism.
• Job burnout is the extreme case of physical, emotional and mental exhaustion,
when stressors seem to be unavoidable and sources of relief seem to be
unavailable.
• Mental exhaustion result in low self-esteem and develops negative attitudes
towards life and job. People tend to feel inadequate and incompetent and
they often dislike their colleagues, their co-workers or their clients.
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Material 159
Stress • There is evidence to suggest that individuals who exercise and so strengthen
their endurance and cardiovascular system, are much less likely to suffer
from certain types of stress-related illnesses.
• Biofeedback is a methodology designed to alter undesirable physiological
NOTES responses through psychological strategies.
10.11 KEY WORDS

• Team: It is a group of people with a full set of complementary skills required
to complete a task, job, or project.
• Strategy: It is a plan of action designed to achieve a long-term or overall
aim.
• Stress: It is a state of mental or emotional strain or tension resulting from
adverse or demanding circumstances.

EXERCISES

1. Write a brief note on the General Adaptation Syndrome.
2. Discuss the consequences of job stress. How does it impact performance?
3. What is job burnout? Describe.
4. Describe the organizational strategies used to cope with stress.
1. Give a detailed description of the various types of responses.
2. What causes stress? What are the basic forms of stress? Elucidate.
3. Explain the organizational sources of stress in detail.
4. How does interpersonal relationships and personal factors lead to stress?
Analyse.
5. How can one cope with stress using individual strategies?
London: Pearson.
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Maladjusted Worker
BLOCK - IV
LIFE AND WORKERS
NOTES
UNIT 11 MALADJUSTED WORKER
Structure
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Meaning and Causes of Maladjustment
11.3 Readjustment
11.5 Summary
11.6 Key Words
11.0 INTRODUCTION
The ‘inability to react successfully and satisfactory to the demand of one’s

environment’ is called maladjustment. It is a term used in psychology and can be
refer to a wide range of biological, social and psychological conditions.
Maladjustment can be of two kinds, both intrinsic or extrinsic. By definition,
intrinsic maladjustment refers to the differences between the needs, motivations
and evaluations of an individual, with the actual reward gain through experiences.
Whereas, extrinsic maladjustment is when an individual’s behavior does not meet
the cultural or social expectation of the society. The two prominent effects of
maladjustment are an individual’s development and the ability to maintain a positive
interpersonal relationship with others. In most cases, maladjustment develops during
early stages of childhood, when a child is in the process of learning methods to
solve problem that occurs in interpersonal relationship in their social network.
A number of factors contribute as the causes of maladjustment, such as
family environment, personal factors and school-related factors and so on and so
forth. No intervention in the lives of individuals who are maladjusted can cause
negative effects later on in their lives.
This units explains the meaning and causes of maladjustment in a workplace.
11.1 OBJECTIVES

• Explain the meaning of maladjustment
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Material 161
Maladjusted Worker • Discuss the causes of maladjustment
• Describe the concept of readjustment
NOTES 11.2 MEANING AND CAUSES OF

MALADJUSTMENT
If employees are maladjusted, they can have a significant negative impact on a

workplace. The noticeable affects are that these employees often have a very low
morale and perform tasks too improperly and slowly. Their performance is also
impacted due to their high levels of stress, and simultaneously they suffer strenuous
relationships with colleagues and managers.
A number of factors are responsible for worker maladjustment, these are as
given below:
Inadequate Training
Employees may never feel completely at ease in work and may feel uncomfortable
in the company due to inadequate initial training. As a result of poor training, the
employee may commit mistakes that could jeopardize his standing with the company.
This failure further leads to frustration and stress, as well as a negative attitude
toward co-workers and supervisors. For experienced employees, inadequate
training on new policies or processes can make it difficult for them to adjust to
organizational change.
Cultural Issues
Each organization, irrespective of its size, has a unique culture. This difference in
culture can make it difficult for a worker to adjust, especially if he comes from a
considerably different work culture. There can be a number of things that can
make such employees uncomfortable, such as the company’s dress code, methods
of communication or simply how employees treat or interact with one another.
The employee’s inability to feel connected can lead to poor performance.
Poor Job Match
Employees if doing a job, they are not meant for, can result in maladjustment. This
can happen in a number of ways. An employee who is transferred to a position
offering fewer responsibilities may feel that her new role is demeaning and may
have difficulty adapting. In contrast, other employees may be promoted to a position
for which they are poorly prepared, a concept referred to as the “Peter Principle.”
Workers who find themselves overwhelmed by a new role may quickly become
frustrated and may fail to adequately adjust without proper mentoring.
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162 Material
High Expectations Maladjusted Worker
Employees who view the demands placed upon them by supervisors as too lofty
or unreasonable may become maladjusted. They may be required to work long
hours to meet the demands, which can create high levels of stress and eventually NOTES
lead to burnout, as well as negatively impact their family lives. These workers may
also begin to resent colleagues they perceive as shouldering less of the burden,
especially if they feel the colleagues are receiving preferential treatment from
management.
11.3 READJUSTMENT
The term “adjustment” originates from the biological term “adaptation”. Biologists

used the term “adaptation” strictly for the physical demands of the environment.
However, psychologists use the term “adjustment” for different conditions of social
or inter-personal relations existing in the society.
The demands and pressures of social environment forced upon the individual
makes him react in a certain manner, this reaction is called adjustment. The demand
to which the individual has to react may be external or internal.
Psychologists have viewed adjustment from two important perspectives:
• adjustment as an achievement”, and
• “adjustment as a process”
Adjustment as achievement
How efficiently an individual can perform his duties under different circumstances
is called ‘adjustment as achievement’.
If we perceive adjustment as achievement, we have to set criteria to judge
the quality of adjustment. Psychologists developed four criteria to judge the
adequacy of adjustment.
These are as follows:
• Work efficiency
• Social acceptance
• Physical health, and
• Psychological comfort
‘Adjustment as a process’ lays emphasis on the process by which an
individual adjusts to his external environment. According to teachers, this is of
great importance. The interaction with the external environment in which students
live is responsible for how the students adjust. Most often, students always try to
adjust to it. Piaget has studied the adjustive process from different angles.
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Maladjusted Worker
Check Your Progress

1. State one factor responsible for worker maladjustment?
NOTES 2. What does ‘adjustment as a process’ emphasize on?

QUESTIONS
1. One factor responsible for worker maladjustment is inadequate training.

2. ‘Adjustment as a process’ lays emphasis on the process by which an
individual adjusts to his external environment.
11.5 SUMMARY
• If employees are maladjusted, they can have a significant negative impact

on a workplace.
• The noticeable affects are that these employees often have a very low morale
and perform tasks too improperly and slowly.
• Their performance is also impacted due to their high levels of stress, and
simultaneously they suffer strenuous relationships with colleagues and
managers.
• Employees may never feel completely at ease in work and may feel
uncomfortable in the company due to inadequate initial training.
• As a result of poor training, the employee may commit mistakes that could
jeopardize his standing with the company.
• This failure further leads to frustration and stress, as well as a negative attitude
toward co-workers and supervisors.
• Each organization, irrespective of its size, has a unique culture. This difference
in culture can make it difficult for a worker to adjust, especially if he comes
from a considerably different work culture.
• There can be a number of things that can make such employees
uncomfortable, such as the company’s dress code, methods of
communication or simply how employees treat or interact with one another.
• Employees if doing a job, they are not meant for, can result in maladjustment.
• This can happen in a number of ways. An employee who is transferred to a
position offering fewer responsibilities may feel that her new role is demeaning
and may have difficulty adapting.
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164 Material
• In contrast, other employees may be promoted to a position for which they Maladjusted Worker
are poorly prepared, a concept referred to as the “Peter Principle.”

• Employees who view the demands placed upon them by supervisors as too
lofty or unreasonable may become maladjusted.
NOTES
• They may be required to work long hours to meet the demands, which can
create high levels of stress and eventually lead to burnout, as well as negatively
impact their family lives.
• The term “adjustment” originates from the biological term “adaptation”.
• Biologists used the term “adaptation” strictly for the physical demands of
the environment.
• However, psychologists use the term “adjustment” for different conditions
of social or inter-personal relations existing in the society.
• ‘Adjustment as a process’ lays emphasis on the process by which an
individual adjusts to his external environment.
11.6 KEY WORDS
• Adjustment: It is the process of adapting or becoming used to a new

situation.
• Biologists: It is an expert in or student of the branch of science concerning
living organisms.
• Psychologists: It refers to someone who studies the human mind and
human emotions and behaviour, and how different situations have an effect
on people

EXERCISES

1. What do you understand by adjustment?
2. How does a maladjusted employee impact the work environment?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Discuss the factors responsible for maladjustment in detail.
2. Psychologists have viewed adjustment from two important perspective.
Explain.
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Material 165
Maladjusted Worker
NOTES Randall, Ray, John Arnold, Fiona Patterson and Ivan Robertson. 2016. Work
London: Pearson.
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166 Material
Counselling
UNIT 12 COUNSELLING
Structure NOTES
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Counselling: Meaning, Significance, Types and Process
12.3 Employee Health, Safety and Security
12.4 Industrial Accidents: Accident Proneness and Prevention
12.6 Summary
12.7 Key Words
12.0 INTRODUCTION
Often times, we all find ourselves playing the role of a counsellor to family, friends
and colleagues without actually much understanding the concept of counselling or
what the role of the professional counsellor involves. The way a professional
counsellor deals with a situation may be completely different to how a layman may
give out counselling in an informal manner.
A professional counsellor is a highly trained individual who is able to use a
different range of counselling approaches with their clients. Professional counselling
calls for a relationship of trust. It is paramount to successful counselling that the
counsellor maintains confidentiality of his/her client at all times. The only exception
may be when they are required by law to disclose information if they believe that
there is a risk to life.
This unit discusses the most important factor in an organization, that is, its
ability to provide professional counselling to look after the mental well-being of
the employee which may otherwise be at risk due to high stress levels in workplace
and home. The unit also discusses industrial accidents at length.
12.1 OBJECTIVES

• Describe the meaning and significance of counselling
• Explain the types and process of counselling
• Analyse employee health, safety and security
• Discuss industrial accidents
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Counselling
12.2 COUNSELLING: MEANING, SIGNIFICANCE,
TYPES AND PROCESS
NOTES It is imperative that an organization takes utmost care and steps to provide a
healthy work atmosphere for its employees. Workplace counselling is usually short-
term, and it provides employee support intervention. There is an independent,
specialist resource for people working across all sectors and in all working
environments. Providing all employees access to a free, confidential, workplace
counselling facility is viewed as part of an employer’s duty for the welfare of its
employees.
The counselling process is about giving the employees an opportunity to
freely talk about the issues that trouble them. The counsellors allow the employees
to help them find their own solutions to problems or develop better ways to
manage issues.
It is not about giving advice, but about providing a non-judgmental, empathic
and accessible means to allow an employee to find a solution that can be
implemented.
Workplace counsellors are skilled professionals and have a specialist
viewpoint and skillset, as they essentially have two clients – the employee that they
are counselling and the organisation. Workplace counsellors have a crucial
understanding of the environment to which the employees will be returning and are
known to the context in which the employees work. The choice of the approach
used by the counsellor usually matters less than the quality of the counsellor-client
relationship, with trust and openness helping to maximise success.
As workplace counselling is short term, practitioners are commonly
“integrative”, meaning they have trained in a core therapeutic approach and built
other disciplines into this. Counsellors may be person-centred or have skills in
cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), transitional analysis, gestalt therapy, solution-
focused therapy, or one of several other disciplines.
12.3 EMPLOYEE HEALTH, SAFETY AND

