Introd Prepare Drawing

Student workbook
CPPBDN4101, CPPBDN4103 and CPPBDN5101

Cluster 1: Introduction to drafting
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Version: 20210507
Date created: 29 March 2021
Date modified: 04 August 2021
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Contents
Getting started.................................................................................................................. 4
What will I learn by completing this workbook? ................................................................... 5
Icon legends ........................................................................................................................... 6
Topic 1: Building design projects ........................................................................................ 6
Overview ................................................................................................................................ 7
The building design project team ........................................................................................ 10
Fees and contracts ............................................................................................................... 12
Building design project documentation .............................................................................. 14
Topic 2: The building design office ................................................................................... 18
Overview .............................................................................................................................. 19
Office administration ........................................................................................................... 20
Document management ...................................................................................................... 23
Drawing management ......................................................................................................... 27
Topic 3: Project information ............................................................................................ 37
Overview .............................................................................................................................. 38
Office database .................................................................................................................... 39
Client requirements ............................................................................................................. 40
Legislation ............................................................................................................................ 41
Workplace health and safety (WHS) .................................................................................... 44
The site context ................................................................................................................... 54
Construction terminology .................................................................................................... 60
Topic 4: Architectural drawings ........................................................................................ 67
Overview .............................................................................................................................. 68
Building design documents ................................................................................................. 69
Architectural drawing types................................................................................................. 70
Orthographic projection ...................................................................................................... 72
Architectural drawing conventions ...................................................................................... 80
Computer-aided design and drafting (CAD) ...................................................................... 113
Building Information Modelling (BIM) ............................................................................... 121
CAD software options ........................................................................................................ 130
Manual drafting ................................................................................................................. 134
Image attributions ........................................................................................................ 145

Getting started

What will I learn by completing this workbook?
This learning resource provides a foundation of learning for work assessed for the following
three units. It will also be used as a reference for other units within this qualification.
Units covered in this learning resource include:
• CPPBDN4101 Work effectively in a building design environment

• CPPBDN4103 Use CAD software to produce drawings for building design projects
• CPPBDN5101 Produce digital 3-D models of building designs.
Successfully completing this cluster of units of competency will give you the skills and
knowledge required to:
1. Work effectively as a drafter in a building design environment. This includes

completing drafting activities to support the designer, working safely and
collaboratively, and managing future retrieval documentation.
2. Produce drawings that conform to Australian Standards and drawing protocols for
building design projects, using computer-aided design (CAD) software. It includes
preparing building design drawings from instructions, sketches, and drawings for
building design projects.
3. Produce three-dimensional (3-D) models for small-scale building design projects
involving residential projects and commercial or industrial projects up to 2,000m2
floor area and buildings of Type B and C construction, as defined in the National
Construction Code (NCC).
Alright, let's get started!

Topic 1: Building design projects

Overview
Drafters in building design offices will work in a collaborative environment completing
drafting activities supporting residential projects' Design. Begin by gaining an understanding
of the building design workplace, how work on building design projects is carried out, the
different roles and responsibilities within the building design project team and the drawings
and documents produced.
In this topic, you will learn about the following:
• the building design project team

• fees and contracts
• building design project documentation.

Stages of a building design project
A typical residential building design project progresses through a series of stages. At each
stage, the building design and drafter provide services, carry out a range of tasks and
produce various drawings and other documents as follows:
Table 1: Overview of the building design project stages
Stage Stage name Description
Stage 1 Project inception and At the beginning of the project, preliminary

preparation information is gathered, including:
• site information
• client requirements
• compliance requirements.
Drawings and documents gathered may include the

client design brief and a detailed site survey.
Stage 2 Sketch design The building designer prepares a preliminary design to

meet client and compliance requirements and then
meets with the client to obtain feedback. Sketch
design drawings are prepared.
Stage 3 Design development The Design is developed in more detail following the
client's feedback. Client approval of the final Design is
confirmed before final documentation begins.
Developed design drawings or final design drawings
are prepared.
Stage 4 Planning approval Prepare drawings and documents for planning

documentation approval and liaise with the council as required.
Planning approval drawings and documents are
prepared.
Stage 5 Construction Prepare construction approval drawings and

approval documents. Liaise with consultants as required—
documentation construction approval drawings and documents. Often
the building design services may finish at this stage.

Stage Stage name Description
Stage 6 Tender Prepare for Tender drawings, documents including

documentation further details as required, tender process with
building contractors for the building contract. Tender
drawings and documents are prepared as well as the
building contract for construction.
Stage 7 Construction contract The Building designer administers the building

administration contract for the construction of the building design
project. Documents and drawings include sketches for
site instructions, forms for progress payments,
contract variations, certification of work and project
contract completion.

The building design project team
Building design projects are completed by a team of people working in collaboration. Within
the project team, there are different roles and responsibilities.
Roles and responsibilities

The role of building design drafters may vary, but generally, work is carried out under the
supervision of a building designer or architect. The drafter is responsible for performing at
an appropriate level of skill and caring for their role. Some examples of the workplace roles
and responsibilities of a building design drafters would include:
• working in an architectural or building design office preparing drawings following

designs provided by the architect or designer under supervision and carrying out
other associated office duties
• working in a building design drafting office that may offer varying degrees of design
service, the drafter is responsible for the drafting and minimal design service
provided
• working in a multi-disciplinary office that offers a building design or drafting service,
preparing drawings with some level of design input under supervision, and other
associated office duties.
The building designer has a strong focus and training or experience in design and prepares
designs, drawings and documentation for compliant building design projects to meet client
requirements and may be involved in the tender process and construction contract
administration. There are registration or licensing requirements for building designers in
some states.
Architects have a higher level of design qualifications and registration requirements.
Qualifications required are Degrees or Post Graduate Degree in Architecture, working

experience, examination and registration with the state Board of Architects.
NSW legislation, the Architect's Act 2003 - No 89, prevents anyone who is not a registered or
chartered architect from calling themselves an 'architect'. Significant fines apply to the
breach of this legislation. A building designer cannot call themselves an architect.
Professional consultants have appropriate roles as a part of the project team providing
expert advice, drawings and other documentation for residential building design projects.
Land surveyors assess, measure and record the site dimensions, levels and specific site
features. A detailed site survey is an essential drawing providing information at the
beginning of the project.

Structural engineers provide technical Design and documentation of a building design's
structural elements from the footings through to floors, walls, and roofs. Structural
engineers need to design and document reinforced concrete and structural steel in building
design projects.
Interior designers may be consulted for complex or detailed interiors and specialised interior
fixtures and finishes.
Landscape designers design and document external areas of the site, including structures,
paving, water features and planting. The approval authority may require landscape plans
and details.
Hydraulics engineers provide technical Design and documentation about site drainage,
rainwater storage and re-use. The approval authority may require detailed Design and
documentation of water management.
The builder constructs the building design project and is responsible for completing the
construction according to the building contract and documentation.
Where the client engages the consultant, the consultant's duty is to the client. The
consultant is engaged by the building designer, the consultant's duty is first to the building
designer then to the client indirectly.

Fees and contracts
Fee proposal
After the client's initial contact and gaining an outline of the project, the building designer
would generally send the client a letter proposing the services to be offered and fees for
each stage of the project. This letter is a fee proposal. Often a blank client agreement or
contract may be sent with the fee proposal.
If the client wishes to engage the building designer for their project, they will accept the fee
proposal and sign the client agreement.
The client agreement

When the client and building designer enter a contractual arrangement, such as the form
developed by the Building Designers Australia (Engagement Agreement), the building
designer is generally responsible for the following:
• to provide the client with building design services in return for payment
• to act as the client's agent, this implies a particular level of liability and therefore
responsibility to provide a professional service
• to provide that service with due care and a reasonable level of skill
• to not make changes to the design without the consent of the client
• where sub-consultants have been engaged by the building designer, then he or she is
responsible to the client for their services
• the building designer is not responsible for ensuring the performance of consultants
engaged by the client
• to not disclose information about the project to others without the consent of the
client unless disclosure is necessary to perform that work adequately
• the law determines the extent of liability to the client
• the extent of any warranty is subject to certain laws such as the Trade Practices Act.
It is an obligation that a Building Designer exercises a duty of care and performs at a level of
skill and diligence when undertaking any building design work. The building designer need
not have extraordinary abilities but must have a level of competence appropriate to a
professional building designer. Similarly, a drafter must have a level of competence
appropriate to a drafter. If the building designer or drafter fail to meet these standards and
the person who has employed them suffers damage, then the building designer or drafter is
liable to that person.

The client is then generally responsible for the following;
• to pay the Building Designer for the scope of services

• to provide the Building Designer with adequate instructions
• the client is responsible for the accuracy of information submitted to the building
designer
• where the client engages secondary consultants, then he or she will be responsible to
the client.

Building design project documentation
The purpose of building design documents (drawings are documents too) is to describe a
building, or some aspect of a building, for:
• providing a basis for discussions on a concept or idea for a building

• documenting the ideas of the designer
• providing the documentation and details required for planning and building
approvals
• providing the builder, consultants and trades with the necessary information they
require to scope, build, inspect and assess the building
• documenting the design of the building as it was BUILT.
Typically, residential building plans, drawings, schedules and specifications are created to
describe the:
• location of the building on the site, and the location of nearby buildings, trees,
bushes and other features
• location and size of all the spaces in the building
• construction of any unusual structural elements
• the layout of services, such as electricity, gas, sewerage and storm water
• materials to be used in all areas of the building, especially the building envelope
• fittings and finishes to be used, including the location of carpets and tiles
• standards and quality requirements that must be met in construction.
Different kinds of plans, drawings and specifications contain different types of information
and different amounts of detail depending on the stage of the work and the complexity of
the design.
Types of drawings
Drawings are produced in the appropriate form or style and contain information relevant to
the works' drawing and stage. For example, furniture would not be shown on a working
drawing unless the furniture is to form part of the construction contract, whereas it may be
helpful to show furniture on a sketch design drawing to explain the working and appearance
of a room. Similarly, detailed dimensions would not be included in the sketch design but are
vital in working drawings.

In a building project, there will be many different drawings that fall into the following
categories:
Table 2: Drawings in a building project
Category Drawings Purpose
Design drawings Bubble diagrams. Tools for the designer to

develop ideas.
Concept sketches.
Design drawings Concept drawings, sketch To present to the client and

design drawings, provide a clear
presentation drawings. understanding of the
building that has been
designed.
Design drawings DA drawings The culmination of design

drawings is the production
of drawings for the
Development Application
(DA). These generally have
more in common with
construction or working
drawings.
Construction drawings working drawings To communicate with the

builder, consultants and
authorities the extent,
details and information
about the building to be
constructed.
Construction drawings CC drawings Working drawings show the

information required to
obtain a Construction
Certificate (approval to
construct).
Construction drawings construction details A part of working drawings

shows detailed information
about the construction of
building elements.

Category Drawings Purpose
Construction drawings shop (workshop) drawings Working drawings show the

detailed information
required to fabricate items,
such as furniture, joinery,
and fixtures.
Construction drawings tender drawings Working drawings showing

the information required to
obtain quotes (tenders) for
construction work
Post-construction drawings As-built drawings Complete set of working

drawings, detail how a
building was built or exists.
The documentation process involves the incremental resolution and refinement of a design
into a document used for construction purposes. There are always parts of the unresolved
Design and parts that are resolved during each stage of Design and documentation.
Until the documents have passed the Construction Certificate application stage, they are
generally stamped 'Not for Construction'. This is because all the issues relating to safety,
amenity, appropriateness of details and materials are not resolved to an acceptable level
until the Construction Certificate application is approved.
Specifications
The specification is a written document with technical directions and conditions describing
the quality of materials and the standard of workmanship of the project or parts of a project.
It deals with items that cannot be shown on drawings or in schedules and are generally
presented in a sequence of trades. This detailed written description of the works covers
standards, quality of finishes, construction methods, legal issues etc.
The Specification forms part of the tender documents and, with agreed modifications (if
any), of the contract documents. The specification should be read in conjunction with the
drawings and schedules to describe how a project is built fully.
The Australian national building specification system (NATSPEC) is designed as a guide

specification for building works.

Copyright
Intellectual Property is someone's creative work that can be protected by copyright,
trademarks, registered Design or patents. Copyright is the exclusive right to control, make
and dispose of copies of intellectual property for a certain term of years as granted by law.
Copyright exists at the creation of an original design.
Architectural drawings, models or buildings and completed buildings are all regarded as
artistic works defined in the Commonwealth Copyright Act 1968 ('the Act'). Building
designers automatically own the copyright in their original designs (drawings, models, or
completed buildings) unless a building designer has been engaged as a secondary or sub-
consultant, or the building designer has agreed with the client that the client has copyright.
Generally, if a building is constructed following the drawings, the building designer also
holds its copyright.
Copyright exists only in a physical expression of an original idea, not in the idea itself. It is
therefore possible to be influenced by other building design ideas without infringing
copyright. Sometimes, there is a fine line between being influenced or inspired by another
building designer's work and copying it.
When a client engages a building designer to design or document a building, the client
essentially purchases a restricted licence to use the building designer's documents. The
licence is limited to one site because the client has only paid for one building. The client may
reproduce the Design on other sites but only with the architect or building designer's written
consent. The written permission will stipulate any conditions for reproduction of Design,
such as additional fees.
It is a good idea to put the © or the word 'copyright' and the name and year when the
drawing or document was created as proof or a reminder of copyright ownership. This
symbol isn't strictly needed in Australia, but it is required to enforce copyright in some other
countries.
Work carried out by an individual under the employment of a firm remains the firm's
intellectual property. Unless there is a prior agreement between the individual and the firm,
copyright remains with the firm.
Individuals often use examples of work they have done at various firms in their portfolio.
Most employers like to examine prospective staff members' portfolios as it gives the
employer a good indication of the individual's capabilities and level of expertise. It is
essential to obtain permission to retain copies of drawings from the firm where the work
was carried out. It is also essential to indicate the level of involvement in each piece of work.
That is, the individual may have traced the drawing, documented the design or designed and
documented the entire work.

Topic 2: The building design office

Overview
• office administration
• document management
• drawing management.

Office administration
In the form of drawings or other documents, management and distribution of information in
hard copy or electronic format are central to building design office practice. The
development and maintenance of an effective information management system is vital.
All building design offices have a system of managing different types of documents. The
following is a schedule of the types of documents that most offices and storage locations
would use.
Table 3: Types of document
Type of document Storage location
Office drawings, Consultants' drawings Drawing file, filed according to project

number, plan cabinets or vertical storage,
• tracing paper, paper copies. often digitised for storage.
Office drawings, Consultants' drawings Digital drawing file is filed according to

project number, external drive or USB sticks
• digital CAD files. and other storage devices, remote data
storage, such as the Cloud.
Specifications. Standard specification template in-office

digital documents, project specification
with project file.
Letters, minutes of meetings, memoranda, Project file.

discussion records, notes, emails, drawing
register, drawing transmittal records,
photographs, contract administration
documents.
Practice Reference Documents, Codes, Acts Office library, online and digital databases.
and Standards, Architectural journals or
magazines, Manufacturers' catalogues.
Every building design office needs some system to keep track of the office's documents or
received. All documents need to be recorded and filed in an organised system.

Project files
A building design office may have several projects running concurrently. Large amounts of
information pass in and out of the office for each project in memos, letters, emails, records,
reports, minutes, instructions, drawings, photographs etc.
Each document must be stored so that it is accessible and retrievable. Each project has an
allocated project number, for example, 27/19 (job number 27 in 2019) and a project file in
which all project documents are stored in chronological order in categories relating to the
nature of the document.
Project files are divided into categories to suit the project. The following is an example of
how files may be divided:
Table 4: Categorisation of files
Category Project files may include
Very small project files: All documents stored chronologically within

the project file.
Small project files All documents stored under the following

sections:
• emails and notes

• client
• fees/program/QA
• consultants
• authorities
• drawings, documents, photographs.
Major project files All documents stored under the following

sections:
• client in
• client out
• minutes
• fees/program/QA
• structural engineer
• other consultants
• authorities
• specification.

Category Project files may include
• site information
• drawings and photographs.
Contract admin files for each project All documents stored under the following
(construction stage) sections:
• notes
• client
• builder
• minutes
• certificates, variations
• authorities, neighbours, site
• consultants
• drawings and spec info.
Diaries
Senior staff in building design offices usually maintain a diary, digital or hard copy, and
record notes of conversations, instructions, site visits etc. These diaries are important
records that may be called on to recall or verify what happened or what was discussed or
agreed and when, in discussions or possible legal action relating to a project. Diaries are
archived for future access if required.
Office software
A range of business software would be used in a building design office, including the
following:
• word processing (letters, reports and other written documents), for example, Word
on a PC or Pages on a Mac
• preparing spreadsheets, for example, Excel
• emails and calendar management, for example, Gmail, Apple Mail, Outlook.

