Notes in Theories of Crime Causation

THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION (COMPILED BY: MARVIN M. LUMIGAT, MSCRIM.
Ifugao State University

College of Criminal Justice Education
Nayon, Lamut, Ifugao
Notes In
Theories of Crime
Causation
“For IFSU use only”
Compiled by:
MARVIN M. LUMIGAT, MSCrim.

Subject Instructor
THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION (COMPILED BY: MARVIN M. LUMIGAT, MSCRIM. )
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY

1.1. Related Terms
1.2. Philosophy of social norms, ethics, human mind, human behavior, criminal
behavior and victim
1.3. Approaches of Crime
CHAPTER 2. FOUNDATION THEORIES

2.1. Related Terms
2.2. Related Theories
2.3. Notable Theorists
2.4. Key Concepts
2.5. Chapter Review
CHAPTER 3. RATIONAL CHOICE PERSPECTIVES

3.1. Related Terms
3.4. Key Concepts
3.5. Chapter Review
CHAPTER 4. BIOLOGICAL/PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

4.1. Related Terms
4.4. Key Concepts
4.5. Chapter Review
CHAPTER 5. STRUCTURAL PERSPECTIVES

5.1. Related Terms
5.4. Key Concepts
5.5. Chapter Review
CHAPTER 6. PROCESS PERSPECTIVES

6.1. Related Terms
6.4. Key Concepts
6.5. Chapter Review
CHAPTER 7. CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES

7.1. Related Terms
7.4. Key Concepts
7.5. Chapter Review
CHAPTER 8. DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

8.1. Related Terms
8.4. Key Concepts
8.5. Chapter Review
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY
This chapter covers the use of scientific methods to the study of the
nature, extent, cause, and control crimes, related terms, related theories,
key concepts, and chapter activity.
A crime is an illegal act that is punished by a legal authority. A crime

is an act that is harmful to the person who commits the crime as well as to
the society, community, or state. Crime is caused due to various reasons that
may force an individual to commit it to fulfill its needs. There are some theories
of causation of crime that we are going to discuss. First of all, we need to know
how crime has been caused and what are the reasons behind it.
Crime caution is a discouraging and multiplex field. For centuries,

philosophers have reviewed the meaning of the conception of cause as it
regards human behavior. Growingly, research advises that individuals are
unaware of the causes of the other people’s behaviour as well as the causes of
much of their performance. Modern crimes cause models to favour an
interdisciplinary lens that recognizes how different fields complement, rather
than contract with, one another.
Learning Outcomes
The students should be able to:

1. discuss the related terms, social norms, ethics, human mind, human
behavior, criminal behavior, and victim;
2. articulate the different approaches of crime; and
3. analyze and answer the questions/issues comprehensively.
1.1. RELATED TERMS
❖ Theory. Is said to be a set of assumptions, propositions, or accepted

facts that attempts to provide a rational explanation of cause and effect
(causal) relationships among a group of observed phenomenon. In
short, a theory is an idea or set of ideas that is intended to explain facts
or events.
❖ Criminological Theory. Is a proposition/assumption that attempts to

explain criminal behaviour (crime), and behaviours of key actors
(e.g. police, attorneys, prosecutors, judges/magistrates, social welfare
officers, victims/witnesses, accused and etc.,) in the criminal justice
system. Basically, theories about the causes of crime are based on
religion, philosophy, biology, politics, economy, and social forces.
❖ Theoretical Elaboration. The act of making one’s home or business

crime proof.
❖ Theoretical Integration. Refers to the efforts to come up with grand,

overarching theories which apply to all types of crime and deviance.
❖ Theoretical Specification. Efforts to figure out the details of a theory,

how the variables work together; usually associated with a belief that
many, competing theories are better than integrated efforts.
❖ Theory Building. Efforts to come up with formal, systematic, logical,

and mathematical ways in which theories are constructed.
❖ Theory Construction. An informed, creative endeavor which connects

something known with something unknown; usually in a measureable
way.
❖ Theories of Criminal and Deviant Behavior. Theories in this category

attempt to explain why an individual commits criminal or delinquent
acts.
❖ Theories of Law and Criminal Justice. Theories in this category

attempt to explain how laws are made, and how the criminal justice
system operates as a whole.
❖ Tautology. Circular reasoning. If a theory states that greed causes

people to commit crime, and then says we know Jon is greedy because
he committed a crime, it becomes impossible to subject the theory to
the scientific process. In this case, you would find that greed has been
defined as someone who commit criminal acts. The circle of the
reasoning never stops.
❖ Empirical Validity. This is the most important factors in evaluating a

theory, and means that the theory has been supported by research
evidence.
❖ Ideology. A belief system and a set of core values or philosophy. In a

pure sense, an ideology states or explains how things should be, and a
theory explains how things actually are.
❖ Internal Logical Consistency. A theory needs to be presented in a

logical manner and to have clearly stated propositions that agree with
or do not contradict one another.
❖ Macro. Macro theories of criminal behavior explain the “big picture” of

crime-crime across the world or across a society. They attempt to
answer why there are variations in group rates of crime. Other authors
have used the terms “epidemiology” or social structural theories.
❖ Micro. Micro theories of criminal behavior focus on small group of

offenders or on an individual crime. They attempt to answer why some
individuals are more likely than others to commit crime. Other authors
have used the term “individual conduct” or processual theories.
❖ Parsimony. This refers to how many propositions, steps, or statements

are involved.
❖ Policy Implications. If the theory is empirically valid, what solutions

are suggested.
❖ Scope. Refers to how much or how many types of crime or deviance the
theory cover.
❖ Usefulness. This refers to the real-world applications that the theory

proposes or suggests, and the ability to implement those applications.
❖ Victimless Crimes. Refer to those crimes in which no clear victim is

readily identifiable. In other world, the only injured party is the
offender, who engages in self-destruction behavior. These crimes are
also called moral offenses or vices.
1.2. PHILOSOPHY OF SOCIAL NORMS, ETHICS, HUMAN MIND, HUMAN

BEHAVIOR, CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR AND VICTIM
What is Social Norms?
According to https: www.simplypsychology org.com/Social Norms are

the unwritten rules of belief, attitudes, and behaviors that are considered
acceptable in a particular social group or culture. Norms provide us with an
expected idea of how to behave, and function to provide order and
predictability in society. Norms provide order in society.
What are the Types of Social Norms?
According to https:www.oxfordbibliographies.com/Type of Social

Norms are the folkways, mores, taboos, and laws.
What is Ethics?
According to https:www.britanics.com/Ethics may refer to the

philosophical study of the concepts of moral right and wrong and moral good
and bad, to any philosophical theory of what is morally right and wrong or
morally good or bad, and to any system or code of moral rules, principles or
values.
What is Ethics and Importance of Ethics?
According to https:www.edu.com/Ethics are the principles that guide

us to make a positive impact through our decisions and actions.
The Human Mind
The assumption is that humans are logical beings that make the
choices that make the most sense to them. “Information Processing” is
commonly used description of the mental process, comparing the human
mind to a computer.
Four Types of Personality Traits
1. Emotional Stability – Refers to the extent to which people have control

over their feelings.
2. Introversion – It is the tendency of some individuals to be shy and

focus their attention for themselves.
3. Extroversion – Is the tendency to some individuals to be friendly and

open to the world.
4. Psychotism – Referred as tough mindedness; it measures the extent to

which people isolate themselves from other people.
The Human Behavior
According to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behavior is the

population of behaviors exhibited by humans and influenced by culture,
attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion,
coercion and/or genetics.
It refers to the products of the mind.
Factors Affecting Human Behavior
1. Genetics- That man biologically inherit his/her behavior.

2. Attitude- The degree to which the person has a favorable or
unfavorable evaluation of the behavior in question.
3. Social Norms (Environmental Factors) - The influence of social
pressure that is perceived by the individual (normative beliefs) to
perform or not perform a certain behavior.
4. Perceived Behavior Control- The individual’s beliefs concerning
how easy or difficult performing the behavior will be.
The Criminal Behavior
According to Lud-ayen, C.G.K (2006), Criminal Behavior refers to

antisocial acts that place the actor at risk of becoming a focus of the attention
of criminal and juvenile justice professionals.
Refers to acts that are injurious, prohibited under the law and that
render the actor subject to intervention by justice professionals.
Legal Definition of Criminal Behavior
Criminal behavior refers to action that is prohibited by the state and

punish under the law.
Moral Definition of Criminal Behavior
Criminal behavior refers to action that may be rewarding to the actor

but that inflicts pain or one loss others. That is, Criminal behavior is anti-
social behavior.
Anatomy of Crime
1. Motive. It refers to the cause or reason why person perpetuate a crime.

2. Instrumentality. The means or implement used in the commission of

a crime.
3. Opportunity. Consist of acts of omission or commission by a person.

Breeding Grounds of Crime
Two elements in the environment that impinge on crime:
1. Exogenous Variable. Beyond the control of mans like calamities.
2. Indigenous Variable. The factors or elements in the environment that

can be changed or influenced by man (this serves as the breeding
ground of crime).
Measuring Characteristics of Criminal

1. Age and Crime
2. Social Class and Crime
3. Gender and Crime
4. Race and Crime
The Victim
The concept of victim dates back to ancient cultures and civilizations,

such as the ancient Hebrews. Its original meaning was rooted in the idea of
sacrifices or scapegoat – the execution or casting out of a person or animal to
satisfy a deity or hierarchy. Over the centuries, the world victim came to have
additional meanings. During the founding of victimology in the 1940s,
victimologists such as Mendelson, Von Hentig, and Wolfgang tended to use
textbook or dictionary definitions of victims as hapless dupes who instigated
their own victimizations. This notion of “victim precipitation” was vigorously
attacked by feminists in the 1908s, and was replaced by the notion of victims
as anyone caught up in an asymmetric relationship or situation. Over the
years, ideas about victim precipitation have come to be perceived as a negative
thing; “victim blaming” it is called. Research into ways in which victims
“contribute” to their own victimization is considered by victims and victim
advocates as both unacceptable and destructive.
Today, the concept of victim includes any person who experiences

injury, loss, or hardship due to any cause. Also today, the world victim is used
rather indiscriminately; e.g., cancer victims, holocaust victims, accident
victims, and other. The thing that all these usages have in common is an image
of someone who has suffered injury and harm by forces beyond his or her
control.
The Study of Victimology
Before we can understand victimology, we need to appreciate that it is

a fairly new subfield or area of specialization within criminology. Criminology
is a rather broad field of study that encompasses the study of law making, law
breaking, and societal reactions to law breaking. Victimology, much like
criminal justice, falls into the third of these areas. Victimology doesn’t have
any subfields within itself; in fact, there are few theories, and little or no
schools of thought. Going back to criminology, there are four subfields:
penology (and the sociology of law); delinquency (sometimes referred to as
psychological criminology); comparative (and historical) criminology; and
victimology.
Andew Karmen, who wrote a text on entitled Crime Victims: An

Introduction to Victimology in 1990, broadly defined victimology:
Victimology is the scientific study of victimization, including the

relationships between victims and offenders, the interactions between victims
and the criminal justice system – that is, the police and coirts, and corrections
officials – and the connections between victims and other societal groups and
institutions, such as the media, businesses, and social; movements.
From this definition, we can see that victimology encompasses the study of:
• Victimization
• Victim-offender relationship
• Victim-criminal justice system relationship
• Victims and the media
• Victims and the cost of crime
• Victims and social movements.
Victimologists often use surveys of large numbers of people about the

crimes that have been committed against them because official police
statistics are known to be incomplete.
Victimology in its most simple form is the study of the victim or victims of
a particular offender. It is defined as "the thorough study and analysis of
victim characteristics" (Turvey), and may also be called "victim profiling"
(Holmes).
The reason a good victimology is important is that the victim

constitutes roughly half of the criminal offence, and as such, is as much a
part of the crime as the crime scene, weapons, and eyewitnesses. This is
especially true when we are presented with a live victim, as this was the last
person to witness the crime, and may be able to provide the best behavioral
and physical description of the offender.
Apart from the above considerations, the victim's background may

provide us with important information about past activities or lifestyle,
possibly leading directly to the generation of a suspect. The victim has
traditionally been neglected in police investigations, and when a profile is
requested, the victim information is often missing from the police reports. This
should not be taken to mean that no police services use victim information,
rather, until recently many have neglected to consider the victim's past as
important. Often, the best way to approach a profile is through the victimology
(Ressler), and is one of the most beneficial tools in classifying and solving a
violent crime (Douglas).
In a perfect world, the following information should be available for the

profilers on the victim before they begin to work the case (Turvey, Holmes):
• Physical traits
• Marital status
• Personal lifestyle
• Occupation
• Education
• Medical history
• Criminal justice system history
• Last known activities, including a timeline of events
• Personal diaries (if known and available)
• Map of travel prior to offence
• Drug and alcohol history
• Friends and enemies
• Family background
• Employment history
The above list is not "exhaustive" in that it does not provide a total and
absolute checklist of those things that should be included in the victimology.
It is a rough guide only and each case, with a unique perpetrator and victim,
will require its own unique victimology.
There are some important questions that should accompany any study
of the victim, and these will hopefully lead not only to some answers, but also
to more questions which should also be addressed. Again, this list is not
complete, but should give the reader an idea about what to look for and ask
of the crime:
• Why was this particular person targeted?

• How was the person targeted, or was the person a victim of
opportunity?
• What are the chances of the person becoming a victim at random (and
therefore opportunistic)?
• What risk did the offender take to commit the crime?
• How was the victim approached, restrained and/or attacked?
• What was the victim's likely reaction to the attack?
The answers to these questions will provide some ideas about the
offender's motive and MO, and possibly his signature. From this, other
examinations can be made about the offender's likely background including
his knowledge of forensic and police procedures, his possible occupation, his
physical characteristics and social skills. Where possible, inferences made by
the profiler about the offender should be checked off against other inputs such
as eyewitness accounts and the information available from the crime scene. If
the information "fits," it is more probable that the conclusions are correct. If
it does not "fit," then further support should be sought, or other possibilities
explored.
1.3. APPROACHES OF CRIME
In general, the approaches in the study of crime are:

1) Subjective Approaches
It deals mainly on the biological explanation of crimes, focused on the

forms of abnormalities that exist in the individual criminal before,
during and after the commission of the crime (Tradio, 1999). Included
under this approach are:
a) Anthropological Approach – the study of the physical

characteristics of an individual offender with non-offenders in the
attempt to discover differences covering criminal behavior (Hooton).
b) Medical Approach – the application of medical examinations on

the individual criminal explain the mental and physical condition of
the individual prior and after the commission of the crime
(Positivist).
c) Biological Approach – the evaluation of genetic influences to

criminal behavior. It is noted the heredity is one force pushing the
criminal to crime (Positivist).
d) Physiological Approach – the study on the nature of human being

concerning his physical needs in order to satisfy his wants. It
explains that the deprivation of the physical body on the basic needs
is an important determiner of the commission of crime (Abraham
Maslows).
e) Psychological Approach – it is concerned about the deprivation of

the psychological needs of man, which constitute the development
of deviations of normal behavior resulting to unpleasant emotions
(Freud, Maslows).
f) Psychiatric Approach – the explanation of crime through

diagnosis of mental diseases as a cause of the criminal behavior
(Positivist).
g) Psychoanalytical Approach – the explanation of crimes based on
the Freudan Theory, which traces behavior as the deviation of the
repression of the basis drives (Freud).
2) Objective Approaches
The objective approaches deal on the study of groups, social

processes and institutions as influences to behavior. They are primary
derived from social sciences (Tradio, 1999). Under this are:
a) Geographic Approach – this approach considers topography,

natural resources, geographic location, and climate lead an
individual to commit crime (Quetelet).
b) Ecological Approach – it is concerning with the biotic grouping of

men resulting to migration, competition, social discrimination,
division of labor and social conflict as factors to crime (Park).
c) Economic Approach – it deals with the explanation of crime

concerning financial security of inadequacy and other necessities to
support life as factors to criminality (Merton).
d) Socio – Cultural Approach – those that focus on institutions,
economic, financial, education, political, and religious influences to
crime (Cohen).
3) Contemporary Approaches
Modern days put emphasis on scientific modes of explaining crime

and criminal behavior. This approach is focused on the
psychoanalytical, psychiatric and sociological explanations of crime in
an integrated theory – an explanatory perspective that merges concepts
drawn different sources (Schmalleger, 19997).
1.4. CHAPTER REVIEW
The goal of criminological theory is to help one gain an understanding

of crime and criminal justice. Theories cover the making and the breaking of
the law, criminal and deviant behavior, as well as patterns of criminal activity.
Individual theories may be either macro or micro.
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
Essay
Instruction:
 Strictly observe safety health protocols.
 Group yourselves into per municipality or barangay and articulate the
different theories per chapter.
 Collate all individual answers and discuss in the group.
 Submit the comprehend group answer through google forms (GC and
FB) or hardcopy on the prescribed period.
 Please do not include the name of student who has no contribution.
 Use the rubrics matrix below as your guide.
Organization
(5 points)
Uses an entirely Organizes ideas to Organizes ideas to Some organization Some organization
appropriate build an argument build an argument of ideas to build of ideas to build
languages style though logical though logical on argument on argument
for a formal essay. structure and structure and through logical through logical
No error in logical flow of logical flow of structure. Three structure. Four
punctuations, ideas. One error in ideas. Two errors errors in errors in
grammar, and punctuations, in punctuations, punctuations, punctuations,
spelling appear in grammar, and grammar, and grammar, and grammar, and
the essay. spelling appear in spelling appear in spelling appear in spelling appear in
(5 pts.) the essay. the essay. the essay. the essay.
(4 pts.) (3 pts.) (2 pt.) (1 pt.)
Remembering What You Learned
1. If any given theory were able to explain 30 percent of all the crimes
committed, would you consider that theory to be successful? Why or
why not?
2. If you were a warden/wardress at a state prison, how effective must a

theory of rehabilitation be before you would implement it in your
institution? Policy application of Theory A has yielded modest results
in preventing crime which low costs to implement. Policy application of
Theory B has yielded a high success rate preventing crime with very
high cost to implement. Which theory would you prefer and why?
3. Before you began reading this instructional material, what was your
personal theory of crime causation? Which of the theories introduced
in this chapter came closest to your personal view?
4. Many disciplines factor into criminological theories, such as

psychology, sociology, biology, political science, and criminal justice.
Do you feel that the integration of all of these disciplines holds the best
chance for explaining the most crime, or should the disciplines remain
pure?
Chapter 2
FOUNDATION THEORIES
This chapter covers the related terms, related theories, key concepts,
notable individual, chapter review, and chapter activity.
Learning Outcomes:

