Book 4 Module 11A

CATEGORY B1.1
STRUCTURES 2

Licence By Post

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Licence By Post © Copyright B1.1 EASA 66 11A.2 11A.3 ISSUE 05 0813

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AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority
(the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local
procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/
guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company,
national safety authorities and national governments.
CONTENTS

Page

Control surfaces flaps and slats 1

Control surface balancing 4
Fuel storage 12
Airframe construction techniques 18
Airframe rigging 24
Aircraft cleaning 36
Painting 37
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

This book, the second of 2 covering aircraft structures, deals with the
remainder of the structures syllabus not covered in Structures book 1.

It is written for the B1.1 person.

In general the comments at the beginning of the Structures book 1 apply,

though this book is somewhat shorter and should not take so long to
complete.

Some topics overlap with subject material covered in other LBP books and
other modules, for example - control surfaces (flying controls) and cabin
sealing (cabin pressurisation) and anti corrosion measures module 7. This is a
consequence of how the syllabus is written. If you have already read these
books then these areas can be treated as revision.
 CONTROL SURFACES, FLAPS & SLATS

Flying control surfaces are hinged structures fitted to the trailing edge of the
mainplanes, tailplane and fin used to control the aircraft in flight. They may be
made of composite material, some using honeycomb bonded structure and
they may be made of al alloy. For metal constructed control surfaces the
general constructional technique is not too unlike that of the mainplanes.

There may be a main spare running the length of the control surface. There is
a well rounded leading edge and the skin tapers towards a thin trailing edge.

Provision is made for aircraft attachment and for attachment of flying control
inputs – directly from a push/pull rod controlled manually from the flight-deck
of power controlled (hydraulic power units controlled from the flight-deck.

Fig. 1 AIRBUS AILERON STRUCTURE

Figure 1 shows the construction of an Airbus aileron. It has a top and bottom
skin, a leading edge front spar to which are attached the hinges and flying
control system inputs. Ribs give shape and stiffness to the structure, whilst
the trailing edge is reinforced with light alloy honeycomb. Notice the fitting of
lifting attachments – to aid in its fitting and removal.

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 Fig. 2 ELEVATOR MOUNTING

Figure 2 shows an elevator hinge mounting of a modern airliner. Notice its

attachment to the rear spar of the tail-plane, notice also the positioning of the
powered flying control unit (shown in dotted outline). Notice the access panels
for maintenance purpose (made of honeycomb).

Note that control surfaces will also have provision for the internal attachment
of mass balance weights.

Fig. 3 SLAT CONSTRUCTION

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 Fig. 4 SLAT ATTACHMENT

The construction of the flaps and slats will normally follow similar lines to that
of the flying control surfaces. They will be made up of ribs (figure 3), possibly
stiffeners (stringers) and the surface covered with aluminium alloy using
rivets. If the structure is composite then the stringers are likely to be integral
with the skin and honeycomb structure might be used.

Figure 4 shows details of the slat extension/retraction mechanism. For

extension it is wound out on a track by a motor driven pinion wheel – the teeth
of which engage with teeth in the slat track.

Fig. 5 FOWLER TYPE FLAP TRACK

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Figure 5 shows the track and its attachment for a Fowler type flap. The track
may be cast or more likely machined from a solid billet of aluminium alloy.
Each section of flap will run along at least two of these, one at each end, and it
will be guided to go out and down as it extends.

CONTROL SURFACE BALANCING

All flying control surfaces must be balanced – statically and aerodynamically.

They must be balanced statically to try to prevent flutter (Mass Balance) and
they are balanced aerodynamically to give assistance to the pilot in moving the
controls (Aerodynamic Balance).

QUESTION Can you describe flutter? (10 minutes)

ANSWER Like all things aeronautical, ‘flutter’ is a complex subject and it

comes in many forms. In general, however, it can be considered as
a form of vibration which is induced by aerodynamic forces and is
a function of the ‘stiffness’ of the structure and the control system
and control surfaces. In its mildest form it may not be noticed, or
may show up as increased wear in control surface bearings,
control systems etc. In it’s more sever form it can be so violent
that it can cause the aircraft to disintegrate in flight with explosive
force (it has happened).

Mass Balance

Flutter can be reduced, or even prevented, by the addition of mass to the

control surface to bring its C of G to within a specific range.

During the design stage the centre of gravity of the control surface is
calculated to be within certain limits.

Carefully calculated weights (to be correct – masses) are placed forward of the
hinge line. This is done on control surfaces whether they are powered or not,
and the C of G must be within a certain range in plan view and in end
elevation, ie in two planes – longitudinally and laterally.

The mass balance weights are usually adjustable so that they can be altered to
allow for structure repairs to the control surface.

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 Fig. 6 MASS BALANCE – MASS LOCATION

Fig. 7 MASS C of G RANGE IN PLAN VIEW

The range of the C of G in end elevation may be such as to make the control
surface nose heavy, tail heavy or either depending on the actual C of G
position.

Figure 8 shows a control surface with a forward C of G (nose heavy). Figure 9

shows a control surface where it may be nose or tail heavy and figure 10
shows a control surface where the C of G is aft of the hinge-line and the
surface is tail-heavy.

Fig. 8 C of G RANGE – NOSE HEAVY CONTROL SURFACE

Fig. 9 C of G RANGE – NOSE OR TAIL HEAVY

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 Fig. 10 C of G RANGE – TAIL HEAVY

Of course the designer will decide where the C of G is to be and a range is

given to allow for minor repairs and paint finishes to be carried out without the
need to continuously adjust the mass balance weights.

The mass balance and total mass of the control surface will be checked in
accordance with the AMM where the equipment will be specified and the
calculations to be used will be shown.

QUESTION Can you specify 2 or 3 occasions when control surfaces should be

weighed/mass balance checked? (5 mins)

ANSWER 1. As laid down in the maintenance schedule.

2. On fitment of a new or replacement surface.
3. After repair or modification to the control surface.
4. After reported flutter.
5. After aircraft/control surface re-spray.

The check may be done on the aircraft but the surface may have to be removed
and the check carried out on a bench (bench-check).

The check may involve balancing the surface on it’s hinge line by adding test
weights to the leading or trailing edge. Calculations are then carried out, using
this information on how much weight has to be added or removed to the mass
balance weights. The mass balance weight is adjusted and the control surface
retested, and the test weights removed.

After adjustment, the new balance information (together with the total weight
of the surface) is recorded in the aircraft log-book. There may also be a record
plate on the control surface which will need amending. The control surface
may also have to be balanced in the spanwise plane – check the manual.

QUESTION What are the mass balanced weights made of and how can they
be adjusted? (10 mins)

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ANSWER Mass balance weights are usually made of a dense material to
reduce the overall size whilst keeping the mass high. These
materials can include:

* Steel (density ≈ 7800 kg/m3)

* Lead (density ≈ 11300 kg/m3)
* Depleted uranium (DU) (density ≈ 19000 kg/m3). Most of it
phased out now because of health concerns.
* Tungsten (density ≈ 19300 kg/m3). Replacing DU.
Expensive.