Document management
Digital file storage and security
While some drawings and other documents must be stored in hard copy, such as signed
contract documents or stamped approved Development Approval (DA) and Construction
Certificate (CC) drawings, almost all documents are stored in digital form. Digital storage has
the advantage of space-saving and ease of access. Systems that allow for storing and
processing this digital information are essential for good office management.
Digital files are stored on the office computer drive and portable USB sticks, on an external
backup drive or other storage devices such as remote data storage such as 'the Cloud'. Back-
up procedures and virus protection are vital to guard against accidental or malicious loss of
valuable data. An automatic system of backing up should be used.
Multiple copies of files are stored in orderly file structures in different locations for security
in case files are corrupted or lost.
The size of data files is a major consideration and will dictate the type of storage process.
Sets of CAD files, particularly for large complex projects, will involve huge file sizes.
Project documents from the initial time a client contacts you to the project's completion are
stored and managed for reference throughout the project and in the future.
The following is a list of the types of records that should be made and kept throughout a
project's phases.
Table 5: Types of records
Record types Description
Initial client contact Keep a record of the client's initial instructions. This will help
in the establishment of the client brief and subsequently
becomes the project brief. The information recorded should
include any references to budget and program requirements,
general expectations and goals, and for the building and
professional services.
Client agreement As soon as possible, an agreement should be made between

the building designer and the client via an exchange of letters.
(Emails will generally not be upheld in a court of law because
there is no signature attached to them.) The agreement
should show the roles, rights of the parties, the services and

cost of the services. Adequate documentation will avoid later
fee or service disputes or help resolve them if they occur. It is
also a good idea to keep a copy of the contract between the
client and contractor/builder.
Studies and reports Informal studies, calculations, trials, surveys, investigations

and other research activities that the building designer
performs as part of the principal services should also be
recorded and stored for later reference. Records and
photographic evidence of existing conditions and surveys
should also be kept.
Drawings and Copies of all drawings submitted to the client for approval
specification approved by should be filed, along with any documents that the client
the client subsequently endorses. This includes schematic, design
development and final working drawings and specification.
Preliminary and draft sketches are also kept for reference.
Documents approved by A record of all dealings with authorities, including completed

authorities applications and other official forms, receipts,
correspondence, notes, telephone conversations and
drawings, should be maintained, with the approved and
endorsed documents (or copies thereof) filed.
Transactions with A copy of all documentary transactions, including

tenderers, consultants, correspondence, records of telephone conversations, notes
nominated suppliers and and drawings submitted to and received from consultants,
subcontractors tenderers, subcontractors and suppliers, should be kept and
filed. You should also keep any trade data, samples and
prototypes.
Contract Administration Instructions, notices, certificates and other forms such as

Records statements and RFIs (requests for information) issued
between the builder, the building designer and the owner
should be filed. Where instructions are given verbally (for
example, on-site), they should be confirmed at the time, if
possible, by using a duplicate note pad. The original can be
given to the person being instructed, and the copy maintained
as part of the project record. Alternatively, verbal instructions
should be confirmed in writing as soon as possible. Copies of
instructions should always be given to the client as
confirmation of instructions given.

Minutes of Meetings Minutes should be taken at meetings, including those held on-
site, and any decisions made at meetings with the client
and/or the builder should be confirmed in writing.
Progress Photographs Photographs of the project before and during construction are
and videos invaluable records. Care should be taken to store digital files
with the project file. Videos can also be a useful aid for
recording construction in progress and site visits.
Time Records Time Records can provide evidence of what work was carried
out on a project at a particular stage. They should indicate the
Job number and name, the project stage, and a brief
description of the work. This is good practice and will be
helpful when deciding on the fees charged for future projects.
Correspondence A well-maintained project file will be the best defence against

any legal claims that may arise. It is up to each office to
develop their filing system that works for their office.
NATSPEC has developed its classification system to be a good
starting point when establishing a comprehensive filing
system. Whatever the system used, the essence of a suitable
correspondence file is a record of decisions taken during the
project, arranged to make retrieving information easy.
Diary It is a great idea to maintain daily personal, office or project

information in a diary or daybook. This can be useful when
cross-referencing with other records.
Email Emails relating to a particular project should be saved and

stored with other project correspondence.
Accounting Records Accounting records are an indispensable part of project

records, and duplicates should be kept in the project file and
other accounting files.
Research Details of research and enquiries made through the initial

Design or during the project's construction can be critical to
proving that reasonable care has been taken. It might also
establish who else is responsible if the designer has relied on
information provided by others.

Disposal of Records Unlike financial records for taxation and company purposes
which can be destroyed after seven years, project records
should only be destroyed when your liability for the project
ceases. Surprisingly enough, the liability of a building
designer, for example, normally ceases seven years after the
demolition of a building. If the building is not demolished,
then project records need to be kept indefinitely.
File naming
A vital part of the digital document filing system is applying a file naming system to ensure
that files and different versions of files can be accurately located. Once you have set up a
project folder with a filing system using a folder hierarchy, you must also set up a file naming
system for every document. This may include:
1. A starting point would be to allocate a job number to each project, for example,
27/19 (job number 27 in 2019). Use the job number in file naming of all project
drawings and documents.
2. Use file names according to the project's stage or the drawing or document; for
example, for client approved sketch design drawings, the file name might be
2719_SK_Client Approved.
3. According to date or amendment number, file naming protocols must also accurately
identify different drawing or document versions.

Drawing management
It is important to have a file management system for digital drawings. Orderly filing of
drawings is essential, so specific drawings can readily be retrieved or archived. Drawings are
constantly revised and distributed throughout the project. Drawing management systems
provide tracking of drawing amendments, drawings issued for different
purposes/applications and drawings issued to different authorities, consultants or team
members. The development of office standards and procedures specific to digital files, CAD
systems, computer processes and networks within building design offices is essential
When working on a drawing, be aware of how it will be used, transmitted, amended and
stored, and who will have access to it. A document control system is an important part of the
quality system of any building design practice. Essentially, it involves establishing and
maintaining procedures for controlling drawings and other documents through the stages of
approval, issue, change and modification, and storage.
The management of digital documents and drawing files involves managing risks such as
computer viruses, corrupted files, and lack of version control through drawing management
protocols. Storage of drawings and other project files should always be backed up in secure
digital storage.
A drawing, once produced, is used in many ways. It may be:
• reproduced and sent off to clients, builders, consultants, council etc

• passed on to colleagues for checking or further work
• stored for short or medium access
• stored long-term after completion of a project.
The document control system and associated forms are usually a computer-based document
management system allowing staff to retrieve information about drawings readily. Sharing
of drawings and CAD files within a project team is a standard procedure in the Design and
documentation of projects. Contractors, suppliers and manufacturers may also request
drawings for use during the construction process.

The system may generate various forms, reports and registers, such as:
• transmittal forms
• project reports
• project team register
• drawing register
• drawing status register
• issue register.
Drawing issue
Drawings are issued for different purposes at each stage of the project. For a typical
residential building design project, the purpose of a set of drawings must be recorded on
each drawing of that set. For example:
• sketch design
• design development
• development application
• construction certificate
• tender purposes only, not for construction
• for construction.
The drawing issue is shown on the 'Drawing Title' and represented in the drawing numbering
system. This identifies drawings and ensures that the appropriate drawing is being received.
A client, consultant or builder for a project may end up with many sets of drawings for a
project, each with different information, and each issued for different purposes. It is
essential that the appropriate drawing is being referred to as the project progresses.
For this reason, the systems used by a drawing office to record the development of
drawings, the changes to drawings, and the date and details of drawing issue should be
rigorous. This is important for office management and the effective completion of the
project.

Drawing numbering
Drawings are numbered just like pages are numbered in a book to differentiate one sheet
from another. The drawing number is also the Drawing Title for simplicity and helps organise
the drawings into a logical sequence. As noted above, it is also important to identify the
purpose or stage of the project of the set of drawings.
For example, the second drawing in a set of sketch design drawings is a drawing sheet
containing a floor plan and might be titled as 'Sketch design floor plan'.
Usually, the drawing number system will use a prefix to indicate the project's stage or the
purpose of the set of drawings. In this example, the set of drawings are for the Sketch Design
stage so that an SK will prefix the drawing number.
For example, SK 2: SK stands for Sketch and the 2 for the sheet number in the set of Sketch
design drawings
As projects grow and develop, so does the amount of documentation to communicate them.
Not only does the content on a single sheet grow, but additional drawing sheets are required
to be added into the set in a location within the set where it is logical in the' story telling
process' of the project. For this reason, some designers choose to use drawing numbering
systems that allow for the drawings to be added into the middle of the set without
disrupting the drawing sheet numbering of the drawings to follow.
Below is a sample of drawing numbering for a project. It shows how at the early stages of
the project, only a few drawings are required, and these drawings are given numbers that
can continue with them right to the end. The drawing types are slotted into a series number,
and as the project progresses and develops, additional drawings can be added into the
relevant series. For example, all plan drawings for the project are part of the 100 series in
this instance, the elevations the 200 series, sections 300 series and so on.
Using a numbering system such as this suit digital filing and the drawing prefixes only require
updating as the project progresses and the numbering system allowing logical digital listings.

Table 6: Sample system of drawing numbering progressing and growing through a project
Develop Construct Tender Construct.

Project stage Sketch applicant Cert. Doc. Doc.
Document or draw title SK DA CC TD CD
Cover page SK000 DA000 CC000 TD000 CD000
Site plan SK001 DA001 CC001 TD001 CD001
Ground floor plan SK100 DA100 CC100 TD100 CD100
First-floor plan SK101 DA101 CC101 TD101 CD101
Roof plan DA102 CC102 TD102 CD102
Reflected ceiling plan gnd TD102 CD102
Reflected ceiling plan gnd TD103 CD103
Elevations 1 SK200 DA200 CC200 TD200 CD200
Elevations 2 DA201 CC200 TD201 CD200
Sections 1:100 SK300 DA200 CC300 TD300 CD300
Sections 1:100 CC301 TD301 CD301
Detail sheet 1 TD400 CD400
Detail sheet 2 TD401
External finishes schedule SK500 DA500 CC500 TD500 CD500
Window schedule CC501 TD501 CD501
Door schedule CC502 TD502 CD502

Drawing amendments
Amendments (changes to drawings) must be identified so that all involved in a project can
be sure that they are referring to the most recent drawing.
Amendments are noted on the amended drawing, for example:
Table 7: Example drawing amendment
Amendment and Amended

date Amendment details by
A 16/03/19 Amended bathroom layout following client meeting TD

15/03/19
The amendment schedule is recorded on the drawing in an amendment table as shown

above, usually within the title block. The amendment schedule generally contains the date of
the revised issue, a brief description of change or amendment and the initials of who made
or approved the changes.
The drawing has been amended to clearly state that the amendment reference is added to
the drawing number. For example, SK2A means Sketch Design, drawing 2, amendment A.
Drawing register and version control

A typical system for tracking drawings may involve the use of a drawing register. The
drawing register will record appropriate details about each drawing set. Details may include:
• job/project name/number
• drawing number
• drawing title
• drawing amendments
• date
• drawing issue
• drawing status
• notes.

The job or project number is often used as the principal coordinating record for all drawing
office documentation. All documents produced or received are recorded against a particular
project and filed using the project number as the 'key' or index to the filing system.
A register of drawings and other documents should be established, including all digital
drawing files for the project. Each file should be assigned a unique digital file name that
clarifies its contents. The drawing register may include information about the drawing
version, status (for example, preliminary, draft or superseded). Where necessary, user
access rights to the digital drawing file should also be considered (for example, read-only,
locked or unlocked).
When issuing draft or preliminary drawing files not yet finalised, their status should be
indicated by the words' draft' or 'preliminary'. Superseded CAD files should be deleted or
required to be retained for archival purposes, removed from the immediate workplace (for
example, stored in a separate sub-directory) and marked to indicate their superseded status.
Table 8: Drawing control methods
Drawing
control method Process
Drawing This is a register of all drawings produce for each project. It records and
register controls drawing issues at each project stage, drawing numbers and
amendments and drawings.
Drawing issue Drawings are named according to their purpose or stage of the project,
for example, sketch design, developed design, planning approval,
construction approval.
Drawing This is a checklist of all specific requirements for this issue of drawings.
checklist
Drawing All drawings are numbered. Sets of drawings in each issue are
numbering numbered accordingly. For example, DD1/5 is drawing no.1 of a set of
five developed design drawings.
Drawing Amendments to drawings must be recorded in the drawing register with

amendments the date of amendment. The number of the amended drawing must
include the amendment reference. For example, DD1a is the first
amendment to this developed design drawing.

Drawing
control method Process
Drawing Most drawings require checking by the building designer and approval
approvals by the client or approval authority, and this is an important control
point.
Drawing storage
While some drawings and other documents must be stored in hard copy, such as signed
contract documents or stamped approved Development Approval (DA) and Construction
Certificate (CC) drawings, almost all documents are stored in digital form. Digital storage has
the advantage of space-saving and ease of access. Systems that allow for storing and
processing this digital information are essential for good office management.
Digital files are stored on the office computer drive and on an external backup drive or other
storage devices such as via remote data storage such as 'the Cloud'. Back-up procedures and
virus protection are vital to guard against accidental or malicious loss of valuable data. An
automatic system of backing up should be used.
The size of data files is a major consideration and will dictate the type of storage process.
Sets of CAD files, particularly for large complex projects, will involve huge file sizes.
File sharing
It is advisable to establish communication processes through document and drawing sharing
with clients and the project team at the beginning of a project.
CAD drawings can either be transferred by USB stick or by email, as active CAD files enable
the drawing to be amended, or as picture files (such as pdf files) or 'read only' files that
cannot be manipulated. In providing information to the recipient, the choice of file type
allows the building designer or drafter to maintain control over the original CAD data.
Consultants or other project team members may require drawings in a CAD format to add
input using the latest architectural drawings. Transfer of CAD data is inherently risky as once
the file is passed on, others can make changes to CAD data, and copies can be passed on,
and the building designer or drafter has little control over it. To maintain security for the
issue of documents from an office, it is vital to control the file format of document transfer
and maintain accurate records of different versions and amendments.

It is increasingly common for files to be stored in remote data storage banks such as 'the
CLOUD', with different parties set up to have varying levels of access to the files. For
example, some consultants may be able to upload and download files, while other parties
may only be able to read or view particular documents. This CLOUD system approach to file
transfer is particularly useful on bigger projects with large file sizes and multiple consultants
and parties having input into the project. This results in multiple versions of large drawing
files. Project-specific portals may be established to manage the file storage, register, listing
and transfer of all the files relating to a particular project.
On-going technological developments will continue to have significant implications for the
management of digital CAD files. Increasing amounts of information are embedded in
architectural drawings through Building Information Modelling (BIM). Document and
information control procedures will need to be continually re- evaluated.
Distribution of CAD drawing files

Procedures for the transfer of CAD files should be established at the beginning of a project
to provide a framework for controlling CAD file distribution according to the role of
personnel and their involvement in a project. When drawings are issued (copies given or files
transferred), this should be recorded in an Issue Register. The office Quality System should
establish a system for the controlled issue and distribution of all CAD files required for a
project.
Clients - Transfer of CAD files to clients should be following the scope of works, associated
fees and costs. As the designer has the copyright for building designs, agreement to the
client's use of CAD files must be negotiated and clarified.
Consultants - CAD files to consultants are central to the team leader's role in coordinating a
project. The building designer should direct the distribution of CAD files within a project
team as team leader to ensure consistency of information being shared. Revisions and
updates of CAD files should be issued at agreed milestones in a project. CAD systems in the
consultants' offices should be compatible to ensure an efficient document distribution
process.
Responsibility for consultants' drawings based on issued building design CAD files must be
clarified at the beginning of a project. The consultant must accept responsibility for the
subsequent use of CAD files issued to them and for cross-checking and updating their
drawings.
While negotiating the scope of works for a project, the value-added component in the
transfer of building design CAD files to consultants should be recognised, particularly if the
building design drafter effectively completes a significant portion of the consultant's
drafting.

Contractors, suppliers and others - Transfer of CAD files to contractors, subcontractors or
suppliers is potentially useful for construction coordination and shop drawings preparation.
Others outside the project team may request a copy of the building design CAD files. These
could be other building designers, drafters or building designers working on tenancy fit-outs,
marketing firms or specialist consultants. Procedures should include fees for transfer of files,
request processing, discouragement of casual requests for full sets of (CAD) drawings and
include appropriate contractual and software disclaimers. Ensure that the copyright of
drawings is clarified, disallowing the transfer of files to third parties.
Client Agreements should provide the recovery of costs associated with the transfer of CAD
drawings or information and translation of format. Transfer fees charged can vary from
'actual' costs (time, media) to a set fee per transfer. As the transfer of CAD files is so quick
and efficient, it can be overlooked in the fee costing, so it can be helpful to establish a fee
structure for requests for CAD files.
Receiving of CAD files

The receipt of CAD files into an office should be recorded, including any covering transmittal
information. CAD files should be viewed to ensure that they are properly identified,
complete, free from viruses, and appropriately. If there is a problem with the CAD files, the
issuing office should be contacted for a replacement copy.
Drawing reproduction
Most building design offices use computer-aided drafting for most drawings, with manually
drafted drawings and sketches used for resolving designs and supplementary or
presentation drawings.
Manual drawings are usually produced on tracing paper with pens or pencils and may be
reproduced with photocopiers. Often hand sketches are scanned in as image files and added
to and graphically enhanced in CAD or graphic programs such as PhotoShop or Illustrator etc.
CAD drawings are reproduced using printers or plotters. For larger drawing formats or
special presentations, files may be emailed to a specialist printer for reproduction. Most
drawings will be stored in digital format.

Storage of hard copy (paper) drawings
Although most offices largely work on digital drawings and other documents, there are
always paper drawings in the office. Every drawing office should have facilities for the
storage of paper drawings. For short-term access, drawings are simply laid flat on a table or
bench. This involves the risk of damage through tearing, sunlight, fire and spilt liquids.
Storage of paper drawings in the office may be in horizontal plan cabinets with large shallow
drawers big enough to take A0 or A1 drawings. Alternatives are vertical plan storage systems
in which drawings are fixed along the edge of the drawing and then hung on a stand, so the
drawings hang vertically in vertical cabinets or mobile stands. Sets of drawings for a project
are clamped together. Drawings can also be rolled up and sealed in plastic or cardboard
tubes for compact long-term storage.
Once a building is completed, the drawings may be stored for future reference or, most
likely, scanned for storage as a digital drawing file. When a project is completed and file
access is not a priority, such files are normally archived, stored out of the way and possibly
off-site. A common period for such files to be retained is seven years.

Topic 3: Project information

Overview
At the start of a building design project and continuing throughout the project, there is a
range of information required. A building designer cannot just produce a design without
complying with a range of requirements and criteria as well as legislation. A wide range of
sources of information are required for use on building design projects.
• office database
• client requirements
• legislation
• workplace health and safety (WHS)
• the site context
• construction terminology.

