Discrete Mathematics

(Proof Techniques)

Pramod Ganapathi
Department of Computer Science
State University of New York at Stony Brook

March 21, 2022

What is a proof?

Definition
A proof is a method for establishing the truth of a statement.
Rigor Truth type Field Truth teller
0 Word of God Religion God/Priests
1 Authoritative truth Business/School Boss/Teacher
2 Legal truth Judiciary Law/Judge/Law makers
3 Philosophical truth Philosophy Plausible argument
4 Scientific truth Physical sciences Experiments/Observations
5 Statistical truth Statistics Data sampling
6 Mathematical truth Mathematics Logical deduction
What is a mathematical proof?

Definition
A mathematical proof is a verification for establishing the truth
of a proposition by a chain of logical deductions from a set of
axioms
Concepts
1. Proposition
Covered in sufficient depth in logic
2. Axiom
An axiom is a proposition that is assumed to be true
Example: For mathematical quantities a and b, if a = b, then
b=a
3. Logical deduction
We call this process – the axiomatic method
We will cover several proof techniques in this chapter
Why care for mathematical proofs?

The current world ceases to function without math proofs

(My belief) Reduction tree showing subjects that possibly could
be expressed or understood in terms of other subjects
Humanities

Psychology

Biology

Chemistry

Physics

Mathematics CS
Methods of mathematical proof

Statements Method of proof

Proving existential statements Constructive proof
(Disproving universal statements) Non-constructive proof
Proving universal statements Direct proof
(Disproving existential statements) Proof by mathematical induction
Well-ordering principle
Proof by exhaustion
Proof by cases
Proof by contradiction
Proof by contraposition
Computer-aided proofs
Introduction to number theory

Definition
Number theory is the branch of mathematics that deals with
the study of integers
Numbers Set
Natural numbers (N) {1, 2, 3, . . .}
Whole numbers (W) {0, 1, 2, . . .}
Integers (Z) {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . .}
Even numbers (E) {0, ±2, ±4, ±6, . . .}
Odd numbers (O) {±1, ±3, ±5, ±7, . . .}
Prime numbers (P) {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, . . .}
Composite numbers (C) {Natural numbers (> 1) that are not prime}
Rational numbers (Q) {Ratio of integers with non-zero denominator}
Real numbers (R) {Numbers with infinite decimal representation}
Irrational numbers (I) {Real numbers that are not rational}
Complex numbers (S) {real + i · real}
Even and odd numbers

Definitions
An integer n is even iff n equals twice some integer;
Formally, for any integer n,

n is even ⇔ n = 2k for some integer k

An integer n is odd iff n equals twice some integer plus 1;

Formally, for any integer n,

n is odd ⇔ n = 2k + 1 for some integer k

Examples
Even numbers:
0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, . . .
Odd numbers:
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 33, 35, . . .
Rational and irrational numbers

Definitions
A real number r is rational iff it can be expressed as a ratio of
two integers with a nonzero denominator;
Formally, if r is a real number, then
a
r is rational ⇔ ∃ integers a, b such that r = and b 6= 0
b
A real number r is irrational iff it is not rational
Examples
Rational numbers:
10, −56.47, 10/13, 0, −17/9, 0.121212 . . . , −91, . . .
Irrational numbers:
√ √ √ √2
2, 3, 2 , π, φ, e, π 2 , e2 , 21/3 , log2 3, . . .
Open problems: √
It’s not known if π + e, πe, π/e, π e , π 2 , and ln π are irrational
Divisibility
Definitions
If n and d are integers, then n is divisible by d, denoted by d|n,
iff n equals d times some integer and d 6= 0;
Formally, if n and d are integers

d|n ⇔ ∃ integer k such that n = dk and d 6= 0

Instead of “n is divisible by d,” we can say:

n is a multiple of d, or
d is a factor of n, or
d is a divisor of n, or
d divides n (denoted by d|n)
Note: d|n is different from d/n
Examples
Divides: 1|1, 10|10, 2|4, 3|24, 7| − 14, . . .
Does not divide: 2 - 1, 10 - 1, 10 - 2, 7 - 10, 10 - 7, 10 - −7, . . .
Quotient-Remainder theorem

Theorem
Given any integer n and a positive integer d, there exists an
integer q and a whole number r such that

n = qd + r and r ∈ [0, d − 1]
Examples
Let n = 6 and d ∈ [1, 7]
Num. (n) Divisor (d) Theorem Quotient (q) Rem. (r)
6 1 6=6×1+0 6 0
6 2 6=3×2+0 3 0
6 3 6=2×3+0 2 0
6 4 6=1×4+2 1 2
6 5 6=1×5+1 1 1
6 6 6=1×6+0 1 0
6 7 6=0×7+6 0 6
Prime numbers
Num. Factorization Prime?
2 2=1×2=2×1 3
3 3=1×3=3×1 3
4 4=1×4=4×1=2×2 7
5 5=1×5=5×1 3
6 6=1×6=6×1=2×3=3×2 7
7 7=1×7=7×1 3
8 8=1×8=8×1=2×4=4×2 7
9 9=1×9=9×1=3×3 7
10 10 = 1 × 10 = 10 × 1 = 2 × 5 = 5 × 2 7
11 11 = 1 × 11 = 11 × 1 3
12 12 = 1 × 12 = 12 × 1 = 2 × 6 = 6 × 2 = 3 × 4 = 4 × 3 7
13 13 = 1 × 13 = 13 × 1 3
14 14 = 1 × 14 = 14 × 1 = 2 × 7 = 7 × 2 7
15 15 = 1 × 15 = 15 × 1 = 3 × 5 = 5 × 3 7
16 16 = 1 × 16 = 16 × 1 = 2 × 8 = 8 × 2 = 4 × 4 7
17 17 = 1 × 17 = 17 × 1 3
Prime numbers

Definitions
A natural number n is prime iff n > 1 and it has exactly two
positive divisors: 1 and n
A natural number n is composite iff n > 1 and it has at least
three positive divisors, two of which are 1 and n
A natural number n is a perfect square iff it has an odd number
of divisors
A natural number n is not a perfect square iff it has an even
number of divisors
Examples
Perfect squares: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, . . .
Not perfect squares: 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, . . .
Prime numbers

Definitions
A natural number n is prime iff n > 1 and for all natural
numbers r and s, if n = rs, then either r or s equals n;
Formally, for each natural number n with n > 1,

n is prime ⇔ ∀ natural numbers r and s, if n = rs

then n = r or n = s

A natural number n is composite iff n > 1 and n = rs for some

natural numbers r and s with 1 < r < n and 1 < s < n;
Formally, for each natural number n with n > 1,

n is composite ⇔ ∃ natural numbers r and s, if n = rs

and 1 < r < n and 1 < s < n
Unique prime factorization of natural numbers
n Unique prime n Unique prime n Unique prime
factorization factorization factorization
2 2 16 24 30 2×3×5
3 3 17 17 31 31
4 22 18 2 × 32 32 25
5 5 19 19 33 3 × 11
6 2×3 20 22 × 5 34 2 × 17
7 7 21 3×7 35 5×7
8 23 22 2 × 11 36 22 × 32
9 32 23 23 37 37
10 2×5 24 23 × 3 38 2 × 19
11 11 25 52 39 3 × 13
12 22 × 3 26 2 × 13 40 23 × 5
13 13 27 33 41 41
14 2×7 28 22 × 7 42 2×3×7
15 3×5 29 29 43 43

What is the pattern?