1. identify the elements of a theory and its components to be valid and
scientific;
2. discuss the different supernatural theories of crime;
3. identify the theories of crime according to their perspective and
philosophy;
4. discourse the historical context of the different theories of crime
causation;
5. research and analyze offenders case history; and
2.1. RELATED TERMS
o Acute Conformists. One of three types of individuals coined by

Pogarsky. These individuals comply with the law because it is the right
thing to do.
o Deterrable Offender. One of the three types of individuals coined by

Pogarsky. This is the only group that may be deterred by threat of
sanctions.
o Incorrigible Offenders. One of the three types of individuals coined by

Pogarsky. These people are so committed to criminal activity that they
cannot be deterred.
o Classical Criminology. A school of thought based upon utilitarian

notions of free will and the greatest good for the greatest number. At its
core, classical criminology refers to a belief that a crime committed after
an individual weighs the pros and cons. The decision to commit a crime
is a rational decision, and is best countered through a deterrence-based
system.
o Expected Utility Principle. Economic theory which states that people

will act in a manner that increases their benefits and reduces their
losses. This ties in closely with classical criminology and, by definition,
rational choice theory, where people seek to increase their pleasure and
reduce their pain.
o Free Will. The belief that humans are rational, and have the ability to
make decisions according to each individual’s own will and purposes.
Under this perspective, people can understand the difference between
right and wrong, and can choose to commit criminal acts or to follow
the law. In latter chapters, this view will be contrasted with views that
crime is a result of biological, psychological, or social forces beyond an
individual’s control.
o Proportionality. Punishment should fit the crime without regard to

individual differences.
o Retribution. Making the punishment fit the crime. Also referred to as

“an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.”
o Scared Straight. This program began in the 1970s with the belief that
making young offenders or potential offenders to a prison environment,
and exposing them to the realities of prison life, could prove beneficial
in reducing delinquency. Like boot camps, however, Scared Straight did
not produce the expected results.
o Shock Incarceration. This approach generally uses a combination of

a brief prison sentence followed by probation. The hope is that a brief
exposure to the realities of incarceration will deter the offender from
further criminality.
o Thoughtfully Reflective Decision Making (TDRM). This term

describes a process of good decision making where all the relevant
information is collected and analyzed, and possible solutions and
alternative solutions are thought about. Reflection on what went right
and wrong is also part of the process.
o Boot Camps. Programs used in place of incarceration, and based upon

a military model of discipline and order. These programs are designed
to have a deterrent effect on young offenders, but they have generally
failed to yield long-term reductions in recidivism.
2.2. RELATED THEORIES
❖ Demonological Theory
Before the development of more scientific theories of criminal

behavior, one of the most popular explanations was Demonology
(Hagan, 1990).
According to this explanation, individuals were thought to be

possessed by good or evil spirits, which caused good or evil behavior.
The theory maintains that criminal behavior was believed to be the
result of evil spirits and demons something of natural force that
controls his/her behavior. Centuries ago, guilt and innocence were
established by a variety of procedures that presumably called forth the
supernatural allies of the accused. The accused were innocent if they
could survive an ordeal, or if miraculous signs appeared. They were
guilty if they died at stake, or if omens were associated with them
(Bartol, 1995). Harsh punishments were also given.
❖ Classical Theory
The origins of Classical theory of crime can be found in the

works of Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham. Cesare Beccaria was
an Italian criminologist and Jeremy Bentham was from England.
The basic concept underlying this theory was:
• Humans did not act according to God’s will or under the

influence of any other supernatural power. They acted as per
their own free will.
• They acted after having judged the rewards and punishments.
• Any individual has the ability to calculate the outcome of his
own actions and can consider the pleasure and pain to result
from his activities.
• Every person can judge his gains and losses before trying to act
in a specific manner. Based on his judgment, a person can
avoid the acts that he thinks would result in a loss.
Major Principles of the Classical School:
1. Human being are fundamentally rational, and most human

behavior is the result of freewill coupled with rational choice.
2. Pain and pleasure are two central determinants of human

behavior.
3. Punishment is sometimes required to deter law violators and to

serves as an example to others who would also violate the law.
4. Deterrence is based upon the notion that human being are

hedonist who seeks pleasure and avoid pain, and weighing up
the cost and benefits of the consequence of each action, thus it
ignores the possibility of irrationality and unconscious drives as
motivation.
5. Punishment can deter people from committing crime, as the cost

outweighs the benefits, and that severity of punishment should
be proportionate to the crime.
6. The swifter and certain the punishment, the more effective it is

in deterring criminal behavior.
7. Root principles of right and wrong are inherent in the nature of

things and cannot be denied.
8. Society exist to provide benefits to individuals which they would

not receive in isolation.
9. When men and women bond together for the protection offered
by society, they forfeit some of the benefits which accrue living
in isolation.
10. Certain key rights of individuals are inherent in the nature of

things, and
11. Crime disparages the quality of the bind that exist between
individuals and society, and is therefore an immoral of behavior.
Members of the Classical School:
1. CESARE BECCARIA – Italian jurist Cesare Bonesana, Marchese di Ceccaria

published Tratto dei delitti e delle pene (1764: translated as “Essay on
Crime and Punishment”, 1880, 1880). In this work, Beccaria pointed the
following:
• He criticized the use of torture and secret judicial proceedings and

advocated abolition of the death penalty.
• He also argued that the (certainly) conviction – rather than the severity-
of punishment was a more effective deterrent to crime.
• He also argued that penalties imposed for criminal offenses should be
in proportion to the seriousness of the offense.
• Punishment should be “swift and certain:
According to Beccaria, the crime problem could be traced not to bad people
but to bad laws based on the assumption of free will. He proposed the following
principles:
• Laws should be used to maintain the social contract (laws are the
condition under which men united themselves in society).
• Only legislators should create laws.
• Judges should impose punishment on in accordance with law.
• Punishment should be based on the pleasure-pain principle-equal
punishment should not be ordained in different crimes.
• The punishment should be determined by the crime.
• Punishment should be based on the act, not on the actor.
• Punishment should be without delay and effective.
• All people should be treated equally.
• Capital punishment should be applied only to serious crimes against
the state.
• The use of torture to gain confession should be abolished.
• It is better to prevent crime than to punish them.
2. JEREMY BENTHAM – He proposed the systematic codification

(arrangement) of criminal law. Bentham urged lawmakers to base crimes
and punishment on the principles of utility-that is, the greatest well for the
greatest number.
• He attacked the excessive severity of punishment prescribed in the

criminal law. Many of Bentham’s ideas were introduced as legislation
into the British Parliament, and his efforts laid the groundwork for
substantial legal reform in the next generation.
3. VOLTAIRE AND ROUSSEAU – advocated free will, hedonistic decision

making, and the failure of the social contract in producing criminal
behavior. Rousseau stated that man was basically good and was guided
by his power to reason, but he has instincts that could be destructive,
while Voltaire assumed that good example by a just ruler would be imitated
by those below him.
4. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS – stated that man by nature seeks to perform good
acts. Crime take place when man’s power to reason failed.
5. ST. AUGUSTINE – man is basically corrupt and surrenders to the devil,

the result is crime.
6. PLATO – stated that law could reduce crime causing conditions in society.
7. ARISTOTLE – he stresses the ability of law to improve social conditions,

the contribution of rights, and the requisites for strict obedience to the
state.
8. THOMAS HOBES – stated that man has the ability to reason. Man has
also the desire for power, he constantly craves for prestige and position.
9. JOHN LOCKE – he stressed the importance of law being based upon

agreement, not a blind pledge between subjects and the government.
The Six (6) Principles to Classical Approach to Crime:
1. All people are by their nature self-seeking and therefore liable to commit
crime.
2. In order to live in harmony and avoid a war of all against all people
agree to give up certain freedom in order to be protected by a strong
central state.
3. Punishment is necessary to deter crime and the state has the right to
administer it.
4. Punishment should fit the crime and not to be used to rehabilitate the
offender.
5. Use of the law should be limited and the due process rights should be
observed.
6. Each individual is responsible for his or her actions and thus mitigating
circumstances.
❖ Neo-Classical Theory
This theory accepted the fact that crime is committed in

accordance with the free will of man but the act of committing a crime
is modified by some causes that finally prevail upon the person to
commit crimes. These causes are: pathology, incompetence, and
insanity or any condition that will make it possible for the person to
exercise the free will entirely.
The neo-classical school was founded by social scientists that

there are situation or circumstances that made it impossible to exercise
freewill are reasons to exempt the accused from conviction.
This school of thought maintains that while the classical

doctrine is correct in general, some of its detail should be modified.
Modifications that neo-classicists integrated in the classical doctrine
were:
o That children and lunatics should not be regarded as criminals

and free from punishment.
o Punishment must consider some mitigating circumstances.
❖ Positivist Theory
The school that composed of Italians who agreed that in the

study of crime the emphasis should be on scientific treatment of the
criminal, not on the penalties to be imposed after conviction.
It maintained that crime as any other act is a natural

phenomenon and is comparable to disaster or calamity. That crime as
a social and moral phenomenon which cannot be treated and checked
by the imposition of punishment but rather rehabilitation or the
enforcement of individual measures.
Members and their contributions:
1. CESARE LOMBROSO
• He was referred to as the FATHER OF MODERM CRIMINOLOGY,

and considered as the founder of Criminal Anthropology.
• Lombroso’s part of his study is the theory of “born criminal”, which

states that criminals are lower forms of life, nearer to their ape like
ancestors than the non-criminals, in character and disposition.
• Lombroso maintained that this born criminal be identified by the

possession of certain visible stigmata – for example, asymmetry of
the face, or head, large monkey like ears, receding chin, and others.
• Lombroso in his extensive study of criminals has discovered certain

definite relationship between the physical structure and the mental
make-up of a man. According to Lombroso, not only there is a
definite type, physical features and mental traits and of a criminal
but each category of criminal has his unique type.
• He identified a large number of atavistic traits, which, he claims

could lead to crime. Among them were long arms, large lips, crooked
noses, and abnormally large amount of body hair, prominent
cheekbones, and eyes of different colors, and ears which lacked
clearly defined lobes.
Classification of Criminals by Lombroso
1. Born Criminals/atavism – there are born criminals according to

Lombroso, the belief that criminal behavior is inherited.
2. Criminal by Passion – are individuals who are easily influenced

by great emotions like fit of anger.
3. Insane Criminals – are those who commit crime due to

abnormalities or psychological disorders. They should be
exempted from criminal liability.
4. Criminoloid – a person who commit crime due to less physical

stamina/self-control.
5. Occasional Criminals – whose who commit crime due to

insignificant reasons that pushed at a given occasion.
6. Epileptoid Criminals – those suffering from mild disorder.
7. Habitual Criminals – career offender.
8. Pseudo-criminals – those who kill in self-defense.
Stigmata Related to an Atavistic Criminal:
• Deviation in head size and shape from type common race and region
from which the criminal came.
• Asymmetry of the face.
• Eye defects and peculiarities.
• Excessive dimensions of the jaw and cheek bones.
• Ears of unusual size, or occasionally very small, or standing out from
the head as to those of chimpanzee.
• Nose twisted, upturned, or flattened in thieves, or aquiline or breaks
like in murderers, or with a tip rising like a peak from swollen nostrils.
• Lips fleshy, swollen and protruding.
• Pouch in the cheek like those in some animals.
• Preceding chin, or excessively ling, or short and flat, as in apes.
• Abnormal definition.
• Abundance, variety of wrinkles.
• Anomalies of the hair, marked by characteristics of the opposite sex.
• Defects on the thorax, such as too many or too few ribs, or
supernumerary nipples.
• Excessive length of arms.
• Supernumerary fingers and toes.
• Imbalance of the hemisphere of the brain.
CESARE LOMBROSO and His Theory in Criminology
Cesare Lombroso is extremely important in the history of criminology.

His theory on the classification of criminals was the main tool people used to
profile them for a long time. Some of his ideas are actually still being
discussed.
Cesare Lombroso was a doctor and anthropologist. Some people

consider him to be the father of criminology. His book “Criminal Man”,
according to the classification of Ceasreb Lombroso is considered the first
systematic list of criminal profiles. Alongside, Enrico Ferri and Raffaelle
Garofalo, he was a major proponent of positivist criminology. Lombroso was
heavily influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution. He even theorized that
criminals were the “missing link” between primates and modern man.
His theory on criminals and how to classify them is still his most well-
known. He said there were “born criminals,” “criminaloids” (occasional
criminals), moral imbeciles, criminal by passion, and criminal epileptics.
Cesare Lombroso and His Criminal Classifications
Born criminals
Lombroso believed that you could tell if someone was a criminal by

looking at their physical characteristics. To him, criminals were mentally and
physically inferior in a way that was visible to the naked eye.
His physical classification of born criminals included a small skull, a

large eye socket, a sunken forehead, a lump on the lower part of the back of
the head, etc. Psychologically, he said they were insensitive, impulse, and had
no sense of guilt.
Moral imbeciles
Cesare Lombros’s theory states that you’d rarely see a moral imbecile
in a psychiatric facility. You’d be more likely to see them in a prison or brothel.
They’re unfriendly, vain, and selfish.
Like born criminals, they also have a prominent jaw. Their faces were
also asymmetrical, but they were identifiable through behavior, not
appearance. They seem insane, even from early childhood.
Criminal epileptics
Lombroso saw epilepsy as a sign of criminality. According to him,

criminal epileptics are lazy, animal-loving, destructive, and vain. He also said
that they had suicidal tendencies and that, along with moral imbeciles, they
Criminal by passion
Criminals by passion act on impulse and with noble ideas in mind. A

crime of passion motivated by a non-noble impulse would just be a common
crime.
According to Lombroso, these types of criminals don’t have any

outstanding physical characteristics, although they usually ranged from ages
to 20 to 30.
To him, they’re also extremely affectionate and tend to feel extreme guilt
after committing a crime. Many try to commit suicide. Lombroso believed there
were three potential motivations for their crimes: grief, politics, and the
murder of a child.
Occasional criminals
Lastly, Lombroso believed that occasional criminals fell into three (3)
categories: pseudo-criminals, “criminaloids”, and professional criminals.
Pseudo-criminals committed three (3) types of crime:
Involuntary, non-perverse (almost always motivated by necessity), and

in self-defense. Criminaloids commit crimes of circumstances. Professional
criminals behave legally and also commit crimes.
Cesare Lombroso’s criminal classification theory was the standard for

a long time. Some serious issues became clear when people applied the
scientific method to his theory. There were also times were it led to prejudice
and to the idea of “eradicating” criminals.
The Classical and Positivist School Compared
Classical School Positivist School