SECURITY
Since, employees spend a significant part of their lives in their work place, it is an
employer’s duty to protect their health, safety and welfare. Employers must be
considered towards both physical and mental well-being of its employees. This
means making sure that workers and others are protected from anything that may
cause harm, effectively controlling any risks to injury or health that could arise in
the workplace. Employers have duties under health and safety law to assess risks
in the workplace. Addressing all risks that might cause harm in the workplace and
an effective risk assessment is imperative.
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It is the duty of the employer to give you authentic and complete information Counselling
about the risks in the workplace and how you are protected. The employer must
also instruct and train you on how to deal with the risks.
Employers must consult employees on health and safety issues. Consultation
NOTES
must be either direct or through a safety representative that is either elected by the
workforce or appointed by a trade union.
12.4 INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS: ACCIDENT

PRONENESS AND PREVENTION
Amidst 1970 and 1990, approximately 180 severe industrial accidents did take
place worldwide, which led to the release of different types of chemical compounds
in the environment.
These so called accidents were caused mainly by fire, the explosions and
the collisions during transport and killed nearly 8,000 people, injuring more than
20, 000 and leading to hundreds of the evacuations involving a massive number of
people.
The severe industrial accidents are now becoming very common. During
the period 1974 –78, five major accidents took place (accidents that resulted in at
least hundreds of deaths, 400 people rendered injured and thirty five thousand
people being evacuated). During 1984 – 88, there occurred sixteen major
accidents.
As long as the strict safeguards and safety standards do not get implemented,
secondly, as long as the industrial installations are made near the densely populated
centers, the serious consequences as a result of some major accidents probably
do get increase, especially in the developing countries.
A massive explosion that took place at the site of liquefied petroleum gas
storage facility in San Juanico, the neighbourhood of the Mexico City in November
1984, it killed 450 people, injured 4,258 and displaced about 31000 people.
This blast illustrated the wobbly nature of that city where the seventeen million
people live cheek in jaw with a huge variety of the potentially dangerous installations.
The Bhopal gas tragedy is the other example, majority of the Bhopal gas victims
used to live in the squatter settlements in the vicinity of the plant where this accident
occurred.
In an attempt to make the communities aware about the industrial hazards
and to help and support them develop an emergency response plan, in 1988
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) launched the Awareness and
the Preparedness for Emergencies at the Local Level (APELL) programme.
The programme helps the countries by way of dissemination of the information,
training, and the assistance in case of emergency. The ILO (international labor
organization) has issued the code of practice for providing guidance in setting up
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Counselling the administrative, the legal and the technical system for controlling the major
hazardous installations. The Basal accident has proved that that industrial accidents
might have harmful the transboundary impact. This has provoked the Economic
Commission of Europe to start working on the formulation of regional convention
NOTES on transboundary impact of industrial accident.
Many administrative as well as the technical steps too have been taken. The
example is the European Economic Community’s directives on major hazards of
certain kind of industrial activities (the ‘Seveso’ directive). This directive obliges
the manufacturers within the Community for identifying the potential risky areas in
the process of manufacture and also to take all the necessary measures for preventing
the major accidents and also to limit their consequences—should they occur—for
the man and environment.
The three chemical accidents that made headline news (1970 – 1990)
1. Seveso
On the 10th of July 1976, an explosion took place at ICMESA chemical factory
in north Italian town of the Seveso releasing a cloud of the chemicals in the
atmosphere which contaminated all the surrounding area.
These chemicals had two kgs of dioxin, which is a potentially toxic
compound. The reason for the accident is said to be some ‘runaway reaction’
inside the reactor that produced the sodium trichlorophenate, which is the main
product.
Though there were no casualties, still 200 people did suffer minor injuries.
Most of the victims were the domestic animals. The contamination of land affected
about thirty seven thousand people.
The restrictions were then imposed on the area of eighteen hundred hectares
for a period of six years. The area which was worst affected covered one hundred
and ten hectares.
The estimated direct cost of an accident was approximately US$ 250 million.
2. The Bhopal Gas Tragedy
On the 2nd – 3rd of December, 1984, a sudden release of nearly thirty tons of
methyl isocyanate (MIC) happened at the Union Carbide pesticide plant in Bhopal,
India. It was a result of some poor safety management practice, poor early warning
system and lack of community preparedness.
This incident led to the death of more than two thousand and eight hundred
people who lived in and around the vicinity and it caused respiratory and eye
damage to say over twenty thousand people. At least two hundred thousand people
had fled Bhopal within a week of the accident.
The estimates of the damage done vary extensively between US$350 million
to as high as US$3 billion.
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3. Basel Counselling
On 1 November 1986, fire broke out at a storehouse named Sandoz situated

near Basel, in Switzerland. The storehouse had about one thousand three hundred
tons of no less than 90 different types of chemicals. NOTES
Most of these chemicals had been destroyed in that fire, but still huge
quantities were also introduced in the atmosphere, in the Rhine River through the
runoff of fire-fighting water (about 10 000 to 15 000 cubic meters’), and also into
the soil there and the groundwater at that site. The accurate mass of the chemicals
that entered the Rhine river had been estimated to be somewhere between the
thirteen and the thirty tons.
As a consequence, after the accident, biota in the Rhine river was badly
damaged for about several hundred kilometres. The most strongly and badly
affected were benthic organisms and eels. They were totally eradicated for nearly
a distance of approximately four hundred kms (an estimated two hundred and
twenty tons of the eels were killed). There were many compounds detected in the
sediments of river Rhine after this accident.
Classification of Industrial Accidents
Let us see how industrial accidents can be classified:
According to the type of the accident
This kind of classification identifies the kind of event which resulted directly in the
injury. It means the manner or mode in which an object or a substance that causes
injury comes in contact with an injured person.
1. The fall of a person
2. The fall of person from the heights (say trees, buildings, scaffolds, ladders,
machines or vehicles) and in the depths (like in wells, ditches, excavations,
holes in the ground)
3. The fall of person on the same level
4. Getting struck by the falling objects
5. The slides and the cave-ins (the earth, rocks, stones and the snow)
6. The collapse of the buildings, the walls, scaffolds, ladders and the piles of
goods
7. Getting struck by falling objects while handling
8. Getting struck by the falling objects, not elsewhere classified
9. The stepping on, striking against or getting struck by the objects excluding
the falling objects
10. Stepping up on the objects
11. Striking against the stationary objects (except the impact due to previous
fall)
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Counselling 12. Striking against the objects in motion
13. Getting struck by the moving objects (this may include the flying fragments
and the particles) excluding the falling objects
NOTES 14. Being caught in or between the objects
15. Getting caught in an object
16. Getting caught between a stationary object and the moving one
17. Getting caught between the moving objects (except flying or the falling
objects)
18. During overexertion or the strenuous movements
19. The overexertion while lifting objects
20. Overexertion while pushing or pulling the objects
21. Overexertion while handling or throwing the objects
22. The strenuous movements
23. The exposure to or getting in contact with extreme temperatures
24. The exposure to heat (atmospheric or environmental)
25. The exposure to extreme cold (atmospheric or environmental)
26. Coming in contact with the hot substances or objects
27. Coming in contact with highly cold substances or the objects
28. The exposure to or establishing contact with an electric current
29. The exposure to or a contact with the harmful substances or harmful radiations
30. The contact by inhalation, ingestion or the absorption of the harmful
substances
31. The exposure to the ionizing radiations
32. The exposure to the radiations other than the ionizing ones
33. The other types of accidents, not classified elsewhere, including the accidents
not classified due to lack of sufficient data available
34. The other types of accidents, not elsewhere classified
35. The accidents not classified due to lack of the sufficient data
Causes of Industrial Accidents
Industrial accidents are caused by several factors as are the kinds of industrial
accidents. The broader category of these accidents covers anything from the small
cuts and bruises to the massive disaster which affects a large part of the population
of people. Nearly one hundred and twenty million industrial accidents occur at the
work place all over the world every year. Approximately two hundred and ten
thousand of such accidents prove to be fatal. The industries with a very high rate
of accidents are the mining industries, the construction, the transportation and the
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agricultural industries. The accidents related to the construction account for say Counselling
fifteen percent of all the accidents and thirty per cent of the entire fatalities in an
industrial work environment.
The causes of the industrial accidents can be classified into two broad
NOTES
categories: unsafe conditions and unsafe acts. The so called causes of the industrial
accidents that relate to the hazardous conditions include the inadequate workspace
lighting, excessive noise, slippery or the unsafe flooring, extreme temperature
exposure, the inadequate protection while working with the machinery or some
hazardous material, the unstable structures, the electrical problems, the machine
malfunction or its failure, etc. The causes for the industrial accidents involving
unsafe acts include the actions or the failures to act in such a way that would result
in injury. This could be the outcome of an employee negligence but the employers,
the organizations and the product manufacturers are also liable for these causes of
the industrial accidents.
Such causes of the industrial accidents can take place in the industrial
environment in and around the workplace. The external causes of the industrial
accidents include fires, chemical spills, toxic gas emission or radiation. The causes
of industrial accidents in these cases might include organizational errors, human
factors, abnormal operational conditions, natural forces, software or component
failures, and outside interference. Internal causes of industrial accidents can involve
equipment or other work related tangibles, harmful materials, toxic chemicals, and
human error.
There are several ways by which a worker can be injured in the work
environment. Injuries that result from the causes of industrial accidents can include
any one or combination of the following occurrences: falls, being struck by objects
in motion, slides and cave ins, structure collapse, being trapped in or by an object,
overexertion or strenuous physical actions, exposure to temperature extremes,
electrical accidents, radiation exposure, and the inhalation, ingestion, or absorption
of harmful substances. These industrial accidents can result in a number of injuries
including superficial injury, fractures, sprains and strains, amputation, concussion,
internal injury, poisoning, infection and death.
The causes of industrial accidents are numerous. There are several cases
where employee negligence is a factor in industrial accidents. There are cases
where an employer can be held liable for worker injuries if they had knowledge of
unsafe conditions and failed to act in order to prevent injury. Injured workers may
also be able to seek compensation for their injuries from the makers of faulty or
dangerous industrial products. Victims of industrial accidents greatly benefit from
consulting a personal injury lawyer who can advise them of their rights and options
in a case.
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Counselling Human Carelessness
One important cause of industrial accidents is human carelessness. Human
carelessness can occur in the sharp end, example, the act of an operator and at
NOTES the blunt end, example, insufficient operational procedures. One goal of human
factors should be to reduce the number of human carelessness at both the sharp
and blunt ends. The systematic consideration of human carelessness in systems
designs can lead to improved safety, and indeed improved productivity in many
cases. Human error is, however, complex, and can benefit from a systems
perspective. Dekker outlines the separation between the ‘old view’ and the ‘new
view’ on human carelessness [Dekker 2002]. The old view considers human
carelessness as the cause of most accidents, and that systems are safe, but must
be protected against unreliable humans. The new view considers human
carelessness as a symptom of deeper system trouble and that humans must create
safety by operating systems with different goals. Thus, the view on human
carelessness depends on their definition. According to [Cox and Tait 1998], a
systems definition of error offered by L.V. Rigby in 1970 has usefully placed this
definition into a working context and termed human error as ‘any one set of human
actions that exceed some limit of acceptability’. Human error is more than operator
actions, and a broader system view on human error will be discussed in this part.
One has to determine the variability of human behaviour and the acceptance
limits for variation which hold for the work situation to characterize human “errors”
[Leplat and Rasmussen 1984]. There is no universally agreed definition of error,
but it involves some kind of deviation [Reason 2008]. Error as a generic term is
‘…all those occasions in which a planned sequence of mental or physical
activities fails to achieve its intended outcome, and when these failures cannot
be attributed to the intervention of some change agency” [Reason 1990].
“Human error is usually defined as any deviation from the performance of a
specified or prescribed sequence of actions’ [Leveson 2004]. As Leveson and
Rasmussen points out, the core of human error is that an action does not produce
the intended result. This corresponds to a more generic definition of human error/
mistake provided in IEC 61508: “human action or inaction that can produce
an unintended result” [IEC 61508-4 2002]. The IEC 61508 definition makes
an important point in specifying the inclusion of inaction. (Both Rasmussen and
Leveson have obviously included that aspect as well in their work). An Australian
standard for reporting rail occurrences, ON-S1) defines human failure as “any
breach of an operational safe working procedure due to human factor(s)”
[ATSB 2004]. This definition excludes system failure, i.e. failures due to a
mechanical or electronic device or component, or deficiency in an approved safe
working procedure. Understanding human error requires a broad and systematic
view, which includes organizational and technical factors and the interaction between
the factors, e.g. like the MTO approach. There are also challenges related to the
human error data sources in terms of data validation, compatibility, integration and
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harmonization [Grabowski, You et al. 2009]. There have been a number of studies Counselling
focusing on human error.