Unique prime factorization of natural numbers

Definition
Any natural number n > 1 can be uniquely represented as a
product of as follows:

n = pe11 × pe22 × · · · × pekk

such that p1 < p2 < · · · < pk are primes in [2, n], e1 , e2 , . . . , ek

are whole number exponents, and k is a natural number.
The theorem is also called fundamental theorem of arithmetic
The form is called standard factored form
Some terms

Definitions
Absolute
(
value of real number x, denoted by |x| is
x if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x if x < 0
Triangle inequality. For all real numbers x and y,
|x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|
Floor of a real number x, denoted by bxc is
bxc = unique integer n such that n ≤ x < n + 1
bxc = n ⇔ n ≤ x < n + 1
Ceiling of a real number x, denoted by dxe is
dxe = unique integer n such that n − 1 < x ≤ n
dxe = n ⇔ n − 1 < x ≤ n
Some terms

Definitions
Given an integer n and a natural number d,
n div d = integer quotient obtained when n is divided by d,
n mod d = whole number remainder obtained when n is divided
by d.
Symbolically,
n div d = q and n mod d = r ⇔ n = dq + r
where q and r are integers and 0 ≤ r < d.
Properties of a proof

Properties
Concise (not unnecessarily long)
Clear (not ambiguous)
Complete (no missing intermediate steps)
Logical (every statement logically follows)
Rigorous (uses mathematical expressions)
Convincing (does not raise questions)
The way a proof is presented might be different from the way
the proof is discovered.
Direct Proof
Even + odd = odd

Proposition
Sum of an even integer and an odd integer is odd.
Even + odd = odd

Proposition
Sum of an even integer and an odd integer is odd.
Proof
Suppose a is even and b is odd. Then
a+b
= (2m) + b (defn. of even, a = 2m for integer m)
= (2m) + (2n + 1) (defn. of odd, b = 2n + 1 for integer n)
= 2(m + n) + 1 (taking 2 as common factor)
= 2p + 1 (p = m + n and addition is closed on integers)
= odd (defn. of odd)
Problems for practice

Prove the following propositions:

Even + even = even
Even + odd = odd
Odd + odd = even
Even × integer = even
Odd × odd = odd
n is odd ⇒ n2 is odd

Proposition
The square of an odd integer is odd.
n is odd ⇒ n2 is odd

Proposition
The square of an odd integer is odd.
Proof
Prove: If n is odd, then n2 is odd.
n is odd
=⇒ n = (2k + 1) (defn. of odd, k is an integer)
=⇒ n2 = (2k + 1)2 (squaring on both sides)
=⇒ n2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 (expanding the binomial)
=⇒ n2 = 2(2k 2 + 2k) + 1 (factoring 2 from first two terms)
=⇒ n2 = 2j + 1 (let j = 2k 2 + 2k)
(j is an integer as mult. and add. are closed on integers)
=⇒ n2 is odd (defn. of odd)
Odd = difference of squares
Proposition
Every odd integer is equal to the difference between the squares
of two integers
Odd = difference of squares
Proposition
Every odd integer is equal to the difference between the squares
of two integers
Workout
Write a formal statement.
∀ integer k, ∃ integers m, n such that
(2k + 1) = m2 − n2 .
Try out a few examples.
1 = 12 − 02 − 1 = 02 − (−1)2
3 = 22 − 12 − 3 = (−1)2 − (−2)2
5 = 32 − 22 − 5 = (−2)2 − (−3)2
7 = 42 − 32 − 7 = (−3)2 − (−4)2
Find a pattern.
(k + 1)2 − k 2 = (k 2 + 2k + 1) − k 2 = 2k + 1 = odd
Odd = difference of squares

Proposition
Every odd integer is equal to the difference between the squares
of two integers.
Proof
Any odd integer can be written as (2k + 1) for some integer k.
We rewrite the expression as follows.
2k + 1
= (k 2 + 2k + 1) − k 2 (adding and subtracting k 2 )
2
= (k + 1) − k 2 (write the first term as sum)
=m −n2 2 (set m = k + 1 and n = k)
The term m is an integer as addition is closed on integers.
So, every odd integer can be written as the difference between
two squares.
Odd = difference of squares

k 2 cells (k + 1)2 cells

k
If a|b and b|c, then a|c

Proposition
(Transitivity) For integers a, b, c, if a|b and b|c, then a|c.
If a|b and b|c, then a|c

Proposition
(Transitivity) For integers a, b, c, if a|b and b|c, then a|c.
Proof
Formal statement.
∀ integers a, b, c, if a|b and b|c, then a|c.
c
= bn (b|c and definition of divisibility)
= (am)n (a|b and definition of divisibility)
= a(mn) (multiplication is associative)
= ak (let k = mn and multiplication is closed on integers)
=⇒ a|c (definition of divisibility and k is an integer)
Summation

Proposition
1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = n(n + 1)/2.
Summation

Proposition
1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = n(n + 1)/2.
Proof
Formal statement. ∀ natural number n, prove that
1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = n(n + 1)/2.
S = 1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n
=⇒ S = n + (n − 1) + (n − 2) + · · · + 1
(addition on integers is commutative)
=⇒ 2S = (n + 1) + (n + 1) + (n + 1) + · · · + (n + 1)
| {z }
n terms
(adding the previous two equations)
=⇒ 2S = n(n + 1) (simplifying)
=⇒ S = n(n + 1)/2 (divide both sides by 2)
Proof by Negation
2999 + 1

Proposition
2999 + 1 is prime.
2999 + 1

Proposition
2999 + 1 is prime.
Workout
Trying out a few examples is not possible here.
When is a number prime?
A number that is not composite is prime.
When is a number composite?
A number is composite if we can factorize it.
How do you check if a number can be factorized?
Check whether the number satisfies an algebraic formula that
can be factored.
It seems like the given number can be represented as a3 + b3 .
2999 + 1

Proposition
2999 + 1 is prime.
Solution
False! 2999 + 1 is composite.
2999 + 1
= (2333 )3 + 13 (terms represented as cubes)
= a3 + b3 (set a = 2333 , b = 1)
= (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 ) (factorize a3 + b3 )
= (2333 + 1)(2666 − 2333 + 1) (substituting a and b values)
= composite
n2 + 3n + 2