Office database
Building Design offices use a range of sources for project information. This information is
stored in an office database for reference on current or future projects. Information sources
include:
Table 9: Types of information sources
Types of
information sources Description
Technical Available from the manufacturer's websites and occasional with

information from hard copy catalogues and samples, this is an essential source of
manufacturers current information in a building design office prepared by the
manufacturers of a product that sets out the product range,
specification, details, and installation information.
Design data anthropometric data, reference details from websites, books,

magazines or previous projects; project examples from online
design newsletters
Legislative Codes, Acts and Standards –constant reference to these

information documents is essential, for example, the NCC (National
Construction Code), Australian Standards, Workplace Health and
Safety (WHS), and local authorities' planning requirements. This
information requires constant access to appropriate websites and
specifically for each project.
Architectural Building design offices and individual building design drafters

journals, email obtain important information through subscription to many of
newsletters or these publications. Information may include architects and
magazines building designers' recent work, including discussion and
photographs of the buildings and articles on management,
technology, legislation, and general issues about the building
design industry. This is one of the main methods by which building
designers and drafters maintain current building design and
technology knowledge.
Continuing Attending regular seminars and industry events is essential for

professional maintaining awareness of current trends related to building
development design. Notes from these seminars and events should be recorded
for office reference.

Client requirements
Of course, the building design project is that a client requires a specific building for a specific
purpose and usually on a specific site. An initial project outline or overview will be provided
initially, and this will be followed, once the building designer has been engaged, by a
detailed Design Brief for the project.
Throughout this course, you will work on two residential projects:
• Project 1: a single storey house with a garage and separate shed.

• Project 2: a two-storey house on a sloping site.
The project overviews will be used in the project assessments for CPPBDN4101 to provide
your project work scenarios.

Legislation
National Construction Code NCC
The building design process, while creative, must work within strict controls on the building.
We therefore have a responsibility to our clients to gain an understanding of these controls.
The National Construction Code (NCC) Volume 2 refers to residential building requirements.
Access to the NCC is via the website. (Long URL: https://ncc.abcb.gov.au/ncc-online/NCC)
Research will raise several factors that must be complied within the design of the building.
Drafters must be aware of NCC requirements in producing drawings. NCC compliance
requirements may include:
• types of construction required

• details of construction required
• natural light and ventilation
• termite protection
• drainage requirements
• fire protection.
Town planning
In NSW, the town planning controls of the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979
No 203 are applied at the local government level. Information about town planning controls
are available from the local council website.
Town Planning controls will define how a proposed development must fit within the context
of its neighbourhood. The amenity of adjoining properties is to be protected. Some of the
factors governed by town planning controls may include:
• the form and scale of the building: height, floor space ratio, building envelope
• how much of the site may be used: boundary setbacks, floor space ratios?
• appropriate materials to be used
• parking.
After considering allowable site coverage, setbacks, and other building regulations, the
building's overall shape can be largely determined. As a result, designing a building on small
sites may be very constrained.

In NSW, the Local Environment Plan (LEP) sets out the density and type of buildings
permitted in different locations. The Development Control Plan (DCP) sets out the specific
controls on the types of buildings. In NSW, there are also State Environmental Planning
Policies (SEPPs) that relate to different types of development. For example, the Housing
Code SEPP, which permits single and two-storey houses to be carried out as complying
development provided the proposal meets the relevant development standards.
Refer to unit CPPBDN4104 more on compliance requirements.
Australian standards
Australian Standards are published documents setting out specifications and procedures
designed to ensure products, services and systems are safe, reliable and consistently
perform the way they are intended to. They establish a minimum set of requirements that
define quality and safety criteria.
Australian standards are voluntary documents that are developed by consensus. Many
Australian standards are adopted into legislation to become mandatory or referenced in
contracts because of their rigour. Australian Standards in relation to building construction
and materials are referred to in the NCC.
Certification and compliance

Building designers are responsible for ensuring that compliant Design is produced and
accurately documented. Increasingly building design professionals and others in the project
team, including structural engineers and builders, must certify that projects comply with a
range of legislation and standards such as the NCC, Australian Standards and Workplace
Health Safety (WHS). Certification is required that a project has been constructed in
accordance with project documentation, so thorough and accurate drawings and documents
are essential.

Sustainability compliance
BASIX
NSW State Environmental Planning Policy (Building Sustainability Index: BASIX) 2004
legislates to apply sustainability targets for single and multiple dwellings and additions and
alterations.
Sustainability targets vary according to the location and climate zone of the site. Targets are
assessed against a standard benchmark dwelling using BASIX online assessment tools. For
coastal NSW, the targets for single dwellings are typically:
• 40% reduction in potable water consumption

• 50% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.
Residential building designs must include sustainability measures such as appropriate

orientation, solar shading, passive heating and cooling and rainwater storage tanks.
Building on bushfire prone land

Bushfire prone sites are a major challenge for building designers. Bushfire has been a natural
part of our environment for thousands of years and remains an ever-present threat. All
developments on land that is designated as bushfire-prone have a legal obligation to
consider bushfire.
The Australian Standard specifications, AS3959 2018, Construction of buildings in bushfire-

prone areas, apply to all buildings. The NSW Rural Fire Service (RFS) has also developed a
document, Planning for Bush Fire Protection 2019 (PBP 2019), which sets out industry best
practice to provide bushfire protection standards. Both these documents are essential
reference for the Design of buildings in bushfire-prone land.
The NSW RFS has, under the Rural Fires Act 1997, a statutory obligation to protect life,
property and the environment through fire suppression and fire prevention. In response to
devastating losses in past bush fires, the NSW Government enacted legislative changes to
ensure bush fire matters are considered in the development process.
Section 4.14 of the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979 requires all new
development on bushfire-prone land to comply with PBP 2019. Development Applications
(DA) on bush fire prone land must be accompanied by a Bush Fire Assessment Report
(BFAR), which explains how compliance with PBP 2019 is to be achieved. (Long URL:
https://www.rfs.nsw.gov.au/plan-and-prepare/building-in-a-bush-fire-area)

Workplace health and safety (WHS)
Legislation
States and territories provide legislation relating to occupational health and safety.
Workplace health and safety in the NSW workplace are legislated for by the Work Health
and Safety Act 2011 (WHS Act). This act aims to protect the health, safety and welfare of
people at work. The Act has been written in plain English, and it lays down general
requirements for health, safety and welfare, which must be met by places of work in New
South Wales. The Act covers self-employed people as well as employees and employers.
Within the WHS Act are Regulations giving detailed information about the requirements for
application and compliance with the Act. These Regulations are regularly updated and
should be checked on the website. (Long URL: www.legislation.nsw.gov.au). Other states
and territories would have parallel legislation, which should be investigated if applicable.
Safe Work Australia is the national policy body responsible for the model WHS laws
implemented in States and Territories.
Responsibilities under the WHS Act

Everyone in our society has a legal obligation to others called duty of care. The Workplace
Health and Safety Act further defines this duty of care and obligations in the workplace.
Under the WHS Act, employers have the primary responsibility for health and safety in the
workplace. As a full-time or part-time worker or as a visitor, everyone who enters an office
has a right under the law to be protected from risks of injury or disease. Employees must
protect themselves and others in the workplace.
Keeping a workplace safe and healthy is a cooperative process involving government and
governmental agencies, industry groups, employers and employees. Workers should have
some knowledge, at least in outline, of the Act so they can uphold their side of the 'duty of
care' equation.

Duty of care
Duty of care is central to the law and how it affects each of the parties:
Employers
Employers in a building design office have a duty of care to ensure the health and safety of
everyone in the workplace through actions including the following:
• providing information and training in health and safety issues, including office and
building site safety issues and the correct usage of plant and equipment
• establishing and supervising safe workplace practices
• providing a safe and healthy work environment including ergonomically sound
workstations and chairs, adequate space allocation per worker and appropriate air
quality and lighting levels
• ensuring the provision of appropriate protective clothing and equipment for the
equipment and activities
• ensuring that the operators of potentially dangerous equipment are trained and,
where necessary, certificated or licensed
• ensuring dangerous substances and materials are stored, handled and transported
safely
• to ensure there is appropriate, safe access to and from the workplace
• attending to employees' concerns regarding health and safety issues, including
concerns regarding workloads, work stress and personal issues such as harassment.
Employees
Employees also have a duty of care to ensure the health and safety of others in the
workplace. The duty of care for employees includes the following actions:
1. Co-operating with employers to ensure health and safety standards as applied by

regulations and codes of practice are adhered to; this would include following
supervisors' or employers' instructions given in the best interests of their health and
safety; and wearing the personal protective clothing and equipment issued to them.
2. Acting in a manner that does not endanger the health and safety of themselves or
any other person at the workplace.

Duties of persons other than employer or employees
Members of the public at a workplace have a duty to act in a manner that will not endanger
any other person's health and safety. They must carry out a safety direction given by the
principal contractor, or employer or safety officer.
Duties of principal building contractors

A principal building contractor for a building project has a duty to ensure that every
employer and employee on the project complies with the provisions of the Act. He or she is
also required to ensure the health and safety of members of the public at or near the
project. On a building project, the principal contractor is normally the head builder who
engages subcontractors to carry out the various trades.
Designers, manufacturers, suppliers

Designers, manufacturers and suppliers of plant and substances must fulfil obligations to
ensure this plant or substance is safe and without health risk when used properly. These
include obligations for the safe design, construction, testing and examination of plant and
substances and ensuring that information about safe use and staff training procedures are
available.
A building designer may be held liable if their construction documents:
• specify unsafe materials

• require unsafe procedures or techniques in construction
• produce a design that is regarded as unsafe.
Contract documents prepared by a building designer must require the principal contractor to
conform to Occupational Health and Safety legislation requirements.

WHS: Safe Design
There are general issues of WHS that the building designer should consider with the Design
of buildings. Safe Work Australia has developed a national framework for WHS
improvement. This includes the concept of 'safe design', which encourages systematic
government and industry approaches.
State government authorities across Australia have introduced legislation, regulations and
awareness programs to reduce site accidents in the construction industry.
All involved in a building project have a duty of care to provide a safe work environment and
ensure employees and other users' health and safety. Safe design considers issues
throughout the life cycle of a building:
• for people involved in the construction phase

• for people working in the building
• for people who maintain and renovate the building, its equipment and services
• for people involved in the demolition of the building.
Safe Design involves designers and decision-makers at the design stage considering risks
throughout the designed product's life cycle. The aim is to eliminate WHS hazards or
minimise potential WHS risk through design decisions on systems of work, use of materials,
or manufacturing or construction methods. The designer's responsibility is shared with
others during the life-cycle of the building, including the builder, construction site and work
process manager, and later, the building owner or manager.
A systematic approach to potential WHS hazards should be adopted and applied to all stages
of design projects, with decisions documented in a thorough risk management process. A
risk assessment will identify potential risks and where responsibility for their mitigation or
avoidance lies.
For the building designer, Safe Design should be referring to the assessment of risk,
documenting this evaluation, and informing the contractor in the specification or through
tender documents, as appropriate for the project's scale and complexity.

Workplace hazard and risk management
Employers or businesses, or anyone who falls under the definition of a 'person conducting a
business or undertaking' (a PCBU), has legal obligations under work health and safety laws.
Workplace hazard and risk management include:
• identify hazards in the workplace

• assess the risk those hazards create
• then eliminate or minimise them as much as possible.
An employer and PCBU has a legal duty to eliminate or minimise risks to workers' health and
safety at work in their business or undertaking.
The person with management or control of a workplace also has a legal duty to make sure,
so far as is reasonably practicable, that there are no health and safety risks to anyone
working in or visiting the workplace. This includes when people are entering or exiting the
workplace. It generally does not include residences unless the residence is occupied with
conducting a business.
Ways that a business can manage their hazards and health and safety risks include:
• consult with workers about safety, hazards, and risk control

• implement a safety management system and a risk management process that is
regularly reviewed
• consult, cooperate and coordinate with any other duty holders who have a
responsibility for health and safety
• maintain the workplace and facilities in a safe condition
• provide appropriate training
• implement appropriate procedures for workers who work in remote or isolated
worksites
• provide first aid equipment and prepare, implement and practice emergency plans
for evacuations in emergencies.

The first step in hazard control is to identify potential hazards. Having identified and
assessed potential hazards, you must take steps to counteract them. Risk controls begin
with:
• elimination: however, if this is not reasonably practicable, then reduce risk by

• substitution: replaces the material or process with a less hazardous one
• isolation: of the hazard
• engineering: place a guard over a moving part
• administration: adjusts the time or condition of risk exposure, for example, reducing
the time a worker is exposed to a dusty environment
• personal protective equipment (PPE): using appropriately designed and properly
fitting equipment, for example, safety goggles, ear protection.
Control methods that reduce or eliminate the hazard are more efficient risk control
measures than personal protective equipment (PPE). The last choice should be PPE, used
only when other control measures are not practicable or in an emergency.
Resources
Additional resources
Read the following web page for more information on:
• managing hazards and risks.
(Long URL: https://www.safework.nsw.gov.au/legal-obligations/employer-business-

obligations/managing-hazards-and-risks)

Reasonably practicable
'Reasonably practicable' is a legal requirement for employers under health and safety
legislation. It means doing what you are reasonably able to do to ensure the health and
safety of workers and others like volunteers and visitors.
Basically, employers and businesses (and other PCBUs) always need to eliminate any health
and safety risks in the workplace so far as is reasonable and practicable.
If a risk cannot be removed, you must minimise it by doing one or more of these things:
• substituting (wholly or partly) the hazard with something with a lesser risk
• isolating the hazard from any person exposed to it
• implementing engineering controls (if the risk remains, you must implement
administrative controls)
• use personal protective equipment.
If these controls do not fully eliminate or minimise the risk, you must implement
administrative controls and then, if appropriate, ensure the provision of suitable personal
protective equipment. A combination of controls may be used to minimise a risk if a single
control is not sufficient.
In determining control measures, you should identify and consider everything relevant to
the hazards and risks and eliminate or minimise the risks.
When determining what is reasonably practicable, you should consider:
• the likelihood of the hazard or risk occurring

• the degree of harm from the hazard or risk
• knowledge about ways of eliminating or minimising the hazard or risk
• the availability and suitability of ways to eliminate or minimise the risk
• cost.
Although a building designer must consider safety concerns when making decisions such as
constructing and choosing materials, this should not prevent creative design approaches. A
building's ability to be built safely is one of many vital criteria for a successful building. Safe
Design encompasses all aspects of building design to ensure that a building can be safely
built, used, maintained, and demolished.

Safe working procedures
• purchasing policies include safety: the acquisition of equipment that is safe to use
and safe to have present in the office environment
• housekeeping: maintaining a tidy work environment without inappropriately placed
items that may create a hazard
• training of employees: ensuring workers have adequate skills and knowledge to carry
out their allocated tasks
• job rotation may be used to shorten times of exposure to hazardous situations and to
reduce monotony and boredom, which can lead to accidents
• special precautionary measures for hazards as mentioned above (Design,
substitution, etc.) include instruction and display of fire evacuation procedures and
checking all personnel's evacuation
• work systems to ensure workers' safety - permits to work, lockout procedures: only
qualified personnel can carry out certain work.
In the building design office
Hazards
The working environments of offices may not be as hazardous as construction sites, but they
have potentially dangerous operations and equipment. Office workers may be exposed to a
variety of risks, including:
• heavy workloads: common in building design offices

• stress: common in architectural practices
• long repetitive work practices resulting in muscle fatigue, repetitive strain injury,
eyestrain: common to drafters, especially working at CAD systems unless avoidance
measures are undertaken
• poor ergonomics: need not be present in any office
• hot or cold temperatures: need not be present in any office
• poor indoor air quality: need not be present in any office
• poor lighting: need not be present in any office
• gases and fumes from office equipment, photocopiers and so on
• cramped and untidy conditions.
As well as this, the full range of problems faced by other workers also exist in offices (manual
handling, electrical hazards, occupational harassment and so on).

Office equipment
WHS issues are very important to computer usage and office space. The days of setting up a
personal computer, balanced on the corner of a traditional desk, are long gone. Space
requirements, furniture ergonomics, and the relationship of screens to light sources need
thought. Failure to plan properly for this can lead to costly work-related injury claims or
inefficient work practices.
Provide choice and flexibility in the workplace, rather than one solution for all. Provide
specific conditions for different tasks and individuals. For example, try a bigger screen for
more detailed work, different light diffusers, move the desk, change the chair. It is important
to be responsive to individual needs.
It is important to monitor and guide staff in the proper length of time spent at a computer
screen. An example is to require change in eye focus and direction should be made every 15
minutes; stand up and stretch every half hour and walk around every hour.
Chairs are one of the most important pieces of office equipment. Ergonomically designed
chairs have five castors, curved edges, absorbent backs and seats, adjustable back rests, and
height-adjustable. Making a chair comfortable for a specific office task such as computer
work involves adjusting the chair’s height and back rest and repositioning the screen and
keyboard. Placing the work document or document-holder in a comfortable position is also
necessary.
All equipment must be used according to the manufacturer’s instructions, which should be
familiar to every person who uses it. Common office equipment such as the printer often
needs maintenance or repair not because of breakdown but also because of misuse.
Handbooks, specification details, printed and diagrammatic instructions accompany most
pieces of equipment used in the office environment.
Office storage procedures should ensure stored material is not a potential hazard (for
example, boxes that project into a passageway). The storage area must also be accessible so
material can be reached and moved. Stored material should also be protected from danger.
Hazardous materials (such as solvents) need special storage procedures.
Office lighting may pose a special problem. Eye damage can result from inadequate lighting.
Provide appropriate task lighting which avoids glare.

Visiting a building site
Building design office employees must visit building sites which can be hazardous
environments. As visitors, office employees have a duty of care that requires them to look
after their own safety. Most importantly, the site visitor must follow the builder or principal
contractor's directions regarding safety issues. Also, it is important to understand the
builder’s duties under the Workplace Health and Safety Act regarding site safety.
A drafter or building designer entering a building site in NSW would be required to have
completed the General Construction Induction Card (White Card) and should also receive a
site-specific WHS induction. As each state and territory has their own system for WHS
requirements, enquiries should be made about specific requirements for other states. WHS
regulations are constantly changing, so current requirements should be confirmed.