Human error is interesting from intention, action, outcome and context
[Reason 2008]. Human error can be divided into the basic error types; slips,
NOTES
lapses, and mistakes [Reason 1990]. In addition, violations are regarded as human
errors. Slips and lapses are classified as unintended actions, while mistakes and
violations are classified as intended actions. The former is related to attention and
memory, while the latter is related to rule-based mistakes, knowledge-based
mistakes, and different forms of violations. This error classification is closely related
to Rasmussen’s levels of human decision; skill-based, rule-based, and knowledge-
based [Rasmussen and Lind 1982].
In order to avoid adverse effects arising from human errors it is necessary
to understand why and how they occur. A first essential step toward ameliorating
potential adverse effects of human error within any organization is to understand it
[Glendon, Clarke et al. 2006]. A list of factors contributing to human errors, including
inadequate information, lack of understanding, inadequate design, lapses of
attention, mistaken actions, misinterpretations, mistaken priorities, and wilfulness,
is provided in [Stranks 2006]. To identify what types of errors occur and where
they happen, it is necessary to undertake the following steps in risk management
[Glendon, Clarke et al. 2006]:
1. Identify errors
2. Assess any risks that they might pose
3. If necessary, take steps to control the behaviour that gives rise to errors
4. Monitor any control measures taken
The most common cause of accidents or industrial accidents is often attributed
to human error such as operational error, judgmental error, and job-related error,
all of which are caused by human characteristics. Most of these errors are said to
be associated with psychological factors affecting human behavior. The mechanism
of the occurrence of industrial accidents shows that unsafe situations, i.e., machinery
failure or deficiency of work method, account for 80% of the total accidents.
Work is always accompanied by issues related to human error, and unsafe behavior
accounts for about 90% of all accidents, including those caused by inexperienced
and unskilled workers.
Human behavioral characteristics, such as mistakes and carelessness, are
called ‘human characteristics’, and errors caused by human characteristics are
called ‘human errors’.
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Counselling
NOTES
Figure 12.1 Human Errors
Economic costs were enough to generate corps of experts and social leaders
who believed that humans could prevent accidents, and they launched the safety
movement. They were joined by many well-meaning people who were appalled
by the personal as well as economic costs of the mismatch between humans and
machines. But for the most part, the problem of injuries and damage remained
little recognized.
Then psychologists noticed that a large percentage of industrial accidents
were coming from just a few employees, and the search for accident prone people
who could be moved or protected or fired was launched. These psychologists
and a number of alert supervisors found that they could use individuals’ accident
records to identify accident repeaters and so lower accident rates. Eventually,
statisticians cast doubt on the idea of accident proneness as an enduring personal
trait. Meanwhile all of society was affected by an insurance model of thinking. In
that model, only groups, not individuals, became the objects of concern. At the
most, accident prone people became part of a “risk group.”
Heinrich’s Method of Injury Prevention
Heinrich (1959) is credited with documenting the first scientific method of injury
prevention and the effects of accidental injury causation. It is reported that his
studies involved 75,000 insurance accident report cases of the 1930 era. His study
produced figures to indicate that 88 per cent of the investigated accidents were
caused by unsafe acts, 10 per cent due to unsafe conditions and 2 per cent as
unpreventable. Heinrich suggests that in the majority of cases the worker’s individual
characteristics and behaviour were the root cause to most accidents. An individual’s
personal traits or mindsets being either inherited or acquired will predispose him
to an increased risk taking i.e., recklessness, stubbornness, avariciousness, etc.,
and predispose a concept of subjective judgment.
Heinrich demonstrated his theory as being similar to five dominoes placed
end-on-end. Knocking over one domino leads to the toppling of each domino in
turn.
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The dominos are as follows: Counselling
• Ancestry
• Social environment
• Fault of person /unsafe act or condition NOTES
• Accident
• Injury
Heinrich hypothesized that factors in an injury-accident could be altered by
removing one thus breaking the knock-down sequence. Essentially to prevent
‘loss’, remove the unsafe act or the unsafe condition. Taylor (2001)
Relative to the task, judgement by management must be made to a persons’
skill level to undertake the task, the provision and understanding of the rules and
procedures in order to perform the task, and the supply of general information to
the functions surrounding task/s. Attention should altogether focus on human errors
as Heinrich apportioned a 10 per cent factor to unsafe place/conditions whereas
88 per cent is unsafe acts.
Modifying or removing the unsafe person’s attitude, management can change
the characteristics and encourage such workers to be safe. Safety behaviour
modification programs (as opposed to attitude programs) would be directly led
by personnel concerned with worker safety, commencing with immediate
supervisors with demonstrated support from senior line managers through initiatives
such as policy implementation.
Thereby Heinrich theorized that accident/injury cause can be reduced by
modifying human error, given the basis that some worker traits are careless or
carefree. The critical summation is that the actors have the ability to choose
between safe and unsafe acts or behaviour and management has the ability to
identify the types of human characteristics and developed work systems and
procedures to accommodate them all.
Accident Proneness
The term accident proneness was coined by psychological research workers in
1926. Since then its concept—that certain individuals are always more likely than
others to sustain accidents, even though exposed to equal risk—has been
questioned but seldom seriously challenged.
This article describes much of the work and theory on which this concept is
based, details the difficulties encountered in obtaining valid information and the
interpretative errors that can arise from the examination of imperfect data, and
explains why accident proneness became so readily accepted as an explanation
of the facts.
A recent hypothesis of accident causation, namely that a person’s accident
liability may vary from time to time, is outlined, and the respective abilities of this
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Counselling and of accident proneness to accord with data from the more reliable literature
are examined.
Accident proneness theory maintains that some workers are more liable to
be involved in accidents. This theory is not generally accepted and researchers
NOTES
have not been able to prove the existence of ‘accident proneness’. However,
there are reasons for high risks of workplace accidents and why some occupational
groupings are more likely to be involved in accidents.
People who work night shifts are more prone to accidents because their
reactions and concentration decline at night. Even employees who have been
working less than 2 years at their place of work are more liable to have accidents
than employees with more experience. Understanding the causes of accidents and
establishing a safety management system (risk assessment) could help to prevent
accidents at work.
The following may be the two of better known definitions of the accident
proneness, the first is an original formal statement of concept, whereas, the second
one is a more recent formulation. ‘An accident proneness can be said as personal
idiosyncrasy of a relative permanence predisposing an individual to higher rate of
accidents’ (Farmer & Chambers, 1926, p. 3).
‘The accident proneness means that even on exposure to similar conditions
certain people are likely to experience more accidents than the others, or that the
people differ fundamentally with respect to their innate propensity for the accidents‘
(Shaw & Sichel, 1971, p. 14).
Critical requirement of the concept of accident proneness
It is difficult to specify, for, as Cameron (1975) has emphasized, there are several
strikingly different versions of this theory. What most of these versions have in
common is as follows:
• The accident proneness is a personality trait or a syndrome. Most of the
proponents regard it as unitary trait.
• The accident proneness is very innate or is inherent.
• The accident proneness is stable across the time.
• Accident proneness trait ‘causes’ the workers to be involved in the accidents.
• The workers with an accident proneness trait are involved in the repeated
accidents.
Hundreds of studies have been conducted and published till date on accident
proneness. On evaluating the research, it is quite clear that key criteria is not
supported. The first one, the determinants of the accidents, have been multiple,
with only a specific part attributable to the personality. Second one, the number of
the personality traits, some being unrelated to each other, are associated with the
accidents. The third one, people very rarely, if ever, consistently have the repeated
accidents throughout the span of their lives (Haddon, Suchman, & Klein, 1964;
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178 Material
Certain personality traits have been strongly related to an occurrence of the Counselling
accidents. Rather than searching the underlying accident proneness trait, the focus
normally shifted to a description of how the accident-prone individuals are any
different from the ones without the proneness.
NOTES
The introversion – extroversion and the accidents
A bipolar personality dimension of the introversion – extroversion (hereafter, I-E)
as proposed by Eysenck (1947) had been investigated in connection with the
accidents much more than any other personality dimension. Introversion –
extroversion is in continuum with the introversion and is defined as ‘the person’s
preference for attending to his inner world of an experience, with emphasis on the
reflective, and introspective thinking’. Extroversion, on the other hand, refers to
the ‘preference for attending to outer world of the objective events with the emphasis
on an active involvement in an environment’. An introvert may be described as a
person who is silent, intellectual, organized and also emotionally controlled. On
the contrary, an extrovert is a person who is sociable, lively, novelty-seeking,
carefree and emotionally expressive.
Eysenck (1962, 1965, 1970) and Keehn (1961) have proposed that the
higher accident rate is associated more with an extrovert than with an introvert.
This could be expected because of the extrovert’s ‘lower level of vigilance’
(Eysenck, 1962). In other words, though an extrovert is actively involved with an
environment. On the contrary, an introvert places much greater value on being in
complete control of his interactions with the world. Therefore, an introvert tends
to be much more ‘vigilant’ or careful while doing things.
Aggression and accidents
An aggression may be defined as a broad characteristic and thus ranges from
hostility of social argument to assault and battery. A common factor underlying this
particular range of behaviour is most likely a tendency to give vent to anger and
some frustration to a particular degree. Most studies have shown that the aggression
appears to be a part of the constellation of the traits which are consistently related
with the accidents and the injuries (Shaw & Sichel, 1971). In the attitude study on
the accident-incurring drivers, Goldstein and Mosel (1956) had discovered that
one of their distinguishing characteristics was an aggressive attitude toward the
others.
Many studies have proved that higher level of a general aggression as
measured by the interviews and the personality tests have correlated highly with
an occurrence of the traffic accidents.
General social maladjustment and accidents
The social maladjustment is a general category of the behaviours and also the
personality characteristics which have generally been found in combination with
the other, which have been constantly associated with the higher accident rates.
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Counselling They include the following—the sociopathic attitudes and the past behaviour,
delinquency and law breaking, marital/familial strife, disregard for other people,
immaturity emphasis upon exaggerated masculinity (for males), hostility and anger,
irresponsibility, superficial social relationships, self-centeredness, problem drinking
NOTES and authority problems.
In the related study of industrial workers, Wong and Hobbs (1949) have
concluded that a similar list of the factors differentiated the brewery workers with
a poor accident record from the ones with no accidents.
In the light of the characterological nature of social maladjustment, the authors
have concluded that the ’accident tendency was a lifelong characteristic, and also
it appears to invade all the aspects of life’.
The two best studies in this field were conducted on the automobile drivers
by McGuire (1956b, 1972). The two groups containing the sixty-seven drivers
were matched carefully on the basis of age, driving experience, number of miles
driven, educational background and marital status. There was one group which
was composed of the drivers with at least one accident during the past three
months, whereas the drivers in another group were without any traffic accidents at
any given time. The many personality tests which have been given described the
persons met with the accidents as being less mature, experiencing a negative attitude
towards the laws and authority, and usually having poor social adjustment. In the
follow up study, McGuire (1972) replicated the so mentioned findings. In addition
to this, he found the people who had met with the accidents to be much more
traditionally ‘masculine’, frequently express their hostile feelings, having chaotic
family relationship and prefer non personal contact with others.
Neurosis and the accidents
Eysenck’s proposal that extroversion is associated with the accidents was
accompanied by a hypothesis that the neuroticism is correlated with the accident
occurrences (Eysenck, 1970). The others have echoed the same belief in this
regard (McFarland, 1957; Tillman & Hobbs, 1949). A neurosis is distinctive from
the social maladjustment by virtue of a subjective emotional distress experienced
by an individual with a neurotic condition. This kind of distress is normally
accompanied by the lower self-esteem and lower confidence. In contrast to the
neurotic characteristics, these social maladjustment traits are normally much more
troubling to the other people than to an afflicted individual.
A connection between the accidents and the neurosis is fairly evident if an
intervening variable of “an attention to the task” is inserted.
Contrary to the psychoanalytic thinking where the accidents are unconsciously
willed as the self-punishment by a neurotic person, then it is likely that the neurotic
condition causes the person’s attention to be diverted from a task being carried
out to a person’s unpleasant physical or the psychic symptoms. For instance, an
anxious person strives hard to control his internal anxiety and his panic, giving
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lesser attention to details of a safe performance. A depressed person may be Counselling
preoccupied with his own internal world of the ruminations and not with exigencies
of an external world.
The research investigating the neurotic aspects of a behaviour and its effect
NOTES
in relation to the accidents has either focused on specific neurotic symptoms like
the anxiety, depression, or the psychosomatic tendency, or has assessed an overall
degree of neurosis in a person. Many studies have related general neurosis variable
to the accidents. On the whole, the research is contradictory and also confusing.
Many studies have found that the drivers with the accidents were found to be
more neurotic than the drivers without accidents.
On the whole, the current state of the research suggests that the impulsivity
is a human trait constantly associated with the accidents.
Risk taking and accidents
It is common belief that several people who meet with accidents do so as they
take much greater risk than the people who do not meet with accidents very often.
Though, validity of this particular conclusion is difficult to test. One such
study that made an attempt to test the belief was done by thew Evans and
Wasielewski (1982). They observed 2,576 (two thousand five hundred and seventy
six) drivers’ rush-hour driving behaviour and further rated each and every driver
to a degree of the risk exhibited (for example-the tailgating, speeding, the dangerous
lane changes or the passes). Using the license plate numbers, the record of accidents
involvement and the moving violations were obtained for every driver. The authors
had discovered that those drivers exhibiting a risky behaviour also had considerably
greater number of the accidents and the tickets than the “safe” drivers.
Conclusions from the personality-the accident research
The earlier sections have made a review of the research investigating a relationship
between the personality related variables and the accident occurrences.
The conclusions appearing to be quite well established are such as -
1. There is sufficient evidence that the locus of control is associated with
the accidents, specifically that the external orientation is related with a
higher accident rate.
2. An extroversion has strongly been associated with the high accident
rates.
3. An aggression had been repeatedly and in strongly related with the
accidents.
4. There is an overwhelming evidence that the social maladjustment is not
related to the accidents only, however, it is probably a basic factor in
causing the accidents.
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Counselling 5. There seems to be some relationship between the general neurosis and
the accidents.
6. The specific neurotic conditions like the anxiety and depression have
said to be associated with the accidents in the fewer studies done on
NOTES
such topics.
7. There is constant and a moderately stronger evidence to link the
impulsivity with the accident occurrences.
8. The research seems to be too sparse to make any conclusions about the
risk taking and accidents.
Physical Factors
There are dangers in every workplace, especially those devoted to technology,
machinery, and potentially hazardous material. Employers and their management
teams must understand the regulations that provide for facility safety. The successful
implementation of these legal standards is required for the profitable and legitimate
management of any business. The physical hazards of a workplace address the
environmental and the occupational danger on factory floor and in an office as
well. Such dangers have been related to the machines, respiratory system, the
circulatory system, the confined spaces, the chemicals, the personnel, the cumulative
trauma, environmental issues, the electricity, noise, fire and the explosion, and also
the risk of falling.
Physical hazards are one of the most common and are present in most of the
workplaces at some time or the other. These include the unsafe conditions that
may lead to an injury, illness and even the death.
These are normally the easiest to spot but, unfortunately, very often overlooked
due to the familiarity (there are always the cords which keep running across the
aisles), the lack of knowledge (they aren’t viewed as hazards), a resistance to
spending time or the money to make the necessary improvement or simply the
delay in introducing changes to remove hazards (waiting for tomorrow or the time
when “we’re not so busy”).
Not a single out of this is an acceptable reason for the workers to get
exposed to such physical hazards.
The examples of the physical hazards include the following:
• The electrical hazards: like the frayed cords, the missing ground pins, an
improper wiring
• The unguarded machinery and the moving machinery parts: the guards
removed or the moving parts which the worker can touch accidentally.
• A constant louder noise
• The higher exposure to the sunlight/the ultraviolet rays, heat or the cold
• Working from the heights, including the ladders, the scaffolds, the roofs,
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182 Material
• Working with the mobile equipment like the fork lifts (operation of the Counselling
fork lifts and the similar mobile equipment at a workplace needs significant
additional training and an experience)
• The spills on floors or the tripping hazards, like the blocked aisle or the
NOTES
cords running across a floor.
Physical hazards
1. Recognition
2. Evaluation and the control
I. Recognition of physical hazards
There is much more to the laboratory safety than protecting oneself from the chemical
hazards. The physical hazards are one of the most common hazards in the labs
and in any of the work place. The physical hazards are often associated with the
release of a stored energy, that is, the energy stored in some pressure or a vacuum
vessel, the electrical energy or energy in any moving mechanical part.
These physical hazards include but they are not limited to the following:
• Compressed gases
• Electrical
• Vacuum operations
• Machinery equipment
• Glassware
• Distillations/extractions
• Centrifuges
• Oil and sand baths
2. Evaluation of physical hazards: Examples
A. The Compressed gases

