A review of published sources for age at death

in cattle
Gillian G. Jones and Peta Sadler
A survey of the literature for information relevant to estimating age at death in cattle has added
detailed data on the age at which particular stages of dental development have been observed,
based on sources where direct observations were certainly made. The information is of general
interest for archaeozoology and, moreover, has enabled refinements to be made to existing
Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology

methods for ageing cattle dentition using tooth eruption and wear (Jones and Sadler 2012). The
survey presents summaries of published work on longevity in cattle, and on variation in eruption
and wear.
Keywords: cattle, age at death, mortality profiles, herd structure, longevity

Introduction with some uncertainty about their reliability, when

Evidence for age at death is an important aspect of assigning age at death to cattle dentitions within ar-
animal bone studies. It is used to infer husbandry chaeofaunal assemblages. This paper provides a
practices, and to compare sites over time and place. much-needed context for these sources and goes on
Age at death is most commonly assessed using tooth to align the age ranges given therein with the mandible
eruption and wear, typically in the mandibular den- eruption/wear stages developed by Jones and Sadler
tition (Grant 1975, 1982; Halstead 1985; O’Connor (2012) for evaluating age at death in cattle assem-
1991; Legge 1992). Central to this approach is the blages. A summary of the relationship between
premise that tooth eruption and wear proceeds in a Jones and Sadler’s (2012) mandible eruption/wear
regular and observable pattern which can be linked to stages and the more commonly used ageing methods
the biological age of the species in question. The for archaeological cattle dentition is also provided
latter requires an understanding of variability in rates (Table 1) to enable wider application of the data
of tooth eruption and wear within a species and the collated in the literature review. For a full descrip-
extent to which this may be affected by factors such tion of Jones and Sadler’s method (hereafter referred
as breed, nutritional level, environmental factors and to as JS), see Jones and Sadler (2012).
sex.
Methodology
This paper presents a review of published sources
for age estimation using cattle dentition. The review The age of tooth eruption and other ageing informa-
was originally undertaken during the course of research tion is given in numerous texts, many of which quote
into methodological development of techniques for earlier authors. The study has sought to use only
assessing age at death in cattle, presented elsewhere published works where primary observations were
(Jones and Sadler 2012). It provides background certainly made. The main sources consulted were
information on sources of age estimation in cattle Simonds (1854; 1855), Brown (1860; 1902; 1960),
collated from veterinary, agricultural and zoological Cornevin and Lesbre (1894), Diesem, Hockman and
authors writing in the 19th and 20th centuries. These Burt (1971) and Andrews (1982), with some addi-
sources are widely used by archaeozoologists, often tional discussion from other studies. The review
covers 150 years and represents summary data from
many hundreds of cattle. Some examples of the
Gillian G. Jones (corresponding author), 3 Church Farm Garth, Shadwell, sample sizes quoted by these authors are: ‘the
Leeds LS17 8HD, UK, e-mail: knowles.shadwell@ntlworld.com; thousands of cattle, sheep and pigs which have been
Peta Sadler, 6 Fairacres, Prestwood, Buckinghamshire HP16 0LD,
UK. examined’ (Brown 1902); samples of 300, 198 and 139
ß Association for Environmental Archaeology 2012
Published by Maney
Received September 2010; revised manuscript January 2012
DOI 10.1179/1461410312Z.0000000001 Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1 1
 Jones and Sadler Published sources for age at death in cattle

Table 1 Mandible stages JS definitions

Main Mandible stage Stage JS Halstead O’Connor

stage JS (Jones/Sadler) Number Description 1985 1991

A dp4 unworn A Neonatal

A03 1 dp4 0p to 3E
At (terminal) 2 dp4 at 4H (half up) to a (enamel wear only)
B dp4 in wear, M1 not yet in wear B Juvenile
Bbc, Bdz 3, 4 subdivided according to wear on
dp4, and M1 not yet 4H
Bt (terminal) 5 over-rides dp4 wear: M1 at 4H to a
C M1 in wear, M2 not yet in wear C Immature
Cb, Ccd, Ce, Cfz 6, 7, 8, 9 subdivided according to wear
on M1, and M2 not yet 4H
Ct (terminal) 10 over-rides M1 wear: M2 4H to a
D M2 in wear, M3 not yet in wear D Subadult 1, 2
Db, Dcd, De, Dfz 11–14 subdivided according to wear
on M2, and M3 not yet 4H
Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology

Dt (terminal) 15 over-rides M2 wear: M3 4H to a.