Note. In general the more dense a material the less space it

requires in the structure for a given amount of weight.
Adjustments will be carried out in accordance with the AMM, but
may involve the use of the following:

* Addition/removal of steel washers/bolts.

* Addition/removal of small mass balance weights.
* Addition/removal of steel shims.
* Re-location of mass balance weights – fore and aft.
* Changing weights for different sizes.
* Machining of weights – only if allowed in the manual, and
remember DO NOT cut or damage depleted uranium.

Aerodynamic Balance

The force needed to move a flying control system in flight depends on: air
density; aircraft velocity; control surface size and angle of deflection. Shown as
an equation: F ∝ ½ ρ V2S (‘∝’ means ‘is proportional to’)

where F = force in Newtons

ρ = air density in kg per m3
V = velocity in m/s2
S = area in m2

On large/fast aircraft this force is too much for the pilot to overcome so the
controls are powered and/or aerodynamically balanced to give him/her some
assistance.

Aerodynamic balance can be achieved by:

(a) Balance tabs.

(b) Servo tabs.
(c) Spring tabs.
(d) Pressure balance.
(e) Horn balance.
(f) Inset hinges.
(g) Balance panels.

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Pressure Balance. Figure 11. With this system part of the control surface, in
the form of a beak, extends forward of the hinge line into an enclosed area
within the main structure. When the pilot moves the control surface, say up,
the air pressure increases above the surface and decreases below it. This
differential pressure is felt across the beak thus assisting the pilot to move
his/her controls. May be fitted to powered control surfaces to assist the
powered unit so allowing for a smaller unit to be fitted.

Fig. 11 PRESSURE BALANCE CONTROL

Sometimes the gap between the beak and the aircraft structure is sealed by a
flexible apron (Westland/Irving Type), or a hinged flap (balance panel system).

Balance Panel. Figure 12. Similar to the pressure balance system. The balance
panel is housed in a balance bay forward of the control surface. When the
control surface is moved a pressure difference above and below is created and
this is felt either side of the control balance panel. This pressure difference
assists the pilot to move the control surface.

Fig. 12 BALANCE PANEL – EXAMPLE B737-400

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Horn Balance. Figure 13. This is where part of the control surface extends
forward of the hinge line. When the surface is moved in one direction the horn
moves in the other direction, but out into the airflow, thus it experiences an
aerodynamic force which helps the pilot to move his/her controls. The horn
may also house the mass balance weights. May be fitted to powered control
surfaces for the same reasons as given for the pressure balance system.

May suffer from ‘snatch’ as the tip of the horn enters the airstreams.

Fig. 13 HORN BALANCE

Inset Hinge. Figure 14. The control surface leading edge extends forward of the
hinge line along the complete leading edge. The effect is similar to that of the
horn balance in that this area of the control surface extends forward of the
hinge line and when the control surface is moved it moves out into the airflow
and the airflow will try to help the control surface move. Again this area
houses the mass balance weights. May also be used on powered controls.

Fig. 14 INSET HINGE

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Balance Tab. Figure 15. This assists the pilot to move his/her controls on a
non powered system, or relieve the load on a powered system. It is automatic
in operation.

The tab is fixed by a rod to the mainplane, tailplane or fin. When the control
surface is moved by the pilot the tab is caused to move in the opposite
direction. The airflow hitting the tab will cause a force to be created in the
direction that the control surface has moved.

This force (whilst small) is at some distance from the control surface hinge line
– thus a turning moment is created which assists the pilot to move his/her
controls.

Fig. 15 BALANCE TAB

Servo Tab. Figure 16. This is similar to the balance tab in principle but it is
operated directly by the pilot. The control surface is not connected to the
control system at all, but is free to move in any direction. Movement of the
pilot’s primary control in the flight-deck moves the tab, aerodynamic pressure
on the tab will cause a turning movement on the control surface, which will
move in the opposite direction. Control, however, is still instinctive. Fitted to
non-powered controls usually but there is no reason why the tab system
should not be powered if the input forces were large enough to warrant it.

Fig. 16 SERVO TAB

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QUESTION Which way would the servo tabs move on the ailerons to cause
the aircraft to roll to the right? (5 mins) (Hint – In your mind
move the primary control surface first – the tabs move in the
opposite direction.)

ANSWER The right hand tab will move down causing the right hand aileron
to move up and the right hand wing to move down. The left hand
tab will move up – and every thing else is vice versa.

This type of tab works very well at reasonably high speed (all primary flight
controls on the Bristol Britannia are servo tabbed), but at low speed it has its
problems. When the tab moves into low speed air it produces little force and
consequently poor control surface response. To overcome this problem Spring
Tabs were invented.

Spring Tab. Figure 17. This is similar to the servo tab but it only operates at
the higher airspeeds. At the lower airspeeds the pilot operates the control
surfaces as normal – via the spring.

The control linkage is connected directly to the tab with a connection to the
control surface via a torsion bar (or spring as shown in the drawing). At low
airspeeds the aerodynamic force on the control surface is low enough so that
the control input moves the control surface direct via the torsion bar or spring.
The torsion bar or spring effectively acts like a control link.

Fig. 17 SPRING TAB

At high speed the aerodynamic force will try to hold the control surface in the
neutral position and as the pilot tries to move the control surface so the
torsion bar/spring will deflect and this will allow the link to move so moving
the tab. The tab will move in the opposite direction to the intended movement
of the control surface so acting as a balance tab – and it will assist the control
surface to move.

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 FUEL STORAGE

Storage of fuel in aircraft is achieved using tanks, mounted within the fuselage
or more commonly, for civil aircraft, within the wings. On some aircraft they
may be hung on the outside (fighter aircraft for example) under the wings, or
as wing tip tanks.

One major problem of storage is finding space within the airframe, bearing in
mind, the more fuel that is carried the greater the range of the aircraft. In
addition to space, distribution of the tanks is vital in maintaining the aircraft’s
Centre of Gravity (C of G) and trim.

All tanks have access for fitment/removal and provision is made for
connection of delivery lines, refuelling lines, gauging systems and fire
prevention systems. The three main types of tank are:

* Rigid
* Flexible/Bag Tank.
* Integral.

Rigid Tanks

Made from metal or glass reinforced plastic. They are strengthened internally
and must have large access for fitment/removal. Are used externally on some
military aircraft but internally they have poor utilisation of airframe space
compared to other forms of tank.

Flexible/Bag Tank

Flexible/bag tanks are made from synthetic rubber and are used as internal
tanks. They generally need smaller access holes (size for size) and are more
resistant to leakage due to minor damage. However, they do suffer from
chafing and require a smooth finished tank bay. They must be a good fit so
that the loads are supported on all surfaces of the tank.

An advantage of a bag tank is that in the event of a crash, they are resistant to
fracture even though the surrounding structure may distort.

There are various types of materials used to include:

HYCATROL. A green coloured Hycar based synthetic rubber of two

thicknesses, 0.040” (1mm) standard and 0.020” ½mm lightweight.