Following safety precautions must be taken for all the types of cylinder usage.
• Make sure that the contents are marked on a cylinder; one should never
use the cylinder paint color as an indicator.
• The storage areas should be well ventilated.
• The main cylinder valves should be kept closed when not in use.
• A valve-protection cap must always be kept until the cylinder is ready to
use.
• The cylinders should always be transported by using suitable hand truck
with tie-down chain; NEVER roll, pull the cylinders, or even drag the
cylinders.
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Counselling • One should always double chain the compressed gas cylinders separately
to a wall so as to prevent the fall.
• Wear an appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), like the safety
goggles, face shield, the gloves and the steel-toed safety shoes, as important.
NOTES
• The “EMPTY” or “MT” cylinders should be carefully marked and should
be kept separately from the full ones.
• Always use the pressure-reducing regulators.
• Install the shut-off valves and the check valves. Assure that the flashback
arrestor is used for all the flammable gases.
• The grease or oil on oxygen regulators should not be allowed.
• Storing the flammables and the oxidizers separately by at least twenty feet
or separated by wall.
• Always wear the safety glasses while handling tubing on the compressed
gases.
The gas cabinets: The gas cabinets offer an added protection from the toxic,
flammable and the corrosive gases by enclosing these cylinder(s) in a cabinet, that
is equipped with the exhaust system located on the top of a cabinet.
1. Must have the perforated plate floor air inlet to make sure that there is a
complete air distribution throughout a cabinet.
2. Must have smooth top-to-stack transition on the top of a cabinet exhaust
area to prevent the possible air channelling.
(i) Cryogenic liquids and the solids
• Avoid the skin contact, and the clothing like the knitted mitts
which can trap the spilled liquid. Use only the well-insulated
gloves especially designed for handling of the super cold
materials.
• On must say alert for condensation and the displacement of
oxygen from the air.
• Should use in some well-ventilated area.
• Use of an eye protection.
• One should not use the standard “thermos” bottles. Use the high
quality “doers” wrapped in a cloth backed tape, like the duct
tape, for containing the flying pieces in case of an explosion.
(ii) Highly toxic gases (that is the fluorine, Ethylene Oxide (ETO), and the
arsine)
• Should always be handled in some well-ventilated area like, inside
the chemical fume hood or a gas cabinet.
• If a leak is detected, the cylinder should be left inside a fume
hood, the sash should be closed, the area should be evacuated
immediately, and reported to the EH&S office.
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• No attempt should be made to move the any leaking cylinder. Counselling
(iii) Corrosive gases