❖ Legal definition of crime ❖ No to legal definition
❖ Punishment fit the crime ❖ Punishment fit the criminal
❖ Doctrine of free will ❖ Doctrine of determinism
❖ Death penalty allowed ❖ Abolition of death penalty
❖ No empirical research ❖ Inductive method
❖ Definite sentence ❖ Indeterminate sentence
2. ENRICO FERRI
• Ferri agreed with the theory of Lombroso, however he more focused

more on social, economic and political factors as the causes of crime.
• His greatest contribution was his attack on the classical doctrine of the
free will theory, which argues that criminals should be held morally
responsible for their crimes because they must have made a rational
decision to commit criminal acts.
• He believed that criminals could not be held morally responsible for

their crimes because they did not choose to commit crime but, rather,
were driven by the conditions in their lives. He believed that society
needed protection against criminal acts and that it was the purpose of
the criminal law and penal policy to provide that protection.
• Ferri claimed that strict adherence to preventive measures based on

scientific methods would eventually reduce crime and allow people to
live together in society with less dependence on the penal system.
• Ferri also proposed a more elaborate classification of criminal types,

including:
- the born or instinctive criminal,
- the insane criminal,
- the passionate criminal,
- the involuntary criminal,
- the occasional criminal, and
- the habitual criminal.
3. RAFAELLE GAROFALO (1852-1934)
• He is another follower of Lombroso, just like Lombroso and Ferri, he

also rejected the idea of free will and he emphasized that the only way
in understanding crime is by scientific study.
• Garofalo traced the roots of criminal behavior not to physical features

but to their psychological equipment, which he called “moral
anomalies”. According to this theory, natural crimes are found in all
human associates, regardless of the views of lawmakers, and no
civilized society can afford to disregard them.
• Natural crimes, according to Garofalo, are those that offend the basic
sentiments of probity (respect for the property of others) and piety
(avoidance against the infliction of suffering on others).
• Garofalo also suggested that other forms of penalty such as

transportation to Remote Island, loss of privileges, institutionalization
to farm colonies or simply reparation could be imposed for less serious
offense.
• He’s law of adoption followed the biological principle of Charles Darwin
in terms of adoption and the elimination of those unable to adopt in a
kind of social natural selection.
• Garofalo classifications of criminals are as follows:

- Murderers – those who are satisfied from vengeance/revenge.
- Violent Criminals – those who commit very serious crimes.
- Deficient Criminals – those who commit crime against property.
- Lascivious Criminals – those who commit crime against chastity.
2.3. NOTABLE THEORISTS
➢ Aristotle: He stresses the ability of law to improve social conditions,

the distribution of rights, and the requites for strict obedience to the
state.
➢ Beccaria, Cesare: (1738-1794) Italian nobleman, prominent in the

eighteenth century, wrote On Crimes and Punishment (1764).
➢ Bentham, Jeremy: (1748-1832) Jurist and philosopher, prominent in

the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, advocated abolishing the
death penalty.
➢ Cesare Lombroso: He was referred to as the FATHER OF MODERM

CRIMINOLOGY, and considered as the founder of Criminal
Anthropology.
➢ Cohen, Lawrence E.: Collaborated with Marcus Felson in developing

the route activities theory.
➢ Enrico Ferri: Who agreed with the theory of Lombroso, however he

more focused more on social, economic and political factors as the
causes of crime.
➢ Felson, Marcus: Collaborated with Lawrence Cohen in developing the

routine activities theory.
➢ John Locke: He stressed the importance of law being based upon

➢ Plato: Stated that law could reduce crime causing conditions in society.
➢ Raffaele Garofalo: (1852-1934) He is another follower of Lombroso,

just like Lombroso and Ferri, he also rejected the idea of free will and
he emphasized that the only way in understanding crime is by scientific
study.
➢ St. Augustine: Advocated that a man is basically corrupt and

surrenders to the evil, the result is crime.
➢ St. Thomas Aquinas: Stated that a man by nature seeks to perform

good acts. Crime takes place when man’s power to reason failed.
➢ Thomas Hobes: Stated that man has the ability to reason. Man has
also desire for power, he constantly craves for prestige and position.
➢ Voltaire and Rousseau: Advocated free will, hedonistic decision

behavior.
2.4. KEY CONCEPTS
1) Classical criminology was designed to provide a rational, logical, and

philosophical alternative to what was often an abusive, cruel,
inhumane, and arbitrary system of justice.
2) The operation of the current justice system relies on the classical

criminology perspective. The Classical School is reflected in both the
Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution.
3) Classical school theories operate from a perspective of choice. The

assumption is that individuals have the ability to make a rational
choice to either follow the law, or to violate it. A system of punishments
is necessary to deter individuals from committing criminal acts.
Committing criminal acts brings a certain amount of pleasure to the
individual. To counteract this pleasure, punishments must be provided
that carry with them enough pain to outweigh the pleasure received by
committing a deviant or criminal act.
4) A classical school approach is attractive to many because it is centered

on choice. People choose to commit criminal acts. This perspective will
be countered in later chapters by theories that rely on biology,
psychology, and the environment, to name just a few. Choice theory is
attractive to politicians because it puts the blame for the crime problem
squarely on the shoulders of the individual, and not on society as a
whole. The theory implies that the criminal needs to take responsibility
and to make better choices.
5) Various programs have been tried around the country using deterrence
and choice as primary elements. Programs such as Scared Straight
have attempted to use fear and deterrence to keep young offenders from
committing additional crimes. Boot camps have attempted to use fear,
discipline, and brief incarceration to keep offenders from committing
additional crimes. These types of programs are controversial, and have
yielded mixed results at best.
6) While deterrence is a factor in preventing individuals from committing

criminal acts, it most likely is not the deciding factor. Most people will
not commit criminal acts because they believe it is wrong to do so, and
because they have been socialized to follow the norms of society.
2.5. CHAPTER REVIEW
Social disorganization theory is a macro approach developed by Shaw

and McKay. Some theorists believe that neighborhoods characterized by
constant change and deterioration are more likely to be crime-ridden because
they are less likely to be successful in controlling the behavior of their
residents. Crime rates in inner-city urban areas remain high over time, and
the belief is that the structure of the city is in part responsible. Other theorists
have looked at the concentration of unemployment, welfare, community
engagement, political activity, and volunteer work as a gauge of the relative
health of the community.
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
Essay
Instruction:
 Research and discuss the Christine Dacera case.
Organization
(5 points)
(4 pts.) (3 pts.) (2 pt.) (1 pt.)
1. Explain the evolution of classical school criminology from Beccaria,

through Deterrence Theory, Routine Activity Theory, and Rational
choice theory. What modifications have been made along the way.
2. Certainty, severity, and celerity are the key elements of deterrence

theory. What makes certainty so important? Could we not reduce crime
by making the punishment so severe that a “rational” individual would
be scared to death to commit criminal acts? Why?
3. Programs such as Scared Straight and Booth Camps are controversial,

and may not yield long-term reductions in recidivism. They are,
however, cheap and easy to operate. In this case, should cost
considerations and the fact that these programs may help a few
individuals justify the continuation of these program? Why or why not?
4. Routine activity theories look at people, both offenders and victims, and
their routines. As a result, some of the blame in a criminal incident may
be placed on the victim. Is that fair? Is a victim ever responsible, or
partly responsible, for his or her own victimization?
5. Classical school criminology relies heavily on the concepts of free will.

How can one ever demonstrate empirically the existence of a free will?
6. As a criminology student, discuss exhaustively your views on the

Christine Decera case using Classical Theory as crime causation and
victimology.
Chapter 3
RATIONAL CHOICE PERSPECTIVE
Learning Outcomes:

1. identify the elements of a theory and its components to be valid and
scientific;
philosophy;
causation; and
3.1. RELATED TERMS
o Absolute Deterrence. This refers to the amount of crime that has been
prevented simply due to the fact that a formal system is in place so that
an individual could be legally punished for committing a criminal act.
o General Deterrence. General deterrence is the doctrine that a

community or a society of people can be deterred from committing a
criminal act after having witnessed the punishment of an individual or
individuals for having committed that act.
o Specific Deterrence. This style of deterrence is used with a specific

offender in mind. The belief is that if an individual is punished for a
criminal act, then that individual will be less likely to violate the law in
the future.
o Perceptual Deterrence. This concept applies to an individual offender,

and refers to what he or she believes the likelihood of arrest to be, and
how severe he or she believes the punishment for a crime will be if
caught. The perceptions of the individual are often very different from
the actual reality experienced.
o Acute Conformists. One of three types of individuals coined by

Pogarsky. These individuals comply with the law because it is the right
thing to do.
❖ Deterrence Theory
The Deterrence Theory is considered an extension of the

classical approach. The focus of this theory is the link between
punishment and behavior at both individual and group levels.
Deterrence can be of two types. It can be specific or general.

Specific deterrence is aimed at the wrongdoer and tries to deter him
from crime by punishing him. General deterrence is aimed at everyone,
it deters everyone from crime by punishing the criminal and thus
establishing an example.
A caveat should be applied here: punishment is effective if

applied properly, but rarely unfortunately it is applied properly.
Punishment needs to be immediate for a close to the time the offense
as possible, inescapable, and sufficiently unpleasant (in fact, the more
it is subjectively perceived to be harsh, the better).
Elements of Deterrence
1. Celerity. One of the three elements of deterrence. Celerity refers to

how quickly an individual is punished after committing a crime.
2. Certainty. One of the three elements of deterrence. Certainty refers

to how likely it is that an individual will be caught and punished for
a crime that he or she has committed. Certainty is the most
important of the three elements.
3. Severity. One of the three elements of deterrence. Severity refers to

how harsh the punishment for a crime will be. In classical
criminology, it is important to remember that a punishment must
fit the crime. If a punishment is not severe enough, it will not deter
crime. If it is too severe, it is unjust and can lead to more crime.
❖ Routine Activities
In 1979, Cohen and Felson questioned why urban crime rates

increased during the 1960’s, when the factors commonly thought to
cause violent crime, such as poor economic conditions, had generally
improved during this time. Cohen and Felson (1979) suggested that a
crime should be thought of as an event that occurs at a specific location
and time and involves specific people and/or object.
Briefly, it says that crime occurs whenever three conditions come

together:
(1) Suitable targets - and we'll always have suitable targets as

long as we have poverty;
(2) Motivated offenders - and we'll always have motivated

offenders since victimology, unlike deterministic criminology,
assumes anyone will try to get away with something if they can;
and
(3) Absence of guardians - the problem is that there are few

defensible spaces (natural surveillance areas) and in the absence
of private security, the government can't do the job alone.
The lack of any of these three elements, they argued, would be

sufficient to prevent a crime evet from occurring. Drawing from
ecological theories, Cohen and Felson suggested that structural
changes in societal routine activity patterns can influence crime rates
by affecting the likelihood of the convergence in time and place of these
three necessary elements. As the routine activities of people change,
the likelihood of targets converging in time and place with motivated
offenders without guardians also changes. In other words,
opportunities for crime-and, in turn, crime pattern-are a function of the
routine activity patterns in society.
The necessary elements for a crime to occur: Inner elements are:

A motivated offender, a suitable target/victim, place. The outer
elements are the guardians, handlers, and managers, as represented
by the potential controllers.
Controller have been described in greater detail. Felson (1995)

indicated who is most likely to successfully control crime as a guardian,
handler, or manager. He asserted that individuals’ tendency to
discourage crime – by supervising tragets, offenders, orplaces – varies
with degree of responsibility. He described four varying degress of
responsibility:
• Personal, such as owner, family, and friends
• Assigned, such as employees with a specific assigned
responsibility
• Diffuse, such as employee with a general assigned
responsibility
• General, such as strangers and other citizens
Controllers who are more closely associated with potential

offenders, targets, or places, are more likely to successfully take control
and prevent crime. As responsibility moves from personal to general,
the likelihood that crime will be prevented diminishes. For example, a
shop owner will be much more likely to take control and prevent
shoplifting in her store compared with a stranger who infrequently
comes to the store. Residents will be more likely to prevent crime on
their own street block, rather than on the blocks they travel to and from
work.
The characteristics of a suitable target have been expanded and
applied to products that are frequently targeted for theft. Clarke (1999)
extended Cohen and Felson’s (1979) work on large target suitability to
explain the phenomenon of “hot products”. Clarke suggested that
relatively few hot products account for a large proportion of all thefts.
He argues there are six key attributes of hot products that increase the
likelihood that they will be targeted by thieves. Specifically, crime is
concentrated on products that are CRAVED, that is, Concealable,
Removable, Available, Valuable, Enjoyable, and Disposable (Clarke,
1999).
❖ Situational Crime Prevention
Crime prevention has been defined as “the use of measures directed at

highly specific forms of crime, which involve the management, design or
manipulation of the immediate environment in as systematic and

permanent a way as possible” (Clarke & Hough:1980).
It is sometimes referred to as “primary prevention” or opportunity

reduction” and it seems most relevant to offenses which cluster in time or
space, and are high rate, creating crime “hot spots”.
This theory seeks to develop ways of making crime “more difficult”, and
or making people more aware of opportunistic crime, say through
advertising campaigns, and of how physical environment encourages or
deters crime Situational.
Situational crime prevention has four (4) components:

1. A theoretical foundation drawing upon routine activity and rational
decisions,
2. A standard methodology based on the action research paradigm,
3. A set of opportunity-reducing techniques or target hardening, and
4. A body of evaluated practice including studies of displacement.
It focuses on reducing crime opportunities rather than on the

characteristics of criminals or potential criminals.
The strategy is to increase the associated risks and difficulties, and

reduce the rewards.
It asserts that crime is often committed through the accident of a practical

or attractive opportunity, e.g. that a car is found unlock or a window left open
and that patterns in criminal activity are not simply based on where criminals
live
❖ Rational Choice Theory
A modern view of the free choice argument is expressed in

rational choice theory. This view of behavior suggests that people
choose to act in accordance with a rational assessment of the costs and
benefits of their behavior (Cornish and Clarke 1986). This motion is
similar to an economic interpretation of behavior, in which acts are
thought to occur in accordance with our economic interest. However,
when this idea of rational, calculating though processes is applied to
juveniles, the logic seems to break down.
❖ Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED). This

refers to a set of practices designed to make potential criminal targets
less attractive. The belief that crime is a rational act is used to make a
potential target less attractive to a criminal, and thus not a “rational”
target.
➢ Aristotle: He stresses the ability of law to improve social conditions,

the distribution of rights, and the requites for strict obedience to the
state.
➢ Beccaria, Cesare: (1738-1794) Italian nobleman, prominent in the

eighteenth century, wrote On Crimes and Punishment (1764).
➢ Bentham, Jeremy: (1748-1832) Jurist and philosopher, prominent in

the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, advocated abolishing the
death penalty.
➢ Cesare Lombroso: He was referred to as the FATHER OF MODERM

CRIMINOLOGY, and considered as the founder of Criminal
Anthropology.
➢ Cohen, Lawrence E.: Collaborated with Marcus Felson in developing

the route activities theory.
➢ Enrico Ferri: Who agreed with the theory of Lombroso, however he

more focused more on social, economic and political factors as the
causes of crime.
➢ Felson, Marcus: Collaborated with Lawrence Cohen in developing the

routine activities theory.
➢ John Locke: He stressed the importance of law being based upon