The site context
The site
The extent and legal description (Lot and DP number) will be provided in a detailed Site
Survey provided by a registered Land Surveyor. We must also be aware of any easements
legally applying to the site and inscribed on the title deeds. Easements can restrict the area
of site available for building. Sometimes, easements allow utility services such as main
stormwater and sewerage drains to pass through the site.
Design for the site context

Starting with a site for a building design within an urban or suburban area, we must first
evaluate the character of the area to ensure that the design enhances and takes advantage
of the existing topography, geology, vegetation, climate, views and any other natural
features such as streams, rocky outcrops and so on.
The first thoughts should be to preserve as much as possible of the existing topography,
vegetation and other features. Dramatic reshaping of an area can creates its own problems
and destroys potential opportunities if an adequate evaluation is not made of existing
landscape forms.
Figure 1: A composite map of the site is arrived at from a series of overlays to give a clear definition of where to build

Such matters as alignments, boundary clearances, site access, contours, land slope,
drainage, water supply, point of electricity connection, easements, views, privacy, trees and
planting etc., should have been determined in site analysis for reference in the design
process. Intangible considerations are more subtle but no less important to a full
appreciation of the site. The designer may need to spend time on a site to appreciate all its
qualities as it changes in colour, patterns of sunlight and shade, patterns of wind and rain,
the daily and seasonal changes. Designing to suit the slope of a site is vital.
Figure 2: House, Southern Highlands NSW, Glenn Murcutt site analysis/sketch design

Figure 3: Topography, structure and form
The shape of the land influences the choice of structure and building form
As the building enclosure acts as a filtering mechanism to moderate the natural

environment's impact on the internal space, it is necessary to be fully aware of the macro
and microclimate of the site.

It is important to consider the context of a site about the adjoining properties, house style,
streetscapes, etc. The neighbourhood's general character to ensure that residential
development respects and enhances the character of the area is built. However, respect for
an existing streetscape doesn’t mean that copies of traditional building styles are necessarily
required. Contemporary building design can also show respect for the streetscape in more
sophisticated ways by analysing building forms, scale, elements and materials.
Consideration of the site and neighbourhood issues forms the basis of a design response.
This could be in the form of a rough site plan containing sketches or other annotations
showing how the identified site constraints (that is, overlooking, overshadowing, noise
sources and existing vegetation etc.) would affect the design.
Site criteria - Passive solar design

Good placement of a building on the site means that the design takes full advantage of its
unique microclimate. This includes being aware of the sun’s path through the sky, the
prevailing breezes and winds, the surface slope, neighbouring buildings, hills, gullies and
vegetation.
It is not always possible to develop the preferred orientation or aspect for each room
because of the constraints imposed by the size, shape, orientation of the block, site coverage
limitation and associated buildings regulations. In this situation, a design must compromise
between conflicting requirements and result in a more subtle design.
Passive solar design is a critical consideration in all building design. Solar heat entering
buildings through walls and windows depends critically on the orientation of the house. To
minimise solar heating in summer and provide for solar heating in winter, a house should be
oriented so that the main window areas face North in the Southern Hemisphere.
Where site conditions, views or other factors do not allow this orientation, special care is
required to ensure that the east and west windows and walls are well shaded and that
insulation is installed to limit gains in this area.
Other sustainability issues such as the placement of a rainwater tank for collecting rainwater
and solar panels for hot water or photovoltaic cells may impact your roof design. Embodied
energy of materials selection will also impact your design decisions.

Passive solar design to take advantage of environmental criteria:
1. Position rooms used during the day to face north and provide large windows to
capture the winter sun. This also allows the design to control the entry of summer
sun with eaves, overhangs, and sunshades more easily. This arrangement gives
generous light to the daytime living and activity areas and keeps them warm in
winter while capturing the cooling north easterly summer breezes. Shading from
eaves overhangs, verandas and pergolas can be provided for summer sun.
2. Bedrooms may be positioned on the southern side for minimum sun and a cool
sleeping area or eastern side for morning sun to awaken if desirable.
3. Laundries, bathrooms, garages and storerooms may be placed on the hot west wall
with minimal windows. This may shield living areas from heat entry.
4. Windows: west-facing windows are considered a more serious problem than east-
facing hot afternoon summer sun exposure is when air temperatures are at their
peak. Well shaded east-facing windows receive cooling coastal breezes along the
eastern seaboard, although this may be impacted by local landforms, trees and
buildings nearby.
5. Minimise exposure to unfavourable weather by placing a building below the crest of
a hill. Placing a building on the northern slope allows the design to take advantage of
winter sunshine.
6. Planting: careful selection of trees, shrubs, and creepers can protect the building
from heat loads in summer while allowing the sun to warm it in winter.
Local climatic conditions must be considered as the basis of your design.
Figure 4: Hot arid climate

Figure 5: Cool temperate climate
Figure 6: Tropical climate

Construction terminology
Building design drafters need to apply knowledge of construction in preparing project
drawings. A list of some construction terminology follows but further exploration of building
construction is included in units:
1. CPPBDN4106 Investigate materials for construction of Class 1 and 10 buildings.

2. CPPBDN4107 Investigate construction methods for Class 1 and 10 building.
Construction criteria
It is necessary to consult with and advise the client on materials, construction, character,
and site use. Consideration is given to a material’s advantages and limitations about the
specific job, for example, the minimum roof pitch, embodied energy, thermal performance.
For example, suppose a client’s preference is for cavity brick construction on a steeply
sloping site. In that case, a designer may need to advise on the inappropriateness, extra
complexity and cost involved, and possible alternatives.
The building designer's role is to be aware of the available structural systems, materials and
comparative costs, etc., to arrive at an appropriate compromise between competing
demands. To provide a good design service to a client, awareness of as wide a range of
available options is necessary.
The choice of structural system is a consideration in the design of all buildings to ensure the
design of a structure will support the building's form, for example, how the floor or roof will
be supported over an open plan design.

Figure 7 – Plan and structure
In choosing a structural system, the designer must be aware of the image and definition of
the building’s plan, internal spaces and external appearance.
There may be a choice between loadbearing slab and wall construction (concrete and brick
or blockwork) and a timber or steel-framed structure with lightweight cladding that provides
greater flexibility. The selection would depend on the site context and building usage.
Considerations could include:
1. Appearance: The quality of finish, colour, texture and methods of fixing and jointing.
For complex or unconventional selections, a sample panel of the material may be
erected and approved as the job's standard.
2. Durability: The durability and maintenance requirements of materials should be
considered, especially in severe atmospheres such as close to the sea.
3. Cost: Cost is a vital consideration. The balance between initial cost, durability and
appearance choice of materials must be considered.
4. Ease of construction: Consider how the building would be constructed, for example,
cost of materials and construction, site access for delivery, whether cranes necessary
for erection etc. Local availability of materials and skilled workers may be a factor.
5. National Construction Code: NCC - Selected materials must conform to the
requirement of the NCCS, for example, fire ratings, waterproofing.

Accredited or private certifier: A private sector professional who accredited to issue certain
certificates and perform specific duties under the legislation.
Aggregate: A particulate material that is made up of sand or crushed stone. Aggregates are
used in materials such as concrete and are a fundamental part of building foundations.
AHD-Australian Height Datum: AHD is a datum, based on approximate mean sea level,
above which all vertical site levels are measured.
Australian Standards: Standards are voluntary documents that set out specifications,
procedures and guidelines that aim to ensure products, services, and systems are safe,
consistent, and reliable. Australian Standards in relation to building construction and
materials are referred to in the NCC.
Backfilling: The process of refilling trenches or holes created during excavation, especially
around foundations
Beam: Beams run horizontally along the building's main walls at ceiling level, supporting the
structure.
BIM: BIM is an acronym for the term Building Information Modelling. BIM is an intelligent
3D model-based process that creates a computer model of a building that includes all the
details and data of that structure and its elements, from its basic layout to the smallest
measurements of an object or element.
BIM objects: BIM objects are the components that make up a BIM model. These objects
have intelligence, geometry and store data. If any element is changed, BIM software updates
the model to reflect that change ensuring that the model always remains up to date and
consistent and coordinated throughout the entire project.
BM: Benchmark is a point of reference by which site levels can be measured in site
surveying.
BOQ: The bill of quantities is a contract document that contains a list of materials and
workmanship involved in a construction project. It is necessary for properly pricing a project
CAD: CAD (computer-aided design) refers to using architecture software to create detailed
buildings to speed up the design process, allow for more creativity, and ensure greater
accuracy in measurements.
Caulking: A flexible, rubbery type of material that is used to seal gaps in a joint.
Ceiling joist: Parallel framing members that support ceiling loads and are themselves
supported by load-bearing walls.

Circuit breaker: A switch in the electrical panel that shuts off power to certain parts of the
building.
Concrete: A building material created by a hardened mixture of cement, gravel, sand, and
water. It is used for slabs, columns, and other types of structures.
Construction management software: This software is designed for construction managers to

help them run a construction project, including managing accounting and financials,
documentation, and team workloads.
Compliance certificate: A certificate certifying that conditions of consent have been

satisfied, that work has been properly carried out, or that the development plan or design
complies with necessary standards.
Complying development: Routine development that can be promptly certified by a council

or a private certifier.
Complying development certificate: A certificate that allows a complying development to be

carried out.
Consent authority: The council having the function to determine the application or (if a
provision of the Act, the regulations or an environmental planning instrument so specifies) a
minister or public authority.
Construction certificate: A certificate that allows building or subdivision work to start.
Designated development: A development is likely to impact the environment significantly

and is therefore subject to special regulatory procedures.
Development Application (DA): An application for consent to carry out development
Development consent: Consent to carry out development. A Construction Certificate will

generally be required before construction work can be commenced.
Development Control Plan (DCP): Detailed guidelines for the planning controls applying to a
particular type of development or in a particular area.
Dimension: A dimension is used in the planning stage and refers to a measure between two
points.
Drywall: A panel made from gypsum plaster that is wrapped in cardboard. It is commonly
used as a fundamental material for framing a building.
Ducts: Piping that carries air throughout a structure.
Egress: A way of exiting a structure, such as a window or door. Laws require a certain
number of egress windows in certain parts of a home.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): A specialised part of the decision-making process,
where the environmental impact is considered in detail and other aspects of the
development.
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS): A formal evaluation of the effect or likely effect of a
development on the environment. This is required as part of the development assessment
process for designated development. Also known as a Statement of Environmental Effects.
Environmental Planning Instruments (EPIs): are local environmental plans, regional

environmental plans and state environmental planning policies, which describe the current
planning status and future developments of an area. They are made according to the
Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979.
Exempt development: Proposals that do not require development consent so long as

predetermined standards and requirements are satisfied.
FFL: Finished floor level.
FHR: Fire hose reel.
Field measure: Taking measurements within the structure itself rather than relying on
blueprints.
Floor plan: The floor plan refers to the layout of the building. It is a drawing of the horizontal
section that shows how the different spaces relate to each other.
FW floor waste: a drainage outlet in the floor.
Girder: The main horizontal support of a structure that supports smaller beams.
HVAC: An abbreviation that stands for heat, ventilation, and air conditioning.
I-beam: A beam with a cross-section looks like the capital letter I. Girders often have an I-
beam cross-section.
Insulation: Material that’s designed to prevent heat from leaving or entering a building.
Insulation material is placed within the walls, ceiling, or floor of a structure.

Joist: A horizontal floor framing member used to span an open space between two beams or
bearers that subsequently transfer the loads to the vertical members that carry the load to
the ground. Within the floor framing system, joists serve to provide stiffness to the
structure and carry and affix the flooring/ floor sheeting. Joists are either made of wood,
engineered wood, or steel, each of which have their unique characteristics.
Lath: A metal wire on the frame of a building that serves as a base for laying down stucco or
plaster.
Load-bearing wall (partition): A partition or load-bearing wall carries the structure's load
above it. As a result, they cannot be removed without compromising the integrity of the
structure.
Local Environmental Plan (LEP): The principal legal document for controlling development at
the council level. The zoning provisions establish permissible uses and standards to regulate
the extent of development. They are prepared by councils and approved by the Minister
(after public exhibition). The zoning system categorises land uses such as residential or
commercial within particular areas.
Long Span Joists: Manufactured floor joist beam alternatives that can span extra-long spans
in upper storey timber floors. These joists are specially manufactured economic alternatives
that can span beyond the normal solid timber joists' spans.
Mortar: In masonry, mortar is the paste used to bind stones, bricks, and other similar types
of units used to construct the walls of a building. Mortar can be made up of various things,
such as asphalt, pitch, or clay.
National Construction Code (NCC): The NCC is an initiative of the Council of Australian
Governments (COAG) developed to incorporate all on-site construction requirements into a
single code. The NCC is comprised of the National Construction Code (NCC) - Volume One
and Two; and the Plumbing Code of Australia (PCA), Volume Three.
The NCC is a uniform set of technical provisions for the design and construction of buildings
throughout Australia, contained within the National Construction Code (NCC). These
provisions are the minimum requirements for safety, health, amenity and sustainability in
the design and construction of new buildings (and new building work in existing buildings)
throughout Australia.
Particleboard: A substitute for plywood that is composed of sawdust mixed with resin.
Planning certificate: A certificate that provides information on the development potential of

a parcel of land, including any planning restrictions that apply.
Plywood: A panel of wood that is made from multiple layers of veneer, compressed
together.

Principal certifying authority: A council or private accredited certifier that oversees the
building or subdivision process.
PVC: Short for polyvinyl chloride, this common plastic is used most commonly for water
pipes and sometimes for flooring.
Rafter: A series of roof framing members within a conventionally framed roof that are fixed
on a slope in the same direction as the roof slope. Rafters are generally erected in
opposing/mirroring pairs and run from the wall top plate to meet their ‘mate’ at the roof
apex or ridge. The rafter is the primary roof framing member and tend to give the roof its
required shape and slope and provide the structure onto which the roof covering is fixed.
Reinforced concrete: Concrete that is strengthened by adding steel bars or mesh within the
concrete.
Section: This is a drawing or model that shows what it would look like if you sliced vertically
through a building and could see its various components or layers, showcasing exactly how a
building is constructed top to bottom.
Skirting: Material that covers up the joint between the floor and a wall in a building's interior
for aesthetic purposes.
State Environmental Planning Policy (SEPP): Planning policy proposed by the Minister
addressing state significance matters.
Stud: A framing member that runs from the bottom to the top of a panel or sheet.
Trim: The materials used to provide a clean finish to the building, such as mouldings around
window and door openings or the rooms' baseboards.
Veneer: A very thin sheet of wood. It is typically a finer wood that is used as a decorative
cover for lower-quality wood.
Warping: A distortion of material, which can be a sign of water damage.
WC Water closet: A term used in the NCC for a toilet.
Zoning: A government regulation that involves restricting how a property is used. For
example, industrial buildings cannot be constructed in areas zoned solely for residential.

Topic 4: Architectural drawings

Overview
• building design documents

• architectural drawing types
• orthographic projection
• architectural drawing conventions
• computer-aided design and drafting (CAD)
• building information modelling (BIM)
• CAD software options
• manual drafting.

Building design documents
Drawings are only one component of building design documents. Other documents
commonly used by the building designer to supplement the drawings are:
• specifications
• schedules.
The purpose of these building design documents together is to describe a building, or some
aspect of a building, for:
• providing a basis for discussions on a concept or idea for a building

• documenting the ideas of the designer
• providing the documentation and details required for planning and building
approvals
• providing the builder, consultants and trades with the necessary information they
require to scope, build, inspect and assess the building
• documenting the design of the building as it was BUILT.
Typically, residential building plans, drawings, schedules and specifications are created to
describe the:
• location of the building on the site, and the location of nearby buildings, trees,
bushes and other features
• location and size of all the spaces in the building
• construction of any unusual structural elements
• the layout of services, such as electricity, gas, sewerage and stormwater
• materials to be used in all areas of the building, especially the building envelope
• fittings and finishes to be used, including the location of carpets and tiles
• standards and quality requirements that must be met in construction.
Different kinds of plans, drawings and specifications contain different kinds of information
and different amounts of detail depending on the stage of the work and the complexity of
the design.

Architectural drawing types
Drawings should be produced in the appropriate form or style and contain information
appropriate to the purpose of the drawing and stage of the works. For example, furniture
would not be shown on a working drawing unless the furniture is to form part of the
construction contract, whereas it may be helpful to show furniture on a sketch drawing to
explain the working and appearance of a room. Similarly, detailed dimensions would not be
included in the sketch design but are vital in working drawings.
In a building project, there will be many different drawings in the following categories:
Table 10: Different drawing categories
Categories Drawings Purpose
Design Bubble diagrams Tools for the designer to develop ideas.

drawings
concept sketches
Design Concept drawings, To present to the client and provide a clear

drawings sketch design understanding of the building that has been
drawings, designed.
presentation drawings
Design DA drawings The culmination of design drawings is the

drawings production of drawings for the Development
Application (DA). These generally have more in
common with construction or working
drawings.
Construction Working drawings To communicate with the builder, consultants

drawings and authorities the extent, details and
information about the building to be
constructed.
Construction CC drawings Working drawings show the information

drawings required to obtain a construction certificate
(approval to construct).
Construction Construction details A part of working drawings shows detailed

drawings information about the construction of building
elements.

Categories Drawings Purpose
Construction Shop (workshop) working drawings show the detailed

drawings drawings information required to fabricate items, for
example, furniture, joinery, fixtures.
Construction Tender drawings Working drawings show the information

drawings required to obtain quotes (tenders) for
construction work.
Post - As-Built drawings Full set of working drawings detailing how a

Construction building was built or exists.
drawings

Orthographic projection
The most common method of drawing for describing a building is the orthographic
projection. Orthographic Projection is the method of representing a three-dimensional
object in a series of two-dimensional views. Most architectural drawings are orthographic
projections made up of:
• plans
• elevations
• sections.
Architectural drawing sets generally comprise of the following drawings:
• site plan 1:200

• floor plans 1:100
• sections 1:100
• elevations 1:100
• other drawings which are variations on the above views and scales to show specific
building components, including detailed drawings, schedules etc.
The greatest advantage of using orthographic projection is that the views retain their true
size, shape and proportions. Plans, sections and elevations are used for most design and
working drawings of a building.
The basic principle underlying orthographic projection is breaking down the object into
various ‘planes’ and showing them individually as separate drawings. The plan view shows
the length and breadth of an object, while each elevation shows length along one face and
height. By joining all this information on one sheet or more, it is possible to build a picture
of the whole object.