Proposition
There is a natural number n such that n2 + 3n + 2 is prime.
n2 + 3n + 2

Proposition
There is a natural number n such that n2 + 3n + 2 is prime.
Workout
Write a formal statement.
∃ natural number n such that n2 + 3n + 2 is prime.
Try out a few examples.
12 + 3(1) + 2 = 6 composite
22 + 3(2) + 2 = 12 composite
2
3 + 3(3) + 2 = 20 composite
42 + 3(4) + 2 = 30 composite
2
5 + 3(5) + 2 = 42 composite
Find a pattern.
It seems like n2 + 3n + 2 is always composite.
n2 + 3n + 2

Proposition
There is a natural number n such that n2 + 3n + 2 is prime.
Solution
False!
Proving that the given statement is false is equivalent to proving
that its negation is true.
Negation. ∀ natural number n, n2 + 3n + 2 is composite.
n2 + 3n + 2
= n2 + n + 2n + 2 (split 3n)
= n(n + 1) + 2(n + 1) (taking common factors)
= (n + 1)(n + 2) (distributive law)
= composite (n + 1 > 1 and n + 2 > 1)
Polynomial root

Proposition
If x3 − 7x2 + x − 7 = 0, then x = 7.
Polynomial root

Proposition
If x3 − 7x2 + x − 7 = 0, then x = 7.
Proof
Substitute x = 7 in the expression to get 73 −7(72 )+7−7 = 0.
As x satisfies the equation, x = 7.
Polynomial root

Proposition
If x3 − 7x2 + x − 7 = 0, then x = 7.
Proof
Substitute x = 7 in the expression to get 73 −7(72 )+7−7 = 0.
As x satisfies the equation, x = 7.

Incorrect! What’s wrong?

Polynomial root

Proposition
If x3 − 7x2 + x − 7 = 0, then x = 7.
Polynomial root

Proposition
If x3 − 7x2 + x − 7 = 0, then x = 7.
Proof
False!
A polynomial equation of degree n has n roots.
So, the polynomial equation x3 − 7x2 + x − 7 = 0 has 3 roots.
We factorize the expression.
x3 − 7x2 + x − 7
= x2 (x − 7) + (x − 7) (taking x2 factor from first two terms)
= (x − 7)(x2 + 1) (taking (x − 7) factor)
= (x − 7)(x + i)(x − i) (factorizing (x2 + 1))
(this is because (x + i)(x − i) = (x2 − i2 ) = (x2 + 1))
So, the three √roots to the equation
√ x3 − 7x2 + x − 7 = 0 are
x = 7, x = − −1, and x = −1.
Polynomial root

Proposition
If x3 − 7x2 + x − 7 = 0, then x = 7.
Proof (continued)
Exactly one of the three roots is x = 7. Hence, we have
x = 7 =⇒ x3 − 7x2 + x − 7 = 0
x3 − 7x2 + x − 7 = 0 =⇒
6 x=7
Polynomial root

Proposition
If x is a real number and x3 − 7x2 + x − 7 = 0, then x = 7.
Polynomial root

Proposition
If x is a real number and x3 − 7x2 + x − 7 = 0, then x = 7.
Proof
We factorize the expression.
x3 − 7x2 + x − 7
= x2 (x − 7) + (x − 7) (taking x2 factor from first two terms)
= (x − 7)(x2 + 1) (taking (x − 7) factor)
= (x − 7)(x + i)(x − i) (factorizing (x2 + 1))
(this is because (x + i)(x − i) = (x2 − i2 ) = (x2 + 1))
So, the three √roots to the equation
√ x3 − 7x2 + x − 7 = 0 are
x = 7, x = − −1, and x = −1.
As x has to be a real number, x = 7.
Proof by Counterexample
a=b

Proposition
For all real numbers a and b, if a2 = b2 , then a = b.
a=b

Proposition
For all real numbers a and b, if a2 = b2 , then a = b.
Solution
False! Counterexample: a = 1 and b = −1.
In this example, a2 = b2 but a 6= b.
a=b

Proposition
For all real numbers a and b, if a2 = b2 , then a = b.
Solution
False! Counterexample: a = 1 and b = −1.
In this example, a2 = b2 but a 6= b.
Proposition
For all nonzero integers a and b, if a|b and b|a, then a = b.
a=b

Proposition
For all real numbers a and b, if a2 = b2 , then a = b.
Solution
False! Counterexample: a = 1 and b = −1.
In this example, a2 = b2 but a 6= b.
Proposition
For all nonzero integers a and b, if a|b and b|a, then a = b.
Solution
False! Counterexample: a = 1 and b = −1.
In this example, a|b and b|a, however, a 6= b.
2n + 1
Proposition
2n + 1 is prime for any natural number n.
2n + 1
Proposition
2n + 1 is prime for any natural number n.
Workout
Write a formal statement.
∀ natural number n, 2n + 1 is prime.
Try out a few examples.
21 + 1 = 3 prime
2
2 +1=5 prime
3 2
2 +1=9=3 composite
Find a pattern.
2n + 1 can be either prime or composite.
2n + 1
Proposition
2n + 1 is prime for any natural number n.
Workout
Write a formal statement.
∀ natural number n, 2n + 1 is prime.
Try out a few examples.
21 + 1 = 3 prime
2
2 +1=5 prime
3 2
2 +1=9=3 composite
Find a pattern.
2n + 1 can be either prime or composite.
Solution
False! Counterexample: n = 3
When n = 3, then 2n + 1 = 23 + 1 = 9 = 32 is composite.
n2 + n + 41
Proposition
n2 + n + 41 is prime for any whole number n.
n2 + n + 41
Proposition
n2 + n + 41 is prime for any whole number n.
Workout
Write a formal statement.
∀ whole number n, n2 + n + 41 is prime.
Try out a few examples.
02 + 0 + 41 = 41 prime
2
1 + 1 + 41 = 43 prime
2
2 + 2 + 41 = 47 prime
32 + 3 + 41 = 53 prime
2
4 + 4 + 41 = 61 prime
2
5 + 5 + 41 = 71 prime
Find a pattern.
It seems like n2 + n + 41 is always prime.
n2 + n + 41

Proposition
n2 + n + 41 is prime for any whole number n.
n2 + n + 41

Proposition
n2 + n + 41 is prime for any whole number n.
Solution
False!
Formal statement. ∀ whole numbers n, n2 + n + 41 is prime.
Counterexample: 41.
(412 + 41 + 41 = 41(41 + 1 + 1) = 41 × 43)
Another counterexample: 40.
(402 +40+41 = 40(40+1)+41 = 40×41+41 = 41(40+1) =
41 × 41)
x/(y + z) + y/(x + z) + z/(x + y)

Proposition
x y z
y+z + x+z + x+y = 4 has no positive integer solutions.
x/(y + z) + y/(x + z) + z/(x + y)

Proposition
x y z
y+z + x+z + x+y = 4 has no positive integer solutions.