➢ Plato: Stated that law could reduce crime causing conditions in society.
➢ Raffaele Garofalo: (1852-1934) He is another follower of Lombroso,

just like Lombroso and Ferri, he also rejected the idea of free will and
he emphasized that the only way in understanding crime is by scientific
study.
➢ St. Augustine: Advocated that a man is basically corrupt and

surrenders to the evil, the result is crime.
➢ St. Thomas Aquinas: Stated that a man by nature seeks to perform

good acts. Crime takes place when man’s power to reason failed.
➢ Thomas Hobes: Stated that man has the ability to reason. Man has
also desire for power, he constantly craves for prestige and position.
➢ Voltaire and Rousseau: Advocated free will, hedonistic decision

behavior.
3.4. KEY CONCEPTS
1. Classical criminology was designed to provide a rational, logical, and

philosophical alternative to what was often an abusive, cruel,
inhumane, and arbitrary system of justice.
2. The operation of the current justice system relies on the classical

criminology perspective. The Classical School is reflected in both the
Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution.
3. Classical school theories operate from a perspective of choice. The

assumption is that individuals have the ability to make a rational
choice to either follow the law, or to violate it. A system of punishments
is necessary to deter individuals from committing criminal acts.
Committing criminal acts brings a certain amount of pleasure to the
individual. To counteract this pleasure, punishments must be provided
that carry with them enough pain to outweigh the pleasure received by
committing a deviant or criminal act.
4. A classical school approach is attractive to many because it is centered

on choice. People choose to commit criminal acts. This perspective will
be countered in later chapters by theories that rely on biology,
psychology, and the environment, to name just a few. Choice theory is
attractive to politicians because it puts the blame for the crime problem
squarely on the shoulders of the individual, and not on society as a
whole. The theory implies that the criminal needs to take responsibility
and to make better choices.
5. Various programs have been tried around the country using deterrence
and choice as primary elements. Programs such as Scared Straight
have attempted to use fear and deterrence to keep young offenders from
committing additional crimes. Boot camps have attempted to use fear,
discipline, and brief incarceration to keep offenders from committing
additional crimes. These types of programs are controversial, and have
yielded mixed results at best.
6. While deterrence is a factor in preventing individuals from committing

criminal acts, it most likely is not the deciding factor. Most people will
not commit criminal acts because they believe it is wrong to do so, and
because they have been socialized to follow the norms of society.
3.5. CHAPTER REVIEW
Social disorganization theory is a macro approach developed by Shaw

and McKay. Some theorists believe that neighborhoods characterized by
constant change and deterioration are more likely to be crime-ridden because
they are less likely to be successful in controlling the behavior of their
residents. Crime rates in inner-city urban areas remain high over time, and
the belief is that the structure of the city is in part responsible. Other theorists
have looked at the concentration of unemployment, welfare, community
engagement, political activity, and volunteer work as a gauge of the relative
health of the community.
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
Essay
Instruction:
Organization
(5 points)
(4 pts.) (3 pts.) (2 pt.) (1 pt.)
1. Explain the evolution of Deterrence Theory, Routine Activity Theory,

and Rational choice theory. What modifications have been made along
the way.
2. Certainty, severity, and celerity are the key elements of deterrence

theory. What makes certainty so important? Could we not reduce crime
by making the punishment so severe that a “rational” individual would
be scared to death to commit criminal acts? Why?
3. Routine activity theories look at people, both offenders and victims, and
their routines. As a result, some of the blame in a criminal incident may
be placed on the victim. Is that fair? Is a victim ever responsible, or
partly responsible, for his or her own victimization?
Chapter 4
BIOLOGICAL/PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Learning Outcomes:

philosophy;
causation;
4.1. RELATED TERMS
o Adoption Studies. Studies that have been done with children reared
by biological parents compared to their siblings or twins reared by
adoptive parents in an attempt to demonstrate a genetic link to criminal
behavior. Results have been mixed.
o Atavism. Part of the theory developed by Lombroso in which a person

is a “born criminal.” Atavistic or primitive man is a throwback to an
earlier stage of human evolution, and will commit crimes against
society unless specifically restrained from doing so.
o Autonomic Nervous System (ANS). Medrick’s theory that individuals

who inherit a slower than normal autonomic nervous system learn to
control aggressive or antisocial behavior slowly or not at all. This leads
to increased violence and criminal activity.
o Behavioral Genetics. This covers a range of theories in which a

combination of genetics and the environment influences behavior.
o Born Criminal. One of three criminal types by Lombroso. This type of

criminal is the most dangerous, and can be identified through his or
her stigma or identifying characteristics.
o Casualty. A concept more applicable to the hard sciences. Does the

appearance of X cause effect Y? In a perfect relationship, the
appearance of X would always cause the effect Y each and every time
the relationship is seen.
o Concordance. This examines the degree to which criminal or law-

abiding behavior of siblings, identical twins, or fraternal twins is similar
to one another.
o Criminaloid. One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. The

criminaloid is motivated by passion, and will commit criminal acts
under the proper circumstances.
o Insane Criminal. One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso.

The insane criminal type includes idiots, imbeciles, epileptics, and the
mentally unstable. These criminals are unable to control their actions;
however, they do not possess the stigma or identifying characteristics
of the born criminal.
o Mental Functioning and Delinquency. A neurophysiology approach

that believed that delinquents were feebleminded or had some form of
a learning disability. This approach has also been used to look for a
relationship between IQ and crime. Additionally, aspects of mental
functioning, verbal ability, and mental flexibility have been examined.
o Necessary Conditions. This means that X must be present to produce

effect Y. If X is not present, Y will not occur.
o Probabilistic Casualty. A concept more applicable to the social

sciences. X is more or less likely to cause Y. Restated, X tends to cause
Y.
o Soft Determinism. The view that human behavior is not wholly

caused, determined, or predictable by any set of biological,
psychological, or sociological forces but that these interact with
exercise of choice and will by individuals. Therefore, explaining or
predicting human behavior is difficult.
o Stigmata. Characteristics claimed by Lombroso that could be used to

identify the “born criminal.” They include things such as extra fingers
or toes, large lips, resending chins, excessive skin wrinkles, and large
monkey-like ears.
o Sufficient Condition. Each time X is present, effect Y will always

occur.
o Testosterone and Criminal Aggressiveness. A biochemistry approach

that looks at the relationship between the male hormone testosterone
and antisocial aggressive behavior.
o Id. One of the three components of Freudian personality development.

The id contains basic instinct and drive, such as the need for food,
water, sex, and pleasure.
o Ego. One of the three components of Freudian personality

development. The ego is referred to as the executive or rational part of
the personality, and it acts to keep the id in check.
o Superego. One of the three components of Freudian personality

development. This part of the personality contains the conscience of the
individual.
o Freudian. This view of behavior focuses on early childhood

development. It claims that criminal activity is the result of a conflict
between the id, ego, and superego, which can be traced back to a
conflict in early childhood.
o Electra Complex. This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage

(around ages 3 to 6) in which a girl develops a desire to possess her
father and hatred and fear of her father.
o Oedipus Complex. This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage

(around 3 to 6) in which a boy develops a desire to possess his mother
and a hatred and fear of his father.
o Psychopathic. A general term referring to a variety of antisocial

personality disorder.
o Psychological Counseling. The process by which an underlying

mental issue can be addressed. The assumptions are that only by
treating an individual who has committed a criminal act as someone

who is sick and in need of treatment can the problem truly be
addressed; punishing the criminal act without addressing the root
mental cause is of little or no value; and counseling is the only way in
which the root mental cause can be dealt with adequately.
o California Psychological Inventory (CPI). A test designed to measure

personality traits such as dominance, tolerance, and sociability.
o Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). A test

designed to use different scales of questions to measure abnormal
personality traits, such as depression, hysteria, paranoia,
psychopathology, and compulsiveness.
o Mental Deficiency - It is a condition of incomplete of the mind existing

before the age of 18, whether arising from inherent causes or induce by
disease or injury.
o Idiots – a classes of mental deficiency which maybe compared to that

of two years old child. These are persons who manifest mental
defectiveness of such degree that they are unable to guard themselves
against common physical dangers.
o Imbeciles – a classes of mental deficiency, persons whose state of mind

is similar to a child 2-7 years of age and whose case there exist mental
defectiveness which through not amounting to idiocy is yet so evident
that they are incapable of managing themselves of their affairs.
o Feeble Minded Person – a classes of mental deficiency, persons whose

state of mind manifest cases where there exists mental defectiveness
which though not amounting to imbecility, requires care, supervision
and control for their own protection.
o Schizophrenia – sometimes called dementia praecox which is a form

of psychosis characterized by thinking disturbance and regression to a
more relatively impaired and intellectual functions are well preserve.
The personal appearance is dilapidated and the patient is liable to
impulsive acts, destructively and may commit suicide.
o Compulsive Neurosis – this is the uncontrollable or irresistible

impulse to do something. There may be an active desire to resist the
irrational behavior but prevented by unconscious motives to act out of
is difficulty or to suffer miserable of his fear.
o Psychopathic Personality – characterize by infantile level of response,

lack of conscience, wanting feeling of affection from others and
aggression to environment and other people.
o Alcoholism – a condition wherein a person is under the influence of

intoxicating liquor or alcohol.
o Drug Addiction – it is a form of vice which causes strong mental

uproar. It is the state of intermittent or chronic intoxication or
consumption of natural or synthetic drugs.
o Psychopathy Checklist (PCL-R). Developed by Hare, this is a tool

comprised of a checklist that is designed to measure the feeling and
relationships of an individual, along with the social deviance of an
individual. This tool is the main one used in the measurement of a
psychopathic personality.
A. Biological Theories
This theory assumes that some people are born criminals who are
psychologically distinct from non-criminals. The most famous proponent
of this approach is Cesare Lombroso.
In the 19th century, Italian prison psychiatrist drew on the ideas of

Charles Darwin and suggested that criminals are atavistic essentially
evolutionary throw backs. He said that their brains are mal-developed or
not fully develop.
A good example of this theory is the ADA JUKE family tree. Ada Juke
is known to anthropologist as the mother of criminals. From her there were
directly descended 1,200 people. Of these 1,000 were criminals, paupers,
inebriates, insane or in the streets.
On the other hand, we have the Jonathan Edwards family tree

composed of 3 vice president, 3 senators, 100 lawyers, 100 pastors, 30
judges, 60 doctors,80 public servants, 75 military officers, 65 college
professors and 13 college presidents.
1. XYY Theory
Human cells normally have 22 pairs of chromosomes, plus a pair

of chromosomes that determines sex, for a total of 46. Sex
chromosomes are termed X and Y. Females carry a combination of XX,
and males carry a combination of XY. During conception, the male’s
sperm carries genetic material to the female’s egg. If the sperm that
fertilizes a female egg is carrying a Y chromosome, the resulting embryo
will develop into a male fetus (XY). If the sperm is carrying an X
chromosome, the resulting embryo will develop into a female fetus (XX).
During this process, however, things can develop abnormally.

For example, during the process, some men are left with an extra Y
chromosome (XYY). Erroneously termed XYY syndrome, a “supermale”
carrying this chromosomal pattern usually has a normal appearance
and will probably never know that he carries an extra Y chromosome,
unless he is genetically tested for some other reason. Given the Y
chromosomes association with the male sex and with increased
production in testosterone, many claims have been made in the
research literature that XYY males are more aggressive and more
violent. This supposition has not been supported with scientifically
valid research.
Scientific progress made injury into genetic correlates of

behavior more precise and less speculative. Although scholars are
reluctant to associate criminal behavior with any specific gene,
researchers continue to investigate the inheritability of behavioral
traits. Some of the most promising work involves the study of twins and
adoptees.
2. Somatotyping (Body Type) Theory
William Herbert Sheldon maintains the belief of inheritance as

the primary determinants of behavior and the physique is reliable
indicator of personality.
Classification of Body Physique
a. Endomorphy – a type with relatively predominance of soft,

rounded throughout the regions of the body. They have low
specific gravity. Persons with typically relaxed and comfortable
disposition.
b. Mesomorphy – athletic type, predominance of muscle, bone and

connective tissue, normally heavy, hard and firm, sting and
tough. They are the people who are routinely active and
aggressive, and they are the most likely to commit crimes.
c. Ectomorphy – thin physique, flat chest, delicacy through the

body, slender, poorly muscled. They tend to look more fatigue
and withdrawn.
3. Biosocial Theories. Theories that examine the combined effects of

biology, behavior, and the environment on criminal behavior.
❖ Biosocial Arousal Theory. This theory states that an individual’s level

of arousal works in conjunction with the social environment. Those
with low levels of arousal are less likely to learn appropriate ways to
deal with aggression and violence and thus are more prone to commit
crime.
❖ General Inferiority Theory
Hooton remains famous for his work in criminology, in which he

used his work in racial classification and applied it to the area of
criminal behavior. Hooton believed in Cesare Lombroso’s theory of
the born criminal, according to which criminals could be identified
based on their physical characteristics. Through his own research
surveying American criminals. Hooton tried to find evidence
supporting Lombroso’s theory, suggesting that criminals have
inferior characteristics into sociological, psychological, physical,
morphological, and pathological areas (see Hooton, 1939). For

example, according to Hooton:
▪ Criminals are less often married and more often divorced
▪ Criminals often have tattoos
▪ Criminals have thinner beards and body hair, and their
hair is more often reddish-brown and straight
▪ Criminals often have blue-gray or mixed colored eyes, and
less often dark or blue eyes
▪ Criminals have low slopping foreheads, high nasal
bridges, and thin lips
▪ Criminal’s ears often have rolled helix and a perceptible
Darwin’s point
Based on these observations, Hooton concluded that the

underlying cause of criminal behavior is to be found in physical
characteristics, that is, physically inferiority. He suggested that human
somatotype (body shape and physiques) can even determine which type
of crime a person will commit: tall-heavy men for first-degree murder;
medium height-heavy for antisocial behavior; short-slender for
burglary and larceny; short-medium heavy for arson; while short-heavy
men for sex offenses. Since be believed that biological predispositions
determine deviant behavior. Hooton advocated removal of criminals
from society, seeing no hope in their rehabilitation.
Hooton’s theories were heavily influenced by eugenic ideas, and

such where harshly criticized. His methodology was seriously
questioned, and his beliefs characterized a racist.
❖ Gene-Based Evolutionary Theory. A general approach that suggest

that the process of natural selection has resulted in criminal genetic
tendencies that are passed down from generation to generation.
❖ Evolution Theory. Darwin’s claimed that humans, like other animals,

are parasite. Man is an organism having an animalistic behavior that
is dependent on other animals for survival. Thus, man kills and steal
to live.
B. Psychological Theories
A general perspective that looks to the psychological functioning,

development, and adjustment of an individual in explaining criminal or
deviant acts. Under this approach, the criminal act itself is important only in
that it highlights an underlying mental issue.
1. Psychoanalytical Theory. A general perspective stating that the

causes of criminal behavior can be found in the mind of the individual.
According to Sigmund Freud in his Psychoanalytical Theory

maintains that:
• Criminal behavior is a form neurosis, that criminality may result
from an over active conscience.
• Crime is the result of the compulsion need for punishment to

alleviate guilt and anxiety.
• Criminal behavior is a means of obtaining gratification of need.
• Criminal conducts represent a displaced hostility. Criminality

is essentially a representation of psychological conflict.
2. Trait Theories
From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/personality_psychology,
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric
Association, personality traits are “enduring patterns of perceiving,
relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself that are
exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contexts”.
General Assumptions of Trait theorists
a. Traits are relatively stable over time.

b. Traits differ among individuals (e.g. some people are outgoing while
others are reserve), and
c. Traits influence behavior.
Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory
He delineated different kinds of traits, which he also called

dispositions.
They are:
a. Central Traits – are basic to an individual personality.
b. Secondary Traits – are more peripheral.
c. Common Traits – are those recognized within a culture and
thus may vary from culture to culture.
d. Cardinal Traits – are those by which an individual may be
strongly recognized.
Hans Eysenck’s Trait Theory
He believed just three traits known as:

a. Extraversion
b. Neuroticism and
c. Psychoticism
Lewis Goldberg’s Trait Theory
He proposed a five-dimension personality model, nickname the “big

five”:
1) Openness to Experience – The tendency to be imaginative,

independent and interested in variety versus practical,
conforming and interested in routine.
2) Conscientiousness – The tendency to be organized, careful,

disciplined vs. disorganized, careless and impulsive.
3) Extraversion – The tendency to be sociable, fun-loving and

affectionate vs. retiring, somber and reserved.
4) Agreeableness – The tendency to be softhearted, trusting

and helpful vs. ruthless, suspicious and uncooperative.
5) Neuroticism – The tendency to be calm, secure and self-

satisfied vs. anxious, insecure and self-pitying.
3. Humanistic Theory
This is part of the field’s “human science” approach to psychology

and involves an emphasis on actual experience of persons.
It emphasizes the potential of human beings for growth, creativity

and spontaneity. They stress the uniqueness of individual and his or her
freedom to make choices.
4. Behavioral Theory by B.F. Skinner and John B. Watson
It suggests that personality develops as people learn their

environment. They assert that all behavior can be managed. Human
behavior as determined mainly by what a person has learned in life,
especially by what one has learned from interacting with people.
5. Cognitive Theory
Cognitive theory is a learning theory of psychology that attempts

to explain human behavior by understanding the thought processes. It
emphasizes the intention of a person’s thoughts and behavior.
Cognitive theorist’s attempts to understand how criminal

offenders perceive and mentally represent the world around them
(Knepper, 2001).
C. Mental Illness and crime
1. Intelligence (IQ) Theory
Intelligence has been found to predict a wide range of criminal

and antisocial behavior, including violent and chronic offending. The
results from this literature have shown that individuals with lower
intelligence levels (typically measured as IQ) tend to be more likely to
engage in criminal behavior.
2. Frustration Aggression Theory
When frustration exist, it can produce feelings of anger. This

theory has been utilized to explain a lot of violent behavior over time.
For example, some have stated that people who become frustrated with
their jobs because they don’t like their work, can’t get the raise they
want, etc... but can’t take out their aggressions at work (can’t yell at
the boss, can’t punch annoying co-workers)’ will redirect this
frustration and act aggressively toward others (like a husband, wife,
children, etc.).
➢ Eysenck, Hans J.: Proposed the biosocial “arousal theory.
➢ Ferrero, William: Co-authored Female Offender (1958[1897]) with

