(2021) Jacaranda Textbook

2.
HS3 What do you think we might learn from SOURCE 2 about:

(a) the skills of Mycenaean potters
(b) the arms and armour of Mycenaean soldiers?
3. HS3 What kind of character do you think the mask shown in SOURCE 3 was meant to represent?
4. HS3 Look closely at the building in the top left of SOURCE 4. Describe a feature of this ancient building that
you recognise as having influenced the style of many modern-day public buildings.
5. HS3 Write a short summary of what you have discovered about ancient Greece from these four sources.
Try these questions in learnON for instant, corrective feedback. Go to www.jacplus.com.au.
5.3 The Minoans and Mycenaeans

5.3.1 Minoan civilisation
Civilisation in Greece began before 3000 BCE when people started to grow crops and herd animals on
Crete, the largest of the Greek islands. The archaeologist Arthur Evans was the first to excavate their cities.
He called these people Minoans after their legendary King Minos. During the fourteenth century BCE, their
peaceful civilisation appears to have been overrun by the more warlike Mycenaeans of mainland Greece.
By about 2500 BCE the Minoans had built towns. They had also learned to make tools, weapons and
ornaments from bronze and to create beautiful pottery. The main Minoan city, Knossos, dates from about
1900 BCE. The walls of the buildings in Knossos were decorated with scenes of Minoan life, including
athletes leaping and performing acrobatics on the backs of wild bulls (see SOURCE 1).
Around the time that Knossos was built the Minoans were building palaces, and most Minoans were
living in large coastal towns. These were probably centres of their extensive sea trade. There is evidence
that the Minoans set up trading bases on several Greek islands and exchanged goods with Egypt, Syria and
other civilisations. The Minoans used a written language we call Linear A. It disappeared suddenly about
1450 BCE and it is still not understood. Around 1700 BCE the Minoan cities were destroyed following the
eruption of a volcano on the island of Santorini, which triggered a massive tsunami. The cities were rebuilt
but were destroyed again by earthquakes in about 1450 BCE.
SOURCE 1 A fresco (wall painting) from Knossos showing young Minoan men and women leaping on the back
of a bull
TOPIC 5 Ancient Greece 145

SOURCE 2 Crete, Greece and Egypt at the time of the Minoan and
Mycenaean civilisations
GREECE
Troy
AE
GE
ANATOLIA
AN
Thebes
Athens
SE
Mycenae
A
Miletos
Pylos Sparta
Oront
SEA OF CRETE Rhodes
Khania
es
Cyprus
Knossos
Ri v
Zakro
er
Crete
Byblos
MEDITERRANEAN
SEA
Megiddo
Gezer
Dead Sea
EGYPT
Saqqara N il e
Lahun ARABIA
Key
RED
Ri
Lahun Settlement
ve
0 250 500
r
EGYPT Territory
SEA
kilometres
Thebes
Source: Map drawn by Spatial Vision.
5.3.2 The Mycenaeans

Most archaeologists believe that by about 1375 BCE, Mycenaean invaders from small kingdoms such as
Mycenae, Athens and other hilltop cities on the Greek mainland had conquered the Minoans. Mycenaean
civilisation flourished between about 1400 BCE and 1200 BCE. The Mycenaeans were great seafarers and
traders and were highly skilled in the use of bronze. They appear to have copied some aspects of Minoan
culture. The warrior ruling class lived in palaces and enjoyed music, dancing and sport.
The Mycaenaeans spoke an early form of Greek. Their written language, which we call Linear B, has
been translated since its code was cracked in 1952. The earliest Mycenaean stories to appear in written
sources are Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey. These epic poems had been handed down by word of mouth
for centuries before they were written down. The Iliad tells the story of how in about 1200 BCE the
Mycenaeans laid siege to, and finally captured and destroyed, the city of Troy in Anatolia (present-day
Turkey).
Homer’s Iliad and the Trojan War
The story told in the Iliad is so popular that it has been told and retold, even by Hollywood in a twenty-first
century movie. Whether any part of the story is true is still a mystery. Some archaeological discoveries have
only added to the debate. The story was probably passed down by storytellers for three centuries before it
was recorded in writing by Homer. Homer is believed to be a Greek who lived in the eighth century BC.
However, some scholars think that his poems were the work of several people.
146 Jacaranda Humanities Alive 7 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