Workout
Write a formal statement.
∀ x, y, z ∈ N, x/(y + z) + y/(x + z) + z/(x + y) 6= 4.
Try out a few examples.
(x, y, z) x/(y + z) + y/(x + z) + z/(x + y) = 4 ?
(1, 1, 1) 1/2 + 1/2 + 1/2 = 1.5 6= 4
(1, 2, 1) 1/3 + 2/2 + 1/3 = 1.666 · · · =
6 4
(1, 2, 3) 1/5 + 2/4 + 3/3 = 1.7 6= 4
(1, 10, 100) 1/110 + 10/101 + 100/11 = 9.199 · · · = 6 4
Find a pattern.
It seems like there are no +ve integers satisfying the property.
x/(y + z) + y/(x + z) + z/(x + y)

Proposition
x y z
y+z + x+z + x+y = 4 has no positive integer solutions.

Solution
False!
Counterexample:

x = 15447680210874616644195131501991983748566432566
9565431700026634898253202035277999
y = 36875131794129999827197811565225474825492979968
971970996283137471637224634055579
z = 37361267792869725786125260237139015281653755816
1613618621437993378423467772036
121111111111111111111111111111111111111111
Proposition
· · · 1} is composite.
For whole numbers n, 12 |11 {z
n terms
121111111111111111111111111111111111111111
Proposition
· · · 1} is composite.
For whole numbers n, 12 |11 {z
n terms

Workout
Try out a few examples.
(n, Number) Factorization
(0, 12) 3×4
(1, 121) 11 × 11
(2, 1211) 7 × 173
(3, 12111) 33 × 367
(4, 121111) 281 × 431
(5, 1211111) 253 × 4787
Find a pattern.
It seems like the sequence of numbers is composite.
121111111111111111111111111111111111111111

Proposition
For whole numbers n ≥ 0, 12 |11 {z
· · · 1} is composite.
n terms

Solution
False!
Smallest counterexample: n = 136.

12,1111111111, 1111111111, 1111111111, 1111111111,

1111111111, 1111111111, 1111111111, 1111111111,
1111111111, 1111111111, 1111111111, 1111111111,
1111111111, 111111 is prime.
Proof by Contraposition
n2 is odd ⇒ n is odd

Proposition
If n2 is odd, then n is odd.
n2 is odd ⇒ n is odd

Proposition
If n2 is odd, then n is odd.
Proof
Seems very difficult to prove directly.
Contraposition: If n is even, then n2 is even.
n is even
=⇒ n = 2k (defn. of even, k is an integer)
2
=⇒ n = (2k) 2 (squaring on both sides)
=⇒ n2 = 4k 2 (simplifying)
2
=⇒ n = 2(2k ) 2 (factoring 2)
=⇒ n2 = 2j (let j = 2k 2 )
(j is an integer as mult. is closed on integers)
2
=⇒ n is even (defn. of even)
n is odd ⇔ n2 is odd

Proposition
The square of an integer is odd if and only if the integer itself
is odd.
n is odd ⇔ n2 is odd

Proposition
The square of an integer is odd if and only if the integer itself
is odd.
Workout
Write a formal statement.
∀ integer n, n2 is odd ⇔ n is odd.
Try out a few examples.
Odd numbers Even numbers
(1, 1) (0, 0)
(3, 9) (2, 4)
(5, 25) (4, 16)
(7, 49) (6, 36)
Pattern. It seems that the proposition is true.
n is odd ⇔ n2 is odd

Proposition
The square of an integer is odd if and only if the integer itself
is odd.
Proof
There are two parts in the proof.
1. Prove that if n is odd, then n2 is odd.
Direct proof
2. Prove that if n2 is odd, then n is odd.
Proof by contraposition
n is odd ⇔ n2 is odd

Corollary
Prove that the fourth power of an integer is odd if and only if
the integer itself is odd.
n is odd ⇔ n2 is odd

Corollary
Prove that the fourth power of an integer is odd if and only if
the integer itself is odd.
Proof
We have
n is odd ⇔ n2 is odd (previous theorem)
=⇒ n2 is odd ⇔ n4 is odd (previous theorem used on n2 )
=⇒ n is odd ⇔ n4 is odd (transitivity of biconditional)
n is odd ⇔ n2 is odd

Corollary
Prove that the fourth power of an integer is odd if and only if
the integer itself is odd.
Proof
We have
n is odd ⇔ n2 is odd (previous theorem)
=⇒ n2 is odd ⇔ n4 is odd (previous theorem used on n2 )
=⇒ n is odd ⇔ n4 is odd (transitivity of biconditional)
Problem
Suppose k is a whole number. Prove that an integer n is odd
k
if and only if n2 is odd.
n2 is even =⇒ n is even

Proposition
For all integers n, if n2 is even, then n is even.
n2 is even =⇒ n is even

Proposition
For all integers n, if n2 is even, then n is even.
Proof
Contrapositive. For all integers, if n is odd, then n2 is odd.
n = 2k + 1 (definition of odd number)
2
=⇒ n = (2k + 1) 2 (squaring both sides)
=⇒ n2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 (expand)
2 2
=⇒ n = 2(2k + 2k) + 1 (taking 2 out from two terms)
=⇒ n2 = 2m + 1 (set m = 2k 2 + 2k)
(m is an integer as multiplication is closed on integers)
2
=⇒ n = odd (definition of odd number)
Hence, the proposition is true.
Polynomial root

Proposition
If x3 − 7x2 + x − 7 = 0, then x 6= 10.
Polynomial root

Proposition
If x3 − 7x2 + x − 7 = 0, then x 6= 10.
Proof
Contrapositive. If x = 10, then x3 − 7x2 + x − 7 6= 0
Substitute x = 10 in the expression.
We get 103 − 7(102 ) + 10 − 7 = 1000 − 700 + 10 − 7 = 303 6= 0.
That is, x = 10 does not satisfy x3 − 7x2 + x − 7 = 0 equation.
Hence, the contraposition is correct which implies that the orig-
inal statement is correct.
n - ab =⇒ n - a and n - b

Proposition
Let a, b, n ∈ Z. If n - ab, then n - a and n - b.
n - ab =⇒ n - a and n - b

Proposition
Let a, b, n ∈ Z. If n - ab, then n - a and n - b.
Proof
Contrapositive. Let a, b, n ∈ Z. If n|a or n|b, then n|ab.
n|a
=⇒ a = nc (for some c ∈ Z)
=⇒ ab = (nc)b = n(cb) (multiply by b)
=⇒ n|ab (definition of divisibility)
n|b
=⇒ b = nd (for some d ∈ Z)
=⇒ ab = a(nd) = n(ad) (multiply by a)
=⇒ n|ab (definition of divisibility)
Hence, the proposition is true.
n2 − 6n + 5 is even =⇒ n is odd