E Eb, Ecd, 16, 17 M3 in wear, at b; c/d; E Adult 1, 2
Ee 18 M3 at e (and hypoconulid not yet in wear)
F F 19 M3 in wear on hypoconulid, not yet at g. F Adult 3
G M3 at g or more, M2 and M3 CEJs at q ,G ,Adult 3
Ggh 20 M3 gz, M2 q, M3 q, M2 TWS g or h
Gj 21 M3 gz, M2 q, M3 q, M2 TWS j
Gkz 22 M3 gz, M2 q, M3 q, M2 TWS k or more
H M2 CEJ at x, y or z, and M3 CEJ still at q ,H ,Elderly:
Hx 23 M2 CEJ at x, M3 CEJ at q
Hy 24 M2 CEJ at y, M3 CEJ at q
Hz 25 M2 CEJ at z, M3 CEJ at q
J M3 CEJ at x, y or z, M3 before TWS m ,I ‘‘
Jx 26 M3 CEJ at x
Jy 27 M3 CEJ at y
Jz 28 M3 CEJ at z, and M3 before TWS m
K M3 CEJ at z, and M3 at TWS m or more ,I ‘‘
Km 29 M3 CEJ at z, and M3 at TWS m
Knz 30 M3 CEJ at z, and M3 at TWS n or more
Stages A to the beginning of G are as defined by Halstead; H begins when the cement/enamel junction of M2 is level with the alveolar
border; J begins when the CEJ of M3 is level; and K begins when the infundibula of M3 are nearly worn to their base. The nearest
equivalent stages of O’Connor and Halstead are given, based on the Halle results. The two stages G and H are not identical to
Halstead’s G and H. Hypoconulid – the M3 third (distal) element. Abbreviations: dp4 – deciduous fourth premolar; M1 – first molar; M2
– second molar; M3 – third molar. ER
for the upper first molar (M1), upper second molar England, France and Germany. These were in active
(M2) and lower second molar (M2) (Andrews 1982). use in market, sales and show age categories, where
The published data on tooth eruption and other the value of a beastwas strongly affected by its age.
ageing information in these sources were presented in They were found acceptable by a century and a half of
diverse ways, including description, drawings and by later authors: e.g., the editions of Sisson and Gross-
means of various different methods for categorising man (1910; 1938; 1953; Getty 1975), Brown’s many
stages of eruption and wear. These were redefined editions (1860; 1902; 1913; 1949; 1960), Ellenberger
and combined, to give additional information about and Baum (1896; 1903; 1943; 1974 ), Habermehl (1961;
the age at which particular mandible stages occur 1975), The Merck Veterinary Manual (1955; Kahn
using the system as defined by Jones and Sadler 2005) and Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dic-
(2012; Table 1). Since there is some degree of tionary (1988; 1999, Blood et al. 2007). Only in recent
interpretation involved here, data for each of the JS years, when cattle generally have individual tags, are
mandibles stages are discussed and presented indivi- teeth less often examined for age estimation.
dually. Of interest also were any observations in the
Earlier work
literature on longevity and variability in dental
eruption and wear in cattle. As far as is understood, Simonds (1854; 1855) was the
first researcher to make a large number of observa-
Sources for age estimation from the teeth tions on cattle dentition. His work was inspired by
The first detailed studies relating tooth eruption to finding, over many years, that the published age of
age was done in the mid to late 19th century AD in eruption figures did not match his own observations.

2 Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1

 Jones and Sadler Published sources for age at death in cattle

He therefore undertook a large study of the teeth in cattle, sheep and pigs which have been examined
cattle, sheep and pigs, ‘based on upwards of two during that period [i.e., 1850 to 1902] have shown
thousand cases of attested ages’ (Simonds 1855, 362) examples of dental precocity more pronounced […]
and known breed and sex (Simonds 1855, 316). The than were met in the early part of the inquiry’ (Brown
work published in 1854 included two sections, first a 1960, 6). That is, many animals were examined, and
wide-ranging description of teeth, and, second, the eruption times had not changed, through 50 years of
teeth as indicative of the age of the animal. This work active animal breeding. Brown’s booklet continued in
was also published in the Journal of the Royal print as a guide to ageing farm animals until at least
Agricultural Society of England in 1855, with the 1960, at which time it still bore the authority of
first section shortened, and the second reproduced in the Royal Agricultural Society, the preface of this
full. The 1855 version has the important correction edition carrying the phrase ‘Completely revised by
from ‘improved’ to ‘unimproved’ (1855, 334) where the society’s veterinary consultants’ (Brown 1960,
Simonds says that the ‘other unimproved breeds’ title page). It is evidently still sought for, as it is listed
were found to be similar. In 1860 the Royal Agri- on Amazon books at the time of writing. Although
Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology

cultural Society published a booklet dedicated to undoubtedly more data was collected from incisor
dentition alone, by G. T. Brown, adding a section for teeth than molars, Brown twice refers to checking the
the horse. Both Simonds (1855, 316) and Brown incisor information ‘by a careful examination of the
(1860; the 1960 edition, 5) speak of personal molar [/premolar] teeth’ (Brown 1960, 40, 41) and
involvement in observations of cattle. Simonds, as Simonds refers several times to the usefulness, where
Veterinary Inspector of the Royal Agricultural there is doubt from the incisor examination, of check-
Society, recorded more than 800 cattle of certified ing the molar [/premolar] teeth. It must be concluded
age at meetings at Windsor, Lewes and Gloucester, that a large number of cattle were examined, and
and Brown studied cattle bred on the Royal many later agriculturalists found the information
Agricultural College Farm, ‘of average quality — sound.
improved Shorthorns […] kept on liberal rations, but A careful study of the drawings and reading of
not forced for show purposes’ (Brown 1960, 5). Simonds’ and Brown’s texts has suggested typical
Brown reused the drawings from Simonds’ paper, ages for some mandible stages, as shown in Table 2.
which are lateral views of the cleaned bone. He The two authors’ works are in agreement on most
removed the incisor area of the drawings, replacing points, but there is an inconsistency in Brown’s use of
them with new drawings of the live animal, rostral Simonds’ figure 30. In this figure, M3 is just in wear,
view. Simonds’ figures are a little clearer than P2 and P3 are almost in occlusion but unworn and dp4
Brown’s copies, and are a better source for judging is not yet replaced; Simonds describes it as 2K years
tooth wear and mandible stage from the drawings. old, whereas Brown (Brown, the 1960 edition, fig. 34)
Brown’s booklet remained in print, and in the 1902 describes it as 2 years. However, this is largely
edition he made the comments which were so usefully resolved by descriptions in the text. Brown (1960,
quoted by Payne and Legge (Bull and Payne 1982, 65; 40) says that the position of the deciduous teeth
Payne 1984; Legge and Dorrington 1985, 130–32; and shown (Brown 1960, fig. 34) occurs 2 or 3 months
Legge 1992, 19–20), that ‘a period of half a century after 2 yrs, and Simonds gives an additional figure
has elapsed, i.e., from 1850 to 1902, without any (Simonds 1855, fig. 28) for the dentition at ‘about
marked change having been noted in the development 2 years’ which shows all three deciduous teeth still in
of the teeth’, and that ‘None of the thousands of position and M3 halfway between the bone and
Table 2 Age estimates for mandible stages, from Simonds (1855) and Brown (1860, 1960)