As the Iliad tells the story, there are several main characters. Among them are:
• Agamemnon, the king of Mycenae
• Menelaus, the king of Sparta and brother of Agamemnon
• Helen, the wife of Menelaus
• Priam, the king of Troy
• Paris, son of Priam
• Odysseus, a Mycenaean warrior hero.
According to the Iliad, the war started because Paris abducted Helen and took her to Troy. As Homer
tells the story, Agamemnon gathered a great Greek navy and led a ten-year siege of Troy that included huge
battles outside the city’s walls. Troy was finally defeated by Mycenaean trickery. Pretending to have given
up the siege, the Greeks left a giant wooden horse with their hero Odysseus and about twenty other warriors
hidden inside. Seeing that the Greeks had sailed away, the Trojans thought that the Greeks had left the horse
as a gift. After the rejoicing Trojans dragged the horse into the city, Odysseus and his companions crept out
and opened the city gates for the returning Greeks, who seized and destroyed Troy.
SOURCE 3 A scene from one of the wall paintings found at Tiryns, a Mycenaean site from the fourteenth to
thirteenth centuries BCE
Fact or fiction?
Even in ancient times the truth of the Iliad was doubted (see SOURCE 4). Until the late nineteenth century
CE, the story was thought to be simply a myth. Then, in 1870, a German amateur archaeologist, Heinrich
Schliemann, began digging on what he believed was the site of ancient Troy. He used the Iliad to help find
its location and he discovered the ruins of a city that could have been Troy (see SOURCE 5). However, later
excavations showed that the level Schliemann identified as Troy was hundreds of years too early.
SOURCE 4 From The Histories, written by the ancient Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484–425 BCE)
... had Helen really been in Troy, she would have been handed over to the Greeks with or without Paris’ consent;
for I cannot believe that either Priam or any other kinsman of his was mad enough to be willing to risk his own and
his children’s lives and the safety of the city, simply to let Paris continue to live with Helen.

SOURCE 5 At Canakkale, about 300 km south-west of Istanbul in Turkey,
Schliemann dug up these city ruins. Later excavations have shown that the site
contains ruins of nine different settlements, built one on top of the other.
The Mask of Agamemnon?

Four years later, Schliemann excavated Mycenae to find the grave of Agamemnon. He found at least five
royal graves filled with gold and other treasure. His most exciting finds were several gold masks, including
one pictured in SOURCE 6 that became known as the ‘Mask of Agamemnon’. Many archaeologists doubt that
this really is Agamemnon’s death mask for several reasons:
• Schliemann had a record of faking archaeological finds and he could have had the mask made.
• The grave where the mask was found is about 300 years earlier than the supposed date of the Trojan
War.
• The ‘Mask of Agamemnon’ looks very different from the masks, including SOURCE 7, found covering
the remains of other Mycenaean chieftains.
There is still no clear evidence that the Trojan War really happened or that the grave Schliemann
unearthed at Mycenae was in fact the grave of King Agamemnon.
SOURCE 6 The gold ‘Mask of Agamemnon’. SOURCE 7 Another Mycenaean

Heinrich Schliemann claimed to have found it gold mask from excavated graves
in 1876 when he excavated graves in in Mycenae, now held in the
Mycenae. It is held in the National National Archaeological Museum,
Archaeological Museum, in Athens. in Athens

5.3 EXERCISES
Historical skills key: HS1 Remembering and understanding HS2 Sequencing chronology HS3 Using historical sources as
evidence HS4 Identifying continuity and change HS5 Analysing cause and effect HS6 Determining historical significance
5.3 Exercise 1: Check your understanding

1. HS2 Describe the achievements of Minoan civilisation by around 1700 BCE.
2. HS1 What appears to have caused the collapse of Minoan civilisation?
3. HS1 Who were the Mycenaeans?
4. HS1 What role might the Mycenaeans have played in the destruction of Minoan Crete?
5. HS1 According to legend, what caused the Trojan War?
6. HS1 How did the Mycenaean Greeks win the Trojan War?
7. HS1 What was the main effect of the Trojan War?
5.3 Exercise 2: Apply your understanding