Lombroso.
➢ Goring, Charles: (170-1919) British criminologist, proposed the idea

that criminals are shorter, weigh less, and “mentally defective,” wrote
The English Convict: A Statistical Study (1913).
➢ Lombroso, Cesare: (1836-1909) First to use scientific method in

criminology, wrote The Criminal Man (1876).
➢ Mednick, Sarnoff: Developed the best-known and most systematically

stated and tested modern biosocial theory.
➢ William Herbert Sheldon: The idea of somatotyping was originated

and published “Physique and Character in 1926” which related body
build to behavior.
➢ Freud, Sigmund: (1856-1939) Psychologist, pioneer of psychoanalysis

and psychological theory, theorized the Oedipus complex and the
Electra complex, coined the term id, superego, ego, sex, drive, and
libido.
➢ Friedlander, Kate: Wrote The Psychoanalytic Approach to Juvenile

Delinquency (1974).
➢ Jean Piaget (1896-1980): hypothesized that the individual reasoning

process is developed in an orderly fashion.
➢ Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987): who applied the concept of moral

development to criminological theory. Kohlberg (1984) believed that
individuals pass through stages of moral development. Most important
to his theory is the notion that there are levels, stages, and social
orientation.
4.4. KEY CONCEPTS
1) The fundamental concept behind the early biological theories was the
belief that individual difference could be scientifically measured.
2) Early biological theories view criminal behavior as the result of a defect

in the individual. This defect can be biological or genetic in nature, and
serves to separate the criminal from the law-abiding citizen.
Contemporary biological theories concentrate more on variations in
genetic and other biological factors in interaction with the environment,
and are less likely to refer to biological defects or abnormalities.
3) Punishment serves a different goal in biological theories. While

punishment may be appropriate to protect society, it will not have a
deterrent effect. Because there is an inherent defect or abnormality
within the individual, deterrence or the threat of punishment will not
affect behavior.
4) Although early biological theories lacked validity, they were among the
first to use the scientific method. The process of measuring body parts,
shapes, and sizes (although flawed) represented a dramatic shift from
the philosophical approach offered by the classical school.
5) Biological theories trace back to Lombroso, and vary in the amount of

determinism built in. Atavistic man or the “born criminal” was always
going to be at odds with civilized society. More modern biological
theories seek to establish a link between things like IQ, testosterone,
and criminality. While they share a biological link, modern theories
understand that the influences of choice and the large society also play
a role in the crime dynamic.
6) In traditional biological theories are correct, then society is limited in

its responses to offenders. These are five basic responses. First, we
could try to fix the offender. This may be accomplished through
medication, treatment, or therapy. Second, we could lock the offender
up and keep him or her physically separated from larger society. Third,
we could sterilize the offender. This would keep individuals from
passing along defective genes to future generations. Fourth, we could
deport or banish the offender. Finally, we could choose to kill the
offender. If crime is truly biologically determined, these options, or close
derivatives of these options, would prove more useful than any
punishment designed to remove the pleasure from a criminal act.
7) More recent biological or biosocial theories believe that even if some

biological traits are passed down that would make an individual more
predisposed to commit criminal acts, these traits can be dealt with
through effective social programs. Having a biological trait, then, is not
the end of the story. It does not doom one to a life of crime, and can in
fact be dealt with and managed.
8) Psychoanalytic theorists believe that criminal behavior is the result of

a mental disturbance. From a Freudian perspective, this may have been
caused by a conflict between the id, ego, and superego, or it may be the
result of an improper fixation during a stage of emotional development.
9) Personality theorists believe that criminal behavior is the result of an

improper or defective personality or personality traits. Instead of
developing a conforming appropriate-social personality, the criminal
has developed a personality based upon conflict, impulsiveness, and
aggression. The criminal does not have the ability to feel empathy,
remorse, or guilt for his or her actions, and has not developed a sense
of right and wrong.
10) Under both of these approaches, the criminal act is not important, in
that it is only one of many symptoms of the underlying psychological
or personality disorder. Both approaches recommend various forms of
therapy and treatment to fix the disorder. When the underlying
psychological or personality disorder is addressed, the criminal and
deviant acts should cease.
11) Psychological theories are difficult if not impossible to test. One cannot
see, identify, or measure the id, ego, or superego. As a result, testing
these theories becomes virtually impossible.
12) Programs that offer therapy and counseling in attempts to reduce

delinquency have not been shown to be particularly effective. While the
role of psychology in criminal justice and criminology is indeed
important, we have not yet reached a place where the key concepts of
psychological and personality theories, along with their recommended
treatments, have had a measured impact on criminal activity.
4.5. CHAPTER REVIEW
The basic vocabulary and rules necessary to understand crime from a

criminological point of view. Understanding the terms and rules is necessary
to go beyond a “commonsense” understanding of criminal and deviant activity.
Theories of the causes of crime and deviance fall on a continuum from a
“micro” focus on the characteristics of individuals to a “macro” focus on the
characteristics of the larger society. Classical school, or rational choice theory,
advances the view that crime is the result of a choice made by the individual
offender. Under this perspective, the offender weighs the potential pleasure of
committing the act along with potential pain if caught and punished for the
act. If the pleasure outweighs the pain, the offender will make a rational choice
to commit the crime. Under this perspective, the proper way to prevent
criminal activity is through the use of deterrence and punishment.
Traditional biological theories state that individuals commit criminal

acts due to biological or genetic defects. Crime is a result of these
abnormalities, and not a choice made by the offender. Crime can be prevented
by isolating, treating, separating, sterilizing, or killing the individual. Modern
biosocial theories believe that an individual with an inherited trait can benefit
from social programs, and that an inherited trait alone is not sufficient to
doom an individual to a life of crime. It is important to note that biosocial
theories have found new life in mainstream criminological theory. After being
widely discredited, new biosocial theories that relay on advances in genetics,
brain functioning, neurology, nutrition, and biochemistry, and less on strict

determinism have gained growth and acceptance in the field. While
controversy still exists when trying to establish a relationship between IQ and
crime, for example, biologically based theories remain an important part of
criminological theory.
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
Essay
Instruction:
 Collate all individual answers and discuss per group.
Organization
(5 points)
(4 pts.) (3 pts.) (2 pt.) (1 pt.)
1. It is well established that inmates as a population have a lower IQ than

people in the rest of society. Does this fact prove a genetic or biological
link in understanding crime? Why or why not?
2. What have we learned about biology and crime from adoption and twin
studies? Should these studies be replicated and improved upon today?
How?
3. Thing like eye color, hair color, facial features, and personality are
passed down from generation to generation. If this is true, why would
we not expect things like criminal behavior to be passed down as well?
4. If psychological theories have validity problems, why are psychiatrists

so often called upon to testify in court? If the theories are so
tautological, how can we ever be sure a person is truly insane?
5. Is personality an inmate quality or a socially developed phenomenon?

Regardless of your answer, how would you go about changing another
person’s personality? Can you change your own personality?

Christine Decera case using Biological Theory as crime causation and
victimology.
Chapter 5
STRUCTURAL PERSPECTIVE
Learning Outcomes:

philosophy;
causation;
5.1. RELATED TERMS
o Human Ecology. This refers to the study of the interrelationship of

people and their environment.
o Chicago Area Projects. This was the first large-scale urban

delinquency prevention program. Started by Shaw and McKay in the
1930s, it used their social disorganization theory as a core.
o Collective Efficacy. This refers to the actual or perceived ability of the

residents of a given neighborhood to maintain informal social control
over the criminal or deviant behavior of other residents. This would
have the effect of keeping crime rates lower.
o Concentrated Disadvantage. This looks at a variety of factors

including percent of families below the poverty level, percent of female
headed households, the percent of families on welfare, percent black,
percent unemployed, and the percent under 18.
o Social Disorganization. Social disorganization refers to the breakdown

in traditional social control and organization in the society, community,
neighborhood, or family so that deviant and criminal activity result. It
is most often applied to urban crime.
❖ Concentric Zone Theory. Refers to investment in the community, and

looks at things like club and organization membership, volunteer
activities, political activities, and general community engagement.
❖ Structural Theories. This refers to macro-level theories that account

for difference in crime rates across communities by looking at
variations in structural characteristics and conditions of each
community.
1. Cultural Deviance Theory – Part of social structure theory that

views strain and social disorganization which produces a lower-
class culture that conflicts with norms.
2. Strain Theory - This theory maintains that the failure of man to

achieve a higher status of life caused them to commit crimes in
order for that status/goal to be attained. He argued that crime is a
means to achieve goals and the social structure is the root of the
crime problem. Merton’s explanation to criminal behavior assumes
that people are law abiding but when under great pressure will
result to crime.
❖ Social Disorganization Theory. Social disorganization theory seeks to

explain community differences in crime rates (see Robert Sampson and
W. Bryon Groves; Robert Bursik and Harold Grasmick). The theory
identifies the characteristics of communities with high crime rates and
draws on social control theory to explain why these characteristics
contribute to crime.
❖ Social Learning Theory. A theory of learning process and social

behavior which proposes that new behaviors can be acquired by
observing and imitating others. It states that learning is a cognitive
process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely
through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor
reproduction or direct reinforcement.
❖ Social Bonding Theory. A control theory that states that individuals

will commit criminal or delinquent acts when their ties (bonds) to
society are weakened or have broken. These are four types of bonds:
attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief. When the bonds are
strong, and individual will refrain from criminal activity.
❖ Social Learning Theory. In general, social learning theory proposes

that both criminal and conforming behaviors are acquired, maintained,
or changed by the same process of interaction with others. The
difference lies in the conforming or deviant direction or balance of the
social influences such as reinforcement, values and attitudes, and
imitation.
❖ Sub-Culture Theory. Cohen claims that lower class cannot socialized

effectively as the middle class in what is considered appropriate middle
class behavior. Thus, the lower class gathered together share their
common problems, forming a subculture that rejects middle class
values. Cohen called this process as reaction formation. Much of this
behavior comes to be called delinquent behavior; the subculture is
called a gang and the kids are called delinquents. He put emphasis on
the explanation of prevalence, origins, process and purposes as factors
to crime.
❖ Human Ecology Theory. This theory maintains that crime is a

function of social change. It also maintains that the isolation,
segregation, competition, conflict, social contract, interaction and
social hierarchy of people are the major influences of criminal behavior
and crimes.
❖ Urban Ecology Theory. A theory that views a city as analogous to the

natural ecological community of plants and animals. This relationship
is understood through the use of concentric zones that spread from the
center to the outer regions of a city. This work done by Park and
Burgess influenced the social disorganization theory developed by
Shaw and McKay.
➢ Ohlin, Lloyd: collaborated with Cloward to form a theory of opportunity

and coauthored Delinquent and Opportunity (1960) with Cloward.
➢ Park, Robert Ezra: (1864-1944) Associated with the “Chicago School,”

collaborated with Sutherland and Burgess.
➢ Shaw, Clifford R.: Sociologist, collaborated with McKay on the social

disorganization theory.
5.4. KEY CONCEPTS
1) Social disorganization is a macro theory looking across different

communities or neighborhoods.
2) The theory was developed by Shaw and McKay, who demonstrated that
juvenile offender followed a very consistent pattern over several
decades, with the highest rates of deviance concentrated in the inner
city and diminishing outward from the core of the city.
3) This suggests that forces are at work beyond the individual

delinquents. Those larger forces may be found in the structure or
organization of the city itself.
4) Factors in a city that have been examined by others include the poverty
rate, unemployment rate, percentage of female-headed households,
percentage of those under the age of 18, and various measures of
community involvement.
5.5. CHAPTER REVIEW
The theories examined in Chapter 2 through 7 have looked primarily at

the processes that generate criminal behavior within an individual. Chapter 8
looks at features of society that may produce higher rates of crime within
neighborhoods or other large groups. Social disorganization theory is a macro
approach developed by Shaw and McKay. Some theorists believe that
neighborhoods characterized by constant change and deterioration are more
likely to be crime-ridden because they are less likely to be successful in
controlling the behavior of their residents. Crime rates in inner-city urban

areas remain high over time, and the belief is that the structure of the city is
in part responsible. Other theorists have looked at the concentration of
unemployment, welfare, community engagement, political activity, and
volunteer work as a gauge of the relative health of the community.
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
Essay
Instruction:
Organization
(5 points)
(4 pts.) (3 pts.) (2 pt.) (1 pt.)
1. Describe how the macro approach of social disorganization differ from

a micro approach of looking at an individual delinquent.
2. Describe and explain the five zones as explained by Burgess.
3. Could we solve the problem of social disorganization simply through

investing large sums of money in a community? Why or why not?
4. Compare and contrast collective efficacy with social capital.

Christine Decera cases using Ecology or Environmental Theory as
crime causation and victimology.
Chapter 6
PROCESS PERSPECTIVE
Learning Outcomes:

philosophy;
causation;
4. give comments or discussion on the initial investigation made by the
police or the public as crime causation and victimology; and
6.1. RELATED TERMS
o Anomie. A state of normless or norm confusion within a society. The

term was coined by Durkheim to explain suicide in French society, and
later applied by Merton and others to other forms of deviance and crime
in American society.
o Aspirations and Expectations. This refers to anomie strain theory.

Aspirations refer to what one hopes to achieve in life, and expectations
refer to what the individual believes is realistic. The greater the
difference between aspirations and expectations, the more likely strain
becomes.
o Decommodification. The belief that a government can provide social

welfare programs to protect vulnerable members of society from market
forces.
o Decriminalization. Removing of status offenders from the jurisdiction

of the juvenile justice system.
o Deinstitutionalization. The removal of juveniles from jails, detention

centers, and institutions. Removing juveniles from these facilities, and
when possible removing status and minor offenders from the juvenile
justice system as a whole, is the most basic type of diversion.
o Delinquent Subculture. A group of delinquent peers who may

influence an individual to commit criminal acts in order to receive
approval from the group. This concept works in conjunction with
control theory and may pull an individual toward delinquency.
o Differential Reinforcement. One of the four main concepts of Aker’s

social learning theory. The concept refers to the potential rewards and
punishments for committing or not committing a criminal or deviant
act. This process includes a consideration of punishments and rewards
that have been received in the past, as well as present and future
rewards and punishments.
o Discriminative Stimuli. Internal and external factors or cues that aid

an individual in determining an appropriate response to a given
situation.
o Disintegrative Shamming. The process by which an individual is

punished, labeled, and made to feel shame for committing a deviant act
in a manner that degrades and devalues the individual. The occurs
without an attempt after the offenders have been punished to reconcile
them with or restore them to the larger community.
o Diversion Movement. This refers to all those efforts to divert

individuals, primarily youth but also adults who are suspected of or
have been charged with minor offenses, from the full and formal
process of the juvenile or adult justice system. The intent is to reduce
the stigma of formal delinquent or criminal labels on the individuals
and to reduce or avoid the costs of formal processing of the crime.
o External Control. A concept in control theory in which agents outside

the control of the individual are responsible for keeping that individual
from committing criminal or deviant acts. These agents include
parents, teachers, or members of law enforcement.
o Faith-Based Programs. These are religiously based programs which

can be operated within the institution or the larger community. They
can be run by inmates or religious leaders, and use spiritual beliefs and
values to change offender’s attitudes and behaviors.
o Focal Concerns of the Lower-Class Culture. The list of focal concerns

or values believed to be prevalent among lower-class males was
developed by Miller to describe the behavior of street corner groups or
gangs. According to Miller, the behavior of these juveniles was an
adaptation to lower-class culture. This culture valued things such as:
trouble, toughness, smartness, excitement, fatalism, and autonomy.
o Imitation. One of the four main concepts of Aker’s social learning

theory. Behavior modeled by others for an individual may be copied by
that individual. Impressions of the individual doing the modeling, along
with perceived risks and rewards, will factor into the imitation decision.
o Internal Control. A concept in control theory that explains why a

person will not commit a criminal act by reference to the person
internally monitoring and controlling his or her own behavior. This
includes such things as feelings of guilt and not wanting to disappoint
others.
o Natural Motivation. This refers to the belief in control theories that

the desire to commit criminal acts in uniform and spread evenly across
society.
o Negative Reinforcement. This refers to an individual escaping

something painful such as a punishment or reprimand by committing
a certain act.
o Net-Widening. A problem that occurs when offenders who would have

been released from the system are placed in a program simply because
a program exists. This often occurs in diversion programs. Boot camps
may be a viable option to keep kids out of institutions, but it becomes
net-widening when kids, who otherwise would have been sent home,
are sent to boot camps.
o Operant Conditioning. The view that voluntary actions and decisions

made by an individual are influenced and shaped by punishments and
rewards found in the external world.
o Positive Reinforcement. This refers to an individual receiving

something of value for committing a certain act. This may include
things such as money, food, or approval.
o Pre-Trial Intervention or Delayed Adjudication. Programs for first-

time, nonviolent adult offenders. Those agree to specific conditions may
avoid trial or sentencing altogether.
o Primary Deviance. Deviant acts that are committed I the absence of or

preceding the application of a deviant label for the acts. While it may or
may not be the first crime a person has committed, it is not based on a
response to being labeled as a deviant (see also Secondary Deviance).
o Radical Non-Intervention. The belief that it is better to simply tolerate

minor offenses rather than risk labeling the offender.
o Reintegrative Shaming. The process by which an individual is

punished, labeled, and made to feel shame for committing a deviant
act, but done in a way that the individual who is shamed is brought
back into the larger community and restored to a position of
respectability.
o Restorative Justice. This refers to programs which are designed to

make offenders take responsibility for their actions and restore them
and their victims, as much as possible, back to things as they existed
before the offense. Often offenders will apologize to the victims and to
the community, and attempt to financially compensate the victims for
their losses.
o Retroflexive Reformation. This process is based upon differential

association and often takes place in a group setting working with both
offenders and non-offenders. This concept suggests that the offenders
in such groups who join on the side of the non-offenders in attempting
to get the other offenders to change their definitions favorable to law
violation, actually wind up reducing their own definitions favorable to
crime.
o Secondary Deviance. Criminal or deviant acts that are committed in

response to, or because of, a label that has been applied to an
individual.
o Self-Concept. An element of containment theory though to be

responsible for insulating an individual from criminal activity. Similar
to self-esteem.
o Self-Reinforcement. The exercise of self-control used by an individual

to reinforce his or her behavior, by seeing that behavior through the
eyes of another.
o Self-Reinforcement. The exercise of self-control used by an individual

to reinforce his or her behavior, by seeing that behavior through the
eyes of another.
o Social Control. Under a control theory perspective, social control refers

to those elements that keep an individual from committing a criminal
or deviant act. Examples, include the family, church, and school.
o Social Reinforcement. This refers to the actual, perceived, expected,

tangible, or intangible rewards or punishments conveyed upon an
individual by society or a subset of society.
o Social Structure and Social Learning Model. A model proposed by