Figure 8 – Orthographic projection
Resources
For further reading on orthographic projection, refer the below web page:
• orthographic projection
(Long URL: https://static.sdcpublications.com/multimedia/9781630570521-

sample/ege/ortho/ortho_page1.htm)

Plans
Plans represent a view looking down on an object. They are two-dimensional drawings
showing width and length but not height.
Site plan
The site plan is an aerial view of the site and the building. The purpose of the Site Plan is to
give important information about the site and show its location on the site. The roof plan of
the building is generally shown. A north point is shown to show the orientation of the site.
Figure 9 – Sample site plan
Floor plan
The Floor plan of the building is drawn in the same orientation as on the Site Plan. Floor
plans are generally drawn as horizontal sections through the building at sill level so that they
show walls, columns and the position of windows and doors. If there is more than one sill
height (for example, high-level windows and full-height windows in one room) on a floor
plan, it is still drawn, showing all windows as if they were the same height. See Figure 10 –
Example of floor plan.

Below the cut's plane through the building, we see the floor and fixtures, for example, in
kitchens and bathrooms.
Walls that extend up to the ceiling are drawn in heavily or filled in or hatched. Windows,
doors and dwarf (low height) walls are shown in outline only.
Figure 10 – Example of floor plan

Roof plan
Roof plans are an aerial view of the roof of a building. They are two-dimensional drawings
showing the roof's outline and all changes in angle (ridge, hip, valley, etc.) and other
features such as skylights, chimneys, and parapets.
Figure 11 – Sample site and roof plan
Sections
Sections are drawings showing a vertical cut through the building. Sections reveal the shape
and heights of interior spaces. For multi-level buildings, this may be the only way of showing
the internal configuration. Sections should indicate heights and the structure of the building.
Beyond the vertical cut plane through the building, we see the building's elevation
(including the interior). See Figure 12 – Sample of sections.
Section markers on the floor plan indicate where the section or cut through the building has
been taken and the direction of the view.

Figure 12 – Sample of sections
Elevations
Elevations are the two-dimensional representation of each outer face of the building. They
show heights but not width or length. We don’t repeat dimensions shown on plans. Show
only vertical dimensions on an elevation. Building forms such as roofs are projected to a flat
vertical plane rather than showing any three-dimensional shape. See Figure 13 – Sample of
elevation. Elevations are named by the direction they face. That is, the North Elevation
faces north.

Figure 13 – Sample of elevation
Isometric, oblique and axonometric drawings

While orthographic drawings are sets of design or construction drawings done in a two-
dimensional view, it is sometimes pertinent to prepare views in 3D to help describe
different building aspects and help clients get a better overall picture of a design.
Isometric projections are drawn by extending a particular corner vertically and extending
correlating horizontal lines at 30 degrees from the vertical point where the three meets.
Though they are not true in dimensions, isometric views tend to look ‘prettier or better
proportioned than axonometric.
Axonometric projections are the same but extend 45 degrees and are typically more useful
to show interior instances of a drawing where isometrics are used for the exterior. Exploded
axonometric views are becoming increasingly useful in construction and assembly drawings
to show all the drawing components in ‘place’.
Oblique projections are the simplest of the 3D drafted views. An oblique view is prepared by
showing the front view and projecting the other faces to recede. The front face is a true
view drawn exactly as it is, with no distortion, and it is wise to make this one the most
complicated of the faces. The receding faces are usually drawn at 45 or 30 but can be drawn
at any angle convenient for illustrating the shape of the object and its features.

A cabinet oblique projection is the most common oblique projections and drawn at an angle
of 45°, with the receding faces extending at this angle only (foreshortening) 50%. This
oblique projection is called a Cabinet projection because of its use in the furniture industry.
When a 45° angle is used, and there is no foreshortening, it is called a cavalier projection.
The cavalier projection, with no foreshortening, makes the object look peculiar and
distorted. Thus, cabinet projection is the preferred method for constructing an oblique
projection.
Figure 14 – A rectangular box drawn in different 3-dimensional views

Architectural drawing conventions
Industry drawing standards and codes
An Australian Standard for architectural drawing has been established to minimise symbols
and set accepted architectural drawing conventions and standards AS 1100.301
Architectural Drawings.
While the Standard establishes basic conventions for communication, there are many
variations applied throughout the building industry. Many architectural offices have their
drawing styles, but all are within a range of conventions that enable accurate information
interpretation.
Drawing practice
A drawing should meet the requirements of any good communication. The identity of the
subject must be the first thing that catches the reader’s eye. The layout, style of drawing,
size, and layout of lettering and symbols must lead the reader to more significant parts of
the drawing or sets of drawings to help rapid assimilation of the whole story. Minor parts
must be arranged so that they are not overlooked and relate to the main theme.
The points listed below summarise principles that should be followed in the preparation of
drawings of all kinds:
• sizes of drawings and format should be standardised

• scale, lettering, annotation, dimensioning and degree of detail should be consistent
• subjects and information should be suitably grouped
• all required information should be given without unnecessary repetition and with
irrelevant information excluded
• there should be adequate cross-reference and inter-relation between drawings and
from drawings to other media or documents
• draftsman ship and presentation should be appropriate to the purpose.

Paper sizes
The most common paper size used in English-speaking countries worldwide is A4, which is
210mm x 297mm (8.27 inches x 11.7 inches).
The A4 paper size belongs to the ‘A series of paper’, as defined by the ISO 216 International
Paper Size Standard. The A-series was adopted in Europe in the 19th century and is
currently used worldwide, apart from in the USA and Canada. The A-Series is the primary
paper sheet sizing used in Australia.
Figure 15 – A series paper sheet sizing
The basis of the A series is the largest sheet, the A0 sized paper. The A0 sheet has an area
of 1m2 and dimensions of 841mm x 1189mm.
The A-series uses an aspect ratio equal to the square root of two (1:√2), and other sizes in
the series are defined by folding the paper in half, parallel to its smaller sides.

For example, cutting an A0 in half will create two A1 sheets, and so forth. Thus, any size of
brochure can be made using paper from the next larger size. For example, A3 sheets are
folded to make A4 brochures.
The standard lengths and widths of the A-series are rounded to the nearest millimetre.
The ISO standard contains two other ISO paper series. They are B and C. The B series was
brought into being to provide a wider range of paper sizes, whilst the C series is used only
for envelopes. The B paper sizes are slightly larger than their A series counterparts and are
based on the geometric mean of two consecutive A series sheets. For example, B4 is
between A3 and A4 in size, and B5 is between A4 and A5. The B Series sheets sizes are used
but not commonly in Australia.
The C series was introduced to provide an envelope with enough space for an A series sheet.
The sizes of the A series fit into C series envelopes of the same number. That is, a sheet of
A4 easily fits into a C4 envelope. The C sizes are just between the A and B series. The A, B
and C series of paper all have a height-to-width ratio equal to two square roots.
Drawing sheet layout

When looking at drawings on A3 paper, you may look at them vertically (known as portrait)
or horizontally (known as landscape) (see Figure 16), and title blocks should be located
accordingly. Drawing sheets may be ruled with three 10mm margins and a 20mm filing
margin border.
Figure 16 – Preferred landscape (horizontal) orientation and alternative title block location for portrait (vertical)
orientation

Your drawings' components in all cases are to be set out and located to produce a clear and
balanced drawing. Care must be taken to provide space for notes, dimensions and
subsidiary titles for drawing components.
A standard drawing sheet title block is generally located in the bottom right-hand corner of
each sheet. Most CAD software’s come with a standard range of sheet setups and title
blocks which can be adopted and used as-is or customised. These sheets and title blocks are
usually prepared as ‘Components’ in Revit, whilst in ArchiCAD, the sheet setup and title
block are drawn on the ‘Master Layout’ using the normal 2d text, lines, fills etc.
Though the different CAD packages may approach sheet setup and preparation of title
blocks into their drawings differently, they all have means of preparing a range of
‘templated’ sheets and title blocks of alternative sheet sizes, orientations and title block
styles.
Main title blocks
Each drawing must include on the title block essential information to identify the drawing:
• project name and location,

• the client,
• drawing title, for example, site plan, floor plan, elevations etc
• drawing number or sheet number, often attached to the job or project number
• the building designer, architect, drafter who produced the drawing
• scale (s)
• drafter’s initials
• date.
Figure 17 and 18 are examples of title blocks.
Figure 17 – Horizontal title block

Figure 18 – Vertical title block
Adjoining the title block, there may be a table for drawing amendments and a north point.
The drawing title block format, location and set up on each sheet is to be consistent from
drawing to drawing. It is normally located in the bottom right-hand corner.
The title block may extend along the bottom of the drawing or up the right side of the
drawing. The primary information is generally always centred around the bottom right
corner. Suppose the title block is large and spreads across the entire bottom or side of the
drawing. In that case, the more dominant and immediately relevant information relating
directly to the subject drawing (such as drawing name, scale and revision etc.), is in this
bottom right region, with the rest of the information extending out from this.

Figure 19 – Location of the title block in a drawing
Drawing title
The drawing’s title in the title block will tell you which part of a set of drawings you are
looking at, e.g. north elevation, south elevation, floor plan. The subsidiary titles of the
drawing components are usually set out on the sheet under the drawing components or
lined up along undrawn vertical or horizontal lines (for example, WEST ELEVATION, SECTION
A-A)

Linework
Linework is an important part of good drawing. Every line on the drawing is significant and
must represent something. There are no spare lines.
Line thickness
Altering the line thickness of a Line Type is a good way of differentiating between lines
without altering their type. The number of thickness variations you can use in a drawing will
ultimately depend on the number available to you, although it is common practice to stick
to 3-5 different thicknesses as follows:
• 0.18mm thick
• 0.25mm thick
• 0.35mm thick
• 0.5mm thick
• 0.7mm thick.
Generally, the three middle line thicknesses are used to undertake the bulk of the drawing
work. The 0.18mm is occasionally used for fine detail or projection lines or the 0.7mm thick
line for drawing elements like ground lines etc.
Drawing lines finer than 0.18mm, begin to risk fading out and becoming illegible or even
being copied out or disappearing when reproduced. Lines thicker than 0.7mm thick start to
become too thick and cumbersome on the drawing and, depending on the scale you are
working on, could ‘block’ out other items.
Using line thicknesses in between these ‘standard’ thicknesses is possible though this starts
to erode the differentiation between the different lines as they all start to become too
similar.

Figure 20 – Line weights

Types of lines
When drawing, the type of line used should be appropriate to its application. Generally,
there are eleven basic types of lines. Each kind of line has a definite form and ‘weight’.
Weight refers to line thickness or width. When combined in a drawing, lines provide part of
the Information needed to understand the print.
You can extend or make variations on these if it is communicated to represent the line used.
Table 11: Types of lines
Line type Description
Object An object line, or otherwise known as a visible line. It is a thick continuous

lines line used to outline the visible edges or contours of an object
Figure 21 – Object lines
Hidden A hidden line is also known as a hidden object line and is generally a
lines medium-weight line made up of short dashes approximately 3mm long with
1.5mm gaps. The hidden line is used to show edges, surfaces and corners
which cannot be seen and are usually shown for clarity and to make a
drawing easier to understand. Often, they are omitted in an isometric view.
Figure 22 – Hidden lines
Section Section lines are used to show the cut surfaces of an object in section views.
lines They are fine, dark lines. Various types of section lines may indicate the type
of material cut by the cutting plane line.

Figure 23 – Section lines
Centre Centre lines are used to indicate the centres of holes, arcs, and symmetrical
lines objects. They usually very thin (size), broken or dashed type of lines (long-
short-long).
Figure 24 – Center line
Dimension Dimension lines are thin and are used to show the actual size of an object.
lines There are arrowheads at both ends that terminate at the extension lines.
Figure 25 – Dimension line
Extension Extension lines are also thin lines, showing the limits of dimensions.
lines Dimension line arrowheads touch extension lines.
Figure 26 – Extension line

Leader Leaders are more thin lines used to point to an area of a drawing requiring a
lines note for explanation. They are preferably drawn at a 45°angles.
Figure 27 – Leader line
Phantom Phantom lines are long-short-short-long lines most often used to show an
lines object's travel or movement or a part in alternate positions. It can also be
used to show adjacent objects or features.
Figure 28 – Phantom lines
Cutting A cutting plane line (very heavy) helps to show the internal shape at a part
plan lines or assembly by slicing through the object.
Figure 29 – Cutting plan lines

Break lines There are three kinds of break lines used in drawings. They are used to
remove or ‘break out” part of a drawing for clarity and shorten objects with
the same shape throughout their length and may be too long to place on
the drawing.
Short and long break lines are used for flat surfaces. Cylindrical are used on
rods, dowels, etc.
Figure 30 – Break lines
Borderlines Borderlines are very thick, continuous lines used to show the drawing
boundary or separate different objects drawn on one sheet. They are also
used to separate the title block from the rest of the drawing.
Figure 31 – Border

Line thickness and hierarchy
Whether a drawing is manually drafted or drawn using CAD, a range of line strengths
improves the drawing's graphic communication. You should develop critical judgement of
the clarity of your drawing. Look at as many examples of architectural drawings as possible.
A range of line thicknesses are set out in the Australian Standard AS1100.301 as
recommendations, not regulations. In architectural drafting, line types and thicknesses
should be chosen for clear communication rather than following rules. Complex drawings
can be made easier to read.
Line thickness can be used:
1. To emphasise information. Usually, a thicker line is used for the information you
wish to draw attention to, with thinner lines for background information where
fixtures and fittings are emphasised.
2. To outline the elements that have been cut through in section drawings. The same
convention is applied to plan drawings, which are just horizontal ‘sections.
3. In elevations to indicate parts that are further forward (closer) than others, thicker
lines for closer elements. Again, these are conventions rather than representations
of reality, but if used with skill, they can help bring elevations ‘to life’.
4. For doors and windows, the outline of an opening is slightly more dominant than the
lines inside the opening, which indicate framing.
Following is a range of indicative line strengths:
Table 12: Indicative line types
Line Purpose Strength
dimension lines To dimension elements of 0.25mm

the drawing.
light
profile or general lines To make the object visually 0.25mm

clear.
medium
sections or walls in plan Any element in the drawing 0.35mm or 0.5mm

which is cut through must depending on the scale of
be drawn to emphasise its the drawing
shape and stand out from
other parts of the drawing. dark

Line Purpose Strength
broken lines To show hidden parts of an 0.25mm medium

object, for example,
elements above or beyond
the drawing.
hatching To represent different 0.18mm, 0.25mm

materials.
light
reference lines To represent invisible lines 0.18mm,

used for setting out the
building, for example, 0.25mm light
finished floor level or
column grid lines.
In CAD drawings, a range of colours may also improve clarity and enhance line hierarchy.
Hatching
Hatching is used, in conjunction with lines, too:
• improve the clarity of a drawing

• identify elements on a drawing
• give the drawing a realistic or attractive appearance (if it is a design or presentation
drawing)
• indicate actual patterns or textures required in the finished drawing (for example, a
floor tile layout).
Hatching should follow the conventions given in AS1100.301. Standard forms of hatching
identify different materials used. In some cases, it is only necessary to hatch a small sample
of each material, but the full extent of each material is often hatched, such as for brick
walls. The example in Figure 32 – Standard hatchings used only for materials being cut by a
section and used to identify the material being cut through graphically.

Figure 32 – Standard hatchings used only for materials being cut by a section and used to identify the material being cut
through graphically
Notes
Notes give more information about an element than a label, such as quality, finish, thickness
and how it is fixed. Generally, these notes are grouped neatly in blocks with an arrow
pointing to the element covered by the notes. Sometimes general specification notes are
included in a large block outside the drawing area.
The degree of detail in notes will depend upon:
• the complexity of the project

• whether there is a separate specification document
• whether the element is standard or an unusual feature.
Plan the layout of your drawing sheet. You may need to fit a floor plan (or elevations,
section, etc.), dimensions, labels, schedules and specification notes and arrows, all on one
drawing sheet. So, you do need to plan for the best possible arrangement.
If in doubt, leave plenty of space and not try to fit too much on one sheet.

It is important to develop a quick, neat, consistent, legible, professional-looking hand
lettering style for freehand drawings, even if you are using CAD for drafted drawings.
Units of measurement
In Australia, we draw in Metric Units, using what is known as the ‘System International’ (or
‘SI’) for drawing units.
The drawing unit type typically used for dimensioning architectural drawings is ‘millimetres’
(mm), with metres (m) only used occasionally for large numbers such as site or boundary
dimensions.
When drawing in CAD, architectural drawings are drawn in millimetres (mm) at 1:1 (full
size). The required drawings, views or details are then bought onto ‘sheets’ at the required
scale and dimensioned in millimetres.
Dimensions
Dimensioning is the method used to show the true size of objects when drawn to a scale.
This is done using any of the three linear measurements: length, breadth (or width) and
depth (or height).
Important points about dimensioning:
1. Restrict your dimensioning to essential information only (width on plan, height on

section and elevation).
2. Dimensions are the measurements written above the dimensioning lines when
viewed from the bottom of the right-hand side of the sheet.
3. Dimension lines are made up of witness lines or extension lines (the small line that
extends at 90° to the object or drawing to be dimensioned) and the dimension line
itself, which indicates the length, width, or height of the object. All dimensioning
lines are drawn in one continuous length.
4. Keep your witness lines and dimension lines well away from the floor plan to avoid
visual congestion.
Dimensions are always expressed in millimetres or metres. NEVER use centimetres. The
nomination of ‘mm’ is not required as units are generally assumed to be in millimetres
unless labelled otherwise.