1. HS2 List the main events in the rise and fall of Minoan civilisation in chronological order.
2. HS3 Study SOURCE 1.
(a) Describe what is depicted in this Minoan wall painting.
(b) Do you think the Minoans did such things for sport or could there be another explanation for the scene?
Give reasons for your answer.
3. HS3 Referring to SOURCE 2, explain how the location of Crete would have helped the Minoans to trade with
other civilisations and how the Minoans would have benefited from trade.
4. HS3 Analyse SOURCE 3. What might it be possible to say about Mycenaean art and everyday life using it as
your evidence?
5. HS3 In SOURCE 4, what does Herodotus doubt about the account of the Trojan War in the Iliad?
6. HS3 The Iliad was an epic poem, whereas Herodotus was trying to write history. How would this have led
to him taking a different perspective on the cause of the Trojan War?
7. HS3 Why is it likely that the walls in SOURCE 5 are not the walls of ancient Troy?
8. HS3 Compare SOURCES 6 and 7.
(a) Describe the features of the mask in SOURCE 6.
(b) Describe the features of the mask in SOURCE 7.
(c) If both of these masks were really found in the graves at Mycenae, why do you think a decision was
made to call SOURCE 6 rather than SOURCE 7 the mask of Agamemnon?
9. HS3 Choose two sources in this subtopic and determine three questions you would ask about each of
them to assess their accuracy, reliability and usefulness for a study of Minoan and/or Mycenaean history.
10. HS3 Why do you think other archaeologists and historians have contested Heinrich Schliemann’s
interpretation of his findings about Troy and Agamemnon?
11. HS4 Describe the main changes that took place in the ancient Greek world between 3000 BCE and 1200 BCE.
5.4 The ‘Dark Age’ to the Archaic Period

5.4.1 The influence of geography
From their heavily fortified cities, the Mycenaean kings dominated the south of Greece from around 1600
BCE to 1200 BCE. But soon after 1200 BCE, Mycenaean culture suffered a sudden and violent collapse.
This was followed by the Greek ‘Dark Age’, which lasted almost four hundred years. We know very little
about ancient Greece between 1150 BCE and the development of the Greek alphabet around 800 BCE.
What we do know is that the landscape, climate and natural resources of Greece had a huge influence on
its civilisations in this period and later. As you can see in SOURCE 1, 75 per cent of the Greek mainland is
mountainous. This meant that settlements were isolated from each other, overland travel was difficult and
only about 20 per cent of the land was useful for farming. This caused the Greek settlements to turn to the
sea for contacts and trade.
Ancient Greece had long, hot summers and short, cool and wet winters. Rainfall was unreliable and
long droughts could cause hunger, but floods could also destroy food crops. However, soils in many of

5.5 EXERCISES

1. HS1 What did the ancient Greek city-states have in common?
2. HS2 When did Athens introduce a system called democracy?
3. HS1 What percentage of the population of Athens were citizens?
4. HS1 Why could citizens be ostracised and what happened to them?
5. HS1 What was the effect of the Spartan conquest on the Messenians?
6. HS2 Around what time did Sparta become an oligarchy and what did that mean?

1. HS2 In chronological order, list the three forms of government that existed in many Greek city-states before
Athens introduced democracy. What were the differences between these forms of government?
2. HS3 Using SOURCE 1, explain the difference between the Assembly and the Council of 500.
3. HS3 Describe the scene in SOURCE 2 and suggest what impression it gives of the character of the Athenian
Assembly meetings.
4. HS3 Examine SOURCE 3.
(a) Explain who could be Spartan citizens.
(b) Describe powers held in Sparta by each of the following institutions: the Ephorate, the Gerousia and the
Assembly.
5. HS3 Using SOURCES 1 and 3 and other information in this subtopic identify whether the following
statements are true or false.
(a) In Athens, all citizens voted on laws. In Sparta, citizens (Spartan men aged over 30) could vote but their
vote could be overruled.
(b) Ordinary citizens had more power in Sparta than in Athens.
(c) In both Athens and Sparta, women, slaves and non-citizens did not have the rights of citizens.
6. HS3 Use the internet to find archaeological sources from Athens and Sparta. Develop a hypothesis to
suggest why there are many from Athens and so few from Sparta.
5.6 Everyday life in Sparta