Akers in which social structural factors have an indirect effect on an
individual’s actions through the social learning process.
o Symbolic Interactionism. The process by which two or more

individuals share a commonly understood language or set of symbols.
All individuals have the ability to incorporate other people’s reactions
into their own behavior and use those reactions as part of their own
understanding of themselves. Example: you want to know how you look
in an new outfit. Part of your understanding of how you look is going
to be based upon hoe others respond to you. You have the ability to
understand other people’s facial reactions, body language, and verbal
language in understanding how they will view you. You then use this
information when deciding if you look good in the outfit.
❖ Anomie Strain.
This version of anomie theory examines juveniles. Though Cohen is

in agreement with Merton that blocked goals produces strain, his
theory looks at status as opposed to material gain. Under this
perspective, juveniles are measured against the standard of dress, talk,
and manners are, in a sense, deprived. This “status deprivation” leads
to status frustration,” which in turn causes deviant and criminal acts.
Instead of five groups like Merton proposes, Cohen sees only one group-
a conflict group that values toughness, fighting, and respect.
The theory that focused on the sociological point of the positivist

school which explains that the absence of norms in a society provides
a setting conducive to crimes and other anti-social acts. According to
him, the explation of human conduct lies not in the individual but in
the group and the social organization.
Durkheim proposed the following principles:

• Crime is a natural thing in the society,
• The concept of wrong is necessary to give meaning to
what is right.
• Crime help society for changes – it means that a society
to be flexible to permit positive deviation must permit
negative deviations as well.
❖ Behavior Theory. Burgess and Akers expanded differential association

and included elements of behavior theory and behavior modification.
This expansion allowed them to identify the learning process, and
included elements such as operant behavior, respondent conditioning,
discriminative stimuli, and schedules of reinforcement.
❖ Containment Theory
This theory is a form of control, which suggests that a series of both

internal and external factors contributes to the criminal behavior
(Schamalleger, 1998).
The Containment Theory assumes that every individual there

exists a containing external structure and a protective internal
structure, both of which provide defense, protection or insulation
against crime or delinquency.
According to Reckless, the outer structure of an individual are

the external pressures such as poverty, unemployment and blocked
opportunities while the inner containment refers to the person’s self-
control ensured by strong ego, good self-image, well developed
conscience, high frustration tolerance and high sense of responsibility
(Adler, 1995).
❖ Differential Association Theory. A theory of crime and delinquency

developed by Sutherland. Which maintains that the society is
composed of different group organization, the societies consist of group
of people having criminalistics tradition and anti-criminalistics
tradition. And that criminal behavior is learned and not inherited. It is
learned through the process of communication, and learning process
includes techniques of committing the crime, motive and attitude.
Nine Propositions:
1) Criminal behavior is learned.
2) Crime is learned by participation with others in verbal and non-

verbal communications.
3) Families and friends have the most influence on the learning

process.
4) The learning process includes the techniques of committing the

crime and the specific direction of motives, drive and attitude.
5) Not everyone in the society agrees that the laws should be

obeyed; some people define it unimportant.
6) A person becomes delinquent because of an excess definition

favorable to the violations of laws over to the definitions
unfavorable to the violation of laws. Example is the Terrorism
Act of 2021
7) Differential associations vary in frequency, duration, priority

and intensity. The extent to which associations and definitions
will result in criminality is related to the frequency of contacts
and their meaning to the individual.
8) The process of learning criminal behavior by association with

criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all the mechanisms
that are involved in any other learning.
9) While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and

value, since non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same
needs and values.
❖ Differential Identification Theory. A modification of differential

association theory. In this view, people commit criminal or delinquent
acts if they believe that it will lead to acceptance by and approval of
these important people in their lives.
❖ Differential Opportunity Theory. This theory explained that society

leads the lower class to want things and society does things to people.
Ohlin claimed that there is differential opportunity, or access, to
success goals by both legitimate an illegitimate means depending on
the specific location of the individual with in the greater opportunities
for the acquisition of deviant acts.
❖ Differential Association Theory. Edwin Sutherland introduced

differential association in his textbook “Principles of Criminology”. The
theory states that crime is learned through social interaction and that
criminal behavior is not inherited. It is learned through the process of
communication, and learning process includes techniques of
committing the crime, motive and attitude.
❖ Institutional Anomie. This theory was created by Meissner and

Rosenfeld. The premise of the theory is that American society is set up
to give prestige and priority to economic institutions. This means that
the accumulation of wealth and individual success are people’s highest
priorities. Prioritizing economic institutions weaken the ability of other
social institutions (family, education, government) to control crime that
occurs in response to the lack of access to or failure in the economic
sphere. Therefore, a high level of criminal activity is a natural result of

the setup of American society.
❖ Neutralization and Drift Theory
Neutralization theory was developed in 1957 by Dr. Gresham

Sykes and his former student, Dr. David Matza. Their theory presented
a different perspective on social control which was first explained by
Edwin Sutherland in 1947 through his Learning Theory. Dr. Matza felt
rational choice was being left out and developed the Neutralization and
Drift Theory to help explain why deliquents drift in and out
delinquency. If these other theories – biological, psychological, or
sociological – were correct, how would a person be able to explain the
fact that most juvenile delinquents move away from crime by the time
they hit their early twenties? Dr. Matza felt, “that if delinquents had
established a subculture with norms that differ those of the larger
society, they would not have exhibit shame or guilt when violating the
social order.
Neutralization and Drift Theory proposes that juveniles sense an

obligation to the law. This obligation to the law remains in place most
of the time, However, when this obligation is strained, juvenile
delinquents tend to drift into crime. This strain is best explained by
Sykes and Matza’s example of justified theft. When an employee sees
their wages cut they are able to rationalize stealing from their employer
feels they “deserve” it. According to Sykes and Matza, most delinquents
have the same values, beliefs and attitudes as those of law-abiding
citizens. Some juveniles, however, learn techniques that allow them to
“neutralize” such values and attitudes temporarily. Such a theory
proposes that delinquents disregard the controlling influences of rules
and use these techniques of neutralization to weaken the hold of
society.
Sykes and Matza discuss why juveniles experience guilt and

negative self-concepts when engaging in delinquency, why there is a
need to neutralize guilt, and the five neutralization techniques that
allow them to do this. These principals are the basis for how criminals
rationalize their actions. The five are:
1. Denial Responsibility: This is where the criminals view

himself as a victim based on circumstance.
2. Denial of Injury: This is where a criminal feels like the

actions committed were victimless because no one was
physically hurt or the crime committed was committed
against another criminal.
3. Denial of Victim: This goes back to circumstances. Victims

in this cases are considered outcast by the general
population so they deserved this type of treatment.
4. The Condemnation of the Condemners: This is when the

criminal sees the labeler as deviant in disguise, they are
just out to get them, or by attacking them the

wrongfulness of their behavior is confused.
5. Appealing to Higher Loyalties: The requirements of larger

society have to be pushed to the side because of affiliation
in smaller groups, who directly provide fidelity and
protection to the individual, e.g., gangs.
Drift proposesthat the techniques of neutralization are a way for

adolescents to find release from conventional restraints of society.
Findings suggest that when these techniques are present, there is a
weak sense of social control. Dr. Sykes and Dr. Matza developed this
theory after observing how inmates and corrections officers learn to
rationalize rule breaking. Dr. Matza further developed what he called,
soft determinism. Soft determinism states, “That human actions are
not deprived of freedom because they are casually determined.
Theory maintains that an individual will obey or disobey societal

rules depending upon his or her ability to rationalize whether he is
protected from hurt or destruction. People become law abiding if they
feel they are benefited by it and they violate it if these laws are not
favorable to them.
❖ Labeling Theory
The theory that the formal and informal application of stigmatizing and
deviant “labels” or tags applied to an individual by society will not deter,
but rather instigate future deviant or criminal acts. Labeling theory
focuses on the official reaction to crime and makes a rather
counterintuitive argument regarding the causes of crime. According to
labeling theory, official efforts to control crime often have the effect of
increasing crime. Individuals who are arrested, prosecuted, and
punished are labeled as criminals. Others then view and treat these
people as criminals, and this increases the likelihood or subsequent
crime for several reasons.
Labeling individuals may have trouble obtaining legitimate

employment, which increases their level of strain and reduces their
stake in conformity. Labeled individuals may find that conventional
people are reluctant to associate with them, and they may associate
with other criminals as a result. This reduces their bond with
conventional others and fasters the social learning of crime.
Finally, labeled individuals may eventually come to view themselves as

criminals and act in accord with this self-concept.
❖ Social Control/Bonding Theory. Social control theory focused on

techniques and strategies that regulate human behavior and lead to
conformity or obedience to society’s rules – the influences of family and
school, religious beliefs, moral values, friends and even beliefs about
government. The more involved and committed a person is to
conventional activities and values and the greater the attachment to
parents, loved ones, and friend, the less likely is to violate society’s
rules and to jeopardize relationships and aspirations.
❖ Social Disorganization Theory. Social disorganization theory seeks to

explain community differences in crime rates (see Robert Sampson and
W. Bryon Groves; Robert Bursik and Harold Grasmick). The theory
identifies the characteristics of communities with high crime rates and
draws on social control theory to explain why these characteristics
contribute to crime.
❖ Self-Control Theory. A specific type of control theory developed by

Gottfredson and Hirchi in which self-control is the key factor in
understanding criminal and deviant acts.
❖ Social Learning Theory. In general, social learning theory proposes

that both criminal and conforming behaviors are acquired, maintained,
or changed by the same process of interaction with others. The
difference lies in the conforming or deviant direction or balance of the
social influences such as reinforcement, values and attitudes, and
imitation.
❖ Sub-Culture Theory. Cohen claims that lower class cannot socialized

effectively as the middle class in what is considered appropriate middle
class behavior. Thus, the lower class gathered together share their
common problems, forming a subculture that rejects middle class
values. Cohen called this process as reaction formation. Much of this
behavior comes to be called delinquent behavior; the subculture is
called a gang and the kids are called delinquents. He put emphasis on
the explanation of prevalence, origins, process and purposes as factors
to crime.
❖ Victimology Theories
Over the years, ideas about victim precipitation have come to be

perceived as a negative thing; "victim blaming" it is called. Research
into ways in which victims "contribute" to their own victimization is
considered by victims and victim advocates as both unacceptable and
destructive. Yet a few enduring models and near-theories exist. I'll
mention two or three of them:
1. Luckenbill's (1977) Situated Transaction Model. This one is

commonly found in sociology of deviance textbooks. The idea is that at
the interpersonal level, crime and victimization is a contest of
character. The stages go like this:
(1) Insult - "Your Momma";

(2) Clarification - "Whaddya say about my Mother";
(3) Retaliation - "I said your Momma and you too";
(4) Counter retaliation - "Well, you're worse than my Momma";
(5) Presence of weapon - or search for a weapon or clenching of
fists;
(6) Onlookers - presence of audience helps escalate the situation.
2. Benjamin & Master's Threefold Model. This one is found in a

variety of criminological studies, from prison riots to strain theories.
The idea is that conditions that support crime can be classified into
three general categories:
(1) Precipitating factors - time, space, being in the wrong place

at the wrong time;
(2) Attracting factors - choices, options, lifestyles (the

sociological expression "lifestyle" refers to daily routine activities
as well as special events one engages in on a predictable basis);
(3) Predisposing factors - all the sociodemographic

characteristics of victims, being male, being young, being poor,
being a minority, living in squalor, being single, being
unemployed.
➢ Agnew, Robert: Sociologist, proposed the general strain theory to

account for criminal behavior.
➢ Akers, Ronald: Sociologist and criminologist, collaborated with Robert

Burgess to develop the differential reinforcement theory, wrote Deviant
Behavior: A Social Learning Approach (1973-1977).
➢ Bandura, Albert: Psychologist and child development expert, examined

stages of development and concluded that conduct develops at
particular stages when certain interaction stimuli are present.
➢ Becker, Howard: Criminologist and social psychologist, primary

theorist in labeling, wrote Outsider: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance
(1963).
➢ Braithwaite, John: Wrote Restorative Justice and Responsive

Regulation (2002), developed the concept of reintegrative shaming,
which remains at the core of restorative justice.
➢ Burgess, Ernest: (1886-1966) Helped form the “Chicago School,”

collaborated with Sutherland and Park.
➢ Burgess, Robert L.: Behavior sociologist, collaborated with Ronald

Akers to develop a “differential association-reinforcement” theory of
criminal behavior.
➢ Cloward, Richard: Collaborated with Lloyd Ohlin to form a theory of

differential opportunity, coauthored Delinquency and Opportunity
(1960) with Ohlin.
➢ Cohen, Albert K.: Criminologist, developed the perspective of

delinquent subculture.
➢ Cooley, Charles Horton: (1875) Sociologist, developed the concept of

“looking-glass self.”
➢ Durkheim, Emile: (1858-1917) French sociologist, wrote Suicide

(1893).
➢ Elliot, Delbert: Developed an integrated theory, wrote Explaining

Delinquency and Drug Use (1985).
➢ Gottfredson, Michael: Co-authored A General Theory of Crime (1990)

with Travis Hirchi.
➢ Hirchi, Travis: Criminologist, developed the social bond theory, wrote

The Causes of Delinquency (1969), co-authored A General Theory of
Crime (1990) with Michael Gottfredson.
➢ Lemert, Edwin M.: Sociologist, collaborated with Howard Becker to

extend the labeling theory to include both primary and secondary
deviance, wrote Social Pathology (1951) and Human Deviance, Social
Problems, and Social Control (1967).
➢ Matza, David: Collaborated with Gresham Sykes in 1957 and proposed

“techniques of neutralization,” developed drift theory of delinquency in
1964, wrote Delinquency and Drift (1964).
➢ McKay, Henry D.: Sociologist, collaborated with Shaw on the social

disorganization theory.
➢ Merton, Robert K.: Focused on anomie and strain theory, wrote Social
Theory and Social Structure (1957).
➢ Messner, Steven F.: Collaborated with Rosenfeld on the ideology of the

“American Dream” and institutional anomie theory.
➢ Miller, Walter: Criminologist, focused on gang delinquency as a result

of lower-class values.
➢ Nye, F. Ivan: Wrote Family Relationships and Delinquent Behavior

(1958), expanding on Reiss’s definitions of social control.
➢ Reckless, Walter: Proposed the containment theory of delinquency and

crime.
➢ Reiss, Albert J.: In 1951, identified delinquency as resulting from

failure of “personal” and “social” controls.
➢ Robert K. Merton: Who developed strain theory in 1938.
➢ Rosenfeld, Richard: Collaborated with Messner on the ideology of the