Acceptable alternatives are:
12.5 12.5mm
900 900mm
2 100 2.1m
16 760 16,760 16.76m
Figure 33 – Methods of dimensioning

Dimension lines
Dimensions are used in conjunction with dimension lines, which identify where the
dimension measure’s to. Dimensions are written on top of the line. The most used form is
shown in Figure 34.
Figure 34 – Dimension lines
0.25mm or 0.35mm are the usual thicknesses for the main and cross lines with a thicker line
for diagonals.
Dimensioning conventions
Dimensioning units and methods should be according to AS1100.101 and AS ISO 1000.
The following conventions may apply.
Figure 35 – Conventions for dimension lines and terminators (adopted from AS1100.301)

Organising dimensions
Dimensioning is a critical part of a drawing deserving careful thought to be easily readable

and avoid clashes with specification notes and other written material.
Dimensioning should be positioned around the perimeter of the body of the drawing with
sufficient ‘white space’ between the body of the drawing and the dimension lines. This
space ensures separation between the drawing and the dimension lines so as the lines of
the dimensions don’t visually become ‘part of the drawing’.
If you put your dimensions too close to the drawing, it may look crowded, and there may be
no room for notes, window numbers etc. If you put your dimensions too far away, it won't
be easy to see what the dimensions are referring to. A floor plan may have three or four
rows of dimensions around it, so leave plenty of space around your drawing.
Dimension line text should be orientated in only two directions on the page. Generally, in
the orientation, the page is set up and in the orientation of the page turned 90 degrees
clockwise. This ensures the reader does not have to continually turn the page in all
directions to read the information (instead, only one turn is required).
Hierarchy of dimensions
It is important to have a system of hierarchy for dimensions. Hierarchy, in this sense, means
an order of importance or set order in which things are arranged. One system, which can be
applied to a domestic or small commercial building floor plan, is shown in Figure 36 –
Hierarchy of dimensions.
Figure 36 – Hierarchy of dimensions

If you have other features requiring more rows of dimensions, it is suggested that you keep
to the same system. That is, the further out the feature is, the further out the dimensions
should be.
It is important to include overall dimensions and check that all rows of dimensions add up to
the same total. This process often helps you discover errors in dimensions.
Dimensioning rules
1. Dimension things only once: Dimensions should not be duplicated, nor should the
same info be given in two different ways.
2. Dimensions should not be attached to the view that best shows the contour of the
feature being dimensioned.
3. Wherever possible, avoid dimensioning to hidden lines.
4. Avoid dimensions over or through the object.
5. Wherever possible, locate dimensions in adjacent views.
6. In general, a circle is measured by its diameter circle with line through it and arc by
its radius R0.50.
7. All horizontal plan dimensions should be located on the plan drawing/s. All vertical
dimensions should be located on the sections and elevations.
8. The outermost dimension should be the overall dimension with the conceding
strings of dimensions inwards from this and corresponding and working off these.
9. Keep all drawing dimensions off the drawings, except for some interior dimension
lines which need to be located on the plan/drawing for clarity.
10. Use column centre lines or grids or overall wall lengths (when there are no columns)
as starting points for all strings of dimensions.
11. Organise the dimension strings to elegantly provide all the necessary information
without cluttering the drawing and in the fewest number of rows of strings. Avoid
scattering the strings randomly throughout the plan and not attached or
corresponding to an overall or grid dimension.
Open and closed dimensions
A string of dimensions is a run or line of individual dimensions between two know points
(such as the length of the wall from end to end, including all its opening etc.). When
completing a string of dimensions between two known points, all individual dimensions that
make up the string can be shown. Such that the sum of individual dimensions equals the
overall dimension or some less critical. This is called a closed dimension string.

On the other hand, an open dimension string leaves at least one dimension in the string
unspecified (or ‘open’). Open dimension strings are used to provide for construction
tolerances. The missing or unspecified dimension is the less critical or flexible dimension and
the location where construction can make up for the inaccuracy of the overall wall length.
For example, say we are dimensioning the overall wall length and its elements. From
discussions on construction tolerances, you would understand that the overall length could
be as much as ±5-50mm (± 10%) shorter or longer. If it turns out to be 40mm shorter -
where within the wall will this 40mm come from? From the unspecified dimension/s, which
should be the strings less critical dimension.
Drawing symbols
In all types of graphical presentation, whether from architect, engineer, builder or specialist
consultant, there are conventions and symbols used:
• to convey information clearly and concisely

• to avoid misinterpretation
• as a cross-reference between drawings to avoid repetition
• to ensure compatibility of all project drawings
• to indicate a particular feature, where drawing it fully to scale is impractical.
It should be noted that the scale of the drawing the symbol is being used in will dictate the
quantity of detail shown in the symbol.
Drawing symbols for fixtures, fittings, and furniture
Drawing symbols are used to indicate relevant features such as fixtures, fittings or furniture
on drawings. The symbol exists to communicate the presence of that feature, but only
where drawing it fully to scale is impractical. For example: A sink or toilet.
Below are some sample symbols from recommendations within the AS1100.301 standard.
Refer to The Standard for a full comprehensive list. Ideally, the symbols should be drawn
without their associated abbreviations to minimise clutter and improve clarity.

Figure 37 – Sample recommended symbols
Symbols of features such as refrigerators, dishwashers, washing machines etc., are often
represented diagrammatically as squares or rectangles (with diagonals through them) and
the associated abbreviation shown beside or within them.
Symbols drawn in a dashed line style are used in instances where there is provision for the
feature, but supply of the feature is not part of the works. Such as the fridge in this example,
labelled ‘F’.

Figure 38 – Sample part-plan showing use of symbols in a kitchen layout
Drawing symbols for other features
Architectural conventions have been formed to communicate other drawing features

besides the fixtures, fittings and the furniture mentioned above. Building features such as
windows, doors, stairs, ramps, lifts, lintels, access hatches etc., all need to be clearly,
concisely and diagrammatically communicated in drawings.
Conventions have evolved to communicate simply and eloquently these building features
and their idiosyncrasies, and Section 4 of AS1100.301 sets out a broad range of typical
conventions to do so. It is important to note the following:
• it is convention for all external doors and windows to be viewed from the exterior
unless stated otherwise
• internal doors and windows are shown with the direction of viewing noted
• standard conventions can be combined or used in different contexts if the meaning
of the convention is maintained.
Below are some sample window and door PLAN symbol conventions for smaller-scale
drawings (1:100 or 1:50). At larger scale drawings, these features could be drawn in more
detail or as they exist. Refer to AS 1100.301 for additional recommendations.

Figure 39 – Bi-fold door in a brick veneer wall
Figure 40 – Fixed window in brick veneer wall
Figure 41 – Fixed window in stud wall
Figure 42 – Single swing door – 90° swing

Drawing symbols for communication
Drawing symbol conventions have been created and standardised to communicate building
features such as fixtures, fittings, furniture, and other built features and drawing
communication itself.
Elements of a building such as rooms or enclosed spaces, components, units of equipment

and other items such as windows and doors, building levels etc., need to be assigned
designated numbering or codes to facilitate their identification on and across both drawings
schedules. Refer to AS1100.301 Section 2.10 for more information on ‘Designation and
coding of spaces and components.
Appropriate and suitable nomenclature should be adopted to identify each category of

component or feature that is being numbered or coded. That representation should
differentiate visually from other numbering or coding systems within the set of drawings
and documents.
An example of this is the standard symbols used for door and window numbers, where each
is framed (differently) for easy identification:
Figure 43 – Standard symbols used for door and window numbers
These symbols are also used as tags for written schedules to minimise the need for lengthy
and repetitious written description on drawings and to aid in cross-referencing between
schedules and drawings.

Figure 44 – A snip of a sample plan drawing showing the use of a distinctly different window and door symbols for their
coding/numbering
Cross-referencing
To gain a full understanding of a project, it is necessary to read various pieces of drawn
information concurrently and in conjunction with drawing schedules specifications. The
information may be found on the same sheet or different sheets and even in other building
documents. Cross-referencing is used to help find them and draw the reader’s attention
because more information is available.
Cross-referencing is usually ‘tagged’ by a visually obvious symbol that contains the sheet
number and the component number.
Example of symbols used for cross-referencing are below and used to represent the location
and reference for sections and details.
Figure 45 – Section reference/symbol

Figure 46 – Detail reference/symbol
Figure 47 – Detail reference tags/symbols for cross-referencing
Refer above to Figure 47 – Detail reference tags/symbols for cross-referencing detail

reference: the tag may be on a plan or section drawing (on sheet 02) and tells you that
Detail 1 on sheet 04 describes a particular part of the plan or section in more detail. When
looking at the detail on sheet 04, the detail reference tag 1/02 tells you that the location of
Detail 1 can be found on sheet 02, leading us back to the plan or section. This system is
called cross-referencing because, for any detail, two-sheet numbers are involved.

Abbreviations
Abbreviations are used to eliminate the need for continual full description of building
components and declutter the drawing space. The same abbreviations should be used
across the full set of building documents to ensure clarity and cross-referencing across the
documents.
In saying that, abbreviations should be used only where brevity and conservation of space
make it necessary and then only when their meanings are unquestionably clear to the
intended reader. When in doubt, spell it out! And for this reason, standard abbreviations
should be adhered to in general application rather than establishing your own set.
AS1100.301 Section 2.8 sets out an abbreviation standard that is readily understood in the
industry.
Abbreviation legends should be used within a drawing set for ready access for a reader to
confirm an abbreviation used within the documents.
Below is a sample table of abbreviations for words or word combinations commonly used
on drawings from As1100.301. It is common practice that upper-case letters are used in
abbreviations.

Figure 48 – General abbreviations
Legends
A legend is used to explain or define an abbreviation or special symbol used on a drawing. A
symbol could have more than one meaning, and the legend is the place where you can
clarify and provide the exact meaning of the symbols and abbreviations used on the drawing
on which you are working. The legend, if used, is generally placed in the upper right-hand
comer of a drawing space.

Where appropriate, legends can also be provided to help clarify items not represented by
standard symbols, such as the following:
• differentiation between existing work, new work and demolition work

• set-out lines
• construction systems (location and extent of system or type of system used).
Figure 49 – Extract of a part plan and legend
The above legend defines different wall construction systems proposed, differentiates
between new and existing levels, and defines and clarifies some abbreviations used on the
drawing.
Lettering
Architects established architectural lettering long ago to ensure all writing on drawings is
clear and legible and consists of uniform block letters that are easy to read. Clear, legible
and uniform lettering on drawings not only ensures against any confusion costly mistakes
consequently but also makes a drawing look professional with its animated quality and neat
and uniform appearance.

Regardless if you are lettering by hand or in CAD, the Rules remain pretty much the same.
If your handwriting:
• good media (paper) to write on

• a good pen or pencil that will glide over the surface nicely and freely
• set up guidelines if you are handwriting.
Writing style + characters
1. Characters should be roughly square proportionally, that is, as wide as they are high
and characters roughly the same width.
2. Endpoints of your letterforms should overlap just slightly (not necessary for
computer graphics). Don’t leave gaps between the strokes.
3. Characters are very vertical, and horizontal strokes of the characters have a very
slight uptick to them.
4. When writing a character, do vertical strokes first (drawing them from top to
bottom), then horizontal strokes (drawn from left to right). All circular strokes are
plump ovals or flattened ellipses.
5. Spacing between characters is as important as the formation of the characters.
Characters should be evenly spaced, not too far apart or close together.
6. General lettering for notes should be 2.5mm high for notes on a page with lettering
for titles larger for hierarchy.
Ultimately work to achieve - Legibility, consistency and clarity in your writing.
In CAD, some architects use simple, straightforward Fonts such as Arial or Swiss or often
have speciality Architectural fonts such as Architect NDP Font etc. However, all fonts for
architectural graphics do not have Serifs.

Resources
For more information on lettering, refer to:
• Francis D.K. Ching, Architectural Graphics, 6th Edition [2015] (Long URL:
https://archive.org/details/FrancisD.K.ChingArchitecturalGraphics6thEd2015/page/n
3/mode/2up)
• 30X40 Design workshop videos - How to write like an architect
(Long URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eGUDQ1F5tco)
Drawing scales
The Australian Standard AS1100.301 Architectural Drawing sets out a range of standard
drawing scales used for architectural drawings. You will generally not need to calculate
these scales to create drawings. Your CAD software can be set to the appropriate scale or
use a scale ruler to draw manually.

Figure 50 – Drawing scales

Computer-aided design and drafting (CAD)
Introduction to CAD
There has been a real progression in the drawing techniques used to design and document
projects. Throughout most of history, manual drafting was used by architects to
communicate their design ideas and get a project constructed. Over the past 50 years or so,
there have been huge developments with the computer itself and software and hence
documentation techniques.
1
4
Manual CAD 2D CAD 3D BIM
drafting
Figure 51: Development of technology use for drafting
It is important to realise that CAD is not the same as BIM, but rather a progression of CAD
with lots more computable information incorporated.

CAD
Computer-Aided Design (CAD), also known as Computer-Aided Drafting and Design
(CADD), uses computer technology for the process of design and documentation. Computer-
Aided Design describes how technology is used as a tool within the design process.
Computer-aided drafting describes the process of drafting with a computer.
CAD software provides the user with input tools for streamlining design processes to include
design, drafting, documentation, and manufacturing processes. CAD output is often in the
form of electronic files for print or machining operations or other manufacturing operations
or simply printed drawings on paper.
The development of CAD-based software varies by industry. Construction and

manufacturing software typically use vector-based (linear) environments, whereas graphics-
based software utilises raster-based (pixilated) environments.
CAD is used to design tools and machinery and, in the drafting, and design of all types of
buildings, from small residential types (houses) to the largest commercial and industrial
structures. Occupations in the construction industry that use CAD include designers,
architects, engineers and developers.
CAD environments often involve more than just shapes or lines. According to application-
specific conventions, the output of CAD can also convey information, such as materials,
processes, dimensions, and tolerances.
The software aids in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimisation of a design and is
thought to increase the designer's productivity, improve the quality of design, improve
communications through documentation, and create a database for manufacturing.
The history of CAD

The initial developments that led to today’s CAD programs were first carried out in the early
1960s and 1970s in the aerospace and automotive industries. Both industries were
independently developing the first CAD systems. Most people agree that the real breakout
point was the development of SKETCHPAD in 1963. The main feature of SKETCHPAD was
that it allowed the designer to work with the program by drawing on the monitor with a
light pen. This was essentially the first GUI (Graphical User Interface) and is the most
important CAD feature.
The first programs were only available to large corporations in the automotive, aerospace
and electronics industries. These were the only companies that could afford the expensive
computers and computing power needed to do the calculations needed to run the
programs.

The first CAD programs in the 1970s were only capable of creating 2D drawings like the
hand-drafted drawings of the time. But even those first simple programs were changing the
face of manufacturing and construction design. In 1982 John Walker founded Autodesk,
which developed one of the most famous 2D CAD programs, AutoCAD.
The programs quickly evolved over the years as computer processing speed and power, and
graphics capabilities increased. In the 1980’s the next major step toward modern CAD was
achieved with the advent of the ability to do 3D solid modelling.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the solid modelling components for rendering 3D designs
were integrated into the new CAD programs for the first time.
As computing prices came down, smaller companies were able to incorporate its
applications in their offices. It became possible for any company to afford a high-quality CAD
design program. The 1990s saw the release of some of the most popular mid-range
packages.
The advantage of CAD over manual drafting

Computer-Aided Design was, and still is, one of the many tools used by architects, engineers
and designers. There are many benefits and advantages of using CAD over manual drafting,
such as:
1. Easy to modify and revise: Modifying the CAD geometry is easy; you will always have
‘copy’, ‘cut’, ‘paste’, ‘delete’, ‘move’, or some similar editing options available with
each of the packages.
2. Easy to reproduce: Draftsmen used to take days to complete a drawing by manual
drafting, and reproducing the drawing meant recreating the drawing from the
beginning. But, in the CAD case, you can reproduce the drawing in no time and make
as many copies as you want.
3. Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM): The 3D CAD geometry is used as input for
the CAM packages for generating NC codes. The manual drawings cannot be used for
CAM packages.
4. Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE): The 3D CAD geometry is used as input for the
CAE packages. The CAE packages can simulate the loading conditions and tell
whether the CAD geometry can withstand the real loading or not. The drawings
created manually cannot be used for CAE.
5. Simulation of the mechanisms: The 3D CAD geometry can be used for simulating the
mechanism. Thus, you can check the functionality of a machine without investing in
prototype building. Manual drawings cannot be used for mechanism simulation.

6. Database creation: The CAD files can create a PDM/PLM (Product Data Management
and Product Lifecycle Management) database. Once created, the CAD database can
be accessed through a wide area network. The drawings created by manual drafting
can only be stored locally.
7. Environment friendly: Manual drawings are necessarily created on paper, but the
CAD drawings can be stored and used electronically without using paper.
8. Access control: Some of the drawings and design documents are crucial for a
company’s business, and such drawings should not be accessible to all. Providing
access controls are easy with CAD drawings, and the access level can be defined for
each CAD drawing. Strict access control and maintaining confidentiality is difficult
with manual drawings.
9. Three-dimensional views: Once you have created your 3D CAD model, you can look
at it from any direction, both inside and out. This is both helpful to the Client, who
may otherwise not be able to visualise the project and help Legislative bodies fully
understand the project. Images for advertising purposes can also be generated easily
and quickly
10. Capability for automatic dimensioning: Creating a 3D model with associative
dimensions ensures the dimensions always stay accurate if revisions are made.
11. Ability to change scale: If there is a need for the CAD drawing to be reproduced at
different scales, this is accurately and easily done, with no adverse coordination
issues. This also provides the ability to use one drawing multiple times within a
project set.
12. Three-dimensional modelling: Creating 3D models manually is a very difficult and
tiresome job. 3D CAD packages have many more powerful features for creating the
3D models easily.
Operation of CAD software

CAD or Computer-aided design is a computer-based tool and forms a technical and graphical
drawing of the architecture that helps with better understanding and construction.
With the help of vector-based graphics, you can visualize the overall shape and help in
altering materials, dimensions, and process according to your requirement. CAD design
exhibits a figure in 2D space and 3D space and used in various divisions such as automotive,
aerospace, Industrial and many more.