5.6.1 A strong city-state
After brutally putting down a slave revolt in about 650 BCE, Sparta became a military state, and it remained
so for the next 300 years. Culture and art were no longer valued, and luxuries were despised. The main role
of a Spartan man was to be a brave warrior, while the main role of a Spartan woman was to bear strong
children.
SOURCE 1 As the Greek writer Plutarch notes, the main aim of boys’ education was to teach them to be fierce,
disciplined soldiers.
The boys learned to read and write no more than was necessary. Otherwise their whole education was aimed
at developing smart obedience, perseverance under stress and victory in battle. So as they grew older they
intensified their physical training, and got into the habit of cropping their hair, going barefoot and exercising
naked. From the age of twelve they never wore a tunic, and were given only one cloak a year. Their bodies were
rough, and knew nothing of baths or oiling.

Like many settlements in ancient Greece, Sparta was a city-state. This means it was a fortified centre
surrounded by a town community and farmlands. The farmlands provided the produce that people needed
to survive. Like all city-states, it had its own laws and form of government. The city-state of Sparta became
very powerful because it was the only one with a permanent army.
SOURCE 2 Spartan males lived a harsh and disciplined life, much of which was spent in
military camps.
E
A F
B
A The army barracks and other Spartan settlements had no walls.

B Even after they married, Spartan men still ate in the army barracks as a member of a mess. To become a citizen, a
man had to be a member of an army mess.
C Men lived in military camps until they were 30, when they could become a citizen and marry.
D Spartan soldiers grew their hair long and usually wore little clothing. However, when fighting or training, they wore
armour and bright red cloaks. When in their phalanx formation, they stood close together, with shields touching
and their spears jutting straight out ahead.
E Boys were often flogged to teach them to put up with pain and develop their courage. Being caught stealing was
severely punished — though stealing itself was accepted.
F Beds were a bundle of long reeds, cut from the riverbanks, and laid on the floor.
G In the military camps, boys and young men exercised, played war games and learned about Sparta’s rules of
conduct. The boys enjoyed no ‘home comforts’ and discipline was very harsh.

A tough life
Sparta soon dominated the Peloponnese peninsula. But life in Sparta was harsh. Ancient Greek writers
claimed that weak or sickly male babies were abandoned on a hillside to die of exposure. However, recent
archaeological evidence casts some doubt on this story.
Boys left home at the age of seven to start their military training in barracks. Everything was geared to
protecting the state — personal needs did not matter.
Spartan women
Spartan women could not become citizens, vote or hold public office. However, they could own land and
represent themselves in court. There is evidence that Spartan women came to own about a third of Sparta’s
land and wealth because so many Spartan men were killed in battle. Like boys, they were taught to be brave
and outspoken.
Women wore plain clothing, cut their hair short and did not wear perfume, makeup or jewellery. They
trained to keep fit, and exercised and danced naked. Their role was to bear healthy children and to be tough
for their men.
Such great importance was placed on producing Spartan children that it influenced the way Spartans
viewed death and funerary customs. The most honourable death for a Spartan man was to die in battle.
Along with men who died in battle, women who died in childbirth were the only Spartans who were
permitted to have their names on tombstones.
5.6.2 The helots and the perioeci

Unlike slaves in other Greek states, the helots were not owned by individuals. They were the property of
the Spartan state, which allocated families of helots to farm the land set aside for each Spartan. Because
the helots greatly outnumbered them, the Spartans lived in fear of a helot rebellion. It was probably this
fear that led the Spartans to cruelly control the helots and to adopt a system that made Sparta such a harsh
military state.
The perioeci were descended from Dorian tribes who settled in other areas around Sparta. Though
perioeci men had to serve in Sparta’s army if required, they were otherwise free. They were mainly
craftspeople and merchants — occupations forbidden to the elite Spartans.
How did the helots react to enslavement?