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 FLEXELITE. A red or black Flexsyn material which is synthetic rubber
based and similar to Hycar. Two thicknesses are again available, 0.045”
standard, for tanks of more than 100 gallons (455 litres) capacity and
0.020” lightweight, for tanks of less than 100 gallons capacity.

MARLITE. A blue coloured material of a two-ply nylon and Terylene

fabric with a special type of fuel resistant resin barrier held as a
sandwich between the two. Marlite tank material is especially suitable
for aircraft use in that it will not deteriorate at temperatures up to
100°C, and does not become brittle at temperatures down to - 60°C.

Due to the fact that no ‘fuel-extractable’ ingredients are used these

tanks will always retain their dimensional stability. This obviates the
need for any stabilising process, as is used on tanks using synthetic
rubber as a base. The normal thickness of material used in the
construction of these tanks is from 0.018 to 0.020 inches.

General protective coverings are often fitted around flexible tanks. This
stiffening consists of three or four layers of fabric, or fabric and rubber,
cemented to the tank. Bag tanks, which are limp and incapable of supporting
their own weight, are usually reinforced only with a layer of nylon fabric or net
on their outer surfaces. All types of flexible tank are held in the aircraft by
some form of suspension/attachment system, and heavy fittings are connected
to the aircraft structure by bolts or studs. Examples of various methods of
securing tanks to tank bays are shown in figure 18.

Integral Tanks

Integral tanks are popular owing to the high utilisation of space and saving of
weight. They are not so crash resistant as flexible tanks.

To construct an integral tank, part of the airframe (say between the front and
rear spars of the wing, the top and bottom skins and two ribs) is sealed.
Provision is made for pipeline attachments (supply and refuelling), gauging
systems etc, and this becomes the integral tank. Wing sections are ideal for
this.

Riveted joints are given special treatments as far as sealing is concerned with
‘sandwiching’ a sealant between all metal joints in the tank area and applying
a further layer of sealant over the joints and rivets within the tank area. The
tank area is usually completely coated internally with a layer of sealant. The
sealant must be corrosion resistance, resistant to fuel, flexible and provide
sealing over a long period of time and over considerable variations in
temperature.

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Advances in the specifications of these sealing compounds, usually rubber or
polymer based, have now made integral tanks much less liable to leaks in
service. However, any failure of the aircraft structure may cause a leak which
might be difficult to trace and rectify. In practice most integral tanks leak
slightly – caused by flexing of the wing in flight.

Fig. 18 EXAMPLES OF FIXING FLEXIBLE TANKS

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The AMM will specify what leaks are allowable and give standards relating to
the size of external staining showing on the underside of the wing.

The thin sections of modern high speed wings lead to pumping problems from
the integral tanks when the fuel level is low, or the aircraft is in an exaggerated
climb or descent.

These problems may require the mainplane tanks to feed into one
central tank known as the collector tank. It is important to note that when
aircraft are taken into hangars for maintenance, all tanks are kept sealed and
flexible and bag type tanks have sufficient fuel to ensure that the tank does
not dry out.

Dry fuel cells will sometimes shrink, crack and when refuelled will show up as
a leak.

Always refer to the AMM if fuel tanks are to be kept wet or not.

Example – Boeing B777-200

The fuel tanks are sealed parts of the wing structure using the upper and
lower wing skins, front and rear spars and ribs.

Wing ribs divide the fuel tanks into bays, and reduce the movement of fuel
during aircraft manoeuvres (fuel surge). Doors and cut-outs provide access
into the fuel tanks for inspection or component replacement.

Fig. 19 B777-200 FUEL TANK LOCATION

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The centre fuel tank is between rib 8 of the left wing and rib 8 of the right
wing. Wing ribs divide each side of the centre tank into seven fuel bays. The
centre wing section between the left and right side-of-body ribs (rib1) is also a
part of the centre fuel tank.

Three span-wise beams between the left and right side-of-body ribs divide the
centre wing section into four fuel bays. A purge door for the fuel bays in the
centre wing section is on the rear spar.

Wing ribs divide each main tank into 24 fuel bays. The forward parts of the
bays between rib 8 and 11 are dry. These wing dry bays prevent any possibility
of fuel spillage on to the engine in the event of an un-contained engine burst.

The surge tanks are between rib 32 and 34 in each wing. A wing rib divides
each surge tank into two fuel bays. The tank wing ribs have upper and lower
openings between the stringers that allow fuel and air flow through. Sealed
tank-end ribs close the ends of each fuel tank.

Rib 18 is a baffle rib. The rib is sealed, but has check valves (one-way valves)
between each lower stringer. The check valves let fuel flow inboard but not
outboard. One at the bottom of the rib lets fuel flow outboard. This keeps the
fuel level on the two sides of the rib the same. Holes at the top of the rib allow
free air flow.

Rib 10 is a fuel dam rib. The lower section is the same as the baffle rib, but the
upper section is the same as a standard rib. The fuel dams prevent fuel from
flowing away from the fuel pump inlets.

Fig. 20 FUEL TANK ACCESS DOOR

Fuel tank access doors fit in fuel bays over openings in the aircraft skin (figure
20). A clamp ring and knitted aluminium gasket bolt to the access door from
outside the aircraft to hold the access door in position. Thus, there are no bolt
holes in the aircraft skin.

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Sump drain valves are fitted at the lowest point of each fuel tank. Used to:

* Obtain fuel samples.

* Drain water and contaminants from the fuel tanks.
* Drain any fuel that remains after a defuel procedure.
* Check for fuel in a surge tank before opening access door.

Fig. 21 FUEL TANK LAYOUT – B777 200

The centre tank has two sump drain valves situated at the lowest points of the
center wing section. Access to each valve is through an access door in the
wing-to-body fairing. A flexible hose connects the valve to a drain hole in the
fairing to outside. (Remember to collect all fuel drained in a suitable container
and return to the fuel supply contractor for suitable disposal.)

Each main tank has one sump drain valve. The sump drain valve is in the
lower wing skin near the fourth access door from the fuselage (between ribs 8
and 9).

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 Fig. 22 SUMP DRAIN VALVE

A sump drain valve for each surge tank is between ribs 32 and 33.

To drain fluid from the centre tank, push up on the flexible hose connection on
the sump drain valve. This opens the valve and lets the fuel drain through the
hose. Use a container to collect the fuel.

Note. There is no need to commit to memory all the details of the Boeing
system described above, it is included as a typical modern aircraft fuel-tank
system only, but in general most of the provisions apply to all aircraft.

AIRFRAME CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

This section deals with the various methods of manufacturing the aircraft
structure. For more details on construction methods refer to the books in the
LPB series on Structures and Structure Repairs (modules 11, 6 and 7).

The skin of the aircraft may be made of metal or composite material.

For metal aircraft the skin is usually preformed to the necessary curvature
before being joined to the frames, stringers, etc. The skin of metal aircraft is
usually made from aluminium alloy and may be coated either side with
aluminium (alclad). On some aircraft it may be magnesium alloy.