• Should be stored for the very short possible period before it’s
use, preferably not more than six months. NOTES
• The storage area must be as dry as possible.
• Should not be stored near the instruments or the devices that
are sensitive to corrosion.
(iv) Acetylene
• The acetylene forms an explosive compound with the copper,
silver, and the mercury.
• Avoid the contact with the metals or their salts.
• Should never exceed pressure limit indicated by a warning red
line of the acetylene pressure gauge.
• Must ensure that the outlet line of a cylinder is well protected
with flash arrestor.
• Should never use a cylinder that had been stored in a non-
upright position until and unless it remains in the upright position
for a minimum of thirty minutes.
B. Vacuum operations
The operation involving the evacuated system where exists higher pressure on an
outside rather than inside. such operations should be regarded as having the
implosion hazard, which leads to the flying glass, spattered chemicals and the
possible fire.
• Always wear an eye and a face protection (which is the face shields and
the safety goggles).
• Check all the glass vessels and equipment for the visible defects and make
sure that those are specifically designed for these operations.
• Using the glassware specifically designed with the heavy walls.
(i) The vacuum desiccators should be used.
• Must be enclosed in shield or wrapped in a friction tape (i.e.
vinyl electrical tape).
• If and whenever possible, make use of the plastic desiccators
(i.e. polycarbonate).
(ii) The vacuum pumps should be used.
• Making use of some cold trap in order to protect pump oil from
being contaminated with the volatile substances.
• An output of each and every pump must be vented to the exhaust
hood.
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Counselling C. Electrical safety
The shock injuries are mainly caused due to the flow of an electric current
(amperage), and not because of the voltage (that means 60/100 of an ampere,
NOTES sufficient to light up an ordinary Christmas tree light, can kill if passes through
chest).
Electrical hazards exist in almost every workplace. It is not only high voltage
that causes electrocution – the smallest mistake can be fatal.
People can be electrocuted by coming into contact with overhead wires,
carrying out maintenance work on live electrical circuits, working with damaged
electrical equipment, extension cords, plugs or sockets.
Familiar appliances like toasters and microwave ovens also cause a significant
number of electrical burns.
A work safe study found that, with the exception of deaths caused by
overhead power-lines, many electrocutions could have been prevented with the
use of residual current devices (RCD).
Safety regulations require employers to fit RCDs to minimize the risk of
electric shock. All electrical installations must meet Australian Standards.
Most of the people are well aware of the electrical hazards generally. It is
quite worth pointing that out, though, the laboratory environment amplifies these
hazards to some extent: voltage in some of the laboratory apparatus is frequently
higher than the one normally encountered (though the familiar one hundred and
fifteen volts may be lethal with good ground and the wet hands).
The metal desk tops, the fume hoods and the fixtures provide the body
grounds; the water lines and the spills may furnish the conduction paths. So always
disconnect an apparatus from an electric supply before the tinkering; the use insulating
gloves and the insulated tools wherever appropriate. In some of the electrical
equipment, make sure to discharge all capacitors before starting work on an
apparatus. The purpose of interlocks, fuses, or the circuit breakers designed for
protecting the supply lines, the equipment, and the people should not get defeated.
“One hand in a pocket” is quite good an insurance when an electric shock is any
probability, and must be stuck to rigidly while throwing the open-type switches,
removing the leads from the terminal boards, pulling the plug leads from the
distribution board, operating the line-power rheostats, etc.
Always make sure that the hands are well dried. The Ground exposed
parts of all the electrical apparatus wherever it is possible. Beware of the single-
pole the double-throw switches that can leave part of the apparatus at an AC
potential with respect to the ground when it is switched off. According to present
electrical codes, only the three prong plugs where a third prong is used for the
grounding are legal. Make sure that the power cords, the insulators, and the ground
connections are in proper condition, and the fuses used have an appropriate rating.
Avoid the temporary wiring. Be extremely careful with the electrical apparatus
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which might be wet, especially heating mantles and the devices with an exposed Counselling
conductors.
Following precautions should be taken to avoid accidents:
• Grounding should be provided for all electrical equipment, machinery, NOTES
portable tools, extension cords and other electrical systems; it provides
a safe path for electricity to the ground so that the leakage of current in
circuits or equipment is prevented.
• At least a three-foot clearance should be maintained around electrical
switches.
• All electrical equipment should necessarily have Underwriters Laboratory
(UL) approval.
• All equipment should be periodically inspected for defects or damage.
• All equipment should be maintained in proper operating condition; it is
to be ensured that necessary repairs are carried out.
• It should be ensured that all electrical equipment have been de-energized
before inspecting or making repairs.
• Circuits and wiring should not be overloaded.
• It should be ensured that there are no worn, frayed, abraded, corroded
or otherwise damaged cords.
• Cords should not be yanked to disconnect them; all cords should be
kept away from heat, oil and sharp edges.
• It should be ensured that live parts of electrical equipment operating at
50 volts or more have protection against accidental contact.
• Ground-fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs), designed to shut off electrical
power within as little as 1/40 of a second, should be used in high-risk
areas, such as wet locations.
D. Machinery equipment
Machinery equipment include rotating equipment or apparatus that can trap clothing,
hair, or body parts; vacuum pumps, centrifuges, mechanical stirrers and rotary
evaporators; and hazardous grinding, drilling and cutting equipment in shops.
The following measures should be taken for the protection and maintenance
of machinery equipment:
• You should not use equipment unless you know how to use it properly.
• You should not remove guards or safety interlocks devices.
• You should use the appropriate personal protective devices, such as
glasses, gloves, goggles or face shield.
• While reviewing machinery and equipment for possible mechanical
hazards, you need to consider the following:
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Counselling o People can have access to machinery and equipment with moving
parts.
o Machinery and equipment that can eject objects, such as parts,
components, products or waste items, and can hit a person with
NOTES
sufficient force can be dangerous.
o Machinery and equipment with moving parts that can reach people
such as booms or mechanical appendages (arms) need to be handled
carefully.
o Mobile machinery and equipment, such as forklifts, pallet jacks, earth
moving equipment, being operated in areas where people may gain
access, need special care.
Harmful emissions, contained fluids or gas under pressure, chemicals and
chemical by-products, electricity and noise, etc. are non-mechanical hazards
associated with machinery and equipment. They can cause grave injury if not
properly controlled. While you are reviewing machinery and equipment for possible
non-mechanical hazards, you should keep in mind how machines and equipment
can affect the area (environment) around them.
E. Centrifuges
Mechanical failure, i.e., broken drive shafts, faulty bearings, disintegrated rotors,
etc. may create aerosols and cause hazardous fragments move at a greater velocity.
The high-speed rotor in a simple centrifuge remains under the large stress
due to the centrifugal force. In a well-designed and properly operated centrifuge,
the stress is well below that needed for rupturing rotor. The misuse of this particular
apparatus may lead to a rotor being more vulnerable to the rupture at any given
stress. Further, the stress may be significantly increased by the vibrations arising
from an imbalance.
When a rotor ruptures, the fragments turn very hazardous. The high-speed
projectiles similar to the bullets or the shrapnel, may sometimes rip through steel
outer jacket, through partitions between the rooms and then through the human
flesh. The high-speed centrifuge should necessarily have an adequate barrier against
a possibility. A lid of a centrifuge needs to be closed when centrifuge is in the
operation.
It is not just enough to provide an adequate barrier against the bursting. It is
equally important to guard against the imbalance, which is one of the main causes
of a rotor failure. Each of the centrifuge tube comprising a sample needs to be
balanced out with some similar object. You need to be careful that the imbalance
has not occurred while running due to the differential evaporation of the solvent.
This usually takes place when two liquids of the different vapour pressure are
diametrically opposite or when some concentrated solution is initially balanced
with the same weight of a pure solvent. It is better to balance each of the samples
with the other identical thing.
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When a centrifuge is in operation, especially when it’s approaching the Counselling
operating speed, you have to be vigilant about the unusual noises or some other
evidence of an excessive vibration. You should immediately turn it off if something
should arise. You should not try to stop the centrifuge by any mechanical means.
Also, you should refrain from putting the hands into a centrifuge unless rotor is NOTES
completely stationary.
The most common causes of accidents in sugar manufacturing facilities are
trips and falls due to slippery floors, stairs and elevated platforms; the incorrect
use of equipment, such as packaging and transport equipment; contact with sharp
edges on process equipment, such as replacing worn beet slicing knives in the
slicing machines; accidents involving conveyor belts; and explosions, such as those
during sugar drying and storing and from gas fuels storage and boilers.
Safety against centrifuge hazards
(i) The general safety procedures
• Before the centrifuging, you should inspect the tubes for some crack,
inspect an inside of a trunnion cup for the rough walls caused by an
erosion of the adhering matter, and then carefully remove the bits of a
glass from rubber cushion.
• You should use the screw caps or the cap that fits over a rim outside
centrifuge tube as they are much safer than the plug-in closures.
• You should never use an aluminium foil to cap the centrifuge tubes with
the infectious material since these often become detached or get ruptured
during the centrifuging.
• When the centrifuging takes place in the well-ventilated glove box, you
should ensure that the glove panel is in position with all the ports of the
glove fully covered. You should remember that the centrifuge during
operation leads to reverse air currents which may start escape of agents
from the open cabinet.
• For flammable or hazardous materials, you should keep the centrifuge
under negative pressure for appropriating the exhaust system.
(ii) Safety measures when a centrifuge is used with the bio-hazardous materials
• When a centrifuge is being used with the bio-hazardous material, it should
be ensured that it is filled and opened only in the biological safety cabinet.
• When centrifuging of bio-hazardous materials is required to be performed
out of a containment cabinet, you should use a sealed safety bucket or
tube.
• When the safety bucket or tube is filled and sealed, you should consider
it as contaminated and hence it needs to be wiped with a cloth well
soaked in the disinfectant. (You need to be careful here as some
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Counselling disinfectants are corrosive to the centrifuge rotors or buckets. They are
to be rinsed with water after suitable contact time has passed.)
• While re-suspending sediment after centrifuging, you should make efforts
for minimizing the amount of the aerosol generated by making use of the
NOTES
swirling or rotary motion rather than shaking.
• You should avoid pouring of centrifuge tubes. If it is essential, you should
wipe the outer rim with a good disinfectant. Otherwise, contagious fluid
will offshoot as aerosol.
• You should avoid filling of the tube up to the point the outer rim becomes
wet with the culture.
(iii) Low-speed or small, portable centrifuges (the centrifuges do not have aerosol
tight chambers)
• Before the bucket is removed for the centrifuging, outer bucket must be
decontaminated.
• Bucket must be opened only in the biological safety cabinet.
• Small centrifuge can be positioned in the biological safety cabinet.
(iv) High- speed centrifuges (where chamber is coupled to the vacuum pump)
• The filter should be placed between the chamber and the pump.
• A log record should be kept for use by each rotor and instrument.
• In order to prevent the corrosion or any other damage, you should
carry out frequent inspections, suitable cleaning and appropriate drying
of rotors.
• The rubber ‘O’ rings and the tube closures should be inspected for
corrosion and it should be coated with the lubricant as recommended
by the manufacturer.
(v) Continuous flow centrifuges and zonal centrifuges
Continuous flow centrifuges allow continuous producing of the product while
a centrifuge operates at a full speed, while zonal centrifuges separate the
product according to its density or its buoyancy under the centrifugal force.
Such centrifuges should be enclosed in a specially designed well ventilated
safety cabinet.
The conditions leading to the production of the aerosols during the zonal
centrifuging are as follows:
• Leaking rotor seals because of damage of the seals, inadequate assembly
or over-pressurization
• Drops of the culture in then chamber or on the rotor
• Snagging of the tube or the tubing connections
• Disassembly or the decontamination
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F. Radiation hazards Counselling
Besides radioactivity, injurious radiation in the laboratory can be studied under the
four main headings: X-ray, ultraviolet, laser and radio-frequency radiation.
(i) X-rays: Chemists use X-rays mainly in crystallographic diffraction work. NOTES
Such work should be performed only by well- trained persons, or under
the immediate and responsible supervision of such persons. An X-ray
generator and diffraction equipment should be shielded with 2 mm of lead
so as to prevent the escape of any direct radiation into the room from either
of them or the junction between them, preventing the scattering of radiation
arising from the junction. Every diffraction experiment needs to be examined
with a counter-type survey meter and you should ensure that the radiation
level at all points around the apparatus is no more than 10 millirem/hour,
and preferably less.
The allowed occupational dosage of whole-body X-radiation is 300 mrem/
week (but no more than 5000/year); hands or forearms are allowed several
times that output.
Caution: While exiting the window, the intensity of the X-ray may be up to
104 rem or 107mrem/min. Local exposures of more than 1000 rem may
lead to grave skin burns; much smaller exposures can possibly result in eye
cataracts. A one-time exposure of 500 rem of penetrating X-rays of the
whole body is generally grave. However, the primary element of X-rays
used in diffraction pierces just a few millimetres into the body.
A dangerous hazard with some X-ray units is back-conduction of a gassy
rectifier circuit. Such a hazard can lead to radiation of twice the nominal
maximum energy of the beam from the X-ray tube. It has a greater
penetrating power. So, it is needed to provide adequate shielding of the
transformer-rectifier unit (3 mm of lead), ensure good periodic maintenance
and undertake routine monitoring of the radiation background. Walls, ceilings
and floors cannot ensure dependable isolation from crystallographic X-
rays. At least 13 cm-solid concrete is required for providing adequate
protection. Wooden doors and plasterboard partitions are not of much
significance as far as protection from X-rays is concerned.
All those entering inside the X-ray room need to have the film badges mounted
at the proper positions to detect the escaping radiations. Before an X-ray
unit is turn on, it should be ensured that all the X-ray ports are sufficiently
covered. Before leaving the X-ray room, you have to ensure that the
mechanical malfunction of a diffraction camera would not result in any
radiation hazards. A pregnant woman should avoid the exposure to X-rays,
especially during the initial period of her pregnancy, since the foetus is very
susceptible to the injuries due to X-rays.
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Counselling (ii) Ultraviolet radiation: The ultraviolet radiation may lead to skin burns. It
is particularly very harmful for the eye, especially the cornea and the lens of
the eye. The eyeglasses offer little protection; special goggles are required.
Shielding the experiments requires the utmost attention so as to prevent an
NOTES escape from some direct beam or some considerable amount of the scattered
radiation.
(iii) Laser radiation: The laser radiation is very hazardous for the eyes
(particularly retina) owing to the elevated energy content in a laser beam.
Since the beam is coherent and parallel, it could be focused for providing
high local intensities. The sufficient shielding is required. The eyeglasses
offer a very little protection from the lasers emitted within the visible range.
Such glasses that can block the light of frequency emitted by the laser are
helpful. Simply because the glasses contain dark tint does not mean that
they can block the light of a specific frequency.
(iv) Radio-frequency radiation: The radio-frequency radiation may get
absorbed deep inside the human tissues. Injuries to the eye may also be
produced by flashing of tubes, extremely bright sparks and the arcs.
(v) Strong magnetic fields: High-field magnets have powerful and stray
magnetic field which may be potentially dangerous for the wearers of the
pacemakers. Strong magnetic fields can be felt in the rooms that are
immediately above or below a magnet. Besides, the users of such instruments
need to keep in their mind that the magnetic strips present on the credit
cards and information that is stored on the floppy disks may be totally erased
by the stray fields. Such fields can adversely affect even the ‘anti-magnetic’
watches and the quartz watches.
Check Your Progress