Proposition
Let n ∈ Z. If n2 − 6n + 5 is even, then n is odd.
n2 − 6n + 5 is even =⇒ n is odd

Proposition
Let n ∈ Z. If n2 − 6n + 5 is even, then n is odd.
Proof
Contrapositive. If n is even, then n2 − 6n + 5 is odd.
n is even
=⇒ n = 2a for some integer a (defn. of even)
=⇒ n2 − 6n + 5 = (2a)2 − 6(2a) + 5 (substitute n = 2a)
=⇒ n2 − 6n + 5 = 2(2a2 ) − 2(6a) + 2(2) + 1 (simplify)
=⇒ n2 − 6n + 5 = 2(2a2 − 6a + 2) + 1 (take 2 common)
=⇒ n2 − 6n + 5 is odd (defn. of odd)
Hence, the proposition is true.
xy > 9 =⇒ x > 3 or y > 3

Proposition
For reals x and y, if xy > 9, then either x > 3 or y > 3.
xy > 9 =⇒ x > 3 or y > 3

Proposition
For reals x and y, if xy > 9, then either x > 3 or y > 3.
Proof
Contrapositive. If x ≤ 3 and y ≤ 3, then xy ≤ 9.
Suppose x ≤ 3 and y ≤ 3.
=⇒ xy ≤ 9 (multiply the two inequalities)
Hence, the proposition is true.
xy > 9 =⇒ x > 3 or y > 3

Proposition
For reals x and y, if xy > 9, then either x > 3 or y > 3.
Proof
Contrapositive. If x ≤ 3 and y ≤ 3, then xy ≤ 9.
Suppose x ≤ 3 and y ≤ 3.
=⇒ xy ≤ 9 (multiply the two inequalities)
Hence, the proposition is true.

Incorrect! Why?
Nonconstructive Proof
Irrationalirrational can be rational

Proposition
An irrational raised to an irrational power may be rational.
Irrationalirrational can be rational

Proposition
An irrational raised to an irrational power may be rational.
Proof
√
We make use √ of the fact that 2 is irrational.
√ 2
Let x = 2 . Number x is either rational or irrational.
Case 1. If x is rational, then the proposition is true.
Irrational Irrational Rational
√ √ √ √2
2 2 2 = x = rational

Case 2. If x is irrational, then the proposition is true.

Irrational Irrational Rational
√ √2
√ √
2

√ 2 √ √2·√2 √ 2
x 2 x = 2 = 2 = 2 =2
Proof by Contradiction
n2 is even =⇒ n is even

Proposition
For all integers n, if n2 is even, then n is even.
n2 is even =⇒ n is even

Proposition
For all integers n, if n2 is even, then n is even.
Proof
Negation. Suppose there is an integer n such that
n2 is even but n is odd.
n = 2k + 1 (definition of odd number)
2
=⇒ n = (2k + 1) 2 (squaring both sides)
=⇒ n2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 (expand)
=⇒ n2 = 2(2k 2 + 2k) + 1 (taking 2 out from two terms)
=⇒ n2 = 2m + 1 (set m = 2k 2 + 2k)
(m is an integer as multiplication is closed on integers)
2
=⇒ n = odd (definition of odd number)
Contradiction! Hence, the proposition is true.
Greatest integer

Proposition
There is no greatest integer.
Greatest integer

Proposition
There is no greatest integer.
Proof
Negation. Suppose there is a greatest integer N .
Then N ≥ n for every integer n.
Let M = N + 1.
M is an integer since addition is closed on integers.
M > N since M = N + 1.
M is an integer that is greater than N .
So, N is not the greatest integer.
Contradiction! Hence, the proposition is true.
√
2 is irrational
Proposition
√
2 is irrational.
√
2 is irrational
Proposition
√
2 is irrational.
Proof
√
Suppose
√ 2 is the simplest rational.
=⇒ 2 = m/n (m, n have no common factors, n 6= 0)
=⇒ m2 = 2n2 (squaring and simplifying)
2
=⇒ m = even (definition of even)
=⇒ m = even (why?)
=⇒ m = 2k for some integer k (definition of even)
=⇒ (2k)2 = 2n2 (substitute m)
=⇒ n2 = 2k 2 (simplify)
2
=⇒ n = even (definition of even)
=⇒ n = even (why?)
=⇒ m, n are even (previous results)
=⇒ m, n have a common factor of 2 (definition of even)
Contradiction! Hence, the proposition is true.
If p|n, then p - (n + 1).

Proposition
For any integer n and any prime p, if p|n, then p - (n + 1).
If p|n, then p - (n + 1).

Proposition
For any integer n and any prime p, if p|n, then p - (n + 1).
Proof
Negation. Suppose there exists integer n and prime p such that
p|n and p|(n + 1).
p|n implies pr = n for some integer r
p|(n + 1) implies ps = n + 1 for some integer s
Eliminate n to get:
1 = (n + 1) − n = ps − pr = p(s − r)
Hence, p|1, from the definition of divisibility.
As p|1, we have p ≤ 1. (why?)
As p is prime, p > 1.
Contradiction! Hence, the proposition is true.
#Primes is infinite

Proposition
The set of prime numbers is infinite.
#Primes is infinite

Proposition
The set of prime numbers is infinite.
Proof
Negation. Assume that there are only finite number of primes.
Let the set of primes be {p1 , p2 , . . . , pn }
such that (p1 = 2) < (p2 = 3) < · · · < pn .
Consider the number N = p1 p2 p3 . . . pn + 1. Clearly, N > 1.
#Primes is infinite

Proposition
The set of prime numbers is infinite.
Proof
Negation. Assume that there are only finite number of primes.
Let the set of primes be {p1 , p2 , . . . , pn }
such that (p1 = 2) < (p2 = 3) < · · · < pn .
Consider the number N = p1 p2 p3 . . . pn + 1. Clearly, N > 1.
(i) There is a prime that divides N .
Use unique prime factorization theorem.
#Primes is infinite

Proposition
The set of prime numbers is infinite.
Proof
Negation. Assume that there are only finite number of primes.
Let the set of primes be {p1 , p2 , . . . , pn }
such that (p1 = 2) < (p2 = 3) < · · · < pn .
Consider the number N = p1 p2 p3 . . . pn + 1. Clearly, N > 1.
(i) There is a prime that divides N .
Use unique prime factorization theorem.
(ii) No prime divides N .
For all i ∈ [1, n], pi does not divide N as it leaves a remainder
of 1 when it divides N .
So, p1 6 | N , p2 6 | N , . . ., pn 6 | N .
Contradiction! Hence, the proposition is true.
Average

Proposition
If a1 , a2 , . . . , an are n real numbers for natural number n, then
at least one of these n numbers is greater than or equal to the
average of those n numbers.
Average