“American Dream” and institutional anomie theory.
➢ Sutherland, Edwin: (1883-1950) developed the differential association

theory, wrote The Professional Thief (1937) and Principles of Criminology
(1947).
➢ Sykes, Gresham: Collaborated with David Matza in 1957 and proposed

“techniques of neutralization.”
6.4. KEY CONCEPTS
1) Anomie was coined by the French sociologist Durkheim, and first

applied to French society to examine rates of suicide. The concept of
anomie was first used in this country by Merton, in an effort to describe
adaptations in behavior and the interaction between legitimate and
illegitimate means.
2) Anomie may apply when there are not enough legitimate means to
reach legitimate societal goals. This can occur when society is in a state
of disorder and disintegration, as opposed to stability and integration.
3) Depending on the theorist, anomie has been applied to the acquisition

of wealth, the attainment of status, or the expression of cultural or class
values.
4) Agnew’s revision of anomie strain theory examines several possible

sources of strain that may result in criminal activity: failure to achieve
positively valued goals, removal of positively valued stimuli, and
confrontation with negative stimuli.
5) With mixed support, anomie strain theories have been used to

developed projects designed to bring stability and order to disorganized
communities. The hope has been that increasing the stability of the
community, the schools, and the family would reduce criminal and
delinquent acts.
6) As a general concept, social learning theory has been applied to the

fields of sociology, psychology, criminal justice, and criminology in an
attempt to explain how criminal values, ideas, techniques, and
expressions are transmitted from one individual to another.
7) Differential association theory, develops by Sutherland, is a learning

theory that concentrates on one’s associates and the normative
definitions one learns from them.
8) Akers identified four dimensions of the social structure that can

possibly be integrated with social learning: differential social
organization, differential location in the social structure, theoretically
defined structural variables, and differential social location.
9) Learning theorists believe that deviant behavior can be eliminated or

modified by taking away the reward of the behavior, increasing the
negative consequences of the behavior, or changing the balance of
reward/punishment for the behavior.
10) Just as positive behaviors reinforce positive behaviors, deviant

behaviors also reinforce deviant behaviors. Deviant peers who reinforce
one another’s behaviors can form fast bonds of friendship. The effects
of such a relationship subjects all of the individuals involved to higher
rates of future substance abuse and criminal activity.
11) Labeling theory focuses on formal and informal applications of

stigmatizing and deviant “labels” by society on some of its members.
Many have argued however, that these labels are often the result of the
statuses of the individual, e.g., race, social class, and socioeconomics,
as opposed to any act committed.
12) Labeling theory treats such labels as both cause and effect, as
independent and dependent variables.
13) Lemert focused on two stages of deviance: Primary deviance is the

commission of criminal acts before the individual is caught and
punished for them; and secondary deviance refers to the crimes
committed due to the label society has placed upon an offender.
14) A major concept in symbolic interactionism is the “looking-glass self,”

in which our self-concepts are reflections of other people’s conceptions
of us, as revealed in their interactions with us.
15) Labeling theory mirrors conflict theory in that the individuals with
power create and enforce rules at the expense of the less powerful.
16) As a general concept, social learning theory has been applied to the
fields of sociology, psychology, criminal justice, and criminology in an
attempt to explain how criminal values, ideas, techniques, and
expressions are transmitted from one individual to another.
17) Differential association theory, develops by Sutherland, is a learning

theory that concentrates on one’s associates and the normative
definitions one learns from them.
18) Akers identified four dimensions of the social structure that can
possibly be integrated with social learning: differential social
organization, differential location in the social structure, theoretically
defined structural variables, and differential social location.
19) Learning theorists believe that deviant behavior can be eliminated or

modified by taking away the reward of the behavior, increasing the
negative consequences of the behavior, or changing the balance of
reward/punishment for the behavior.
20) Just as positive behaviors reinforce positive behaviors, deviant

behaviors also reinforce deviant behaviors. Deviant peers who reinforce
one another’s behaviors can form fast bonds of friendship. The effects
of such a relationship subjects all of the individuals involved to higher
rates of future substance abuse and criminal activity.
6.5. CHAPTER REVIEW

Some theorists believe that communities in an state of anomie, where

the norms are unclear or absent, produce conditions favorable to the
proliferation of crime. In other words, there has to be a way to achieve the
goals universally sought after in a society. If the goals remain, but there is no
manner in which certain members of society may achieve those goals, anomie
may take effect. Society has laid out a blueprint for success: if you play by
rules, you will succeed. The blueprint explains the proper way to achieve this
success. But what happens if everyone does not have an equal opportunity to
achieve the “American Dream”? According to anomie/strain theorists, these
blocked opportunities, and the strain associated with them, can lead to
criminal or deviant activity. Crime is committed as an effective but illegitimate
way to gain access. Anomie and strain have been used to discuss entire
societies in a macro approach, or groups of people in an micro approach.
If crime is not the result of choice, biology, or psychology, then how can
it be explained? The theorists in Chapter 5 believe that crime is learned
through interaction with others in one’s social environment. Social learning
theorists of criminology state that criminal behavior, like other behaviors in
life, are a learned activity. Social learning theorists seek to understand and
explain how a person learns to become criminal, and then to develop strategies
and programs that model appropriate behavior.
What happens once a child has been labeled a trouble maker, or a

young man labeled a thief? This is the primary concern of the labeling theorist.
The key difference between labeling theory and the other theories examined
so far is this: Labeling theory makes no attempt to understand why an
individual committed a crime in the first place. The labeling theorist wants to
understand what happens after an individual is caught committing a crime
and society attaches a label to the offender. This differs from the view of choice,
biological predisposition, psychological factors, social learning factors, and
social bond and control theories, which seek to explain the first and
subsequent criminal acts. Little empirical support has been found for labeling
theory, and it has been criticized for failing to account not only for primary
deviance, but for the wide variety of other social factors that influence crime
prior to, and after, the application of any specific label.
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
Essay
Instruction:
 Research and discuss the Christine Dacera case and give
recommendation/s.
Organization
(5 points)
(4 pts.) (3 pts.) (2 pt.) (1 pt.)
1. How are churches and community groups becoming involved in

reintegration? How could this benefit both victims and offenders?
2. It is stated that labeling theory as an explanation of criminal and

deviant behavior is derived from a general theory in sociology. What
theory is it derived from?
3. Although it has been demonstrated that diversion programs have had

moderate success, creating a “positive peer culture” to prevent
delinquency has disadvantages. What disadvantages come from using
positive peer culture techniques, and why?
4. What significant contributions did Burgess and Akers make to

Sutherland’s differential association theory? Was it necessary that
Sutherland’s theory be elaborated upon to better explain crime as it is
today?
5. What programs are the most effective in preventing delinquency-those

that aim at juvenile delinquency, or those that involve children and
their families (regardless of delinquency status)?
6. Agnew has advanced the anomie/strain theory with his general strain
theory, but the empirical evidence is mixed. Where should the
anomie/strain concept go from here? Can it be advanced even further?

Christine Decera case using Social Control Theory as crime causation
and victimology.

Christine Decera case using Labeling Theory as crime causation and
victimology.
9. As a criminology student, what is your recommendation/s to the police

or the public before they will give their comments or discussion about
the case of Christine Decera?
Chapter 7
CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE
Learning Outcomes:

philosophy;
causation;
3. articulate the application of the theory and its role in the creation of
criminal justice and social policies; and
7.1. RELATED TERMS
o Interest Groups. These groups form and act in such a manner so as

to influence the political system in ways that will provide the greatest
benefits to members of the group. They are also referred to as pressure
groups.
o Law. Rules and regulations backed with the coercive power of the state.
Depending upon one’s view, law is either formed with the agreement of
the majority of society and designed to promote order, or formed by the
powerful in society to keep control of the masses.
o Mechanical Solidarity. A type of less complex society where members

share common beliefs and values. In these societies, law is repressive
and punitive.
o Organic Solidarity. A complex type of society marked by functional

interdependence. The main type of punishment is depravation of liberty
and incarceration.
o Pluralistic Conflict. A type of conflict perspective which emphasizes

that instead of one centralized, all-powerful group making the rules,
there are several power groups, both formal and informal and often with
overlapping interests, that wrestle for control and power.
o Political Crimes. Crimes committed by radical groups to overthrow a

government or overturn a government action, or crimes committed by
government officials to control groups seen as a threat. Which side in
any given conflict is labeled radical depends upon which side one
supports and which side wins the dispute.
o Racial Profiling. Actions taken by the police based solely on the race
of an individual.
o Social Control. A normative system with rules concerning the way

people should and should not behave. This is combined with a formal
and informal system to encourage and promote conformity, while at the
same time discouraging and punishing deviance. Informal social control
is exhibited by the family, church, and school, while formal social
control is exhibited by the police and the courts.
o Social Threat Hypothesis. This hypotheses states that criminal and

deviant acts will increase as the number of people opposed to the
interests of the powerful increases.
o Socialization. A process of learning and teaching expected norms and

values of a society. This teaching and learning is reinforced through
positive and negative social sanctions.
o Bootstrapping. Refers to the practice of charging girls with criminal

offenses once status offenses have been eliminated. This allows the
system to maintain control over young girls.
o Chivalry Hypotheses. The view that male police officers, prosecutors,

and judges tend to have traditional views of woman and girls. As a
result, the officials are more lenient on the female for committing
criminal acts than on their male counterparts.
o Economic Marginalization Hypotheses. The belief that economic

pressures put on women to support themselves and their dependent
children, along with the stepping back of men from their roles of
financial support of women and children has pushed women into
criminal activity for economic gain.
o Egalitarian Family. Part of Hagan’s power-control theory. A family in

which the mother and father occupy similar roles in the workplace and
share power and control in the family.
o Gendered Context Approach. This approach examines the different

opportunities males and females have committed criminal acts, and
how males and females respond differently to similar situations and
events.
o Gendered Pathways Approach. A descriptive approach that gives voice

to and acknowledges the physical and sexual abuse common to many
female offenders.
o Liberation Hypotheses. The view states that as men and women

become more equal in society in terms of family, politics, and
education, their crime rates will begin to equalize as well.
o Masculinities. A trait shared by all men, but one that changes and
evolves depending upon the race, economic status, and sexual
orientation of any particular man. Crime may be viewed as an attempt

to claim, reclaim, or prove the very qualities that make one a man.
o Opportunity Hypothesis. The view that as women increase their

numbers in corporate America, their rates of white-collar and corporate
crime will increase along with this increased opportunity.
o Paternalism. This view claims that men act in a manner designed to

keep women and girls in a subservient position in society. While women
and girls may be treated less severely as indicated under the chivalry
hypothesis, they may also be treated more harshly in an attempt to
keep them from achieving equality with men.
o Patriarchal Family. Part of Hagan’s power-control theory. In a

patriarchal family, the father is typically in a command position in the
workplace and runs the family. Mothers are more likely to supervise
daughters more closely than sons and encourage risk-taking in sons,
more than in daughters.
o Patriarchy. A manner of society organization where the right and

privileges of men are more important and trump the rights and
privileges of women.
o Selectivity Hypothesis. The belief that chivalry in the criminal justice,

in other words, lenient sentencing, is extended primarily to white,
middle-class, privileged women.
o Transinstitutionalization. In this process, status offenders are being

placed into private residential psychiatric facilities by their own families
as opposed to the criminal justice system. Most of the time, the juvenile
justice system would not have made these same referrals.
o Typicality Hypothesis. The belief that chivalry in the criminal justice,

in other words, lenient sentencing, is extended primarily to women who
commit crimes consistent with the stereotypical view of women, and
women who can still be viewed as “feminine.”
❖ Conflict Theory. The view that society is divided into two or more
groups with competing ideas and values. The group(s) with the most
power makes the laws and controls society. Groups lacking the formal
power to make the rules still maintain their own group norms, and
continue in their behavior, which is now viewed as criminal by the
larger society. This perspective explains both law and criminal justice
(why some acts are legally defined as criminal), as well as criminal and
deviant behavior (why some individuals commit acts defined as
criminal).
❖ Instrumentalist Theory
Quinney argued that the state exists as a device for controlling
the exploited class - the class that labors for the benefit of the ruling
class. He claims that upper classes create laws that protect their
interest and at the same time the unwanted behavior of all other
members of society.
Quinney major contribution is that he proposed the shift in focus

from looking for the causes of crime from the individual to the
examination of the Criminal Justice System for clues.
❖ Left Realism
A variation of critical criminology. While this perspective

examines the role capitalism plays in society, it also recognizes the
impact, damage, and fear caused by traditional street crime. It proposes
reforms to the system that would deal with these crimes, assist the
victims, reduce the use of prisons, and reduce crime as a whole. This
perspective rejects both the conservative and choice perspective of the
right, and the tendency of the left to overlook or disregard the true
damage caused by crime.
❖ Consensus Theory. In general, this theory states that laws are a result
of, and a reflection of, general agreement in society. Views of right and
wrong, which can be reflected through folkways and mores, influence
the laws and rules that govern a society.
❖ Functionalist Theory. Similar to consensus theory, but this theory

also looks at how the law acts to resolve everyday disputes in society,
and how it acts to serve everyone, not just the powerful. The law also
serves a symbolic function and discourages deviant behavior.
❖ Feminist Theory. This theory attempts to define criminology and

criminal justice based upon the experiences, understanding, and view
of the world as perceived by women. It tries to counter most theories of
criminology that have been developed, tested, and applied by men to
men, which have incorporated women only as an afterthought.
❖ Power-Control Theory. A theory proposed by Hagan in which

patriarchal and egalitarian families are examined. In patriarchal
families, sons more likely than daughters to be delinquent because
sons receive less supervision than daughters. In egalitarian families,
the delinquent behavior of sons and daughters becomes more similar.
➢ Chambliss, William J.: Criminological and sociological theorist,

coauthored Law, Order, and Power (1971) with Robert Seidman.
➢ Durkheim, Emile: (1858-1917) French sociologist, wrote Suicide

(1893).
➢ Marx, karl: European theorist whose view of the history of society as

class struggle and capitalism as a two-class system of the ruling elite
and the proletariat inspired many scholars and revolutionaries.
➢ Quinney, Richard: Sociologist, known early on as a conflict theorist

and later as a Marxist theorist, more recently has been known for
viewing criminology for its peacemaking potential, wrote The Social
Reality of Crime (1970) and Class, Sate, and Crime (1980).
➢ Sumner, William Graham: Pioneering sociologist, proposed the classis

statement of consensus theory, developed the terms “folkways” and
“mores,” wrote Folkways (1906).
➢ Turk, Austin T.: Sociologist and criminologist, has written extensively

on the conflict perspective, wrote Criminality and the Legal Order
(1969).
➢ Vold, George B.: Conflict theories, wrote Theoretical Criminology

(1958).
➢ Weber, Max: German sociologist, pioneered work on bureaucracy, law,

and economy.
➢ Adler, Freda: wrote Sisters in Crime: The Rise of the New Female
Criminal (1975).
➢ Chesney-Lind, Meda: Feminist criminologist, attempted to balance

coverage of both males and females in criminological research, wrote
The Female Offender: Girls, Women, and Crime (1997).
➢ Messerschmidt, James W.: Wrote Crime as Structured Action:

Gender, Race, Class and Crime in the Making (1997).
➢ Simon, Rita: Wrote Women and Crime (1975).
7.4. KEY CONCEPTS
1) Conflict theory proposes that the law and the criminal justice system
primarily embody the interests and norms of the most powerful groups
in society, rather than those of society as a whole.
2) Consensus theory explains the content and operation of the law by

referring to a broad-based agreement in society on social and moral
norms within the society, and the common interest of all elements of
society.
3) Conflict and consensus theories imply support for fair representation

of differing interests and values and non-discrimination in the law and
criminal justice system.
4) There are two forms of social control. Informal social control exists in
families, peer groups, churches, and in communities. When there is a
breakdown of informal social control, formal social control increases.