1. Who are integrative counsellors ?
2. What does the Awareness and the Preparedness for Emergencies at the
Local Level (APELL) programme do?
3. What happened on the 10th of July 1976?
4. When did the Bhopal Gas Tragedy took place?

QUESTIONS
1. Integrative counsellors are those that have trained in a core therapeutic

approach and built other disciplines into this.
2. The programme helps the countries by way of dissemination of the
information, training, and the assistance in case of emergency.
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3. On the 10th of July 1976, an explosion took place at ICMESA chemical Counselling
factory in north Italian town of the Seveso releasing a cloud of the chemicals
in the atmosphere which contaminated all the surrounding area.
4. The Bhopal Gas Tragedy took place on the 2nd – 3rd of December 1984.
NOTES
12.6 SUMMARY
• It is imperative that an organization takes utmost care and steps to provide

a healthy work atmosphere for its employees.
• Workplace counselling is usually short-term, and it provides employee
support intervention.
• The counselling process is about giving the employees an opportunity to
freely talk about the issues that trouble them. The counsellors allow the
employees to help them find their own solutions to problems or develop
better ways to manage issues.
• Workplace counsellors are skilled professionals and have a specialist
viewpoint and skillset, as they essentially have two clients – the employee
that they are counselling and the organisation.
• Workplace counsellors have a crucial understanding of the environment to
which the employees will be returning and are known to the context in
which the employees work.
• Since, employees spend a significant part of their lives in their work place,
it is an employer’s duty to protect their health, safety and welfare. Employers
must be considered towards both physical and mental well-being of its
employees.
• Amidst 1970 and 1990, approximately 180 severe industrial accidents did
take place worldwide, which led to the release of different types of chemical
compounds in the environment.
• In an attempt to make the communities aware about the industrial hazards
and to help and support them develop an emergency response plan, in
1988 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) launched the
Awareness and the Preparedness for Emergencies at the Local Level
(APELL) programme.
• The programme helps the countries by way of dissemination of the
information, training, and the assistance in case of emergency.
• The ILO (international labor organization) has issued the code of practice
for providing guidance in setting up the administrative, the legal and the
technical system for controlling the major hazardous installations.
• On the 2nd – 3rd of December 1984, a sudden release of nearly thirty tons
of methyl isocyanate (MIC) happened at the Union Carbide pesticide plant
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Counselling in Bhopal, India. It was a result of some poor safety management practice,
poor early warning system and lack of community preparedness.
• On 1 November 1986, fire broke out at a storehouse named Sandoz situated
near Basel, in Switzerland. The storehouse had about one thousand three
NOTES
hundred tons of no less than 90 different types of chemicals.
• Industrial accidents are caused by several factors as are the kinds of industrial
accidents.
• The broader category of these accidents covers anything from the small
cuts and bruises to the massive disaster which affects a large part of the
population of people.
• The external causes of the industrial accidents include fires, chemical spills,
toxic gas emission or radiation.
• The causes of industrial accidents in these cases might include organizational
errors, human factors, abnormal operational conditions, natural forces,
software or component failures, and outside interference.
• One important cause of industrial accidents is human carelessness. Human
carelessness can occur in the sharp end, example, the act of an operator
and at the blunt end, example, insufficient operational procedures.
• One has to determine the variability of human behaviour and the acceptance
limits for variation which hold for the work situation to characterize human
“errors” [Leplat and Rasmussen 1984].
• Human error can be divided into the basic error types; slips, lapses, and
mistakes [Reason 1990]. In addition, violations are regarded as human
errors. Slips and lapses are classified as unintended actions, while mistakes
and violations are classified as intended actions.
• Heinrich (1959) is credited with documenting the first scientific method of
injury prevention and the effects of accidental injury causation.
• Heinrich suggests that in the majority of cases the worker’s individual
characteristics and behaviour were the root cause to most accidents.
• The term accident proneness was coined by psychological research workers
in 1926.
• Accident proneness theory maintains that some workers are more liable to
be involved in accidents. This theory is not generally accepted, and
researchers have not been able to prove the existence of ‘accident proneness’.
• Physical hazards are one of the most common and are present in most of
the workplaces at some time or the other. These include the unsafe conditions
that may lead to an injury, illness and even the death.
• A work safe study found that, with the exception of deaths caused by
overhead power-lines, many electrocutions could have been prevented with
the use of residual current devices (RCD).
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Counselling
12.7 KEY WORDS
• Hazards: A hazard is an agent which has the potential to cause harm to a
vulnerable target. NOTES
• Neurosis: It is a relatively mild mental illness that is not caused by organic
disease, involving symptoms of stress (depression, anxiety, obsessive
behaviour, hypochondria) but not a radical loss of touch with reality.
• Ancestry: It means one’s family or ethnic descent, the origin or background
of something.

EXERCISES

1. What is the meaning and process of counselling in workplace?
2. Write a short note on employee health, safety and security.
3. What does accident proneness mean?
4. Write a note on neurosis and accidents.
5. What is risk taking?
6. Discuss vacuum operations.
1. What are industrial accidents? How are they caused?
2. Write a detailed explanation of the three chemical accidents that made
headline news between 1970 and 1990.
3. Classify and explain industrial accidents.
4. Explain Heinrich’s method of injury prevention.
5. What are the potential physical hazards in a workplace?
6. What are the programmes developed by UN and other organizations to
address and curb industrial accidents?
London: Pearson.
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Material 195
Life
UNIT 13 LIFE
NOTES Structure
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Meaning and Importance of Quality of Work Life
13.3 Factors Affecting Quality of Work Life
13.5 Summary
13.6 Key Words
13.0 INTRODUCTION
One of the most important concept that all adults struggle with is the work–life
balance. It is the term used to describe the balance between the various aspects of
life of an individual and the time allocated for work. Work-life balance does not
necessarily mean an equal balance between the two. To allocate equal number of
hours to work and personal life is unrealistic and often not achievable in real time.
Life is more fluid, and dynamic based on current situation at hand. One’s
understanding of work-life balance will vary over time, and in fact it may change
on a daily basis. The right balance for you today will probably be different for you
tomorrow. This balance is dictated by priorities at the hand of individual which
change with time.
This unit explains the meaning and importance of quality of work-life balance
and the factors affecting it.
13.1 OBJECTIVES

• Discuss meaning and importance of quality of work-life balance
• Describe the factors affecting quality of work life
13.2 MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF QUALITY

OF WORK LIFE
There are many definitions of “Quality”. Dedhia Navin, S. (1998) stated that “quality
is about behaving in a way that reflects on individuals and organization understanding
of the fundamental inter-connectedness of structure, process and outcome”. There
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are many aspects of quality and they fall into categories such as consumer view
196 Material
point of quality, producer view point of quality, personnel, behavioural quality, Life
quality practices, reliability, education, training, team work, communication and

other such topics are always included in ‘quality’ discussion. Quality is the totality
of the features and characteristics of a product, service or a person that bear on its
or his ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. NOTES
Walton. R.E, (1973) conducted extensive research on QWL. He can be
considered as a major contributor to the concept of productivity and human
resources. He devised an eight point criteria to measure the ‘Quality of Working
Life’. The categories are: (i) adequate and fair compensation, (ii) safe and healthy
working environment, (iii) opportunity to develop human capabilities, (iv) growth
and security, (v) Social integration, (vi) constitutionalism, (vii) total life space and
(viii) social relevance. According Lippitt, G.L. (1978) the term QWL broadly
referring to the degree to which work provides an opportunity for an individual to
satisfy a wide variety of personal needs to survive with some security, to interact
with others, to have a sense of personal usefulness, to be recognized for achievement
and to have an opportunity to improve one’s skills and knowledge.
Nadler, D. A. and Lawler, E.E. (1983) defined QWL as an individual’s
perception of and attitudes towards, his or her work and the total working
environment. In simple words, QWL can be defined as an individual’s evaluative
reactions to satisfaction with his/her work and the total working environment.
Beukema, L. Groningen et al. (1987) expressed that QWL is defined as the degree
to which employees are able to shape their jobs actively, in accordance with their
options, interests and needs. It is the degree of power an organization gives to its
employees to design their work. Havlovic, S.J. Scobel, D.N et al. (1991) expressed
that the QWL include job security, better reward systems, higher pay, opportunity
for growth, and participative groups among others. Knox, S. and J. A. Irving
(1997) stated that the QWL practices and policies of the QWL determine the
organization environment, and organization development and interventions
operationalise the constructs. Individual employee’s perceptions concerning
strengths and weaknesses in the total work environment and what is or is not
desirable in the workplace are other foci for research. Gilgeous, (1998) 27 says
that the Quality of life could be defined as an individual’s satisfaction with his or
her life dimensions comparing with his or her ideal life. Evaluation of the quality of
life depends on individual’s value system and on the cultural environment where he
lives. Lau, Wong, Chan and Law (2001), it describes that QWL is the favorable
working environment that support and promote satisfaction by providing employees
with rewards, job security and career growth opportunities.
Hagerty, M. R., et al. (2001) state that the QWL implies the quality of a
person’s whole life, not just a separate component. Hanna Sutela (2006) opines
that the Quality of work life is evaluation about four categories, namely, physical
work environment, psychic and social factors in the work environment, health and
stress symptoms, labour market position, and family background variables.
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Life Elisaveta, S. (2006) is of opinion that the QWL has the correlative relationship
between quality of work life and satisfaction with definite job attributes in regard
to job contents and work environment
NOTES
13.3 FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY OF WORK
LIFE
Quality of Work life (QWL)