Proposition
If a1 , a2 , . . . , an are n real numbers for natural number n, then
at least one of these n numbers is greater than or equal to the
average of those n numbers.
Proof
Average A = (a1 + a2 + · · · + an )/n
Negation. ∀i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n} ai < A. That is
We have a1 < A, a2 < A, . . ., an < A
Average

Proposition
If a1 , a2 , . . . , an are n real numbers for natural number n, then
at least one of these n numbers is greater than or equal to the
average of those n numbers.
Proof
Average A = (a1 + a2 + · · · + an )/n
Negation. ∀i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n} ai < A. That is
We have a1 < A, a2 < A, . . ., an < A
Now add all these inequalities to get
(a1 + a2 + · · · + an ) < n × A
=⇒ A > (a1 + a2 + · · · + an )/n on simplification
How is it possible that A is both equal to and greater than
(a1 + a2 + · · · + an )/n
Contradiction! Hence, the proposition is true.
Average
Proposition
If a1 , a2 , . . . , an are n real numbers for natural number n, then
at least one of these n numbers is greater than or equal to the
average of those n numbers.
Average
Proposition
If a1 , a2 , . . . , an are n real numbers for natural number n, then
at least one of these n numbers is greater than or equal to the
average of those n numbers.
Proof
Let amax represent the maximum among the n real numbers.
Let average A = (a1 + a2 + · · · + an )/n. Then
Average
Proposition
If a1 , a2 , . . . , an are n real numbers for natural number n, then
at least one of these n numbers is greater than or equal to the
average of those n numbers.
Proof
Let amax represent the maximum among the n real numbers.
Let average A = (a1 + a2 + · · · + an )/n. Then
a1 = amax − b1 such that b1 ≥ 0
a2 = amax − b2 such that b2 ≥ 0
...
an = amax − bn such that bn ≥ 0
Average
Proposition
If a1 , a2 , . . . , an are n real numbers for natural number n, then
at least one of these n numbers is greater than or equal to the
average of those n numbers.
Proof
Let amax represent the maximum among the n real numbers.
Let average A = (a1 + a2 + · · · + an )/n. Then
a1 = amax − b1 such that b1 ≥ 0
a2 = amax − b2 such that b2 ≥ 0
...
an = amax − bn such that bn ≥ 0
Adding the above equations, we get
(a1 + a2 + · · · + an ) = n × amax − (b1 + b2 + · · · + bn )
=⇒ amax = [(a1 + a2 + · · · + an ) + (b1 + b2 + · · · + bn )]/n
= ((a1 + a2 + · · · + an )/n) + ((b1 + b2 + · · · + bn )/n)
= A + ((b1 + b2 + · · · + bn )/n)
≥A (∀i, bi ≥ 0)
2p − 1 is prime =⇒ p is prime

Proposition
Suppose p ∈ N and p ≥ 2. If 2p − 1 is prime, then p is prime.
2p − 1 is prime =⇒ p is prime

Proposition
Suppose p ∈ N and p ≥ 2. If 2p − 1 is prime, then p is prime.
Proof
Negation. Suppose p is an integer at least 2 such that 2p − 1
is prime and p is composite.
2p − 1 is prime =⇒ p is prime

Proposition
Suppose p ∈ N and p ≥ 2. If 2p − 1 is prime, then p is prime.
Proof
Negation. Suppose p is an integer at least 2 such that 2p − 1
is prime and p is composite.
p is composite
=⇒ p = rs such that both r, s are in the range [2, p − 1]
Then, 2p − 1
= 2rs − 1 (substitute for p)
r s
= (2 ) − 1 (abc = (ab )c )
r )s −1

(2
= (2r − 1) 2r −1 (multiply and divide by (2r − 1) > 0)
= (2r − 1) 1 + (2r )1 + (2r )2 + · · · + (2r )s−1

=m×n (m ≥ 2 and n ≥ 2)
Contradiction! Hence, the proposition is true.
Pythagorean triplets

Proposition
For integers a, b, c, if a2 + b2 = c2 , then a is even or b is even.
Pythagorean triplets

Proposition
For integers a, b, c, if a2 + b2 = c2 , then a is even or b is even.
Proof
Negation. a and b are odd and a2 + b2 = c2 .
Pythagorean triplets

Proposition
For integers a, b, c, if a2 + b2 = c2 , then a is even or b is even.
Proof
Negation. a and b are odd and a2 + b2 = c2 .
a = 2m + 1; b = 2n + 1 (definition of odd)
2
Consider a + b2

= (2m + 1)2 + (2n + 1)2

= 4m2 + 4n2 + 4m + 4n + 2 (expand)
= 4 × (m2 + n2 + m + n) + 2 (take common factor)
≡ 2 mod 4 (remainder is 2 when divided by 4)
Pythagorean triplets

Proposition
For integers a, b, c, if a2 + b2 = c2 , then a is even or b is even.
Proof
Negation. a and b are odd and a2 + b2 = c2 .
a = 2m + 1; b = 2n + 1 (definition of odd)
2
Consider a + b 2

= (2m + 1)2 + (2n + 1)2

= 4m2 + 4n2 + 4m + 4n + 2 (expand)
= 4 × (m2 + n2 + m + n) + 2 (take common factor)
≡ 2 mod 4 (remainder is 2 when divided by 4)
c = 2k or c = 2k + 1 (quotient-remainder theorem)
Consider c2
= 4k 2 or 4(k 2 + k) + 1 (squaring)
6≡ 2 mod 4 (remainder is never 2 when divided by 4)
Contradiction! Hence, the proposition is true.
Proof by Division into Cases
n2 + 3n + 2