Some parts of the structure may be made from titanium or stainless steel.
These metals are heavier but withstand heat better, so may be fitted near jet
engine exhausts etc.

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Stressed Skin Attachment

In the majority of metal aircraft the skin is attached to the frames, stringers
etc by the use of rivets. These are usually countersunk or dimpled flush with
the skin on the outside of the aircraft to reduce aerodynamic drag.

Fig. 23 STRINGER ATTACHMENT – A310

On some parts of the airframe the structure may be attached by the use of
bonding. This is an adhesive process using synthetic resin adhesives and
often called by its trade name ‘Redux Bonding’. It requires a bonding agent,
heat, and pressure. Its advantages include it does not require holes to be
drilled in the skin (no possibility of air or water leaks) and there is less stress
concentration.

For composite aircraft attachment will be by special fasteners, bonding, or the

frames etc are constructed integral with the skin as part of the composite
structure.

Bonded Structure

Adhesive bonding is a method of joining:

* Metal to metal.
* Metal to wood.
* Metal to thermo-setting plastic (GRP, CFC).

A bonded metal to metal joint is normally stronger than a rived joint because:

* The whole length of the faying surfaces are joined.

* There are no holes drilled to weaken the metal and possibly cause
leaks.
* There are no stress concentration areas (around each rivet). The
stresses are evenly spaced-out across length of the joint.

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The process does not cause corrosion and is not attacked by fungi or other
organisms, nor is it affected by water, gasoline, oil, or other common solvents.

Where the process is used on the outside panels of aircraft it provides

protection against leaks (rain water and floats/hulls on those aircraft that land
on water). On pressurised aircraft it provides for a pressure-tight joint. It also
produces a smoother aerodynamic finish.

Bonding is also used in the construction of:

* Metal stiffeners to wooden floor panels.

* Brake linings to brake shoes.
* Honeycomb structure.
* Parts of cars and many other non aircraft uses.

Machined Skin/Integral Structure

We have so far seen how the metal aircraft is made up of several parts
riveted/bonded together. For large aircraft the separate parts run into their
thousands with rivets running into their tens of thousands. Each joint is a
potential corrosion hazard. Can you think why?

When two metals are joined together there is a possibility of galvanic corrosion
– particularly when the metals are different or have had different heat
treatments. There is also another potential hazard – crevice corrosion.

If we were to manufacture the whole of the aircraft skin, including the

stringers, frames, longerons, brackets, window cut-outs, etc, from one
piece of metal then this would eliminate these two corrosion problems.

This type of construction is known as Machined Skin or Integral Construction

and eliminates many of the problems associated with riveting – such as
weakening the structure by drilling and producing stress concentration areas.

Integral construction is expensive. Large slabs (example 1.5m x 0.3m x 20m) of

aluminium alloy are milled into shape by a computer controlled milling head –
working in a similar way to a sculpture. Milling most of the metal away to
produce skin say no more than 4 or 6mm thick with all the “attachments” an
integral part of the skin.

This milling is carried out on a milling bed 40 or 50m long using a moving
gantry up to 5m high.

The process gives a structure with a higher strength/weight ratio than before
with all the advantages relating to corrosion, stress concentration, etc, that we
have already discussed. It also produces a very smooth external aerodynamic
skin.

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 Fig. 24 MACHINED SKIN

Figure 24 shows a section of a piece of milled skin. Notice the skin it-self, the
reinforced areas (doubler plates) and the ‘L’ shaped stringer machined in as
part of the original material. Any holes such as window cut-outs can also be
machined, as can holes for attachment of fittings etc.

After milling the whole panel is put through the appropriate anti-corrosive
treatment/s.

It is expensive, using large milling beds with computer controlled milling heads
and with 90% of the original metal being milled away. Of course, all the milling
‘waste’ is returned to the supplier for recycling – and at a large manufacturer
this will require a fleet of trucks continuously returning the now bulky ‘waste’
back to the melting plants for re-cycling.

Chemical Etching

The “machining” may be done by chemical etching. For small amounts of

metal removal the metal may be removed by chemicals. The parts that do not
require metal removal are protected by an applied protective coating and the
complete part is then dipped into a bath of acid solution.

The solution will ‘eat away’ at the metal it can get at, leaving the protected
metal area untouched. After the required time the metal is removed, the acid
on the etched areas neutralised, the protection on the protected areas removed
and the metal is ready for its anti-corrosive treatments.

By repeating the process several times with different areas treated with the
protective coating complex shapes can be produced.

Honeycomb Construction

Used in the manufacture of aircraft structures including flooring and flying

control surfaces.

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When a panel bends the high stresses are felt on the outside surfaces, with
little or none felt in the middle – the same as in beam bending theory – so why
not have all the metal on the outside of the structure where it matters. Having
a skin made up of several layers is called Sandwich Construction and like
most things it is not new. It was used in the construction of wooden aircraft as
early as the 1930s.. The Mosquito (second world war fighter bomber) had a
fuselage skin made up of a plywood – balsa wood – plywood sandwich, all
glued together with wood glue.

The principle being, to keep the stronger material on the outer sides of the
structure (plywood) and the weaker material making up the centre (balsa
wood).

Fig. 25 HONEYCOMB STRUCTURE

Modern sandwich construction methods usually have the outside skins of

aluminium alloy or carbon fibre with the ‘filling’ of aluminium or composite
honeycomb (figures 25 and 26). These are all bonded together using the Redux
or other bonding process.

Flanged Lightening Holes

Frames and other structures inside the aircraft are made lighter by the use of
holes cut into them by the manufacturer. If the hole is made so that there is a
flange (a small lip) formed around the edge then the whole structure is
stronger and more rigid (figure 27).

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 Fig. 26 HONEYCOMB STRUCTURE – WING LEADING EDGE

Fig. 27 FLANGED LIGHTENING HOLES

Flanged lightening holes:

* Reduce the weight of the structure.

* Increase the strength and rigidity of the frame.
* Allow for inspection access.
* Allow for the routing of pipelines, cables, etc.

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Doubler Plates

A Doubler Plate may be used in the aircraft structure where there are extra
stresses to be allowed for. They may, of course, be milled into the structure
but they may also be riveted or bolted into position. They may also be used as
extra strengthening around lightening holes in place of flanging. A fitted
doubler plate will also provide a fail-safe type of construction.

Mandrel Wrapping or Barrel Technology

Used in the manufacture of small items (push/pull control rods for example)
and components as big as complete fuselages (Boeing 787 Dreamliner) where
fibres are wound on a mandrill or former together with an applied resin and
the whole lot allowed to set/cure. Curing can be accelerated by heating in an
autoclave and carbon fibre is commonly used together with an epoxy resin.

Mandrel Wrapping produces a very strong composite structure that will not
corrode and has a very high strength/weight ratio.