QWL is most conventionally defined as those perceived important personal needs,
which an individual tries to satisfy by working in an organization. Its conceptual
foundations, though laid by a host of behavioural scientists, were in reality
advocated by Chris Argyris (1975) in his famous work on personality and
organization. The Socio-Technical Systems Theory, pioneered by Tavistock
Institute of Human Relations, London during 1960s is considered as an important
QWL construct. Basic conceptual criteria for QWL incorporate growth and security
as important personal needs of an individual. The possibility of furthering one’s
career within the organization, has, therefore, been identified as one of the important
criteria for QWL. Although, common QWL strategists lay emphasis more on job
redesign, formation of autonomous work groups and worker participation in
management, there exist wide differences among the pioneers in these areas as to
what should be construed as QWL factors. The process of QWL can be explained
with the help of the following criteria:
• Adequate and fair compensation
• Safe and healthy working conditions
• Immediate opportunity to use and develop human capacities
• Future opportunity for continued growth and security
• Social integration in the work organization
• Work and total life space
• Social relevance of working life
From studies carried out, both in India and abroad, it is evident that the essence of
QWL is the opportunity for employees, at all levels, to have substantial influence
over their work environment. This is a result of their participation in the decision-
making process relating to their work, thereby enhancing their self-esteem and the
overall satisfaction from their work. Hence, QWL calls for an open style of
management, i.e., sharing of information and genuinely encouraging the efforts
relating to the improvement of the organization. This makes it amply clear that
QWL is, in fact, an important managerial activity to develop the employees of an
organization. The success of TQM programmes largely depend on appropriate
HRD interventions like emphasis on continuous training and developmental
activities, encouraging participation in management through small group forums,
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increasing employees’ motivation, looking after the career development of Life
employees, employee empowerment, infusing attitudinal changes at the top (like

accepting a flatter organization structure, following a democratic approach,
becoming receptive to changes on a continuous basis, supporting group
performance, etc.). NOTES
Check Your Progress

1. Define quality.
2. Name one major contributor to the concept of productivity and human
resources.
3. How did Walton. R.E. measure the ‘Quality of Working Life’?

QUESTIONS
1. Dedhia Navin, S. (1998) stated that “quality is about behaving in a way that
reflects on individuals and organization understanding of the fundamental
inter-connectedness of structure, process and outcome”.
2. Walton. R.E. is a major contributor to the concept of productivity and human
resources.
3. Walton. R.E. devised an eight-point criterion to measure the ‘Quality of
Working Life’.
13.5 SUMMARY
• Dedhia Navin, S. (1998) stated that “quality is about behaving in a way that
reflects on individuals and organization understanding of the fundamental
inter-connectedness of structure, process and outcome”.
• There are many aspects of quality and they fall into categories such as
consumer view point of quality, producer view point of quality, personnel,
behavioural quality, quality practices, reliability, education, training, team
work, communication and other such topics are always included in ‘quality’
discussion.
• Quality is the totality of the features and characteristics of a product, service
or a person that bear on its or his ability to satisfy stated or implied needs.
• Walton. R.E, (1973) conducted extensive research on QWL. He can be
considered as a major contributor to the concept of productivity and human
resources.
• He devised an eight-point criterion to measure the ‘Quality of Working
Life’.
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Material 199
Life • The categories are: (i) adequate and fair compensation, (ii) safe and healthy
working environment, (iii) opportunity to develop human capabilities, (iv)
growth and security, (v) Social integration, (vi) constitutionalism, (vii) total
life space and (viii) social relevance.
NOTES
• Nadler, D. A. and Lawler, E.E. (1983) defined QWL as an individual’s
perception of and attitudes towards, his or her work and the total working
environment.
• In simple words, QWL can be defined as an individual’s evaluative reactions
to satisfaction with his/her work and the total working environment.
• Hagerty, M. R., et al. (2001) state that the QWL implies the quality of a
person’s whole life, not just a separate component.
• Elisaveta, S. (2006) is of opinion that the QWL has the correlative relationship
between quality of work life and satisfaction with definite job attributes in
regard to job contents and work environment.
• QWL is most conventionally defined as those perceived important personal
needs, which an individual tries to satisfy by working in an organization.
• Its conceptual foundations, though laid by a host of behavioural scientists,
were in reality advocated by Chris Argyris (1975) in his famous work on
personality and organization.
• The Socio-Technical Systems Theory, pioneered by Tavistock Institute of
Human Relations, London during 1960s is considered as an important QWL
construct.
• From studies carried out, both in India and abroad, it is evident that the
essence of QWL is the opportunity for employees, at all levels, to have
substantial influence over their work environment.
• This is a result of their participation in the decision-making process relating
to their work, thereby enhancing their self-esteem and the overall satisfaction
from their work.
13.6 KEY WORDS
• Balance: It is a situation in which different elements are equal or in the

correct proportions.
• Integration: It is to mix with and join society or a group of people, often
changing to suit their way of life, habits, and customs.
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Life
EXERCISES
Short Answer Questions NOTES
1. Define work-life balance as given by various authors.

2. Is work-life balance important? Elucidate.
1. What constitutes work-life balance? Why is it important?
2. Explain Quality of Work life (QWL) and its process.
London: Pearson.
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Material 201
Work Motivation
UNIT 14 WORK MOTIVATION

NOTES Structure
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Attitude of Working Culture and Behaviourism and Psychological Health
14.4 Summary
14.5 Key Words
14.0 INTRODUCTION
The word ‘motivation’ has been derived from the word ‘motive’, which means
any idea, need or emotion. This could be conscious or subconscious. Motivation
cannot be classified as a personal trait as it is a result of the interaction between the
individual and the circumstances.
Motivation is the persistent behaviour and the internal driving force directed
towards a particular goal. Motivation is an important tool that managers can use to
build confidence in the work force. It is the psychological process that directs
people’s choices regarding the type and intensity of their behavior.
One common misunderstanding that managers have is that motivation only
means working hard. Due to this, managers often believe that only productive
workers are motivated. However, psychologists define motivation as a general
process that influences virtually all behavior. Work motivation theories describe
the psychological processes that affect people’s choices regarding their work-
related behaviors. These theories provide managerial guidelines for increasing
worker productivity and maintain efficient working.
14.1 OBJECTIVES

• Discuss attitude of working culture and behaviourism and psychological
health
• Explain the meaning of job design
• Describe the concept of motivation at work
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Work Motivation
14.2 ATTITUDE OF WORKING CULTURE AND
BEHAVIOURISM AND PSYCHOLOGICAL
HEALTH
NOTES
A job is a set of tasks performed by one person. The scientific management approach
advocated by Frederick W. Taylor provided a methodology to structure highly
specialized jobs, which simplified hiring, training, and supervising people with the
requisite capabilities. Scientific management provided orderliness to the work of
organization (Wrenge and Perroni 1974). In keeping with the principles of scientific
management, job design has historically involved analysing a complex task, then
breaking it down into specific subtasks. One or more of these specific subtasks or
jobs are then combined into departmental work units, where managers oversee
the work of employees (Hammer 1990).
Two important dimensions used for describing all types of jobs are task
scope and depth. Task scope describes the horizontal characteristics of the job or
the degree of variety in the activities a person is expected to perform. A job narrow
in scope has few activities. A typist’s job will only require him to type the material
that has been assigned to him, whereas the job of a computer operator would
entail a lot more than just typing the content.
Task depth addresses how much vertical responsibility or individual
accountability is expected in a job. Depth increases when the employee is given
more responsibility to schedule the sequence of work, to initiate self-control if
activities or output begin to get out of balance, to identify and solve problems as
they occur or to originate innovative ways of improving the process or the output.
Different dimensions of the job affect the attitude of workers, their willingness
to perform, the productivity and reliability of their work output, and the
corresponding side effects such as accidents, absenteeism, and job stress.
Job design draws heavily on motivation theory. Certain aspects of job design
which affect the motivation level of employees in organization include the following:
• Job rotation
• Job enlargement
• Job enrichment
• Job characteristics model
Job Rotation
The process of job rotation involves moving workers in a systematic way from
one job to another in order to provide more interesting and satisfying work. The
assumption laid by the supporters of this approach is that by helping the employee
move across a wide variety of tasks, it helps in the development of large array of
job skills, thereby providing the organization with greater flexibility.
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Work Motivation The critiques of this model propose that the process of shifting employees
from one job to another only enhances the monotony of work and nothing else. It
does not bring about any value addition to the skill set of employees as they are
not learning anything new in the process. Those who propose the concept of job
NOTES specialization would also argue that job rotation may adversely affect efficiency as
one is not taking full advantage of the proficiency that evolves from specializing in
one job.
Job Enlargement
The process of job enlargement, also known as horizontal loading of the job, aims
to expand the worker’s job to include the tasks which were previously performed
by other workers. The rationale provided is that this reduces the monotony and
boredom of performing the earlier, narrowly defined job and increases variety and
interest because of increased number of tasks to be performed. However, this
approach has often failed to live up to its anticipated expectations as it was found
that enlarged jobs were no more than a collection of simple routine tasks (Campion
and McClelland 1993).
Job Enrichment
As a result of the inability of the process of job rotation and job enlargement to
generate interest in the tasks to be performed, a more effective approach to deal
with the problems of job design called job enrichment was generated This concept
was an outgrowth of Herzberg’s dual factor theory of motivation (discussed earlier)
and was also referred as vertical loading of the job. According to Herzberg, if
factors such as sense of achievement, responsibility, and recognition, which are
also known as motivators are added to the task in hand, it tends to enhance the
positive job-related experiences. The process of job enrichment accounts for adding
more variety of tasks to be performed in addition to granting the worker more
control over the job.
Herzberg (1968, 1974) suggested the process of enriching the job by adding
the following to the job:
• Accountability: The person performing the job should remain
accountable or responsible for the job.
• Achievement: The task should provide a person with a feeling that it is
worthwhile to achieve the goal.
• Control over resources: The individual should have control over the
resources to be utilized for the purpose of accomplishing the objectives.
• Feedback: There should be continuous inflow of clear feedback to the
individual about performance.
• Workplace: The individual should be able to decide the pace and
techniques to be used at the workplace while performing tasks.
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204 Material
There are mixed reports about the success of job enrichment as an approach Work Motivation
to job design. There are reports of early success of the programme at AT&T in the
United States and ICI in United Kingdom, but there are reports which suggest
that many organizations found the approach to be too costly to implement and that
it did not live up to the expectations (Griffin 1982). NOTES
The Job Characteristics Model