Proposition
There is a natural number n such that n2 + 3n + 2 is prime.
Proof 2
False!
Negation. ∀ natural number n, n2 + 3n + 2 is composite.
We prove the negation in two cases:
1. n is even
2. n is odd
n2 + 3n + 2
Proof 2 (continued)
1. Prove that n is even =⇒ n2 + 3n + 2 is composite.
n is even
=⇒ n2 is even and 3n is even (even × integer = even)
2
=⇒ n + 3n + 2 is even (even + even = even)
=⇒ n2 + 3n + 2 is composite (2 is a factor)
2. Prove that n is odd =⇒ n2 + 3n + 2 is composite.
n is odd
=⇒ n2 is odd and 3n is odd (odd × odd = odd)
=⇒ n2 + 3n is even (odd + odd = even)
=⇒ n2 + 3n + 2 is even (even + even = even)
=⇒ n2 + 3n + 2 is composite (2 is a factor)
n2 + 3n + 2
Proof 2 (continued)
1. Prove that n is even =⇒ n2 + 3n + 2 is composite.
n is even
=⇒ n2 is even and 3n is even (even × integer = even)
2
=⇒ n + 3n + 2 is even (even + even = even)
=⇒ n2 + 3n + 2 is composite (2 is a factor)
2. Prove that n is odd =⇒ n2 + 3n + 2 is composite.
n is odd
=⇒ n2 is odd and 3n is odd (odd × odd = odd)
=⇒ n2 + 3n is even (odd + odd = even)
=⇒ n2 + 3n + 2 is even (even + even = even)
=⇒ n2 + 3n + 2 is composite (2 is a factor)
Proposition
Use this approach to prove that for all natural number n,
9n4 − 7n3 + 5n2 − 3n + 10 is composite.
Odd2 = 8m + 1
Proposition
The square of any odd integer has the form 8m + 1 for some
integer m.
Odd2 = 8m + 1
Proposition
The square of any odd integer has the form 8m + 1 for some
integer m.
Proof
n is odd
=⇒ n = 4q or n = 4q + 1 or n = 4q + 2 or n = 4q + 3
(n can be written in one of the four forms
using the quotient-remainder theorem)
But, n 6= 4q and n 6= 4q + 2 (as 4q and 4q + 2 are even)
Hence, n = 4q + 1 or n = 4q + 3.
Case 1. n = 4q + 1.
=⇒ n2 = (4q + 1)2 = 8(2q 2 + q) + 1 = 8m + 1,
where m = 2q 2 + q = integer.
Case 2. n = 4q + 3.
=⇒ n2 = (4q + 3)2 = 8(2q 2 + 3q + 1) + 1 = 8m + 1,
where m = 2q 2 + 3q + 1 = integer.
(x2 − y 2 ) mod 4 6= 2
Proposition
There is no solution in integers to: (x2 − y 2 ) mod 4 = 2.
(x2 − y 2 ) mod 4 6= 2
Proposition
There is no solution in integers to: (x2 − y 2 ) mod 4 = 2.
Proof
Case 1. x is even and y is even.
=⇒ x2 = 4m and y 2 = 4n
=⇒ x2 − y 2 = 4(m − n).
Case 2. x is even and y is odd.
=⇒ x2 = 4m and y 2 = 4n + 1
=⇒ x2 − y 2 = 4(m − n) − 1.
Case 3. x is odd and y is even.
=⇒ x2 = 4m + 1 and y 2 = 4n
=⇒ x2 − y 2 = 4(m − n) + 1.
Case 4. x is odd and y is odd.
=⇒ x2 = 4m + 1 and y 2 = 4n + 1
=⇒ x2 − y 2 = 4(m − n).
In all these four cases, (x2 − y 2 ) mod 4 6= 2.
Problems for practice
Prove or disprove the following propositions:
If more than n pigeons fly into n pigeon holes for natural
number n, then at least one pigeon hole will contain at least two
pigeons.
√ [Hint: Contradiction.]
√ 2 is irrational. [Hint: Contradiction.]
1/
√3 is irrational. [Hint: Contradiction.]
6 is irrational. [Hint: Contradiction.]
log2 3 is irrational. [Hint: Contradiction.]
log2 7 is irrational. [Hint: Contradiction.]
For all integers a and b, if ab is a multiple of 6, then a is even
and b is a multiple of 3. [Hint: Counterexample.]
There are no integers a and b such that 752b = 4183 − 326a.
[Hint: Contradiction.]
an + bn = cn has no integral solutions for all natural numbers
n ≥ 1. [Hint: Counterexample.]
Suppose p ∈ N and p ≥ 2. If 2p − 1 is prime, then p is prime.
[Hint: Contraposition.]
Problems for practice

Prove or disprove the following propositions:

For integers a, b, c, if a2 + b2 = c2 , then a is even or b is even.
[Hint: Contraposition + division into cases.]
There are 1000 consecutive natural numbers that are not perfect
squares. [Hint: Direct proof.]
Consider any ten prime numbers that are greater than or equal
to 15. Then the sum of these prime numbers can never be (1
trillion + 1). [Hint: Direct proof, contradiction.]
Let n be a positive integer. Prove that the closed interval [n, 2n]
contains a power of 2. [Hint: Division into cases (power of 2 and
not a power of 2).]
Problems for practice

Prove or disprove the following propositions:

Rational + rational = rational. [Hint: Direct proof.]
Rational + irrational = irrational. [Hint: Contradiction.]
Irrational
√ √+ irrational = rational or√irrational. [Hint: Examples.
2 + (− 2) = 0 and √12 + √12 = 2.]
Rational × rational = rational. [Hint: Direct proof.]
√ × irrational √
Rational = rational
√ or irrational. [Hint: Examples
0 × 2 = 0 and 1 × 2 = 2.]
Nonzero rational × irrational = irrational. [Hint: Contradiction.]
√ √ × irrational
Irrational √ = rational
√ √or irrational. [Hint: Examples
2 × 2 = 2 and 2 × 2 = 6.]
Rationalrational 1
√ = rational or irrational. [Hint: Examples 1 = 1
1/2
and 2 = 2.]
Bogus Proofs
Prove 1 = 2 using basic algebra

Proof
a > 0, b > 0 B Given
a=b B Given
ab = b2 B Multiply both sides by b
ab − a2 = b2 − a2 B Subtract a2 from both sides
a(b − a) = (b + a)(b − a) B Factoring
a=b+a B Divide both sides by (b − a)
0=b B Subtract a from both sides
b = 2b B Add b to both sides
1=2 B Divide both sides by b
What is the problem with this proof?
Prove 1 = 2 using basic algebra

Proof
a > 0, b > 0 B Given
a=b B Given
ab = b2 B Multiply both sides by b
ab − a2 = b2 − a2 B Subtract a2 from both sides
a(b − a) = (b + a)(b − a) B Factoring
a=b+a B Divide both sides by (b − a)
0=b B Subtract a from both sides
b = 2b B Add b to both sides
1=2 B Divide both sides by b
What is the problem with this proof?
Error
Cannot divide by 0 in mathematics
Cannot divide by (b − a) as a = b
Prove 1 = 2 using basic algebra
Proof
n2 + 2n + 1 = (n + 1)2 B Expand
n2 = (n + 1)2 − (2n + 1) B Subtract
n2 − n(2n + 1) = (n + 1)2 − (2n + 1) − n(2n + 1) B Subtract
n2 − n(2n + 1) = (n + 1)2 − (n + 1)(2n + 1) B Factoring
2 2
n − n(2n + 1) + (2n + 1) /4 =
(n + 1)2 − (n + 1)(2n + 1) + (2n + 1)2 /4 B Add
(n − (2n + 1)/2)2 = ((n + 1) − (2n + 1)/2)2 B Simplify
n − (2n + 1)/2 = (n + 1) − (2n + 1)/2 B Square roots
n=n+1 B Add
1=2 B Subtract
What is the problem with this proof?
Prove 1 = 2 using basic algebra
Proof
n2 + 2n + 1 = (n + 1)2 B Expand
n2 = (n + 1)2 − (2n + 1) B Subtract
n2 − n(2n + 1) = (n + 1)2 − (2n + 1) − n(2n + 1) B Subtract
n2 − n(2n + 1) = (n + 1)2 − (n + 1)(2n + 1) B Factoring
2 2
n − n(2n + 1) + (2n + 1) /4 =
(n + 1)2 − (n + 1)(2n + 1) + (2n + 1)2 /4 B Add
(n − (2n + 1)/2)2 = ((n + 1) − (2n + 1)/2)2 B Simplify
n − (2n + 1)/2 = (n + 1) − (2n + 1)/2 B Square roots
n=n+1 B Add
1=2 B Subtract
What is the problem with this proof?
Error
Cannot take square roots directly
a2 = b2 does not imply a = b
E.g.: 12 = (−1)2 does not imply 1 = −1
Prove 1 = 2 using calculus