The main difference between vector and raster graphics is that raster graphics are
composed of pixels, while vector graphics are composed of paths. A raster graphic or image
is an array of pixels of various colours, which together form an image. Each pixel has one or
more numbers associated with it that define the location, size, or colour of the pixels. Raster
images are commonly .BMP, .GIF, .JPEG, .PNG, and .TIFF files.
Raster graphics are best used for non-line art images, specifically digitised photographs,
scanned artwork or detailed graphics. Non-line art images are best represented in raster
form because these typically include subtle chromatic gradations, undefined lines and
shapes, and complex composition. Today, almost all the images you see on the internet and
images taken by digital cameras are raster images.
Rather than a grid of pixels, a vector graphic uses geometrical primitives such as points,
lines, curves, shapes, polygons and text (all of which are based on mathematical
expressions), making a picture. Examples of vector graphic formats are PICT, EPS, WMF, and
PostScript and TrueType fonts. These are created with GIS and CAD applications as well as
drawing programs like FreeHand.
One of the biggest disadvantages of a raster image is the inability to resize the image
without getting jaggies or another type of distortion. For example, increasing the size of a
small raster image will distort the image because the image editor is resizing each pixel in
the image.
Many printing companies that print business cards, posters, or any other large printing will
require that the image be a vector image because of this disadvantage. Vector images are
used for logos, graphics, and text because they can be resized in any direction without
distortion.
Different types of CAD systems

There are several different types of CAD. Each of these different types of CAD systems
requires the operator to think differently about how they will use them and how they design
the virtual components differently.
Two-Dimensional CAD
2D CAD software offers a platform to design in two dimensions. 2D CAD models are what
most of us are familiar with. These models are flat, two-dimensional drawings that provide
overall dimensions, layouts, and information needed to reproduce or build the subject and
tend to use 2D linework/shapes etc., to produce 2D vectorised images. Examples of these
types of drawings are found in various industries, including aerospace, architecture,
automotive, cartography, civil engineering, interior design, landscaping, and even fashion.

2D CAD does not allow for creating perspectives or scale and is often only used for drawing,
sketching and drafting conceptual designs. 2D CAD is often used for floor plan development
and as a tool for conceptual design and thus is a great starting point for most 3D designs. 2D
CAD can give users a basic overview of dimension and scale before moving on to 3D design.
2D CAD typically runs at a significantly lower price since it does not provide the same scale
of tools and breadth of features. Today there are many low-end 2D systems available and
even several free and open-source programs. All these programs provide an ease of design
not possible with hand drafting on a traditional drawing sheet. They provide an approach to
the drawing process without all the fuss over scale and placement on the drawing sheet that
accompanied hand drafting since these can be adjusted as required during the creation of
the final draft.
Three-Dimensional CAD
3D CAD models ultimately have like those of 2D CAD models. Although the 3D CAD model in
architecture opens a whole world of opportunity to explore the 3D realm before it is
constructed. Hence becomes a design tool for both the inside and out.
A three-dimensional CAD model provides greater detail about the individual components
and assemblies of a physical object. In other words, 3D models show you how something fits
together and operates rather than just how big it is and its overall shape.
Basic 3D CAD
Original 3D CAD programs generate 3D models by projecting additional linework off 2D

linework in the ‘Z’ or the 3rd dimension. These are referred to as 3D wireframe models and
are an extension of 2D drafting. Each line must be manually inserted into the drawing. The
final product has no mass properties associated with it (composed completely of lines) and
cannot have features directly added to it, such as holes. The operator similarly approaches
these to the 2D systems, although many 3D systems allow using the wireframe model to
make the final engineering drawing views.
Basic 3D software doesn’t usually include tools to allow motion of components, set limits to
their motion, or identify interference between components. These types of actions are
contained in more advanced 3D software. An example of basic 3D programs could include
earlier versions of AutoCAD, which enabled 3D shapes to be generated, but with no
intelligence attached.

Contemporary or more recent 3D CAD
Known as 3D modelling programs, these programs require you to generate a 3D Model

using solid elements (simulated 3D construction elements), from which you generate 2D
views by slicing the model. In a basic (low-end) 3D modelling program, to draw a wall, you
would not have to draw individual lines like in a BASIC 3D CAD program, but instead, you
would click on an icon for the ‘draw wall’ command and use your mouse (or trackball) to
specify the length and location of that wall and the whole wall would be drawn. To insert a
door, you simply specify the door's size and location- the software automatically erases that
portion of the wall where the door goes. Throughout designing an entire house or building,
tools such as these can save countless hours. You can then use the solid model to generate
views of the project from any viewpoint or angle- something that 2D programs cannot do.
3D modelling programs, 3D geometric forms (prisms, cylinders, spheres, and so on) have
solid volumes added or subtracted from them, as if assembling or cutting real-world objects.
Two-dimensional projected views can easily be generated from the models. More advanced
3D programs have begun to include tools that can act out the motion of components, set
limits to their motion, or identify interference between components.
CAD Drafting Today

One of the major advantages - and one of the biggest payoffs - of CAD drafting today is the
reduction in design time and the amount of money it can save on a project. In
manufacturing, CAD drafting helps keep design costs down, translating into cost savings for
the consumer.
In residential or commercial design, the amount of time saved can be enormous. For
example, let’s say you are looking for a designer or architect to design your home. The
designer can create a design:
• from scratch based on your idea or concept

• from photos of actual houses
• based on a previous design that can be easily modified in CAD.
CAD design companies will typically have many different homes or building designs available
to choose from. It is easy for a client to look through the designs then select one they like.
They can use the design as-is or easily customise it to their tastes. Clients can even design
elements from different projects and combine them to create an entirely new home or
building. The possibilities are endless.

Making small changes to a CAD design- for instance, moving walls, windows or even whole
rooms- typically takes minutes or hours, not days. This would have been a huge and very
expensive task in the days before CAD drafting.
Many CAD design companies can serve your residential or commercial design needs, and
many of them offer complete project management and design and drafting of the project.
When using a 3D Modelling program, most of the effort goes into creating the model. The
detail in the model is determined by the detail and scale required within the resulting views.
It is unnecessary to place all the construction detail into a model when it is never seen or
viewed in any of the final drawings, or it is timely to do so. The designers' responsibility is to
ensure that all the necessary construction detail can be accommodated or incorporated in
reality, and there is provision for it. For example, Designers must ensure sufficient head
height to accommodate beams etc., and walls are thick enough to accommodate specific
and desired construction systems etc.
Sometimes, extra detail within a view (a plan, section, etc.) is developed as 2D line work
over the underdeveloped model's view. This extra drawing ‘work’ is usually only visible in
this view. Some programs are now allowing for this 2D drawing work within a 2D view to
“talk” back to the model and amend the model.
CAD drafting will undoubtedly continue to evolve and become more powerful, and remain,
next to the computer, as one of the most important technological developments of our age.

Building Information Modelling (BIM)
Introduction to BIM modelling
BIM is not just a 3D model. But every BIM starts with a 3D model.
BIM (Building Information Modelling) is a project management system that provides a highly
efficient and collaborative approach to the planning, design, and construction of buildings.
It is becoming a crucial part of the process and readily standard tool for designers and even
a mandated in some instances. BIM uses 3D parametric solid modelling as a central
database to create, check and communicate project information amongst all stakeholders
throughout a project’s life.
Examples of these programs are 3D parametric solid modelling programs such as ArchiCAD
and Revit combined with their add-in/on programs. When using these programs, the
designer must use ‘design intent’, meaning they think of their model as a real-world
representation of the real ‘thing’. You can (or unable) to make changes to the model
object’s the same way you would (or would not be able to) in the real world. Therefore,
parametric solids require the designer to think ahead and consider his actions carefully.
The top-end systems (or add on programs) include adding more organic aesthetics and
features to the design, such as photorealistic colours and surface textures. Surface
modelling combined with solid modelling is used to create most day-to-day products for
consumers.
There are numerous benefits to BIM at both the organisational and Project Level. At the
organizational level, benefits to firms include increased productivity and overall project
quality, enhanced levels of communication, reduced conflicts and RFI’s, improved control
over information, and over consultants and project stakeholders. While BIM gives firms a
competitive advantage and new business opportunities, the projects themselves are also
benefiting. BIM provides enhanced design visualisation, a forum to better co-ordinate
across all disciplines, develop multiple design options using various parameters and analyse
and develop more sustainable projects. ‘Constructing’ the building in BIM before it is
constructed allows accurate quantification and budget estimation and an opportunity to
make informed decisions early and upfront leading to cost savings and time in the
construction. Using BIM allows a better analysis of a project’s constructability and
monitoring of a project schedule, budget and construction more closely.

What is BIM
BIM: BIM is an acronym for the term Building Information Modelling.
BIM can be thought of as intelligent 3D modelling. BIM creates intelligent 3D objects that
interact like the real-world objects they represent. BIM applications have parametric
building elements and an integrated system for manipulating, quantifying, documenting and
displaying them. By its very name, it is implied that BIM is not just modelling but
Information modelling. In other words, the 3D component is only part of BIM. It
incorporates a whole lot more information that can’t be readily shown on a drawing sheet.
Building information modelling can store information and parameters related to all the
components of the building.
BIM is therefore a process used to create building model data that incorporates two
important elements:
• co-ordinated information
• computable information.
Co-ordinated Information: BIM provides complete digital representation of the building

design process by allowing designers, contractors, developers, manufacturers and engineers
to share data and construction information with much ease and efficiency. Changes
throughout the design are automatically updated for every drawing sheet, schedule etc.
Computable Information: BIM can predict performance, cost estimating, construction

planning, energy ratings and scheduling of individual items. The amount of information
generated depends on the data input when a project is generated, so it is important to input
the data correctly and thoroughly.
BIM allows architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) professionals the insight and
tools to plan efficiently, design, construct, and manage buildings and infrastructure in a
highly efficient and collaborative manner. This multiple stakeholder and multi-AEC
(architecture, engineering, construction) professional approach allows collaboration on the
planning, design, and construction of a building within the one 3D model.
BIM can also span into building operation and management. After a building is constructed,
during its operation, the pertinent information within the model can be used to generate
different scenarios and derive and produce data, upon which building owners and
stakeholders can base informed decisions.
The establishment of BIM in Australia is a readily evolving process. Though we might be

trailing the rest of the world and the UK (who are leading the world in BIM technology), we
are hastily establishing ground rules in the professional design and construction realms as
well as the legal ones.

How is BIM changing the process
Project procurement traditionally followed a linear process. A process where the project
was planned, conceptualized, design, documented, constructed and placed into operation.
Project Concept Design

Documentation Construction Operation
planning design development
Figure 52: Project procurement linear process
BIM has created an integrated design process where all the project stages are dealt with
simultaneously.
Project
planning
Concept
Operation
design
Design
Construction
development
Documentation
Figure 53: Integrated design process

Collaboration of a project as a consequence of BIM and the integrated design process has
changed also. A once traditional decentralized collaboration and coordination of a project
has changed into a centralized one, centred around the one BIM model.
BIM significantly reduces the cost of the documentation, construction and operation of a
project. However, it shifts the efforts and costs of the documentation of a project to the
design stage of a project.
BIM is not only changing the work process but also the workplace itself. The introduction of
BIM has brought about a need for new roles such as a BIM Manager, Computational
Designers, 3D visualisation experts, BIM Librarians, etc. The roles dependant on the
company's size and nature.
BIM objects
BIM objects are the components that make up a BIM model. These objects have
intelligence, geometry and store data. If any element is changed, the BIM software updates
the model to reflect that change, ensuring that the model always remains up to date and
consistent and coordinated throughout the entire project.
The ‘I’ in BIM

BIM is a collective process for all the parties involved in the design, construction and
lifecycle management of building assets. It is the ‘meeting place’ where they can work
collaboratively, share, and coordinate their data with the true power of BIM from the ‘I’, the
information it carries.
The BIM model offers clients a better product and more certainty around the outcome of a
project. All the project stakeholders through BIM can pass on their information via this
collective store of all the information gathered throughout the process— from concept to
completion. However, it isn’t just stored, but is actionable! At any stage of the process, the
data can improve accuracy, express design intent from the office to the field, improve
knowledge transfer from stakeholder to stakeholder, aid in coordination and reduce
changes and queries and field off coordination problems. BIM can even provide a platform
of insight into existing buildings for renovation projects later.
A simple example of actioning such data in BIM would be linking and using a 3D model
directly to scheduling and sequencing. Technology and robotics development have allowed
us to send the information directly from a 3D model to a construction site.

How is BIM shared
BIM users work collaboratively on projects on the same BIM model, which exists on a
mutually accessible online space known as a common data environment (CDE). A cloud type
space environment established to share the model with stakeholders, with the data it
collects referred to as the 'information model'. Information models can be used at all stages
of a building’s life, from inception to operation— and even renovations and renewals.
BIM users have access to the central file/information model located on the Project’s CDE
but work on a local copy that gets synchronized back with the master. Workers can work on
different parts of the project simultaneously by using Work sets that borrow out parts of it
that they can only work on without anyone else changing it at the same time. Built-in are
Revision Control measures and Auto trails to track documenting and model status.
Cloud CDE environments eliminate the need for local server storage, provide more
flexibility, reduce IT handling costs, though cause a high dependency on Internet bandwidth
and data security. The BIM cloud is a storage space for the Information Model and serves as
a place for 3D rendering, BIM authoring and co-ordination, revision management, document
mark-ups, and satisfy off-site data storage requirements secure data management.
BIM data and analysis

Many BIM programs today are developing their Analysis tools. Instead of remodelling a
design to suit a simulation software, BIM now includes live analysis of a model within the
same program. Revit has a custom link analysis tool called Dynamo, which allows direct
access to Revit Application Programming Interface (API), or Rhino, with its built-in plug-in
tool Grasshopper.
Another dimension – working dimensions

The invention of CAD started a 0 Dimension CAD. As technology advanced and CAD capacity
was enhanced, more dimensions were added.
0D BIM refers to not operating collaboratively at all. If you’re using 2D CAD and working
with drawings or digital prints, you can safely say you’re at level 0. Today, most of the
industry is working above this level, although there is still unease amongst professionals
who are uneasy about introducing a new process.

1D BIM uses 3D CAD for concept work, but 2D for drafting production information and
other documentation probably means you're working Level 1 BIM. At this level, CAD
standards are managed to the standard of BS 1192:2007, and electronic sharing of data
carried out from a common data environment (CDE) usually managed by the contractor.
Many firms are at Level 1 BIM, which doesn’t involve much collaboration, and each
stakeholder publishes and manages their data.
2D BIM begins to add to a collaborative environment. This level of BIM was made a
mandatory requirement in April of 2016 on all publicly tendered projects in the UK. At this
level of BIM, all team members use 3D CAD models but sometimes not in the same model.
However, how stakeholders exchange information differentiates it from other levels.
Information about the design of a built environment is shared through a common file
format. When firms combine this with their data, they save time, reduce costs, and
eliminate the need for rework. Since data is shared this way, the CAD software must export
to a common file format, such as IFC (Industry Foundation Class) or COBie (Construction
Operations Building Information Exchange).
Further technological advancements have allowed for additional dimensions to be

added to BIM. There now exist 3, 4, 5 and 6D BIM.
3D BIM is even more collaborative. Instead of each team member working in their 3D
model, Level 3 means that everyone uses a single, shared project model. The model exists in
a ‘central’ environment and can be accessed and modified by everyone. This is called Open
BIM, meaning that another layer of protection is added against clashes, adding value to the
project at every stage. The UK Government mandates Level 3 BIM as a prerequisite for all
projects in the coming years.
3D BIM is what most of us are familiar with today and includes Concept modelling, Form
finding, Visualisation of 2D and 3D designs. Examples of 3D BIM software include Unity 3D,
Unreal, Lumion 3D, Occulus Thrift.
4D BIM includes 3D BIM design and construction programming, phasing, simulation and
schedule monitoring.
5D BIM consists of cost estimation, validation and detailed management. Cool analysis on all
model files.
6D BIM involves data export from BIM to asset and facility management.

What are BIM standards and levels
As BIM is a collaborative effort, standards must ensure unified collaboration for the project
to work effectively. Every stakeholder needs to know how a model will operate in a project
and how BIM will generally work across the industry.
In recent years Australia has begun to make major in-roads creating standard ways of
delivering BIM and hence assets digitally. One of the major hurdles to adopting and fully
utilising BIM in Australia has been the lack of agreed-upon standards in both the delivery
methodology and, core to BIM parametric modelling, object standards. Standards now
adopted in Australia help define entities commonly found in AECO industries and BIM – such
as building elements, construction systems, spaces, locations, projects, actors, processes,
etc. and the relationships between them and help to define the different levels of BIM.
Standards Australia recently published AS ISO 16739:2017, Industry Foundation Classes (IFC)
for data sharing in the construction and facility management industries. This is an identical
adoption of the international standard ISO 16739. This new standard establishes a data
schema and an exchange file format for Building Information Model (BIM) data in Australia.
The new AS ISO 19650 series of standards on information management using BIM were also
adopted recently in Australia. This standard intended to improve BIM implementation in
Australia and New Zealand by providing a common framework for practice across all
organisations and projects. All these standards are intended for use in architecture,
engineering, construction and operation industries, for use in procuring, designing,
constructing and commissioning assets, and providing asset management activities,
including operations and maintenance.
Having our standards drawn from or adopting International Standards ensures that our
approaches to BIM in Australia will include terminology, systems, thinking and methods of
approach in the same vein as that of the rest of the globe. Particularly of help to companies
and projects which work across borders internationally.
A BIM model is stored, how much of it is accessible by different stakeholders, and how
much input or responsibility a stakeholder has in the model needs to be carefully thought
through before a project commences from both a logistical and legal standpoint. This can be
categorized and referred to as BIM levels. While there are varying BIM Levels in relation to
the dimensional capacity of a BIM project (as mentioned above – 3D,4D, etc.), there are also
BIM Levels in relation to the execution or output of BIM its level of development.