Ever since the Spartans conquered the Messenians, reducing them to the status of slaves, it was this slavery
that made the Spartan way of life possible. Spartans could only be full-time soldiers because their state
provided each Spartan family with sufficient helots to work their land and to provide those families with
the produce they needed.
Evidence suggests the Messenian helots never lost the will to regain their freedom. They rebelled against
Sparta around 650 BCE and again in 464–459 BCE. It is likely that the methods used by the Spartans to
suppress the helots made the helots even more rebellious. The Spartan Ephorate ran a secret police force
called the Krypteia. It recruited young Spartans and sent them out for a year to spy on the helots. They were
authorised to kill helots, especially those who appeared to have the kinds of qualities that might fit them to
lead a helot rebellion (see SOURCES 3 and 4).
SOURCE 3 A description of the treatment of helots, by the ancient Greek writer Plutarch (c. 46–120 CE)
The magistrates dispatched privately some of the ablest of the young men into the country, from time to time,
armed only with their daggers... they... killed all the Helots they could light upon; sometimes they set upon them
by day, as they were at work in the fields, and murdered them...
Aristotle, in particular, adds, that the ephori, [ephors] so soon as they were entered into their office, used to
declare war against them [the helots], so that they might be massacred without a breach of religion.

SOURCE 4 A description of the treatment of helots who had fought for Sparta against Athens in 424 BCE, by the
ancient Greek writer Thucydides (c. 460–403 BCE)
The Helots were invited by a proclamation to pick out those of their number who claimed to have most
distinguished themselves against the enemy, in order that they might receive their freedom; the object being to
test them, as it was thought that the first to claim their freedom would be the most high-spirited and the most apt
to rebel. As many as two thousand were selected accordingly, who crowned themselves and went around the
temples, rejoicing in their new freedom. The Spartans, however, soon afterwards did away with them, and no-one
ever knew exactly how each one of them perished.
How have historians explained Sparta’s treatment of the helots?

Our only ancient sources for Sparta are a few archaeological traces and the writings of several ancient
Greeks, including Herodotus and Thucydides. Almost none of our ancient written primary sources were
created by Spartans and none by helots. Yet an enormous number of books and articles have been written
about ancient Sparta by historians using the little evidence that exists. SOURCES 5 and 6 are two examples.
SOURCE 5 An account of Spartan motives for suppressing the helots, from Sarah B. Pomeroy, et al., Ancient
Greece: A Political, Social and Cultural History, 1999
The Second Messenian War [of c. 650 BC] had been a terrifying revelation of the potential risks of the helot
system, and the possibility of a repetition haunted the imaginations of Spartans and their enemies. One certain
way of avoiding such a catastrophe, abandoning Messenia, was unthinkable... the Spartans realized that if all
potential hoplites could be mobilized and trained to the highest degree of skill possible, Sparta would enjoy an
overwhelming military advantage over its helots and other enemies... In effect they waged a perpetual war against
the helots and were consequently always prepared to engage in other acts of aggression when necessary.
SOURCE 6 An account of Sparta recruiting helots as soldiers, from Antony Andrewes, Greek Society, 1991
The other main source [of recruits] was the helots. The 700 whom Brasidas took with him to the north [in 425 BC]
were still formally slaves; they were only liberated on their return home... About the same time... Sparta created
a whole new class... These were helots who were already liberated at the time when they were enrolled. For the
next fifty years, they were a very important part in Sparta’s military effort... The training-up of such numbers from
a notoriously oppressed and ill-treated class looks like an appalling risk, though no doubt, in case of trouble, the
Spartans could count on the perioikoi [perioeci] to support them.
5.6 EXERCISES

1. HS1 Why did Sparta need to develop such a strong army?
2. HS1 What was life like for Spartan women?
3. HS1 Look up the adjective ‘spartan’ in a dictionary. Explain why the word has the meaning it does today.
4. HS1 Who were the perioeci and the helots?
5. HS1 In what ways was the position of the helots different to that of slaves in other parts of Greece?
6. HS1 Explain how the slavery of the helots made the Spartan way of life possible.

1. HS3 Read SOURCE 1. Explain how you think the hardships Spartan boys had to endure would have helped
them to develop obedience and perseverance.