Age Mandible stage JS (Deciduous) Premolars Molars CEJ Simonds (1855) Brown (1860; 1960)

1 mo At (4H, b, a) 0p nnn fig. 22 fig. 29

5 mo Bt 4H nnn p. 321 fig. 30, p. 68
6 mo Cb (a, wr, c) b1, 0p nnn fig. 23 fig. 30
13 mo Ct nd, 4H, 0p qnn p. 38
15 mo Db (p, wr, g) j, b, 0p qqn fig. 25, p. 322 fig. 32, p. 40
24 mo Dt nd, nd, 4H nnn fig. 28, pp. 325–7 p. 40
27 mo Eb 4H, 4H,(j) k, j, b qqn fig. 30, p. 326 fig. 34, p. 40
36 mo F wr, wr, b k?, j?, e3? nqq fig. 31, pp. 328–30 fig. 34, pp. 40–42
For method and definitions for Tables 2 to 7, see Table 1 and Jones and Sadler (2012, tables 1 and 2) and Grant (1982); wr: in wear; nd
– no data

Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1 3

 Jones and Sadler Published sources for age at death in cattle

occlusal height, probably just visible in the live eruption stage 4H, i.e., JS mandible stage A03, are
animal. He goes on to say that M3 [1st element] ‘is foetal (see Table 1 for definitions). Three drawings of
fully up, on a level with the others, by the time the the lower jaw show typical examples at 8 days, 4
animal is two years and a quarter old’ (Simonds 1855, months and 30 months (Cornevin and Lesbre 1894)
326). (Table 3). There are two main sections which give
Further research work was done in the later 19th information about age and cheek teeth, firstly
century by Lesbre, published by Cornevin and Lesbre (Cornevin and Lesbre 1894, 258–67) describing each
in 1894. Detailed advice is given of the method of tooth in turn and its chronology as applying to cattle
restraining the animal, for the horse, cattle, sheep, generally, and secondly a summary in age order
goat, dog and (in even greater detail) for pig (Cornevin and Lesbre 1894, 173–77), applying to
(Cornevin and Lesbre 1894, 12–13). It is reported common cattle, ‘les bovines communes’. Comments
that, for the horse, the incisors and premolars may be on improved cattle follow (Cornevin and Lesbre
examined in the live animal, but for the molar teeth 1894, 287–90) and apply mostly to incisor teeth. Ages
an autopsy is required, and for cattle the same is given for M1 and M2 are identical in both sections,
Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology

found. No sample sizes are given but many animals but there are differences in detail for the premolars
were examined (Cornevin and Lesbre 1894, 236, 273). and M3. Ages are given a range, and these ranges
The age of incisor replacement in cattle ‘d’après nos increase, as would be expected, from the first through
observations’ is given for average and for two classes to the third molar (cf., for sheep, Jones 2006). For
of early-maturing cattle, and there are 21 drawings of M1, first emergence at 4 and 5 months (‘La 1re
incisor teeth as a guide to age estimation, ranging arrière-molaire pointe aux deux mâchoires’ (Cornevin
from birth to 14 years. There is discussion of the and Lesbre 1894, 275) is usefully separated from
effect of breed, nutrition and work, i.e., whether or reaching occlusal height at 6 months, when ‘La 1re
not the animal is used for traction. Differences were arrière-molaire atteint le niveau de la table’ (Cornevin
slight for the first incisor, but it was found that the and Lesbre 1894, 275). That is, the lower limit of 4
second and third incisors may erupt as much as three (see discussion of Diesem et al.’s 1971 work, below)
to six months earlier in the early-maturing animal. and 5 months may be equated with JS Mandible
The canine (corner incisor) was found to be the most Stage Bt, and the upper limit as JS Cb, initial wear on
variable. Incisor wear from 11 to 14 years can be very M1 (Table 4). The same principle, that the range
variable, with for example, heavier wear in dairy cows includes both variation and the time taken between
which have had many calves. the tip emerging through the gum and slowly
For molar teeth, variation was found to be much reaching occlusal height (see Andrews 1982, below)
less influenced by rates of maturity than the incisors: can be used to estimate mandible stages for the
‘Le développement des molaires est beaucoup moins second and third molars (Tables 4 and 5). There is
influencé par la précocité que celui des incisives’
Table 4 Mandible stages for M1 and M2 from Cornevin
(Cornevin and Lesbre 1894, 266), varying by three or and Lesbre
four months at most, according to the physical
M1 M2
condition (‘l’état physique’). This variation appears
to apply to premolar replacement and M3 eruption, Cornevin and emerges 4, 5 mo erupts 15–18 mo
Lesbre 1894, reaches occl. ht.1 6 mo
as these are the only aspects of the cheek teeth where
265, 275
any comment on early-maturity is made. For calves,
eruption of the deciduous premolars was found in the Mandible stage Bt 4, 5 mo Ct 15, 16, 17
eighth month of gestation for dp3 and dp4, with dp2 JS estimate
erupting within the first two weeks after birth, which Cb 6 mo Db 17, 18 mo
1
suggests that mandibles with dp3 and dp4 before the occl. ht.: occlusal height.

Table 3 Mandible stages based on Cornevin and Lesbre’s drawings (1894)

Cornevin and Lesbre 1894 Age Mandible stage JS (Deciduous) premolars Molars

fig.116, pp. 265, 273–74 8 days At (3E, 4H, 4H1) M1 1C, alv.2
fig. 118, pp. 265, 275 4 mo Bt (5U, wr, c/d) M1 4H, tip emerging
fig. 121 30 mo Ecd (wr, wr, l) j, e/f, d
1
The tips of the accessory pillars are just above the alveolar border; 2 the alveolus for M1 is already large, L of the mesial-distal length
of dp4.