AIRFRAME RIGGING

The word ‘rigging’ can be applied to control system rigging and airframe
rigging. For control systems it is a process of setting up the complete system
so that it works correctly (see the book entitled Flying Controls). We will
concentrate on airframe rigging here.

Airframe rigging is the process of ensuring that the main parts of the airframe
(wings, tailplane, fin etc) are in their correct position relative to each other, and
are not distorted or miss-aligned. For most rigging checks the aircraft will have
to be put into rigging position first.

QUESTION What is rigging position? (5 mins)

ANSWER It is where the lateral and longitudinal datum lines are horizontal.

QUESTION Define the lateral and longitudinal datum lines. (5 mins)

ANSWER They are imaginary straight lines running at right angles to each
other and passing through the C of G of the aircraft. The
longitudinal datum line runs fore and aft along the fuselage. The
lateral datum line runs from wing tip to wing tip or parallel to a
line running from wing tip to wing tip.

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The rigging position is obtained by jacking the aircraft clear of the ground and
using instruments to ensure that the lateral and longitudinal datum lines are
horizontal – as per the AMM.

The aircraft can be put into rigging position by using the:

(a) Spirit level method.

(b) Plumb bob method.
(c) Aircraft's FMS (Flight Management System).

Spirit Level Method (figure 28)

1. Refer to the AMM and configure the aircraft for jacking (inside the
hangar).
2. Jack the aircraft until the wheels are clear of the ground and the
aircraft is approximately in rigging position.
3. Place a straight edge on the lateral datum points and adjust one of
the main jacks until the spirit level on the straight edge reads
level.
4. Place a straight edge on the longitudinal datum points and adjust
the nose jack or tail trestle until the spirit level on the straight
edge reads level.
5. Recheck the lateral level.
6. If the lateral level has changed repeat points 3 to 5 above.

Notes 1. On some aircraft spirit levels may be fixed permanently in the

structure, but the procedure is similar to that outlined above.
2. For jacking procedures refer to the book in the LBP series entitled
Aircraft Handling.

Plumb Bob Method (figure 29)

1. Proceed as in items 1 and 2 above.

2. Attached a star plate to the position specified in the AMM (usually
on the floor of the cabin in the centre of the fuselage).
3. Attach a plumb bob to the correct location on the airframe (AMM).
Let it hang and settle without swinging and note it's hanging
position in relation to a star or grid-plate.
4. Adjust the appropriate jack/trestle to bring the plumb bob to the
central point of the grid-plate.

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 Fig. 28 DATUM LINES & DATUM POINTS

Fig. 29 STAR OR GRID PLATE

Determination of Aircraft's Attitude using the FMS.

The following is an extract from an aircraft manual.

Place standby power switch on the F/0's panel to NORMAL. Power up the
number 1 FMS by setting appropriate circuit breakers. Switch number 1 INS
(Inertial Navigation System) to ALIGN setting on flight-deck overhead panel.

When the Captain's ADI (Attitude Director Indicator) ATT flag clears, proceed
as follows on the number 1 FMS CDU (Flight Management System Control &
Display Unit):

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 Line Select INDEX (6L) Line Select MAINTENANCE (6R)
Line Select ANALOG IN (4L)
Press next page button.
Read pitch and roll attitude to ½°.

OR

From the wheel well inclinometers, estimate Roll and Pitch attitudes to
the nearest ½°.

Fig. 30 DETERMINATION OF AIRCRAFT ATTITUDE

USING THE FMS

Normal stick readings are based on aircraft wings LEVEL and the nose
0.5° NOSE DOWN. Any deviation must be checked either by the
attitude indicators in the right wing gear wheel well or by the use of the
FMS.

The attitude indicators are spirit level devices marked off in degrees.

The wing and nose attitudes are identified on the FMS analogue pages
as roll and pitch, a negative angle being LEFT wing down, or NOSE
down.

Note the longitudinal and lateral clinometers fitted to the structure in figure
30.

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Checks to be Carried Out Once the Aircraft is in Rigging Position.

1. Mainplanes – incidence and dihedral angles.

2. Tailplane – incidence and dihedral angles. If the tailplane is
adjustable it is set to neutral first.
3. Fin verticality.
4. Fuselage bowing – in the vertical plane (hogging and sagging).
5. Symmetry.
6. Engine alignment.

Angle of Incidence. This is the angle the chord line of the main-plane (or tail-
plane) makes with the longitudinal datum line.

Fig. 31 ANGLE OF INCIDENCE

Fig. 32 CHECKING ANGLE OF INCIDENCE

The angle of incidence is checked by positioning the incidence board on the

datum points of the main/tail-plane (found in the manual and often marked
on the aircraft, but are usually on the strong points such as the front and rear
spars).

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A inclinometer is placed on the board and the bubble position is checked that
it is at zero degrees or adjust the inclinometer until the bubble reads zero and
note the amount of angle the plane is out of true. Check this with the
tolerances given in the AMM and record.

Figure 32 shows the use of a profile board and a peg board. These are supplied
with the aircraft.

Dihedral Angle. This is the upward and outward inclination of the tail-plane or
main-plane to the lateral datum line. It may be plus (the wings/tail-plane
inclined up-wards and outwards) or minus (the wings/tail-plane inclined
downwards and outwards – sometimes called Anhedral) or the wings/tail-
plane may be straight (zero dihedral angle).

May be checked using the spirit level method or the theodolite method.

Fig. 33 DIHEDRAL ANGLE

(a) Spirit Level Method – The principle of checking the dihedral angle
is similar to that for checking the incidence angle. In other words,
place the correct incidence board on the correct position on the
mainplane/tailplane. Place a clinometer/spirit level on it and
check how far the main-plane/tail-plane is out of true.

When using a straight edge an adjustable level or a clinometer is

used to ascertain the angle – this is checked against the AMM.
When a dihedral board is used a spirit level is used which should
read zero if the angle is correct.

(b) Theodolite Method – This method uses a set of sighting rods and a
theodolite. The rods are screwed into specific positions on the
underside of the main-plane (usually along the main spar) and
looked at through the theodolite sighting glass. Some theodolites
have a laser beam to help alignment with the sighting rods.

Each rod has a datum line with graduations marked up and down
from the zero datum. When looked at through the theodolite sight
glass the sighting rod datum aligns with the datum line in the
eyepiece of the theodolite, if the main-plane is at the correct angle.

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 Fig. 34 CHECKING DIHEDRAL ANGLE

The theodolite is set on a tripod in front of the aircraft and aligned

and zeroed with the master rod (usually the shortest) (figure 35).

It is then swung round to the next rod along the main-plane and
aligned with it. If the main-plane dihedral angle is correct then its
zero datum will align with the theodolite datum. The next rod is
checked and so on until all rods have been checked. The readings
are recorded.

Check any discrepancies with the AMM and the previously

recorded readings in the aircraft log-book. Take rectification action
if necessary. Note that actual readings are recorded in the log-
book with tolerances laid down in the AMM.

Distortion of the main-plane or an incorrect dihedral angle will be

revealed by non alignment of the sighting rod marks when viewed
through the eye-piece of the theodolite.