2. HS3 Look carefully at SOURCE 2, and read the labels. Then answer the following questions.
(a) What did Spartan boys do to keep fit and increase their mental strength?
(b) Would Spartan army camps have been easy targets for an enemy? Explain.
(c) Why might the way Spartans lived have reduced the influence of the family? How might this have
benefited the state of Sparta?
(d) Describe what an approaching phalanx of Spartan soldiers would look like. Why might it frighten
their enemies?
3. HS3 Read SOURCES 3 and 4 and analyse them by answering the following questions.
(a) What information about Spartan treatment of helots does each source provide?
(b) What kind of source is it?
(c) Who wrote each source and around when would it have been written?
(d) Why do you think each source was written and how useful is it as evidence for this topic?
(e) What more would you need to know about the author to judge the source’s reliability?
4. HS3 Do SOURCES 3 and 4 provide complementary evidence or conflicting evidence for the Spartans’
treatment of the helots? Give the reasons for your answer.
5. HS3 Compare and contrast SOURCES 5 and 6. What conclusion does each of these secondary sources
present on Spartan attitudes towards the helots?
6. HS3 How do Pomeroy (SOURCE 5) and Andrewes (SOURCE 6) differ in their interpretations of Sparta’s
treatment of the helots?
7. HS3 Using the sources and other information in this subtopic, explain what life was like for a helot and how
the helots might have viewed their situation.
8. HS4 Using the sources and other information in this subtopic, explain how Sparta’s enslavement of the
helots changed everyday life in Spartan society after 650 BCE.
9. HS5 What can we tell about the effect of Sparta’s almost constant involvement in warfare from the fact that
the only Spartans allowed tombstones were men who died in battle and women who died in childbirth?
5.7 Everyday life in Athens

5.7.1 The very different lives of Athenian men and women
Athens was the largest of the Greek poleis. It was very different from Sparta. From the fifth century BCE,
it was one of the richest and most beautiful cities in the ancient world, famous for its temples, fine public
buildings and love of the arts. Plays were often performed in theatres, and its citizens had a high regard for
learning.
The man was the important figure in Athenian life. He decided everything — when and whom his
daughters would marry, and even whether or not new babies would live or die. Most girls were married in
their early teens to men twice their age (see SOURCE 1).
SOURCE 1 This painting from a small Greek pottery box shows a bride being escorted to the home of her new
husband after a wedding feast at her parents’ home.

5.7 EXERCISES

1. HS1 Describe the lifestyles of Athenian men and boys.
2. HS1 To what roles were Athenian women and girls confined?
3. HS1 Describe ways in which men were privileged in Athenian public life.
4. HS1 How were the Athenian dead prepared for the afterlife?
5. HS1 What do Athenian funeral rituals tell us about their beliefs?
6. HS1 What was the Acropolis of Athens?
7. HS1 To whom was the Parthenon dedicated?
8. HS1 How were the Parthenon Marbles lost from Greece?
9. HS1 Why did men visit the agora?

1. HS3 Examine SOURCE 1. Identify the bride and groom and discuss what evidence this source provides for
the wealth and social class of the couple getting married.
2. HS3 What evidence does SOURCE 2 provide for the clothing and hairstyles of Athenian women and for their
position in Athenian society?
3. HS3 Describe the scene in SOURCE 3 and discuss what Athenian women might have thought about men’s
banquets.
4. HS3 Look closely at SOURCE 4 and use clues from SOURCE 5 to explain how the Parthenon’s supporting
columns were built.
5. HS3 Study SOURCE 5. In two columns make a list of similarities and differences between the activities in the
agora and what would be seen in a modern market.
6. HS4 Explain what similarities in the houses of rich and poor Athenians and changes in burial practices might
suggest about the impact of democracy in Athens.
5.8 Laws, myths, gods and oracles