4 Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1

 Jones and Sadler Published sources for age at death in cattle

Table 5 Data for the premolars and M3 from Cornevin figures do not follow directly from Cornevin and
and Lesbre (1894)
Lesbre, and their source has not yet been traced
Stage Age (Cornevin and Lesbre give no differences for maturity
cattle generally P2 and P3 erupt 26–30 mo for M1 and M2, and the incisor figures are certainly
cattle generally P4 erupts 30–34 mo not identical). Simon (1929) summarised dental deve-
common cattle dp2 and dp3 shed 25–28 mo
common cattle P2, P3 reach occl. ht. 29–31 mo
lopment, using the reference collections at the Julius
common cattle P4 reaches occl. ht. 34–35 mo Kühn Museum, Halle. Summary interpretations were
cattle generally M3 eruption 2–2K yrs made, but these are not easily converted into
cattle generally M3 begins to wear 2K yrs
mandible stages, and doubtless would duplicate the
early-maturing M3 emerges 2 yrs or even before
common cattle M3 emerges 25–28 mo records of Jones and Sadler (2012).
Mandible stage Dt 24, 25, 26, 27, 28 The eruption ages given by Sisson and later
JS estimates Eb 28, 29, 30
Grossman and then Getty, in the various editions
Cattle generally, pp. 265–6; common cattle, pp. 275–6; early- of The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals (1910; 1938;
maturing, pp. 288–9 (Cornevin and Lesbre 1894).
1953; Getty 1975) appear to follow the British,
Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology

French and German work, though no sources or

more detailed information about premolar replace- sample sizes are quoted. Sisson was certainly familiar
ment than in other authors, and, although premolars with German work (Sisson and Grossman 1953,
do not figure directly in the mandible stages JS, their Introduction) and may well have examined cattle in
state is a useful guide to cattle of 24 to 36 months old. Canada/the US. The ages given by Miller and
P3 is shown to erupt before P4, and this was also seen Robertson (1934; 1943; 1959) are sometimes quoted,
in the mandibles from Halle (Jones and Sadler 2012) but have not been used here as no sources are given.
and Ferry Fryston (Bates et al. 2007, and the primary Incisors in cattle up to 14 years are described, and
records). they say that cattle seldom live longer than 15 or
Amongst other information of interest, Cornevin 16 years.
and Lesbre list the natural lifespan of the domestic Inadequacies in the pre-Simonds data, best known
mammals and birds, and give 20 to 25 years for to the archaeologist as the column labelled Chaveau,
cattle. Ages are given for the formation of the three in Silver (1969), or Grigson’s final column (1982, 21),
molars, as follows: 6th to 8th month of gestation, 3 to (and see discussion by Legge 1992, 19) were the
4 months and 12 to 15 months, respectively. And motivating force behind the work of Simonds (1855,
ages are given at which the neck (‘collet’) of the three 316–17, 321, 334–36) and Brown (1960, 5).
deciduous premolars becomes visible above the gum, Inconsistencies in the old data have been shown by
at 1 month, 2 to 4, and 8 to 10 months. Once in Payne (1984), Andrews recommended avoiding their
occlusion, the molars are estimated to wear down by use (1982, 143), and Hillson (1986) correctly avoids
between 1?5 and 2 mm a year. A section on the mention of them. The uncertainty about whether or
buffalo includes drawings of the molars of several not the pre-Simonds figures may be appropriate for
subspecies of Bos. archaeological cattle was prevalent from 1963
For 19th-century work in Germany, the reference (Silver’s publication) until the 1980s and beyond
most often quoted is by Ellenberger and Baum (1896; (Meitinger 1983), and has hampered the interpreta-
1903; Zeitzschmann et al. 1943; 1974) who refer to tion of archaeological cattle samples.
various late 19th and early 20th century German
sources for cattle, including Cornevin and Lesbre, Later work
Nehring (1888; 1889 1890; cited in Ellenberger and Habermehl’s (1961; 1975) widely quoted figures for
Baum 1896), Pusch and Schwartz (1912, cited in tooth eruption were based on an extensive study of
Ellenberger and Baum 1896). Ellenburger and Baum the literature, especially the German literature, and
(1896; 1903) give figures for early, mid and late- also included his own primary observations or those
maturing cattle, and it is these which are quoted in of colleagues (Habermehl 1975, 77, 80–83). This
Grigson (1982, 21) and Hillson (1986, 206). The literature search has not included the majority of
Table 6 Mandible stages (from Diesem et al. (1971))

Diesem et al. (1971) Age Mandible stage JS Deciduous premolars Molars

fig. 4 112 days/3?68 mo Bt M1 at 4H

fig. 2 175 days/5?75 mo Cb U, b and d M1 at TWS b

Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1 5

 Jones and Sadler Published sources for age at death in cattle

these German references, and it is not clear whether two-thirds of the results are within 2–3 weeks of the
the figures for molar eruption, as opposed to incisor mean. (Note that no cattle under 174 days, 5?72
eruption, were included in his primary observations. months, were studied, so the mean for Stage 1 may be
Work by Diesem et al. (1971) on first molar affected.) The stage definitions do not mention tooth
eruption, mostly from radiographs, suggests an earlier wear, but it is likely that by Stage 5 (‘front unit L up,
eruption time for M1 than most authors, though it back unit K up or under’), mean value 10?59 months,
agrees well with Lesbre’s work (and see Legge 1992, many, perhaps most, cases would have dentine wear
21). The first appearance of the tooth through the on the first element. These last can be equated with
gingivae was seen in 6 calves at 4 months (3?68 to mandible stage Ccd used here, where there is initial
4?21 months: 112, 113, 117, 120, 121 and 128 days), wear in the mid-tooth valley of the lower tooth,
with a seventh case still unerupted at 4?66 months which occludes with the first element of the upper
(143 days; this calf had suffered from pneumonia). M1 tooth. The estimates from Andrews’ study are shown
was ‘erupted’, interpreted from the context to mean on Table 7.
both elements erupted, at 5?19 months (159 days). Of Andrews and Wedderburns’ (1973) separate study
Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology

the cases with M1 erupted (i.e., visible in the mouth), of M1 in Hereford x Friesian steers (117 observations)
only one showed eruption of the maxillary first molar, gave closely similar results, with an estimated mean
occurring 50 days after M1 at 5?59 months (170 days). age for Stage 5 of 10?42 months.
There is no discussion about the difficulty of defining For the upper second molar (Andrews 1973, table
eruption from radiographs. However, two mandibles 7, N 198), Andrews’ Stage 5 results give a good
are very clearly illustrated (Diesem et al. 1971, figs 2 estimate of the timing for JS Mandible Stage Dcd, at
and 4), and these have been included in the current 19.7 months. This, again, assumes that by stage 5
study (see Table 6). there is dentine wear on the first element of M2, which
The results are important, as they are earlier than wears against the mid-tooth valley of the lower
the 5/6 months given by Simonds and Brown, and second molar. Mean values for Stages 1 to 4 were
suggest that ‘erupt’ in the agricultural literature refers 15?7, 15?8, 16?5 and 18?3 months, which suggests that
to ‘recently in occlusion’, rather than ‘first appear- it takes about three months for the molar teeth to
ance through the gum’. Brown’s drawing of a typical move from first emergence to reaching the occlusal
6-month-old calf (Brown 1960, fig. 30) certainly plane. Results for all three teeth studied, M1, M2 and
shows M1 to be just in wear on the first element. M2, indicate a range of about three months for the
Simonds (1855), speaking of the second molar, says means of Stages 1 to 4, with no difference found
that ‘like the [first] molar, this tooth also acquires its between the first and second molars. Since the physical
full height in the jaw about three months from the process is similar, it may well be that the same applies
time of its cutting’ (Simonds 1855, 322). to M3. That is, although in any sample of cattle the
Andrews’ study of live animals (1982), though it variation in timing of entering or leaving each stage
only gives data on the upper first and second molars increases from the first molar to the third molar, the
and the lower second molar, is a very useful source, as time taken for each individual to move from Stage 1 to
sample sizes are high and range and variability 4 may be similar for all three molars.
statistics are given. For the upper first molar, 300 Andrews’ data for the lower second molar
cattle were observed, of varied breeds and nutritional (Andrews 1973, table 8, N 139) were from a separate
systems. Mean values for the first four eruption study, and results confirm the earlier eruption of the
stages, from ‘front unit emerging [...] [to] […] front lower tooth compared with the upper. Mean values
unit half up, back unit well emerged’ (Andrews 1982, for Stages 1 to 4, equivalent to JS Mandible Stage
148), were 6?87, 7?17, 8?12 and 8?81 months res- Ct (C terminal), were 14?0 to 17?6 months, with an
pectively, with standard deviations indicating that overall range of 13?3 to 19?8 months. There is

Table 7 Mandible stages, from Andrews (1982)

Andrews stage Mandible stage JS Mean Age SD 68% range (1 SD)

M1 5 Ccd 10?59 mo 37?4 days 9?36–11?82 mo

M2 1, 2, 3, 4 Ct 14?01, 15?19, 16?27, 17?58 mo
M2 5 Db 18?21 mo 22?5 days 17?47–18?95 mo
M2 5 Dcd 19?66 mo 65?3 days 17?51–21?81 mo
The means and 68% ranges are used as data points; SD standard deviation.

6 Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1

 Jones and Sadler Published sources for age at death in cattle

uncertainty over the reliability of the lower limit of than 20 calves. He gives specific examples of 12 cows
13?3, as Andrews’ (1973) table 8 indicates that only aged: 17, 20, 22, 25, 25, 26, 26 (a Bakewell Longhorn
one animal younger than this was examined. The cow), 27, 30, 30, 33 and 36 years; and 6 bulls of 17
results agree well, however, with other sources, e.g., (a Bakewell bull), 18, 19, 20, 20, and 20 years. Not all
the Halle data, and Brown (1860; 1960) who writes: of these cattle were dead at these ages. Some were
‘Shortly after one year the fifth molar [M2] begins to still breeding, and the Bakewell bull fetched a high
make its appearance’ (1960, 38). By Stage 5, it is price at 17 years, so it must have been still breeding.
thought that in most cases the tooth would be in Rackham’s (1986) work on cementum layers, on the
initial dentine wear, which gives an estimated mean first molar in a sample of Romano-British cattle, gave
age for JS mandible stage Db of 18?2 months, which age estimates of 0–21 years, with many cases at 5–
is four months after first emergence of the tooth 14 years.
(Table 7). Cornevin and Lesbre (1894) give the natural
Dates for tooth eruption are also given by Brown lifespan of cattle as 20 to 25 years, and give example
et al. (1960) in their work on dental development. diagrams of the incisor teeth up to 14 years. The cows
Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology

Most information is on the incisors, based on 869 of the feral Chillingham cattle live for a maximum of
radiographs. Seventy-five whole mandibles were exa- about 17 years and there are records of bulls sur-
mined aged up to just over 2 years, but the age of viving to the age of 13, but only a small proportion
some of these was estimated from the incisor teeth. reach such ages (Hall 1989). At Temple Newsam
The descriptions are useful, as they include the timing Farm, cattle from the Vaynol herd (previously
of crown development as well as eruption. Three of included within the White Park breed) often live into
the four radiographs published (Brown et al. 1960, their teens, although they are not usually kept beyond
figs 20–23), at birth, 12 and 16 months, are compar- 10 to 12 years. For the nine rare breed herds kept
able with other ageing data. The fourth, a bull calf at at Temple Newsam, cows at 15 or 16 years and
2 months, shows the M1 first element well above the still breeding are not uncommon (Rogerson, pers.
alveolar border and perhaps even visible in the live comm.). The last plough ox from the Dynevor herd
animal, which is even earlier than the cases found by of White Park cattle was slaughtered in 1871, at the
Diesem et al. 1971. It is surprising that Brown et al. age of 14 years (Alderson 1997). For White Park
(1960) still go on to quote Sisson and Grossman’s cattle, cows may be kept into their late teens, and
eruption age for M1 (5–6 months) without comment, in 2010 there were two registered cows of 21 years
so it is likely that they took ‘erupted’ to mean in (Alderson, pers. comm.). Gloucester cattle are re-
occlusion. Given the uncertainty of the exact age at nowned for their longevity, often producing 12 to 15
death, the case is not used as a data point. Brown calves (Freeman, Gloucester Cattle Society, pers.
et al. (1960) give the order of emergence into the oral comm.). These would be 14 to 18 years of age, given
cavity of the permanent premolars and third molar as that most calve for the first time at about 2K years.
P3, M3, P2 and then P4. They note that in late wear, Ducos (1968) studied 25 cattle of the African
‘bone forms at the alveolar crest [of the mandible] to N’Dama breed, and these were aged 3 to 16 years.
give additional support to the erupting tooth, and Miller and Robertson (1934; 1943; 1959) say that
thus the height of the alveolar process increases cattle seldom live longer than 15 or 16 years. The
throughout life’ (Brown et al. 1960, 31).
Halle Friesian cow H1, ‘Betty’, was nearly 19 years at
Longevity in cattle death. She calved for the first time at two years, and
The archaeological literature has in general been produced 18 calves (in one case twins) (Wussow, pers.
cautious in suggesting age in cattle once all the teeth comm.). A Dexter cow from the English Heritage
are in wear, and has avoided referring to the upper reference collection was 21 years (CfA 2817, Jones
limits, for example, the likely age of an old dairy cow and Sadler 2012). At Butser Ancient Farm, some
with M3 worn to the base of the infundibula. Dexters as old as 20 years were still ploughing
Rackham (1986) in his study of cementum layers in (Reynolds, Rackham, pers. comm.), and there are
cattle teeth took 20 years as the normal maximum records of Dexter cows aged 22 and 29 years (Gidney,
age of cattle, with occasional cases of older cattle, up pers. comm.). Cattle above 20 years old appear to
to 36 years, quoting Odlum (1950), Peter Reynolds occur but are rare.
(pers. comm. in Rackham 1986) and Grimsdell In a study of dairy cattle longevity (Parker et al.
(1973). Odlum (1950) considered it likely that many 1960), the age at last calving and reasons for disposal
cow keepers have records of cows which have had more were recorded for 505 Holstein-Friesian and 489

Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1 7

 Jones and Sadler Published sources for age at death in cattle

Jersey cows from the US Department of Agriculture and in genetic makeup;’ and, ‘The bulls showed no
at Beltsville, Maryland, during the period 1918 to consistent differences from the cows’ (Brown et al.
1958. Cows up to 12 years old were fairly common, 1960, 28). Differences due to management were
and a few were 13 to 15. excluded as far as possible, and, ‘all the animals were
Information on longevity in related species is on optimal levels of nutrition’ (Brown et al. 1960, 32).
available for the African buffalo, Asian domestic Small differences between breeds and sexes may have
buffalo and American bison (Grimsdell 1973, 51) and been masked by the method of summary (Brown
the European and American bison (Jarvis and Morris et al. 1960, 11). Simonds (1855, 322) also noted that
1960). For the African buffalo, Syncerus caffer, ‘the periods of appearance of the permanent molars
Grimsdell (1973) gives illustrations of molar teeth are pretty uniform’ (Simonds 1855, 322), and more
up to 20 years, and suggests that 25 years is probably so than the incisors, where variation by breed was
the potential ecological longevity. Other information observed (Simonds 1855, 323, 333). The same point
quoted indicates that Asian domestic buffaloes may was made by Cornevin and Lesbre (1894) (see
live up to 25 years, although cases of 29, 30 and 40 above).
Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology

years are known; and that the American bison often Andrews (1982, 141, and above) refers to breed, sex
survives beyond 20 years, and 40 years is known. and management differences in first incisor replace-
Variability in eruption and wear ment, but also states that ‘The age range for each stage
Sisson and Grossman (1953, 454) and Miller and of second maxillary molar development was less than
Robertson (1934, 243) described tooth eruption as for eruption of the front teeth’ (Andrews 1982, 152). It
‘subject to great variation’. The variation was un- is interesting that he found greater variation, as
quantified, referred more to incisors than molars, and indicated by greater ranges and higher coefficients of
applied in the context of the requirement to give an variation, in the mixed breed and management study
age to particular animals at market where there was (M2) compared with the Friesian and Friesian cross
a dispute regarding age class and value (see the study (M2), although this may be partly because more
Smithfield Rules, Miller and Robertson 1934, 245). cattle were seen (198 in the M2 study and 139 in the M2
For the archaeologist, it is sufficient to have a more study). From the point of view of interpreting
general assessment of the ranges that include the archaeological material from a single site, where cattle
majority of cattle. are thought to be locally sourced, one would expect
There are several aspects to variation, one of which less variation than Andrews found in the M2 study.
is variation along the molar row. However, where distant supply routes are involved, for
Andrews (1982, and see above) gives the standard example with supplies to cities from droving, in the
deviation for each of his stages. The average SD medieval and later periods, the variation is likely to be
values for his stages 1 to 4 is 20?6 days for M1, and as great (Toulson 1977; Wilson 1994). The study has
twice as much, 44?6 days, for M2. In sheep, a similar not added any information about possible differences
increase in variation between M1 and M2 was found, between bulls and castrates.
with M3 more variable than M2 (Jones 2006, figs 4– A summary of the literature on variability due to
6). If the relative variation in cattle for M3 is similar nutritional stress is beyond the scope of this paper, but
to sheep, which seems likely, it can be estimated that note that Diesem et al. (1971) describe a calf with
the standard deviation would be about 88 days for pneumonia, where the M1 was late erupting, and note the
M3, i.e., two-thirds of cases fall within a range of just references regarding wear-rate and soil ingestion, in sheep
under six months, and 95% within a year. For each (Jones 2006), especially that of Healy and Ludwig (1965).
individual, however, Andrews’ (1982) work suggests In the archaeological and historical context, the presence
that the time taken between first emergence and of famine and mortality of cattle were familiar challenges
reaching the occlusal plane is similar for both first (e.g., Hagen 1992, appendix D).
and second molars, and it may therefore be similar Many authors refer to variability in wear, depend-
for third molars as well (see above). ing on methods of management and nutrition. This
Variation due to breed and sex was studied by aspect can be studied by comparing wear on adjacent
Brown et al. (1960), in a study of 869 radiographs. teeth, for example by comparing the wear on M1
They reported that ‘The chronology of tooth devel- when M3 is in initial wear (and see work on relative
opment in cattle was found to be remarkably similar wear in sheep, Jones 2006, 167 and fig. 15). It is
in all breeds of beef and dairy animals in spite of this aspect which most requires the publication of
striking differences in other developmental processes individual tooth records.