NOTE. A theodolite is an instrument that is set up using very accurate built-in

spirit levels to be horizontal. When the sighting head is moved round in this
condition it will traverse in a horizontal plane. Thus on a perfect wing (rare)
the zero datum on each sighting rod will align with the theodolite eye-piece
datum line.

Electronic theodolites are self levelling and readings can be recorded and
printed using a printer either attached to the instrument or part of it.

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Fig. 35 USING THE THEODOLITE

blank

- 31 -
Fig. 36 THEODOLITE USE – BAe 146

- 32 -
 Fig. 37 SIGHTING VARIATION

Fin Verticality

With a non swept fin a plumb-bob hung from the top hinge of the rudder
should align with all the other lower hinges. With a swept fin plumb-bobs are
hung from each hinge and must align with a centre-line marked out on the
hangar floor - which is the centre line of the aircraft. In other cases a
symmetry check may be carried out – by taking measurements from the
ground or tail-plane tip to the top of the fin one side and repeating the process
on the other side. Tolerances between the measurements will be given in the
AMM.

Fig. 38 FIN VERTICALITY

Engine Mountings

Engines attached externally to the wings may be mounted with the thrust line
parallel to the horizontal longitudinal plane of symmetry (though maybe
inclined slightly on some aircraft to allow for twist due to thrust forces and
wing bending due to lift production). They may not always be parallel to the
vertical longitudinal plane and may be inclined slightly outwards.

- 33 -
The check to ensure that the position of the engine, including any degree of
offset, is correct depends on the manual, but usually entails measurements
from the centre line of the engine to the longitudinal centre line of the fuselage.
Any longitudinal horizontal plane offset maybe measured using an
inclinometer placed on special positions on the engine mountings.

Symmetry Check

Figure 39 illustrates the principle of a typical symmetry check, with figures

and tolerances given in the AMM. In some cases the measurements may be
recorded in the aircraft log-book.

Fig. 39 SYMMETRY CHECK – BAe 146

Measurements are taken between two specific points on the airframe on one
side of the aircraft and these readings compared to measurements taken
between the same points on the other side of the aircraft.

- 34 -
For small aircraft the measurements are taken using a steel tape measure,
and to ensure the same tape sag for all measurements a spring balance is
used. It is attached to the end of the tape-measure and the person holding it
tensions it to say 5 lbs. This is done for all readings. In this way there will be
some sag in the tape, but it will be the same for all measurements. Remember
it is the differences in the measurements that we are looking for.

For larger aircraft a plumb bob can be used to transfer each measurement
point to the floor of the hangar and the position marked with chalk. The points
on the floor are then measured using the steel tape (no need for a spring
balance). This method may be easier than trying to measure using a long steel
tape on a ladder several feet up in the air.

Electronic laser measuring equipment may also be used – check your AMM.

QUESTION Why are tolerances only given and not actual dimensions?
(2 mins)

ANSWER The coefficient of linear expansion of aluminium alloy is quite high

(in fact its coefficient of linear expansion is 23 x 1010-6 where as
steel is nearly half this value), so as the temperature of the
airframe changes so will it’s size. Quoted dimensions therefore
would be irrelevant.

QUESTION What would you do if any measurements where out-of-tolerance?

(5 mines)

ANSWER Check everything again. Check the documentation. Recheck the

instruments you are using. Recheck the settings and recheck the
readings. If the measurements are still out-of-tolerance then the
manufacture must be contacted and the CAA informed. The
aircraft must not fly until the firm/manufacturer/CAA have
carried out a thorough investigation and have cleared the aircraft
for flight.

Relationship Between the Manual and The Aircraft Log-book

On the first rigging check (at the manufacturers) the readings obtained are
recorded in the aircraft log-book. Subsequently any readings taken should be
compared with these.

Tolerances (ie variations) are laid down in the AMM. The manual is common to
all aircraft of a particular type but each aircraft will have its own log-book
readings.

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 AIRCRAFT CLEANING – GENERAL

Various cleaning agents are available for both general cleaning and specialist
cleaning applications – just a few are listed in the table below. All are supplied
with user instructions and health warnings where necessary.

The aircraft as a whole and its component parts should be kept clean. This
helps to reduce wear, allows for leaks to be more readily detected, reduces
crevice corrosion and makes the aircraft better aerodynamically (for surface
cleanliness anyway). It also helps to promote a good image to customers – and
makes the aircraft more pleasant to work on.

DESIGNATION SPEC USES

Aircraft exterior Turco Air Tec USA General purpose aircraft

(MIL-C-087936) exterior cleaner.
Liquid detergent Ardrox 6025 Cleaner and stain
concentrate USA remover.
(MIL-C-87936)
Varsol/white spirit UK Cleaning solvent for
USA mechanical parts.
Trichloroethane Genklene Cleaning solvent.
(Methyl chloroform) USA
Trichlorotrifluoroethane FreonTF Cleaning oxygen system
pipe lines.
Isopropyl alcohol Air3660 General cleaning.
France
USA
Rain repellent cleaner Altupol Cleaning rain repellent off
windscreens.
Safety solvent USA Odour free solvent
cleaning agent.
Stain remover Teepol
(MIL-D-16791)
Dry cleaner PD 680 Solvent for cleaning
(BS 245:76 type 1) mechanical parts.
Plastic polishing PP-560 Paste for polishing
compound (fine grade) USA Plexiglas.
VDU cleaner Alglas V Anti static flight-deck CRT
screen cleaner.

TABLE – CLEANING AGENTS

- 36 -
For general exterior cleaning a non-acid soapy solution diluted in water can be
used and the area rinsed off with clean water and dried. Turco Air Tech (or
similar) is suitable.

Various cleaners are available including Teepol, Turco Air Tec, Ardrox 6025
and PD 680. They all meet various MIL specifications and should be used in
accordance with the cleaning manufacturer’s instructions.

After airframe cleaning check all drains to see that they are clear and make
sure water/cleaning liquid has not entered parts of the airframe such as:

* Engine intakes and exhausts.

* Pitot static vents etc.
* Windows, doors and hatches.
* Air conditioning vents.
* Cooling grills.
* Drain holes.

Glass windscreens can be washed with a non acid soapy solution and cleaned
with a chamois leather and plastic windows can be washed with the same
solution and cleaned with a fine grade plastic polishing compound.

PAINTING

Aircraft are painted to make them look ‘pretty’, provide a corrosion protection
layer for metal surfaces and provide identification markings.

Ideally paint should have the following properties:

* Good surface adhesion.

* Hard wearing and resistant to fluids.
* Inexpensive.
* Non toxic.
* Easy to apply.

Most paints do not combine all these properties and for the first two most
paint schemes require two coats. The first coat (primer coat) provides the
bonding coat. It has good adhesive qualities, may contain anti-corrosive
pigments but is usually soft with poor wear characteristics.

The second or top coat has poor adhesive properties on metals and other
surfaces but is hard, will wear well and is resistant to fluids. So most paint
schemes employ at least two coats – a primer coat and a top coat, however,
some schemes employ more than two coats.