5.8.1 Laws, myths and gods
The ancient Greeks lived in about a hundred separate city-states that often fought each other. However, they
shared many aspects of their culture, which gave them a sense of shared identity. They all spoke dialects of
the Greek language. They also shared the same myths, worshipped the same gods and took part in the same
festivals to honour these gods.
Greek laws
There is evidence that each Greek city-state had its own laws, although no systematic collection of ancient
Greek laws has survived. In some matters, such as inheritance, the laws of the city-states seem similar.
But, even so, there were differences between Athens and Sparta. By the seventh century BCE, many Greek
poleis chose men called ‘law-givers’ to make written records of their existing laws or set down new laws.
Athens is the city-state for which we have the most evidence. Athens appointed Draco as its first law-
giver around 620 BCE. Around 594 BCE, he was followed by Solon, who created several new laws. Under
Solon’s laws, murderers were to be banished, but most crimes were punished only by fines. His laws
also dealt with such matters as trade and the location and spacing of houses in Athens. Solon’s laws also
corrected at last one injustice that had threatened to cause civil war in Athens. In the seventh century BCE,
creditors (people who were owed money) had the power to enslave those who could not repay their debts.
Solon abolished this practice, freed debt-slaves and cancelled their existing debts.
Law courts were established in Athens to try cases and decide on punishments but there were
no official judges or lawyers. For most court cases, decisions were made by Athenian citizens, who were
chosen by lot.

Sparta’s laws were not written down. However, according to ancient Greek historians, Lycurgus was the
legendary law-giver who brought Sparta the ‘Great Rhetra’, the set of laws dictating the entire Spartan
system. Most evidence suggests that these laws were probably introduced after 650 BCE. However, it is
doubtful that Lycurgus actually existed and much more likely that his story was a myth.
SOURCE 1 Herodotus, The Histories, Book I, 66.
How the change to good government came about I will now relate. Lycurgus, a distinguished Spartan, visited the
Delphic oracle, and no sooner had he entered the shrine than he was greeted with these words:
Hither to my rich temple have you come, Lycurgus,
Dear to Zeus and to all gods that dwell in Olympus.
I know not whether to declare you human or divine –
Yet I incline to believe, Lycurgus, that you are a god.
... [Lycurgus] made fundamental changes in the laws, and took good care that the new ones should not
be broken. Later he reorganized the army, introducing the system of messes and the new tactical divisions of
squadrons and companies... By these changes Spartan government was put upon a sound basis, and when
Lycurgus died a temple was built in his honour.
Greek myths
In common with people in many societies, the early Greeks had their myths (see SOURCE 2), which were
handed down from one generation to the next through epic poems recited by storytellers. From about
800 BCE these stories were written down. Homer’s Odyssey and Iliad are the two best known of these
epics. The Iliad tells the story of the siege of Troy. The Odyssey follows the ten-year homeward journey
of Odysseus, hero of Troy, and his encounters with many strange creatures and great dangers. In these
mythical stories, the gods behave like people, often taking sides in human conflicts.
The gods of Mount Olympus

The Greeks believed their lives were controlled by the many gods who lived on Mount Olympus in the
north of Greece. These gods were immortals but they had all too human weaknesses. The chief god was
Zeus. The other gods were his brothers, sisters, sons and daughters. Each was responsible for a different
aspect of human life.
• Hera, Zeus’s wife, was patroness (protector) SOURCE 2 A relief sculpture from mid-fourth-century
of marriage and children. BCE Athens depicting two Amazons fighting a Greek
• Ares was the god of war. warrior. In Greek mythology, the Amazons were a
• Artemis was patroness of hunting and wild nation of female warriors. They were often depicted in
animals. battles with Greeks.
• Dionysus was the god of wine and pleasure.
• Athena was the goddess of wisdom.
• Hephaestus was the god of fire.
• Hermes was the messenger of the gods.
• Apollo was the sun god and god of law.
• Aphrodite was goddess of love and beauty.
• Poseidon was god of the sea.
• Pluto was god of the underworld.
These were the most important gods, but
there were others, and there were many mythical
heroes who were not immortals but had powers
beyond those of ordinary people.

DID YOU KNOW?
In Greek mythology, the hero Heracles was not a god, but he was so strong that the gods sometimes depended
on his strength. When he was still a baby, he strangled poisonous snakes. As a youth, he killed a ferocious lion.
As a man he performed legendary feats that included abducting Cerberus, the three-headed hound that guarded
the underworld. For a time he also held up the sky, which was normally supported by Atlas. His death came as a
result of a trick played on him. He put on a poisoned robe that caused such pain that he threw himself onto a fire.
The gods then took him up to dwell with them on Mount Olympus.
SOURCE 3 A metope from the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. The scene tells part of the myth of the
12 labours of Heracles (Hercules). It shows Atlas offering Heracles the apples of the Hesperides while
Heracles and Athena hold up the sky and the world.