One of the integrated theories of job design developed by Hackman and his
colleagues (1976) helps managers understand and build into the workplace
conditions that will inspire people to turn in high-quality performances. The model
provided by them termed as the Job Characteristic model (Figure 14.1), identifies
five core job dimensions that produce three psychological states. Employees who
experience these psychological states tend to have higher level of internal work
motivation (motivation from the work itself), job satisfaction (particularly,
satisfaction with the work itself), high quality work performance, and lowered rate
of absenteeism and turnover ultimately leading to work effectiveness.
Fig. 14.1 The Job Characteristics Model
Core job dimensions: These are the underlying characteristics of a job that relate
to a person’s involvement, motivation, performance, and satisfaction (Hackman
and Lawler 1971). These dimensions include autonomy, the degree of control one
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Material 205
Work Motivation has over the job; task variety, the degree to which the job requires performing
multiple tasks; task identity, the extent to which a person has a whole task to
complete; feedback, the information available about progress and results of personal
efforts; and task significance, the degree to which the task is important for the
NOTES incumbent. If a job possesses these dimensions, a self-motivated individual has a
sense of satisfaction from the job.
Psychological States: The above-mentioned five job dimensions affect the
motivation and satisfaction of employees by generating three psychological states
(John et al. 1992):
• Experienced meaning fulness—this occurs when an individual perceives
the work as worthwhile or in tune with personal values (influenced by skill
variety, task identity, and task significance).
• Experienced responsibility—it is realized when a person feels personally
accountable for the outcomes of his efforts (influenced by autonomy).
• Knowledge of results—it is experienced when an individual can determine
on a fairly regular basis whether the performance outcomes of his work are
satisfactory (influenced by feedback dimension).
Employee growth-need strength is an indicator of the degree to which individuals’
value complex, challenging work. Employees with low-growth need strength
develop a favourable impression of the improvement in their jobs but it may not be
as high as for employees with high-growth need strength.
Techniques to Enhance Jobs Through Redesign
Four techniques which can be used to enhance jobs through redesign, thereby
leading to improved motivation and satisfaction are discussed here:
Combine tasks
This technique is also called job enlargement, where to improve skill variety, task
identity, and interdependence, tasks that have become overly specialized and
fragmented over time are combined. The tasks could be combined in a way where
one individual performs the entire task or by establishing teams in which members
periodically switch tasks. The tasks which now no longer add value or have become
redundant need to be eliminated.
Load jobs vertically
Employees are empowered by giving them responsibility for planning, executing,
and adjusting work activities. A manager can give autonomy to the staff members
to schedule their own work, decide on work methods, take care of the problems,
and supervise others. This improves the facet of autonomy and, therefore, adds to
motivation and satisfaction.
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Open feedback channels Work Motivation
Employees should be able to receive all possible feedback about the factors that
affect their work. Managers should be able to develop systems where this becomes
feasible. The best sources of feedback are the job itself, peers, and computerized NOTES
databases.
Form natural work teams
Regardless of the work flow sequence, bringing people together as a team enhances
identification with the whole task and creates a sense of shared responsibility.
Obstacles in Job Design
In spite of all the potential benefits, job design is not easy to implement. Employees
sometimes have a distorted view of the perceived job characteristics as stated by
the scholars because of their own attitudes (Wong et al. 1998). Job design
interventions also face resistance to change. Supervisors fear that they may have
to change their roles and fear job insecurity.
Other related problems pertain to specialization of jobs. These may improve
work efficiency but performance may fall if specialization reduces employee
motivation. Job enrichment may increase recruiting and training costs, whereas
specialization may increase payroll costs if companies provide discontent pay to
entice people to boring jobs (Durham 1977).
Motivation by Empowerment
Many individuals today have learnt to be self-motivated and self-empowered—
seizing opportunities to make their work more meaningful and more willing to
make choices, experiment, and have an impact on the organization.
Empowerment describes conditions that enable people to feel competent
and in control, energized to take initiatives, and persist at meaningful tasks (Conger
and Kanungo 1988). Empowerment can come from self, peers or a manager.
Empowerment attempts to bring about positive self-esteem, self-efficacy, and task-
directed behaviours (Figure 14.2).
Fig. 14.2 Motivation by Empowerment

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Material 207
Work Motivation Self-initiated empowerment
People who are intrinsically motivated usually initiate personal efforts to expand
the nature of their jobs and power. They are entrepreneurs who are willing to take
NOTES chances and work actively. They like to improve organizational processes and
products by adding value to the tasks assigned to them.
Empowerment by others
Colleagues and co-workers have an impact on individuals. One feels empowered
in a group when one is respected and treated as a professional. Individuals are
empowered when peers seek their advice, confide in them, and include them in
their projects from which they can learn and initiate contacts with others.
Empowerment by managers
The behaviour of the manager is the most important source of empowerment. The
empowering manager gives power and autonomy to his subordinates and enables
them to be self-motivated. Information is shared with subordinates. One of the
major empowering factors today is the role of information technology and systems
that allow employees to have access to all the desirable information. Managers
who deliberately work towards empowering employees give them the licence to
pursue their vision, to champion projects, and to improve practices consistent
with organizational missions and goals. The manager who treats his subordinates
as partners and shares responsibilities with them is likely to get the best from them
(Cohen and Bradford 1984).
The initiation of empowerment leads to changes in self and task-related
behaviours. Self-concept is the way you think about yourself or how you see
yourself in a role. Self-esteem is how you generally feel about your own worthiness,
and self-efficacy is an individual’s self-perceived ability to perform a certain type
of task. The feeling of self-efficacy is important because it influences performance
and a sense of personal well-being (Bandura 1977). On the basis of these states
being provoked, the individual displays a self-initiated task behaviour and
persistence in trying to achieve the objectives with adaptability and flexibility.
Outcome of Empowerment
The empowered person undergoes two types of personal changes. One of them
is motivation enhancement and the other is manifestation of active problem-solving
behaviour. Empowered individuals are more energized and committed to a goal.
They experience self-efficacy and a feeling of positive self-being. The empowered
person is more flexible in behaviour, tries alternative paths when one is blocked
and eagerly initiates new tasks and adds complexity to the current ones (Thomas
and Velthouse 1990).
Expectancy motivation comes into play in empowerment whenever a person
raises questions about himself and the task at hands. Managers help bring about
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empowerment when they encourage their people to diminish such bureaucratic Work Motivation
thoughts as “It’s not my responsibility” or “It’s beyond my control” or the classic

“It wasn’t invented here”.
NOTES
Check Your Progress
1. Define job.
2. What is task scope?
3. What does the process of job rotation involve?
4. What is the most important source of empowerment?

QUESTIONS
1. A job is a set of tasks performed by one person.

2. Task scope describes the horizontal characteristics of the job or the degree
of variety in the activities a person is expected to perform.
3. The process of job rotation involves moving workers in a systematic way
from one job to another in order to provide more interesting and satisfying
work.
4. The behaviour of the manager is the most important source of empowerment.
14.4 SUMMARY
• A job is a set of tasks performed by one person.

• The scientific management approach advocated by Frederick W. Taylor
provided a methodology to structure highly specialized jobs, which simplified
hiring, training, and supervising people with the requisite capabilities.
• In keeping with the principles of scientific management, job design has
historically involved analysing a complex task, then breaking it down into
specific subtasks.
• Two important dimensions used for describing all types of jobs are task
scope and depth. Task scope describes the horizontal characteristics of the
job or the degree of variety in the activities a person is expected to perform.
• Task depth addresses how much vertical responsibility or individual
accountability is expected in a job.
• Depth increases when the employee is given more responsibility to schedule
the sequence of work, to initiate self-control if activities or output begin to
get out of balance, to identify and solve problems as they occur or to originate
innovative ways of improving the process or the output.
Self-Instructional
Material 209
Work Motivation • Job design draws heavily on motivation theory.
• The process of job rotation involves moving workers in a systematic way
from one job to another in order to provide more interesting and satisfying
work.
NOTES
• The critiques of this model propose that the process of shifting employees
from one job to another only enhances the monotony of work and nothing
else.
• The process of job enlargement, also known as horizontal loading of the
job, aims to expand the worker’s job to include the tasks which were
previously performed by other workers.
• As a result of the inability of the process of job rotation and job enlargement
to generate interest in the tasks to be performed, a more effective approach
to deal with the problems of job design called job enrichment was generated.
• This concept was an outgrowth of Herzberg’s dual factor theory of
motivation (discussed earlier) and was also referred as vertical loading of
the job.
• One of the integrated theories of job design developed by Hackman and
his colleagues (1976) helps managers understand and build into the
workplace conditions that will inspire people to turn in high-quality
performances.
• Employee growth-need strength is an indicator of the degree to which
individuals’ value complex, challenging work.
• Employees with low-growth need strength develop a favourable impression
of the improvement in their jobs but it may not be as high as for employees
with high-growth need strength.
• Combine tasks: This technique is also called job enlargement, where to
improve skill variety, task identity, and interdependence, tasks that have
become overly specialized and fragmented over time are combined.
• Job design interventions also face resistance to change. Supervisors fear
that they may have to change their roles and fear job insecurity.
• Empowerment describes conditions that enable people to feel competent
and in control, energized to take initiatives, and persist at meaningful tasks
(Conger and Kanungo 1988). Empowerment can come from self, peers or
a manager.
• Empowerment attempts to bring about positive self-esteem, self-efficacy,
and task-directed behaviours.
• The behaviour of the manager is the most important source of empowerment.
The empowering manager gives power and autonomy to his subordinates
and enables them to be self-motivated. Information is shared with
subordinates.
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Work Motivation
14.5 KEY WORDS
• Empowerment: It means to give someone official authority or the freedom

to do something. NOTES
• Technique: It is a way of carrying out a particular task, especially the
execution or performance of an artistic work or a scientific procedure.
• Job Design: It means outlining the task, duties, responsibilities, qualifications,
methods and relationships required to perform the given set of a job.

EXERCISES

1. Write a short note on job enrichment.
2. Discuss the Job Characteristics Model.
3. What are the core job dimensions?
1. Give a detailed description of job design and related concepts.
2. Describe the techniques to enhance jobs through redesign as mentioned in
this unit.
3. Elucidate how employee are motivated through empowerment.
London: Pearson.
Self-Instructional
Material 211

Industrial Psychology

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BLOCK I: INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR

BLOCK II: MORALE AND BEHAVIOUR

BLOCK III: LEADERSHIP AND STRESS

BLOCK IV: LIFE AND WORKERS

BLOCK II: MORALE AND BEHAVIOUR

BLOCK III: LEADERSHIP AND STRESS

BLOCK IV: LIFE AND WORKERS

This unit discusses the branch of psychology known as ‘industrial psychology’.

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

Fig. 1.1 An Impact of Individualization on the Organization

The chart illustrated in Figure 1.1 shows as to how individualization affects

Check Your Progress

NOTES The applications of industrial psychology can be elaborated as follows:

1.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Harrell defines industrial psychology as ‘an industrial psychology is the study