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Paint

This usually a mixture of a vehicle and pigments. The vehicle is a liquid that
cements the pigments together when it dries – it is volatile and sometimes
water based. The pigments give colour, solidity, hardness and sometimes anti-
corrosive properties.

The anti-corrosive nature of paint is provided because it excludes air and

moisture from the surface of the metal. With primers containing chromates
there is added protection.

The effectiveness of any paint scheme depends on:

* Preparation – of the surface to be painted, of the paint and

the painting equipment.
* Atmospheric conditions – temperature and relative
humidity.
* Correct application.

A paint scheme is usually classified according to the base of the materials

used, but primer, undercoat, filler coat and finishing coats may be made from
different bases – but check paint manufacturer’s instructions.

Primers

These provide an adhesive coat on the metal surface. They are soft and easily
worn away and must be protected by a top coat. There are four main types.

* Wash or Etch primers. Is organic based and used as a three part

mix (primer, thinner and dilute phosphoric acid). When dry the
acid converts with the natural moisture in the air to produce a
phosphate film. Phosphates are good on the anti-corrosive front.

* Chromate primers. A synthetic primer such as MIL-P-8585 is a

zinc chromate primer. These primers should not be used as a base
coat for acrylic paints unless allowed to age for several days after
application. Resistance to aircraft fluids is not good.

* Stoving primers. Requires heat after application. Has poor

resistance to fluids.

* Epoxy primers. Ideal for polyurethane finish coats and is a 2 part

mix that should be used within 6 hours of mixing.

In some cases it is recommended that some primers are applied over others for
best effect. The mixing of primers is to be avoided unless specified in a
particular paint scheme.

- 38 -
Finishes

Sometimes called Top Coats, these provide a colourful, hard wearing, fluid
resistant top coat to the primers. The main groups are:

* Cellulose based. Have good adhesion, are easily applied and have
good weather resistance but have poor resistance to some aircraft
fluids.

* Synthetic paints. Similar properties to the above. This paint can

be applied over a cellulose based coat but if cellulose paint is
applied over synthetic paint it will lift off (Salt on Chips but not
Chips on Salt).

* Enamels. The general definition of an enamel is that it will dry

(cure) by the conversion of some of its solvents by the use of heat,
oxidation, or by catalytic action.

Non enamels (lacquers) cure by the evaporation of the solvents

and can be put back to their original condition by the use of
thinners. Enamels have good resistance to abrasion and some,
older enamels, are air drying whilst others require heat (baking) to
cure properly. Called stoving enamels the temperatures used are
normally below 125°C (257°F). Only used where these
temperatures will not affect the heat treatment of the metal.
(Remember some Al alloys are precipitated at 100°C.)

* Polyurethane Enamel. Is a two part chemically cured top coat

producing a hard finish resistant to fluids including Skydrol.
Difficult to paint strip needing long “soaking times” for the paint
stripper. Wash primers may be used but the best is an epoxy
primer. May take several days to cure completely and must be
used within 6 hours of mixing.

* Acrylic Lacquer. Dries quickly. Resistant to high temperatures but

has poor resistance to aircraft fluids. Can be applied over wash
primers and epoxy primers.

* Epoxy. Is a two part mix adding a catalyst to a resin which causes

a chemical reaction to allow it to cure. Tends to dis-colour due to
the weather but produces a hard surface resistant to fluids/acids.

When thinning, cleaning equipment etc always use thinners with the same
base as the paint – unless the specification/paint manufacturer’s literature
states otherwise. All two part mix painting equipment must be thoroughly
cleaned immediately after painting operations, because if left over night, the
paint will cure and the equipment will be ruined.

- 39 -
Also, when applying one coat on top of another it is generally good practice to
used a paint scheme with all coats having the same base – unless the paint
scheme specification/paint manufacturer’s literature states otherwise.

Application Procedures – General

The actual procedure used will depend on the paint being applied and the
situation/conditions existing at that point in time. In general, however, the
procedure is as follows:

1. Surface preparation. This can include paint stripping, corrosion

removal, degreasing, inspection of surface and application of a
primary anti-corrosive treatment.
2. Application of paint scheme.
3. Meeting aircraft legal requirements – identification markings,
break-in markings applied etc.
4. Inspection of paint finish. Clearing of any masking
tapes/temporary coverings etc and checking all vents and orifices
are clear etc.
5. Weighing of aircraft if paint area exceeds certain limit.
6. Possible weighing/mass balance checking of control surfaces
(check AMM).
7. Completion of documentation.

Paint Stripping

Always use the stripper recommended by the stripper manufacturer. Make

sure that the stripper does not get onto anything (or into any orifices) other
than the metal that is to be stripped. Do not strip composites – unless the
stripper is specifically designed for the purpose.

Take all necessary safety precautions. Partition off area and place warning
signs. Avoid contact with the skin and eyes and do not inhale the fumes. Wear
breathing apparatus.

Always work in well ventilated areas and wear protective clothing including
goggles. If splashed irrigate skin/eyes with copious amounts of water and seek
medical advice.

In general two types of stripper are available – solvent type and wax type. The
solvent type evaporates quickly but the wax type adheres better to the surface.

Apply stripper generously with a brush, keep wet and allow soaking time.
When paint is puckered up and softened (acrylic paint will not pucker but only
soften) remove with a soft piece of plastic or a rubber squeegee. Clean area
thoroughly with MEK or acetone.

- 40 -
Ensure that stripper does not come into contact with composites, rubber,
plastics, tyres, windscreens, windows and any parts not requiring stripping.

Check that stripper has not entered any orifices such as drain holes, Pitot
static vents, intakes etc. Inspect the metal surface, faying edges, rivets, nuts,
bolts etc for any defects. With some aircraft it is not often you get the chance
to inspect a ‘nude’ airframe. Rectify any defects as necessary.

Remove all waste products, bag in suitable containers, and dispose of in

accordance with local regulations.

Corrosion Removal

Explained in more detail in module 7, but in general can be removed

mechanically with a suitable abrasive or removed with a chemical solution.

After corrosion removal check area and depth of corrosion and refer to the
SRM (Structure Repair Manual) for classification of damage. Repair corroded
area using phosphate treatment for Fe metals; Deoxidine or Alocrom treatment
for Al alloys and selenious acid treatment for Mg alloys (more details in module
7). But remember always check the SRM.

Degreasing

Any degreasing that has to be carried out should be done in a well ventilated
area using protective clothing (eye-shields, breathing equipment etc) and any
splashes washed off with plenty of water and medical advice sort.

Trihloroethylene can be used unless the metal is known to be adversely

affected by chlorinated solvents. Trichloroethane can also be used.

When dealing with glass fibre (GRP) all parting agent should be removed and
the surface rubbed down with a fine emery cloth. The surface is then cleaned
with a lint free cloth soaked in white spirit or MEK and the primer coat is
usually an epoxy primer.