Law is formal social control.
5) Empirical evidence on consensus and conflict theory is based on

studies of the enactment of laws and studies of public opinion; on
crime; and on disparities in arrests, convictions, and penalties based
on race, sex, and socioeconomic status.
6) While there is no one feminist theory, all variations focus on patriarchy
and the role it plays in society.
7) According to feminist theory, women can be treat less severely than

men for committing a crime, or more severely than men in an attempt
to keep them subservient to men. Feminist theory focuses on the
patriarchal system as the root division in society between the dominant
and subordinate groups.
8) Feminist theory questions whether or not theories of crime developed

by men and for men adequately explain female crime. In addition, they
seek to understand why men traditionally commit so many more crimes
than women.
9) Power-control theories contend that traditional families encourage male

delinquent, while they inhibit female delinquent. In addition, many
feminist scholars contend that as females achieve more power and
equality in society, female crime rates will rise.
10) In order to correct the inequities facing women, feminist theorists

contend that major societal changes must occur. In addition, many
feminist theorists believe that when dealing with female offenders,
prevention and treatment are preferable to punishment.
11) Gendered pathways and gendered contexts have offered news ways to
examine feminist theories and belief, while at the same time remaining
connected to broader criminological concepts. Gendered pathways
focus on the courses women and girls have taken which lead to criminal
activity, while gendered contexts examine how the opportunities,
contexts, and meaning of criminal activity may vary among the genders.
7.5. CHAPTER REVIEW
Law is the formal method of social control used by the criminal justice
system to punish offenders and maintain order in society, but where does the
authority for law stem from? The consensus perspective believes that law is
formed as a result of a general societal agreement on the basic social norms,
morals, and common interests necessary to operate society in a smooth and
safe norms manner. The conflict perspective believes that laws are formed to
meet the needs and interests of the powerful in society. The law and the
criminal justice system are then used to keep the powerful in power. Those
who commit criminal acts are simply conforming to the norms and values
expressed in the culture of the powerless, and are acting to fight the powerful.
This perspective differs from the others examined thus far in that it looks into
law formation. For the consensus theorist, the law is the glue that holds
society together. For the conflict theorist, the law is the club that keeps the
powerless in line.
Feminist theory is still in development, and no one version has gained

prominence over the others. While there are different versions of feminist
theory, similarities remain. Feminist theory examines the role of patriarchal
in society and the manner in which women are put in a subservient position
to men. Feminist theorists seek to explain why men and for men adequately
explain female crime and deviance. In contrast to earlier theories examined in
this book, feminist theorists examine the role society puts women in, identifies
their strength and vulnerabilities, and seeks to use that basis to understand
female criminality. Feminist theorists then predict future rates of female
offending and propose system reactions to female offending. It must be noted
however, that not all feminists view these issues the same, and feminist
perspectives often change based upon the age, race, and status of the both
the feminist researcher, and the feminist as victim.
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
Essay
Instruction:
Organization
(5 points)
(4 pts.) (3 pts.) (2 pt.) (1 pt.)
1. State two crimes that you think support the conflict theory. In other
words, name two laws that you think have been passed to keep the rich
and powerful in control of society.
2. What does the empirical evidence say with regard to the way that the
criminal justice system operates? Does the evidence support the
perspective that racism and sexism blatantly infest the criminal justice
system?
3. Assuming conflict theory is true, what kind of policy changes could be

implemented to reduce class inequality?
4. Would criminology look different today if all the early theories had been
designed by women, to explain the behaviors of women?
5. What examples of changes in the criminal justice system can you think
of that have been made to address the needs and concerns of women?
6. Are men naturally more violent and criminal than women, or does the
system simply treat men and women differently for committing the
same crime?
7. What policy implications are implied by feminist theories, what societal

changes would be necessary for them to occur?
Chapter 8
DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE
chapter review, and chapter activity.
Learning Outcomes:

philosophy;
causation;
3. articulate the application of the theory and its role in the creation of
criminal justice and social policies; and
8.1. RELATED TERMS
o Conceptual Absorption. Concepts from one theory are subsumed as

special cases of the phenomena defined by the concepts of another
theory.
o Conceptual Integration. Concepts from one theory are shown to

overlap in meaning with concepts from another theory.
o Network Analysis. An explanation of delinquency that draws on social

learning and social bond theories. It connects the structural
characteristics of social networks and interactional processes.
o Population Heterogeneity. This refers to the stability in criminal

behavior when compared to others over the life course.
o Propositional Integration. This explains how two or more theories

make the same predictions about crime or make propositions that can
be put together, even though each may begin with different concepts
and assumptions.
o Social Support. Social integration in a group relationship in which

emotional, material, and social assistance is provided to each group
member.
o State Dependence. Changes in criminality over the course of one’s life

are dependent on the occurrence, or lack of occurrence, of a variety of
other factors.
❖ Life-Course Theories. These theories attempt to explain better the

stability and changes in criminal and deviant behavior through time
and at different life stages.
1. Control Balance Theory. The ration of how much the individual

is liable to control to how much he or she is liable to control. It
operates in the context of four main variables; predisposition,
provocation, opportunity, and constraint.
2. Interactional Theory. This theory integrates elements of social

structure, social bonding, and social learning theory into an
“interactional theory” of delinquency. A child is more likely to
commit delinquent acts when his or her underlying bonds to
society are weakened.
3. Self-Derogation Theory. A theory in which delinquency and

drug use are explained through the use of social learning theory,
control theory, strain theory, and labeling theory. In this
perspective, delinquency is viewed as the result of the weakening
of one’s self-esteem.
➢ Adolphe Quetelet. Quetelet was a Belgian Statistician who pioneered

Cartography and the Cartographical School of Criminology that placed
emphasis on social statistics. He discovered, basing on his research,
that cries against persons increased during summer and crimes against
property tends to increase during winter.
➢ Akers, Ronald L.: Proposed the absorption of concepts from other

theories by social learning concepts, wrote Criminological Theories:
Introduction, Evaluation, and Application (1994, 1997, 2000, and with
Christine S. Sellers, 2004).
➢ Bernard Thomas: Proposed an integration of conflict and social

learning theories to account for both criminal behavior and criminal
law.
➢ Colvin, Mark: Proposed that coercion may be a unifying concept in

criminology.
➢ Cullen, Francis T.: Proposed that social support can be used as a

central concept around which all of criminology can be unified.
➢ Elliot, Delbert S.: One of the first to integrate strain, control, and social
learning theories, wrote Explaining Delinquency and Drug Use (1985).
➢ Kaplan, Howard B.: Proposed a self-esteem/derogation theory of

adolescent deviance.
➢ Krohn, Marvin D.: Proposed the social network theory.
➢ Laub, John H.: Collaborated with Robert Sampson to propose and test
life-course perspectives, coauthored Crime in the Making: Pathways
and Turning Points Through Life (1993) with Sampson.
➢ Thornberry, Terence P.: Proposed an interactional theory of

delinquency.
➢ Tittle, Charles R.: Proposed the control balance theory, wrote Control
Balance Toward a general Theory of Deviance (1995).
8.4. KEY CONCEPTS
1) Theoretical integration is the process of combining similar theories. The

goal is to produce a theory that is superior to any theory individually.
It also recognizes the fact that new theories are not created in isolation,
and that they are created with the knowledge gained from earlier
theoretical exercise.
2) Theoretical integration has had minimal success. While theories may

be recognized for a while as integrative, over time they tend to be cited
and tested as separate theories.
3) There are different types of theoretical integration such as conceptual

and propositional integration.
4) Social learning theory, in one way or another, is a main component of

integrative models in criminology, along with social bonding and strain
theories.
5) Theoretical development takes place through explicating, testing, and

modifying a single theory; through competition of rival theories; and
through theoretical integration.
8.5. CHAPTER REVIEW
Should any one theory be used to explain crime or deviance, or would

some combination of theories present a more accurate picture? Those
questions are difficult to answer, and there is no consensus within the field of
criminology. Criminological Theories has presented a wide range of theoretical
perspectives While these perspectives differ, they all seek to explain all or part
of the crime phenomenon. Perhaps it is best to let all these theories “fight it
out” until only a single perspective remains. There is, however, another
approach. Theoretical integration is a process in which two or more competing
theories are combined to make a new theory which provides a more
comprehensive view of crime. This integration can be conceptual or
propositional. Conceptual absorption can also be used to combined elements
from different theories. The benefit of these techniques is that it allows for the
combination of the best elements of various theories. It demonstrates how
theories once viewed as competitive can benefit and become more inclusive
than was once thought. The final chapter has yet to be written, and the
question of the benefits of theory competition verses theoretical integration
has yet to be answered.
CHAPTER ACTIVITY
Essay
Instruction:
Organization
(5 points)
(4 pts.) (3 pts.) (2 pt.) (1 pt.)
1. What model did Elliot and his associates use to propose a theory of
delinquent behavior? What theories did they rely on in their model?
2. What are three principal ways by which theories can be evaluated and
developed?
3. What concepts and propositions are relied on heavily by life-course

criminologist?
4. What are the similarities and differences between propositional and

conceptual integration? Provide example with theories that have been
discussed.
References:
A. Books
Armando A. Alviola (2014). Introduction to Criminology and Psychology of

Crimes. Wiseman’s Book Trading. Quezon City, Philippines.
Amante, A. D. etal. (2010). Criminology and Psychology of Crimes. Manila,

Philippines.
Donald J. Shoemaker (2009). Juvenile Delinquency. Rowman & Littlefiled

Publishers, Inc. United States of America.
Bohm, R.M. & Haley, K.N., Introduction to Criminal Justice, 3rd Ed., Chapter 3.
Cirilio M. Tradio (1994). Introduction to Criminology. Central Law Book

Publishing Co, Inc & Central Professional Books, Inc. Quezon City.
Jesster P. Eduardo, et al. (2015). Fundamentals of Criminology. Wiseman’s

Book Trading. Quezon City, Philippines.
Peckley M. etal. (2010). Essentials of Criminology. 1st Edition. Quezon City:

Wiseman’s Books Trading Inc.
Ricardo M. Guevara, et al. (2010). Criminology 101: A Reference manual for

Introduction to Criminology and Psychology of Crimes. Wiseman’s Book
Trading. Quezon City, Philippines.
Rommel K. Manwong (2011). My Quizzer in Criminology. Wiseman’s Book

Trading. Quezon City, Philippines.
Sally S. Kalalang (2011). Introduction to Criminology and Psychology of Crime.

Wiseman’s Book Trading. Quezon City, Philippines.
See, Eric (2004) Student Study Guide for Ronald L. Akers and Christine S.
Sellers’ Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and
Applications - 4th Ed. Roxbury Publishing Company, Los Angeles,
California.
Sharma, R.K. (1998) Criminology and Penology. Atlantic Publishers &

Distributors, New Delhi.
Siegel, L.J. (2011) Criminology, 11th Ed. Cengage Learning.
Agnew, Robert (1992). "Foundation for a General Strain Theory of Crime and
Delinquency." Criminology 30: 47–88.
Akers, Ronald L (1998). Social Learning and Social Structure. Boston:

Northeastern University Press.
Anderson, Elijah (1999). Code of the Street. New York: Norton.
Bandura, Albert (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action. Englewood

Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Braithwaite, John (1989). Crime, Shame, and Reintegration. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.
Bursik, Robert J., Jr.; and Grasmick, Harold G. (1993). Neighborhoods and
Crime. New York: Lexington.
Chesney-Lind, Meda; and Sheldon, Randall G. Girls (1998). Delinquency, and

Juvenile Justice. Belmont, Calif.: West/Wadsworth.
Cloward, Richard; and Ohlin, Lloyd (1960). Delinquency and Opportunity.

Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press.
Cohen, Albert K (1955). Delinquent Boys. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press.
Cohen, Lawrence E.; and Felson, Marcus (1979). "Social Change and Crime
Rate Trends: A Routine Activities Approach." American Sociological
Review 44: 588–608.
Cornish, Derek B.; and Clarke, Ronald V (1986). The Reasoning Criminal. New
York: Springer-Verlag.
Elliott, Delbert S.; Huizinga, David; and Ageton, Suzanne S (1985). Explaining
Delinquency and Drug Use. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage.
Felson, Marcus (1998). Crime and Everyday Life. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Pine
Forge Press.
Gottfredson, Michael; and Hirschi, Travis (1990). A General Theory of Crime.

Palo Alto, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
Greenberg, David F (1977). "Delinquency and the Age Structure of Society."

Contemporary Crises 1: 189–223.
Hagan, John (1994). Crime and Disrepute. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Pine Forge
Press.
Hirschi, Travis (1969). Causes of Delinquency. Berkeley, Calif.: University of

California Press.
Matsueda, Ross L (1992). "Reflected Appraisals, Parental Labeling, and

Delinquency: Specifying a Symbolic Interactionist Theory." American
Journal of Sociology 97: 1577–1611.
Matza, David; and Sykes, Gresham M (1961). "Juvenile Delinquency and

Subterranean Values." American Sociological Review 26: 712–719.
Merton, Robert K (1938). "Social Structure and Anomie." American

Sociological Review 3: 672–682.
Messerschmidt, James W (1993). Masculinities and Crime. Lantham, Md.:

Rowman and Littlefield.
Messner, Steven F.; and Rosenfeld, Richard (1997). Crime and the American
Dream. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth.
Patterson, Gerald R.; Reid, John B.; and Dishion, Thomas J (1992). Antisocial
Boys. Eugene, Oreg.: Castalia Publishing Co.
Sampson, Robert J.; and Groves, W. Byron (1989). "Community Structure and
Crime: Testing Social-Disorganization Theory." American Journal of
Sociology 94: 774–802.
Sampson, Robert J.; and Laub, John H (1993). Crime in the Making.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Sutherland, Edwin H.; Cressey, Donald R.; and Luckenbill, David F (1992).
Principles of Criminology. Dix Hills, N.Y.: General Hall.
Sykes, Gresham; and Matza, David (1957). "Techniques of Neutralization: A

Theory of Delinquency." American Journal of Sociology 22: 664–670.
Thornberry, Terence P (1987). "Towards an Interactional Theory of

Delinquency." Criminology 25: 863–891.
Tittle, Charles R (1995). Control Balance: Toward a General Theory of

Deviance. Boulder, Colo.: Westview.
Vold, George B.; Bernard, Thomas J.; and Snipes, Jeffrey B (1998). Theoretical
Criminology. New York: Oxford University Press.
Internet Links:
https://law.jrank.org/pages/824/Crime-Causation-Sociological-
Theories.html#:~:text=This%20entry%20focuses%20on%20the,elaborations%2
0of%20these%20three%20theories
https://law.jrank.org/pages/783/Crime-Causation-Field.html
https://www.encyclopedia.com/law/legal-and-political-magazines/crime-
causation-sociological-theories

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What are some of the theories discussed in criminology?

What are some of the theories discussed in criminology?

What are the different approaches to studying crime mentioned?

What are the different approaches to studying crime mentioned?

THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION (COMPILED BY: MARVIN M. LUMIGAT, MSCRIM.

Ifugao State University

MARVIN M. LUMIGAT, MSCrim.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY

CHAPTER 2. FOUNDATION THEORIES

CHAPTER 3. RATIONAL CHOICE PERSPECTIVES

CHAPTER 4. BIOLOGICAL/PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

CHAPTER 5. STRUCTURAL PERSPECTIVES

CHAPTER 6. PROCESS PERSPECTIVES

CHAPTER 7. CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES

CHAPTER 8. DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

A crime is an illegal act that is punished by a legal authority. A crime

Crime caution is a discouraging and multiplex field. For centuries,

The students should be able to:

1.1. RELATED TERMS

❖ Theory. Is said to be a set of assumptions, propositions, or accepted

❖ Criminological Theory. Is a proposition/assumption that attempts to

❖ Theoretical Elaboration. The act of making one’s home or business

❖ Theoretical Integration. Refers to the efforts to come up with grand,

❖ Theoretical Specification. Efforts to figure out the details of a theory,

❖ Theory Building. Efforts to come up with formal, systematic, logical,

❖ Theory Construction. An informed, creative endeavor which connects

❖ Theories of Criminal and Deviant Behavior. Theories in this category

❖ Theories of Law and Criminal Justice. Theories in this category

❖ Tautology. Circular reasoning. If a theory states that greed causes

❖ Empirical Validity. This is the most important factors in evaluating a

❖ Ideology. A belief system and a set of core values or philosophy. In a

❖ Internal Logical Consistency. A theory needs to be presented in a

❖ Macro. Macro theories of criminal behavior explain the “big picture” of

❖ Micro. Micro theories of criminal behavior focus on small group of

❖ Parsimony. This refers to how many propositions, steps, or statements

❖ Policy Implications. If the theory is empirically valid, what solutions

❖ Usefulness. This refers to the real-world applications that the theory

❖ Victimless Crimes. Refer to those crimes in which no clear victim is

1.2. PHILOSOPHY OF SOCIAL NORMS, ETHICS, HUMAN MIND, HUMAN

What is Social Norms?

According to https: www.simplypsychology org.com/Social Norms are

What are the Types of Social Norms?

According to https:www.oxfordbibliographies.com/Type of Social

According to https:www.britanics.com/Ethics may refer to the

What is Ethics and Importance of Ethics?

According to https:www.edu.com/Ethics are the principles that guide

The Human Mind

Four Types of Personality Traits

1. Emotional Stability – Refers to the extent to which people have control

2. Introversion – It is the tendency of some individuals to be shy and

3. Extroversion – Is the tendency to some individuals to be friendly and

4. Psychotism – Referred as tough mindedness; it measures the extent to

The Human Behavior

According to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behavior is the

It refers to the products of the mind.

Factors Affecting Human Behavior

1. Genetics- That man biologically inherit his/her behavior.

The Criminal Behavior