Proof
R R
udv = uv − vdu B Product rule
Set u = x1 and v = x;We get

du = − 1
x2
dx and dv = dx
R 1 1 R 1
x dx = x · x − x · − x2 dx B Substitute
R 1 R 1
x dx = 1 + x dx B Simplify
0=1 B Subtract
1=2 B Add
What is the problem with this proof?
Prove 1 = 2 using calculus

Proof
R R
udv = uv − vdu B Product rule
Set u = x1 and v = x;We get

du = − 1
x2
dx and dv = dx
R 1 1 R 1
x dx = x · x − x · − x2 dx B Substitute
R 1 R 1
x dx = 1 + x dx B Simplify
0=1 B Subtract
1=2 B Add
What is the problem with this proof?
Error
Cannot
R
subtract integrals from both sides
dx = x + const. B const. depends on conditions
d d
E.g.:
R d dx
(x + 1)R = dx (x + 2) does not imply
d
dx (x + 1) = dx (x + 2)
Prove 1 = 2 using algebra and calculus
Proof
x 6= 0 B Given
x=x B Given
x + x = 2x B Add
x+x+
| {z
· · · + x} = x2 B Repeatedly add x times
x times
1 + 1 +{z· · · + 1} = 2x
|
B Differentiate
x times
x = 2x B Simplify
1=2 B Divide
What is the problem with this proof?
Prove 1 = 2 using algebra and calculus
Proof
x 6= 0 B Given
x=x B Given
x + x = 2x B Add
x+x+
| {z
· · · + x} = x2 B Repeatedly add x times
x times
1 + 1 +{z· · · + 1} = 2x
|
B Differentiate
x times
x = 2x B Simplify
1=2 B Divide
What is the problem with this proof?
Error
Cannot write |x + x +
{z
· · · + x} = x2 for non-integers
x times
+ · · · + 1.5} = 1.52
E.g.: Cannot write |1.5 + 1.5 {z
1.5 times
Prove 1 = 2 using continued fractions

Proof
2 2 2 2 2
1= 3−1 = 2
3− 3−1
= 3− 2 = 3− 2 = 3− 2
2
3− 3−1 3− 2 3− 2
2
3− 3−1 2
3− 3−···
2 2 2 2 2
2= 3−2 = 2
3− 3−2
= 3− 2 = 3− 2 = 3− 2
2
3− 3−2 3− 2 3− 2
2
3− 3−2 2
3− 3−···

1=2 B Continued fractions are the same

What is the problem with this proof?
Prove 1 = 2 using continued fractions

Proof
2 2 2 2 2
1= 3−1 = 2
3− 3−1
= 3− 2 = 3− 2 = 3− 2
2
3− 3−1 3− 2 3− 2
2
3− 3−1 2
3− 3−···
2 2 2 2 2
2= 3−2 = 2
3− 3−2
= 3− 2 = 3− 2 = 3− 2
2
3− 3−2 3− 2 3− 2
2
3− 3−2 2
3− 3−···

1=2 B Continued fractions are the same

What is the problem with this proof?
Error
Cannot equate the values of the continued fractions
2
The given continued fraction is x = 3−x
Solving for x, we have x = 1 or x = 2
Beware of infinity!
Prove 1 = 2 using infinite series

Proof
Consider Grandi’s series S = 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + · · ·
S = (1 − 1) + (1 − 1) + · · · = 0 + 0 + · · · = 0
S = 1 + (−1 + 1) + (−1 + 1) + · · · = 1 + 0 + 0 + · · · = 1
0=1 B S = 0 and S = 1
1=2 B Add
What is the problem with this proof?
Prove 1 = 2 using infinite series

Proof
Consider Grandi’s series S = 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + · · ·
S = (1 − 1) + (1 − 1) + · · · = 0 + 0 + · · · = 0
S = 1 + (−1 + 1) + (−1 + 1) + · · · = 1 + 0 + 0 + · · · = 1
0=1 B S = 0 and S = 1
1=2 B Add
What is the problem with this proof?
Error
Cannot use several algebraic methods on a divergent series
Grandi’s series is divergent
Beware of infinity!
Prove 1 = 2 using set theory

Proof
Using Georg Cantor’s set theory and his idea of one-to-one
correspondence, we can show that the number of points on the
number line segment [0, 1] is same as the number of points on
the number line segment [0, 2]
1=2
What is the problem with this proof?
Prove 1 = 2 using set theory

Proof
Using Georg Cantor’s set theory and his idea of one-to-one
correspondence, we can show that the number of points on the
number line segment [0, 1] is same as the number of points on
the number line segment [0, 2]
1=2
What is the problem with this proof?
Error
Solution is out of scope
The problem is because the principles that apply in the world of
finite quantities do not apply in the world of infinite quantities
Beware of infinity!
Prove 1 = 2 using geometry

Proof
Banach-Tarski paradox states that a solid ball can be split into a
finite number of disjoint subsets, which can then be assembled
to create two identical copies of the original solid ball

1=2
What is the problem with this proof?
Prove 1 = 2 using geometry

Proof
Banach-Tarski paradox states that a solid ball can be split into a
finite number of disjoint subsets, which can then be assembled
to create two identical copies of the original solid ball

1=2
What is the problem with this proof?
Error
Solution is out of scope
The problem is because the principles that apply in the world of
finite quantities do not apply in the world of infinite quantities
Beware of infinity!
The Pythagorean theorem

History. The theorem first appeared in a Babylonian tablet dated

1900-1600 B.C.
Incorrect proofs. Alexander Bogomolny’s website Cut-The-Knot
https://www.cut-the-knot.org/pythagoras/FalseProofs.shtml
presents 9 incorrect proofs of the theorem
Correct proofs. Elisha Scott Loomis’ book “The Pythagorean
Proposition” presents 367 correct proofs of the theorem
(algebraic proofs + geometric proofs + trigonometric proofs)
More Proofs. An infinite number of algebraic and geometric
proofs exist for the theorem (Proof?)