8 Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1

 Jones and Sadler Published sources for age at death in cattle

Discussion and conclusion Bull, G. and Payne, S. 1982. Tooth eruption and epiphysial fusion in
pigs and wild boar, pp. 55–71 in Wilson, R., Grigson, C. and
The age estimates derived from the various published Payne, S. Ageing and Sexing Animal Bones from Archaeological
Sites (British Archaeological Reports, British Series 109). Oxford:
sources (Tables 2 to 7) have provided precise and
Archaeopress.
very useful data for cattle up to three years old. For Cornevin, C. and Lesbre, F. 1894. Traité de l’Âge des Animaux
cattle above three years, there is no detailed in- Domestiques d’Après les Dents et les Productions Épidermiques.
Paris: Baillière.
formation from the published sources studied. Ob- Diesem, C. D., Hockman, M. and Burt, J. K. 1971. Age determination
servations on longevity indicate that 20z can be taken and structural changes in calves. Journal of the American
Veterinary Medical Association 158(9), 1542–47.
as the upper limit of the oldest age class, with some Ducos, P. 1968. L’Origine des animaux domestiques en Palestine
very elderly cattle quoted; there are quite fre- (Travaux de l’Université de Bordeaux 6). Bordeaux: Delmas.
Ellenburger, W. and Baum, H. 1896; 1903; 1943; 1974. Handbuch der
quent references in the texts to cattle in the early to
Vergleichenden Anatomie der Haustiere. Auflage, Berlin.
mid teens, and sometimes the late teens. The data Getty, R. 1975. Sisson and Grossman’s Anatomy of the Domestic
collated during the course of this literature survey, Animals. London: Saunders.
Grant, A. 1975. The animal bones, pp. 262–287 in Cunliffe, B,
which total 42 age estimates, is further discussed and Excavations at Portchester Castle, I (Reports of the Research
compared with that derived from analysis of eruption, Committee 33). London: Society of Antiquaries of London.
Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology

Grant, A. 1982. The use of tooth wear as a guide to the age of domes-
wear and dental morphology in the Halle Museum tic ungulates, pp. 91–108 in Wilson, R., Grigson, C. and Payne, S.
cattle, a collection dating mainly from 1880 to 1930 Ageing and Sexing Animal Bones from Archaeological Sites (Bri-
tish Archaeological Reports, British Series 109). Oxford:
(Jones and Sadler 2012). This indicates that the spread
Archaeopress.
of stages and ages from the published sources outlined Grigson, C. 1982. Sex and age determination of some bones and teeth
above are usefully broad and fit well with the museum of domestic cattle: a review of the literature, pp. 7–23 in Wilson,
R., Grigson, C. and Payne, S. Ageing and Sexing Animal Bones
results. Much more confidence can now be placed on from Archaeological Sites (British Archaeological Reports, British
making age estimates for young cattle, through both Series 109). Oxford: Archaeopress.
Grimsdell, J. J. R. 1973. Age determination of the African Buffalo,
the added data points arising from this study (Tables 2 Syncerus caffer Sparman. East African Wildlife Journal 11, 31–
to 7) and the information about variability. Moreover, 53.
Habermehl, K. H. 1961, 1975. Die Alterbestimmung bei Haustieren,
the information given about the age of older cattle,
Pelztieren un beim jagdbaren Wildtieren. Berlin: Paul Parey.
combined with the more detailed stages for older cattle Hagen, A. 1992. A Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Food Processing and
given in Jones and Sadler (2012), should, it is hoped, Consumption. Pinner: Anglo-Saxon Books.
Hall, S. 1989. Running wild, Part 2 of an account of the Chillingham
give the archaeologist greater confidence in presenting herd. The Ark 16(2), 46–49.
and interpreting herd structures, so that differences Halstead, P. 1985. A study of mandibular teeth from Romano-British
contexts at Maxey, pp. 219-224 in Pryor, F., and French, C. (eds)
between sites and periods in husbandry patterns can be Archaeology and Environment in the Lower Welland Valley, Vol 1
revealed. (East Anglian Archaeology 27). Norwich: East Anglian
Archaeology.
Acknowledgements Healy, W. B. and Ludwig, T. G. 1965. Wear on sheep’s teeth. I. The
role of ingested soil. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research
The authors are grateful to many people for help with 8, 737–52.
this work, and these are shown in the methods and Hillson, S. 1986. Teeth. Cambridge University Press.
reference material paper (Jones and Sadler 2012). Jarvis, C. and Morris, D. 1960. Longevity survey of mammals exhibited
at the London Zoo. International Zoo Yearbook 2, 299.
Jones, G. G. 2006. Tooth eruption and wear observed in live sheep
References from Butser Hill, the Cotswold Farm Park and five farms in the
Alderson, L. 1997. A Breed of Distinction. Shrewsbury: Countrywide Pentland Hills, UK, pp. 155–78 in Ruscillo, D. (ed.), Recent
Livestock Ltd. Advances in Ageing and Sexing Animal Bones (Proceedings of the
Andrews, A. H. 1982. The use of dentition to age young cattle, pp. 141– 9th ICAZ Conference, Durham 2002). Oxford: Oxbow Books.
53 in Wilson, R., Grigson, C. and Payne, S., Ageing and Sexing Jones, G. G. 2007. Variations of mandibular tooth accessory pillars,
Animal Bones from Archaeological Sites (British Archaeological and metrical and morphological differences between M1 and M2,
Reports, British Series 109). Oxford: Archaeopress. in the cattle associated with the chariot burial. Appendix 11,
Andrews, A. H. and Wedderburn, R. W. M. 1973. The relationship of pp. 615–25 in Brown, F. C., Howard-Davis, C., Brennand, M.,
age to first molar tooth development in a group of cross-bred Boyle, A., Evans, T., O’Connor, S., Spence, A., Heawood, R.
steers. British Veterinary Journal 129, 512–17. and Lupton, A. The Archaeology of the A1 (M) Darrington to
Bates, A., Jones, G. G. and Orton, D. C. 2007. Animal bone from site Dishforth DBFO Road Scheme. Oxford: Oxford Archaeology
D Ferry Fryston, pp. 148–50, 326–37, 337–51, Appendix 11, 618–35 North, Lancaster Imprints.
in Brown, F. C., Howard-Davis, C., Brennand, M., Boyle, A., Evans, Jones, G. G. 2011. Cattle teeth: differences between first and second molars,
T., O’Connor, S., Spence, A., Heawood, R. and Lupton, A., The and variability in the accessory pillar. BoneCommons, Item #1808,
Archaeology of the A1 (M) Darrington to Dishforth DBFO Road http://alexandriaarchive.org/bonecommons/items/show/1808.
Scheme. Oxford: Oxford Archaeology North, Lancaster Imprints. Jones, G. G. and Sadler, P. 2012. Age at death in cattle: methods, older
Blood, D. C., Studdert, V. P. and Gay, C. C. 2007. Saunders Com- cattle and known-age reference material. Environmental
prehensive Veterinary Dictionary. Edinburgh: Saunders Elzevier. Archaeology 17, 11-28
Brown, G. T. 1860; 1902; 1913; 1949; 1960. Dentition as Indicative of the Kahn, C. M. (ed.) 2005. The Merck Veterinary Manual. New Jersey,
Age of Animals of the Farm. London: Murray. USA: Whitehouse Station.
Brown, W. A. B., Christofferson, P. V., Massler, M. and Weiss, M. B. Legge, A. J. 1992. Excavations at Grimes Graves, Norfolk, 1972–1976,
1960. Postnatal tooth development in cattle. American Journal of Fascicule 4: Animals, Environment and the Bronze Age Economy.
Veterinary Research 21, 7–34. London: British Museum Press.

Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1 9

 Jones and Sadler Published sources for age at death in cattle

Legge, A. J. and Dorrington, E. J. 1985. The animal bones, pp. 122–33 Silver, I. A. 1969. The ageing of domestic animals, pp. 283–302 in
in France, N. E. and Gobels, B. M., The Romano-British Temple at Brothwell, D. R. and Higgs, E. S. (eds), Science in Archaeology.
Harlow, Essex. West Essex Archaeological Group. London: Thames and Hudson.
Meitinger, B. 1983. Die Zahnalterbestimmung beim Rind in ihrer Simon, C. 1929. Untersuchungen über den Bau der Zähne beim Rind
Bedeutung für die Osteoarchäologie. Eine Literaturstudie. Institut und Altersbestimmung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der
für Paläoanatomie, Domestikationsforschung und Geschichte der Gebissanomalien. Unpublished PhD thesis, Science Faculty of the
Tiermedizin. Munich University. United Friedrichs University, Halle-Wittenberg.
Miller, W. C. and Robertson, E. D. S. 1934; 1943; 1959. Practical Simonds, J. B. 1854. The Age of the Ox, Sheep and Pig. London: Orr & Co.
Animal Husbandry. Edinburgh and London: Oliver & Boyd. Simonds, J. B. 1855. On the teeth of the ox, sheep, and pig, as indicative
O’Connor, T. P. 1991. Bones from 46–54 Fishergate, The Archaeology of of the age of the animal. Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society
York 15/4. London: Council for British Archaeology.
of England 15, 276–362.
Odlum, G. 1950. Longevity in dairy cattle. Farmers Weekly, 14 April 1950, 54.
Sisson, S. and Grossman, J. D. 1910; 1938; 1953. The Anatomy of the
Parker, J. B., Bayley, N. D., Fohrman, M. F. and Plowman, R. D.
Domestic Animals. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co.
1960. Factors influencing dairy cattle longevity. Journal of Dairy
Science 43, 401–09. Toulson, S. 1977. The Drovers Roads of Wales. London: Whittet Books.
Payne, S. 1984. The use of early 19th century data in ageing cattle Wilson, R. 1994. Mortality patterns, animal husbandry and marketing
mandibles from archaeological sites, and the relationship between in and around medieval and post-medieval Oxford, pp. 103–
the eruption of M3 and P4. Circaea 2, 77–82. 15, in Hall, A. and Kenward, H. K., Urban-Rural Conne-
Rackham, J. 1986. A comparison of methods of age determination xions: Perspectives from Environmental Archaeology. Oxford:
from the mandibular dentition of an archaeological sample of Oxbow.
Published by Maney Publishing (c) Association of Environmental Archaeology

cattle, pp. 149–68 in Cruwys, E. and Foley, R. A. (eds), Teeth and Zeitzschmann, O., Acherknecht, E. and Grau, H. 1943; 1974.
Anthropology (British Archaeological Reports International Series Ellenburger-Baum. Handbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie der
291). Oxford: Archaeopress. Haustiere. Berlin: Springer Verlag.

10 Environmental Archaeology 2012 VOL 17 NO 1