(Parting agent is used to prevent the glass fibre layers from adhering to the
mould during construction.)

Primary Anti-Corrosive Treatments

These are listed earlier in this book and are usually applied by the
manufacturer and ideally should always be applied before any paint scheme.

- 41 -
Painting Conditions – General

For the successful application of a paint scheme correct atmospheric and work
conditions are essential. These are:

* Temperature 15 to 25°C (60 - 77°F), but for epoxy paints the

minimum temperature is 18°C.
* Relative humidity below 75%. In general the lower the relative
humidity the better, but for etch primers humidity is important
and it should not be below 30%
* The air should be changed every 2 minutes in the spray shop and
every minute in the spray booth – using extraction fans.
* The incoming air should be filtered to ensure it is free from dust
particles etc.
* Floor drainage – when using water for cleaning, rubbing down etc.
* Adequate flame proof lighting.
* Correct mixing of paint (viscosity), correct filtering, correct
thinners. Refer to paint scheme.
* Wear protective clothing including goggles and a breathing mask.
Do not smoke, eat or drink until after “scrub-up” after work.
* Keep all equipment clean and in a good state of repair. Clean and
dry all equipment thoroughly after completion of work.

Paint Schemes

The aircraft manufacturer may specify a paint scheme but usually it is up to

the paint manufacturer. It will give details of pre-treatments, materials to use,
thinning requirements, paint viscosities and methods of application.

Regulations

Because of the flammability of various paints, particularly cellulose and other

low flash point paints, various laws and regulations have been issued to
control their storage and use. In the UK these include the Factories Acts,
Cellulose Solutions Regulations, the Petroleum Act etc. The main details of
these regulations should be displayed at the storage point which should be a
lockable fire proof building/container away from other buildings – with
suitable fire fighting equipment nearby.

- 42 -
Application Methods

The application method will depend on the extent of the area to be painted, the
equipment available and whether the paint specification to be used is suitable
for that application method. Methods include:

* Brushing. Suitable for small areas

* Spraying.

High Pressure Air Spray. Using air at about 80psi supplied via a
hose passing through a spray gun and using the venturi effect in
the gun to draw a suitably thinned paint up from a container on
the gun to be sprayed onto the surface.

Low Pressure Air Spray. The paint and the air are premixed and
supplied to the gun via a hose and sprayed onto the surface at low
pressure.

Airless Spray. High pressure (up to 4500psi) paint is supplied to

the spray gun and forced through a small orifice. This causes the
paint to form into very small droplets and impinge onto the
surface. Used for spraying polyurethane paints. Not possible for
some paints as they are too coarse.

Electrostatic Spraying. Used with any of the above, an electrical

charge is set up between the spray equipment and the part being
sprayed. This causes the paint to be attracted to the part and even
to the sides away from the spray equipment. Provides an even
coating to complex shapes and reduces spray mist.

* Rolling. Using conventional rollers and paint trays or paint

supplied from a pressurised container via a hose to the handle of
the roller – a trigger in the handle controlling the flow of paint up
the inside of the handle to the roller. Used for primer coats.

* Dipping. Used for small parts with paints that are not a two part
mix as pot life is too short.

Paint Preparation

Check paint specification on the can and check life date.

If a two (or more) part mix make up mixture as per specification.

Thin paint, if required, as per specification/paint scheme and mix/stir

thoroughly. Mechanical agitators are preferred.

- 43 -
The amount of thinning (with the correct solvent) is by parts – so many parts
thinners to so many parts paint. The more thinners the lower the viscosity.
The viscosity (resistance to flow) can be checked using one of several methods.
In general it entails checking the time that a quantity of paint takes to fall
under gravity. For example:

1. Allow paint and thinners to reach the temperature of the paint

shop (keep in hangar/workshop over night).
2. Mix paint as per specification.
3. Dip a special cup* into the paint and raise above the paint level to
about 12 to 24 inches (305 to 610mm). The paint will flow out of
the hole in the bottom. Measure the time using a stop watch from
the paint beginning to flow to when the first break occurs in the
flow. This time is related to viscosity using a table supplied with
the cup.

* Several types of cup are commercially available with names like Ford
cup, Zahn cup etc. Cups are about the size of a small tea cup with a
handle which allows the cup to be dipped into the paint. A small flow
hole is provided in the base.

Spraying an Aircraft – General

1. Refer to the AMM and paint manufacturer’s literature for any

special treatments, paint specifications, thinning ratios etc.
2. Locate aircraft in a suitable hangar ensuring correct atmospheric
conditions and hangar free from equipment that is likely to suffer
from spray dust. (Spray dust will settle on everything and is
difficult to remove.)
3. After any paint stripping inspect area for any defects and repair as
necessary.
4. Shut doors, hatches and windows. Mask off areas not required for
painting including ports, vents, windows, windscreens, tyres etc.
5. Prepare paint and equipment.
6. Spray surfaces with a steady parallel action keeping gun about 8
inches (203mm) away from surface releasing trigger at the end of
each stroke.
7. Keep a check on spraying faults that might develop.
8. Apply primer coat/coats and finishing coat/coats allowing suitable
drying times between each.
9. Apply aircraft markings, mandatory placards, break-in markings,
walkway markings etc. Stencil on the paint scheme.
10. Remove masking tape and any masking materials.
11. Check that paint has not got into/on: windows and windscreens;
brakes; tyres; rubber components; plastic components; Pitot static
vents; fine mechanisms; bearings etc.

- 44 -
 12. Check paint scheme for any faults and that all doors, windows
and hatches open and close correctly.
13. Weigh aircraft.
14. Record work done in the aircraft log book and the weighing record.

Spraying Faults

There are 20 or more painting faults altogether. Below are listed a few to give
you some idea of the sort of faults that can occur.

* Paint lifting. Poorly cleaned surface. Applying second coat before

the first is dry. Incorrect thinners. Apply the wrong type of paint to
the first coat (applying cellulose to synthetic)
* Orange peel effect. Too high a spray pressure. Drying time too
quick. Too damp or cold.
* Spray dust. Incorrect spray gun setting/spray gun distance
producing too much dust.
* Pin holes. Contamination in spray system. First coat not dry. Too
fast drying of top coat or top coat too thick.

Radomes

Should be sprayed with radar transparent paint. No paint having metallic

pigments can be used. Non metallic acrylic or polyurethane paints are
suitable.

Wrinkle Finish

Used on internal instrument displays. The paint is fast drying so the surface of
a layer of paint dries quicker than the bottom layers so causing the top layer to
shrink and wrinkle.

Wing Walk Paints

These contain sharp sand, which are brushed or sprayed on (with a special
nozzle) over the finish coat. They provide a non slippery surface but at the
expense of poor boundary layer drag.

Acid Proof Paint

Black asphaltum or polyurethane is used in areas in close proximity to

acid/alkaline or their fumes – battery bays for example.

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Float Bottom Paint

Black asphaltum or polyurethane is used to provide a wear resistant, water

tight corrosive resistant layer to floats and hulls.

”””””””

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