The LOD concept encompasses several aspects of designed elements, including:
• level of graphic detail/precision of modelling

• amount, quantity and relevance of non-graphic information
• type of non-graphic information, for example, embedded in model elements, linked
to model elements, separated from (but cross-referenced to) model elements.
The Level of Development (LOD) is the term used to categorise a Model into various
completion levels. The AIA has created a standard for describing how definitive Model
Elements were rated, and these Levels have been widely adopted and comprise numbers at
intervals of 100. Thus, the AIA Standard defines LOD’s as either 100, 200, 300, 400 or 500
based on the amount of information incorporated into the model in either 2 D or 3 D. There
is flexibility to define intermediate LOD’s between.
LOD sometimes also refers to Level of Detail as opposed to Level of Development. The Level
of Detail describes the Level of Completeness to which a Model Element is developed and is
a measure of quantity and representative of the amount of information provided. The Level
of Development reflects the degree to which the elements geometry and included
information has been thought through and directly affects the degree you can rely on the
information when using the model.
Figure 54 – LOD summary

GIS and point clouds
GIS is Geospatial Information Systems used to collect and record existing spatial information
instead of with tape measures and 2D linework and tape measures, but with total stations,
GPS, GIS and laser scanning technology. These systems allow for survey data to be imported
directly into 3D modelling environments and formatted to generate items such as Digital
Terrain Models (DTMs), Triangulation Irregular Networks (TINs), strings and Point Cloud Files
for measure & use.

CAD software options
Introduction
There are two things to consider when selecting a suitable software system for architectural
drafting.
1. CAD-based programs (Computer-Aided Design – essentially 2D).

2. BIM-based programs (Building Information Modelling – essentially 3D).
Initially, there was a great difference between the two, with AutoCAD leading the way in 2D
design and other software programs based on 3D design and documentation. Lately, there is
less distinction between the two, with AutoCAD being developed to be a more 3D program
and plugins developed to enhance its BIM capacity.
However, for those who are just beginning to get into the industry, it is a good time to
consider the big picture first. Building Information Modelling (BIM) is where the future lies.
Revit and ArchiCAD are completely different from AutoCAD, and other CAD-based programs
have been built from the ground up to be either BIM programs or have plug-in programs to
enhance their BIM capabilities. Both AutoCAD and BIM programs have their places in the
industry, and each has strong features. AutoCAD has undergone huge improvement to the
original AutoCAD (with at least some of the benefits of BIM) and will remain their design
application of choice for those who prefer AutoCAD and are familiar with it. For others, it is
better to get straight into BIM-based programs from the beginning.
In terms of career prospects, a recent look at job advertisements reflects that Revit and
ArchiCAD are emerging as the new programs of choice for Building Design and in the AEOC
Industry.

Autodesk Revit
Produced by: Autodesk (Long URL: www.autodesk.com.au).
Overview
A purpose-built building information modelling software (BIM) automatically coordinates all
your changes to enable designs and documentation to stay consistent.
In Revit, you are building a 3D model with all the information reflected in your design. This
ensures consistency throughout the documents and with other consultants. In other words,
every schedule, drawing sheet, 2D and 3D view is a direct reflection of the model you
produced. All changes to the model are thus automatically coordinated. It is becoming the
software of choice in many Architectural offices because of its ease of use and accuracy.
Graph iSOFT ArchiCAD

Produced by: Graphisoft (Long URL: www.graphisoft.com.au)
Overview
ArchiCAD enables design ideas to be explored easily and quickly. It focuses on speed, design
and documentation. ArchiCAD provides greater modelling freedom – designs are based on
BIM systems, translating into 2D or 3D documentation.
ArchiCAD is a complete and flexible design solution for BIM, enabling design ideas to be
explored while capturing every detail and making sure documents are synchronised. Tools
are extremely easy to use and enable you to design in a 3D architectural environment with
extraordinary modelling freedom.

Autodesk AutoCAD
Produced by: Autodesk (Long URL: www.autodesk.com.au).
Overview
AutoCAD® is a new product from Autodesk which efficiently creates and documents designs
using a software environment that is familiar to many AutoCAD users. Previously known as
AutoCAD Architecture (Engineering etc.), each profession had its version though now
Autodesk has collaborated AutoCAD into One. AutoCAD®, this computer-aided design (CAD)
software, is designed for architects, engineers, and construction professionals to collaborate
in drafting, annotating, and designing 2D geometry and 3D models with solids surfaces and
mesh objects and to create precise 2D and 3D drawings.
Features include (much the same as many other BIM software):
• drafting, annotation and design capabilities in both 2D and 3D models with solids,
surfaces and mesh objects
• automate tasks such as comparing drawings, adding blocks, creating schedules and
more
• customise with add-on apps and APIs
• improved workflows across desktop, web and mobile
• a new feature called drawing history.
AutoCAD 2021, though it is now One program for all professions, it features industry-specific
toolsets that you can adapt to suit your profession as required. An Architectural Toolset is
one such Toolset that is included in AutoCAD and contains drafting tools and libraries that
are specifically related to the architectural industry and helps makes the creation of
construction documentation an efficient process.
Suppose you are either interested in Revit Architecture or AutoCAD Architecture. In that
case, we suggest you buy the Autodesk Revit Architecture Suite, which includes both
software systems (as they are both produced by Autodesk). That way, you will have both
programs at your disposal, and you can investigate both before deciding which option will
be best for you.

Trimble Inc. SketchUp
Produced by: Trimble Inc. (Long URL: www.trimble.com/Buildings/SketchUp)
Overview
Basic SketchUp is a free, easy-to-learn 3D-modeling program with a few simple tools to let
you create 3D models of houses, sheds, decks, home additions, woodworking projects etc.
Google originally developed it as a great tool for beginners and intermediate designers.
Trimble has since taken over SketchUp and continued to develop the software.
Although it was not designed as a BIM software from the ground up, it is beginning to
incorporate some simple BIM capabilities in a purchasable and more advanced version of
itself, such as SketchUp Pro and the incorporation of Add-In programs that such as Dynamic
Components. SketchUp, though is more on par with 3D Cad, you can still add details,
textures, and glass to your models and design with dimensional accuracy, but Data is
limited.
SketchUp has predefined templates which have been specifically set up for architecture,
woodworking modelling. It has a basic design user interface with all the help options in plain
sight, including video tutorials, tips and tricks, blogs and the help centre. Ideally, you could
design and model up your building's mass in SketchUp and import it into a BIM software
system such as Revit.

Manual drafting
Hand drawing
Though it is no longer widely used within the industry to produce building design drawings,
hand-drawn to produce hand-drawn sketches is still a very important skill. Many designers
and drafters use hand drawing to explore design ideas and to communicate with colleagues,
consultants and builders as a quick way to communicate design ideas and resolve
construction details.
Hand drawing has historically been the way to develop and communicate ideas through
drawings. It is a much more tactile and intuitive design method, and some of the best sketch
designs are still hand-drawn. Through hand drawing, ideas can be quickly represented on
paper in any environment. It is both an art and a learned technique.
Manual drafting
Although manual drafting is now very uncommon in building design offices, these notes are
included as general information. While Computer-Aided Design (CAD) drafting and
particularly Building Information Modelling (BIM) is widely used as the industry standard for
architectural drafting, there are still some manual drafting uses. For drafted drawings, CAD
and BIM offer the advantages of 3D modelling, automatic dimensioning, ease of
reproduction, amendment and storage.
Manual drafting was traditionally a ‘pencil or pen on paper’ approach to engineering and
building design drawings. Manual drafting was undertaken using T-squares, set squares and
protractors and the like before the parallel rule and drafting machine drawing board set-ups
became common practice to drawing preparation. The parallel rule drawing board is still
commonly found in many old architectural practices, albeit dusty in the office's corner
somewhere.
To create an effective drawing, appropriate equipment and drafting techniques must be

applied, and standard architectural drafting protocols must be followed.

Drafting equipment and media
Drawing board
For manual drafting, a drafting table or drawing board is needed. Any board with a straight,
square edge and a smooth surface can be used.
T-square, parallel rule or drafting machine

A T-square (preferably with a Perspex edge) is moved up and down the board against the
square edge to draw all horizontal lines. A parallel ruler performs the same task as the T-
square but is fixed to the drawing board with cables to restrict movement. The drafting
machine is a more versatile and adjustable drawing arm mounted on the drawing board
which can be used for horizontal and vertical lines and adjusted to draw any angle.
Adjustable set square

The adjustable set-square is used to draw vertical lines and a range of angles from 45° to
90°. The set square is used in conjunction with the T-square. It should be transparent and
have bevelled edges to allow pencil points or nib points to be used close to the edges (see
Figure 55 – Adjustable square when drawing lines at right angles to T-square).
Ideally, the bevelled edge of the set square and t square should have a small recess under
the edge to prevent ink suction underneath.
Figure 55 – Adjustable square when drawing lines at right angles to T-square

Pencils
The clutch pencil, using 2mm graphite of varying grades, is most recommended for drafting.
Wooden pencils are less accurate and drafting pencils (pacer type) using fine 0.5mm
graphite can’t be sharpened, so they are not as effective for drafting.
Figure 56 – Types of pencils
Always maintain a good point to the pencil. By rotating the pencil as you draw a line, you
can keep the points evenly sharp. Keep all pencils clean from carbon or graphite waste
because the waste will smudge the paper.
Rotating barrel type clutch pencil sharpeners are recommended for clean and quick
sharpening of 2mm clutch pencil leads.
Pencil grades
All leads or pencils come in various grades; B leads produce a softer, blacker line (higher B
numbers smudge easily) and the H leads produce a harder, sharp line (higher H numbers are
like drawing with a nail).
Individual preferences vary according to hand pressure. To start with, you should have
pencils ranging from 2B to 2H (including HB or F) for drafting.

Figure 57 – Pencil grades
Drafting pens
Ink is most widely used for drafting as it gives a denser, neater and sharper line than a
pencil. Once dry, ink lines are more permanent and won’t smudge. Normally a drawing is set
up in pencil and ink lines added once finalised.
Technical pens such as Rotring, Staedtler Mars are pens with tubular nibs in a range of
thicknesses (normally 0.25mm, 0.35mm, 0.5mm and 0.7mm) using very dense black ink to
create fine, dense black lines. The fine nibs on these pens are very fragile and easily
damaged. Due to the thickness of the drafting ink, they are prone to blocking and the lid
must always be replaced when not in use.
Some technical felt-tip pens simulate the technical drafting pens but generally don’t give
such a dense black line. Mars Professional pens are a good felt-tip alternative that is easier
to use than ink pens without blockages. These are cheaper and disposable.

Scale rules
In the construction and building industry, most objects drawn are too large to fit on paper if
drawn at a scale of 1:1 (full size), so when drawn, they must be reduced in scale by a fixed
amount.
Scale rules have divisions along each edge on both sides in various scales to actual distances
and dimensions. They can therefore be used for marking new drawings to scale or for
measuring by ‘scaling’ from existing drawings.
For architectural drawing you generally require a scale rule with the following scales: 1:1,
1:5, 1:10, 1:20, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200, 1:500
The scale of 1:5 allows you to draw an object at exactly one-fifth full size without having to
do any arithmetic calculations. The 1:10 scale allows you to draw an object at one-tenth full
size, the 1:20 scale at one-twentieth full size, and so on.
Figure 58 – Standard metric scale rule showing both sides
The elliptical shape and thin edge mean that the scale rule should be tilted to contact the
paper for accuracy.
The scale rule is for measuring and not for drawing. Draw a line first and then measure the
desired length along the line.

Erasers
Erasers are used to remove excess linework or errors from the paper. Specific erasers are
available for specific media (paper or pen, or pencil).
The white plastic eraser can be used on cartridge paper as well as on tracing paper. It
removes pencil cleanly and with less smudge and less damage to the surface of the paper
but must be kept clean. Special erasers are available for removing ink from tracing paper.
Fine steel razor blades are also used for removing ink lines from tracing paper. After using
razor blades, the paper requires burnishing with a gritty eraser to prevent ink bleeding into
the paper fibres.
Erasing shield
To avoid erasing or smudging large areas of a drawing, an erasing shield is very useful. The
erasing shield is a very thin metal sheet with an assortment of lines and small circles cut out.
The area's appropriate size and shape to be erased is selected, allowing robust erasing of
that small area.
Drawing paper
Here is a list of the types of paper commonly used in drafting. Drafting paper is available in
various weights. Heavier weight, thicker paper is recommended as it is sturdier. Drawings
are generally drawn on tracing paper and photocopied onto white bond paper.

Table 13: Types of drawing papers
Surface Paper type Characteristics
opaque cartridge paper Easily marked with graphite

and hand marks.
Impossible to erase ink on

cartridge paper
semi-transparent detail paper Useful for sketching and

working out construction
butter paper details in pencil
transparent tracing paper They are used for most

manually drafted
architectural project
drawings. Transparency
used for overlaying to trace
information between
drawings.
Vulnerable to moisture
fluctuation (swells to
become wavy).
Erasing ink lines is possible

with special erasers and
razor blades.
transparent film Hardwearing papers but

expensive and difficult to
acetate draw on (very slippery),
often requiring pens.

Manual drafting techniques
110Linework
When one line meets another line, ensure that you cross over the lines, rather than leaving
them not quite, or only just, meeting. This helps the presentation of the drawing and makes
it easier to read off measurements with your scale rule.
Figure 59 – Correct and incorrect linework
Line hierarchy
The range of line strengths (line hierarchy) produces good looking and legible drawings. Line
hierarchy is when drafted lines vary in thickness and intensity. Stronger lines are seen more
easily, and weaker lines are used for detail or less important objects.
Line hierarchy is very important. A drawing in which all lines look the same in strength will
not be easy to read.
Construction lines can be as lightly drawn as is possible for you to see them without losing
track of what you’re doing. They are light lines drawn with a 2H or H pencil for setting up
the drawing.
Profile or firming-in lines are drawn after the drawing has been set up with construction
lines. They make the object visually clear and are drawn with an HB pencil or 0.25mm pen.
The strength of the line is medium.
Back lining lines are used to make sections or walls in plan (that is, any element on a
drawing that is cut through) stand out from other parts of the drawing. They are made with
stronger lines inside the profile lines to emphasise the object's shape being cut through.
They are usually drawn with a B or 2B pencil or using a 0.35mm or 0.50mm pen (depending
on the scale of the drawing) and dark strength. It is recommended to set up a drawing in
0.25mm pen first and then add back lining in thicker pens such as 0.35mm or 0.5mm. This
gives a crisper looking drawing and more precise corners.

Hidden lines are used to show hidden parts of an object, such as a roof or beam overhead
line. A hidden line is a broken line of about 5 mm with a 1- or 2-mm gap. They’re usually
drawn with an HB pencil or in a 0.25mm pen and medium strength.
Hatchings are lines drawn to represent materials in the section. They are of a medium to
light strength and drawn with an H pencil or 0.25mm pen. Large areas of hatching for areas
such as tiled floors may be drawn on the back of a tracing sheet to avoid damage by
amendments.
Lettering
Sloppy lettering can make your whole drawing look sloppy and may be illegible. It would be
best if you took care to construct all your lettering, including notations and titles, by drawing
light guidelines first. You should draw two guidelines representing the desired height of the
text and a guideline somewhere in the centre to aid your letter junctions. Doing this keeps
the text neat and uniform.
Guidelines for good freehand lettering are as follows:
• use three guidelines for lettering so the midpoints as well as top and bottom of the
lettering line up – either rule lines or use ruled paper or graph paper slipped under
the tracing paper
• carefully consider the spacing of letters – letters within words are very closely spaced
and spaces within words are somewhat exaggerated
• notes on drawings should be lined up in banks of notes placed apart from the
drawing to avoid crowding
• good lettering comes with practice; take the time to analyse your lettering to see
why it may look messy, then practice corrections.

Figure 60 – Conventions for architectural lettering
Drafting with pencil

The following guidelines should be followed for drafting in pencil:
• hold the pencil at a constant angle while drawing

• draw with the clutch pencil lead firmly against the ruling edge of the T-square or set
square
• draw the pencil briskly and firmly from start to finish of the line, rotating the pencil
as you move it
• lines should have a definite beginning and end rather than tapering off.

Drafting with Ink
The following guidelines should be followed for drafting in ink:
1. The pen should be held vertically to maintain an even line thickness and even wear
on the tip of the nib.
2. The pen should be drawn firmly and steadily across the page (pulled rather than
pushed) but not too quickly. This is important for an even flow of ink and an even
line as a result.
3. Do not press heavily on the pen. This will cause the pen to catch on the paper,
causing an uneven line and a blocked nib.
4. Always lift your pen and other instruments away from the ink line until it dries to
avoid smudging.
5. Set out work in pencil first and then trace in ink.
6. For horizontal lines, start at the top of the page and work down the page; for vertical
lines, start at the right of the page and work towards the left. This enables ink lines
to dry without smudging.

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Graphics
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Student workbook

CPPBDN4101, CPPBDN4103 and CPPBDN5101

Date created: 29 March 2021

Date modified: 04 August 2021

For queries contact: Infrastructure, Energy and Construction SkillsPoint

© TAFE NSW 2021

This resource can be found in the TAFE NSW Learning Bank.

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Units covered in this learning resource include:

• CPPBDN4101 Work effectively in a building design environment

1. Work effectively as a drafter in a building design environment. This includes

Alright, let's get started!

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In this topic, you will learn about the following:

• the building design project team

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Table 1: Overview of the building design project stages

Stage Stage name Description

Stage 1 Project inception and At the beginning of the project, preliminary

Drawings and documents gathered may include the

Stage 2 Sketch design The building designer prepares a preliminary design to

Stage 4 Planning approval Prepare drawings and documents for planning

Stage 5 Construction Prepare construction approval drawings and

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Stage 6 Tender Prepare for Tender drawings, documents including

Stage 7 Construction contract The Building designer administers the building

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Roles and responsibilities

• working in an architectural or building design office preparing drawings following

Architects have a higher level of design qualifications and registration requirements.

Qualifications required are Degrees or Post Graduate Degree in Architecture, working

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The client agreement

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• to pay the Building Designer for the scope of services

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• providing a basis for discussions on a concept or idea for a building

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Table 2: Drawings in a building project

Category Drawings Purpose

Design drawings Bubble diagrams. Tools for the designer to

Design drawings Concept drawings, sketch To present to the client and

Design drawings DA drawings The culmination of design

Construction drawings working drawings To communicate with the

Construction drawings CC drawings Working drawings show the

Construction drawings construction details A part of working drawings

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Construction drawings shop (workshop) drawings Working drawings show the

Construction drawings tender drawings Working drawings showing

Post-construction drawings As-built drawings Complete set of working

The Australian national building specification system (NATSPEC) is designed as a guide

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Table 3: Types of document