5.8.2 The oracles — messages from the gods
In our own times some people still believe in fortune tellers. Similarly, the ancient Greeks believed in
oracles. An oracle was a place where people could question the gods about the future. It was also a message
from the gods in answer to such a question. The most important oracle was at Delphi (see the map in
subtopic 5.4). According to myths, Delphi was the ‘navel of the world’ so the Greeks built a sanctuary
there. Any Greek who went to Delphi to consult the oracle had to pay a fee, sacrifice a goat and look for
omens in its entrails. They would then ask questions of a priestess called the Sybil. The priests of Apollo
would translate the Sybil’s answers but they were usually vague enough to have many possible meanings.
SOURCE 4 From The Persian Wars, by the ancient Greek historian Herodotus
... the Athenians, anxious to consult the oracle, sent their messengers to Delphi... [They] went back with it to
Athens. When, however, upon their arrival they produced it before the people, and inquiry began to be made into
its true meaning, many and various were the interpretations which men put on it.
5.8 ACTIVITIES
1. Use your library or the internet to research a Greek myth. It could be related to the scene in SOURCE 2 or
SOURCE 3. Write a short summary of the myth and tell it to the class. Using historical sources as evidence
2. In small groups, discuss similarities and differences between the roles and importance of myths, religion and
predictions of the future in ancient Greece and in modern times. You could, for example, compare the role of
oracles in ancient Greece with astrologers who write the horoscope columns today.
Identifying continuity and change
5.8 EXERCISES

1. HS1 How were most crimes punished under Solon’s laws?
2. HS1 Which of Solon’s laws would have been popular with poor citizens in Athens?
3. HS1 What were the two meanings of the term ‘oracle’?
4. HS1 Explain why the ancient Greeks consulted oracles.
5. HS1 In Greek mythology, who were the Amazons?

1. HS3 Identify reasons why most historians would doubt the story in SOURCE 1.
2. HS3 Suggest why the scene in SOURCE 2 was a popular theme in ancient Greek art.
3. HS3 Identify the three figures in SOURCE 3.
4. HS3 Read SOURCE 4.
(a) Identify reasons why the message from the oracle could have many different meanings.
(b) What can you tell from this about the type of answers given to questions put to the oracle at
Delphi?
(c) Why might such answers have been given?
5. HS6 Evaluate the role of shared myths and shared gods in contributing to a sense of Greek identity.

A timeline of ancient Greece
BCE
3000 c. 3000
The Minoan civilisation develops on Crete.
1500
1400
c. 1400–1200
1300 The Great Age of Mycenae ﬂourishes.
1200
c. 1150
The Greek ‘Dark Ages’ (to c. 750): Many Greeks
1100 migrate from the mainland to the Aegean islands and the
coast of Asia Minor.
c. 1000 1000
Dorians settle in Sparta and other Mycenaean sites.
900
c. 800
The Greek alphabet is developed.
800
c. 776
c. 750
The First Olympiad is held.
The Greek archaic period (to c. 490)
700
c. 490
Greek Classical Age (to c. 323): a period of
great achievements in art, literature and drama 600 508
Democracy is introduced
in Athens.
500 460–445
490
The First Peloponnesian War.
The Persian Wars begin.
431–404
403–371 400 The Peloponnesian War is waged between alliances
Sparta dominates the Greek world. led by Athens and Sparta.
371 300
The Thebans defeat the Spartans. 336
Alexander the Great becomes ruler of Greece.
334 200
Alexander the Great invades
146
the Persian Empire.
The Romans conquer Greece.
100
CE
Jacaranda Humanities Alive 7 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

5.14.2 Reflection
Complete the following to reflect on your learning.
5.14 ACTIVITIES
Revisit the inquiry question posed in the Overview:
Spartans, the Olympics and the birth of democracy. Was Ancient Greece the happening place to be?
1. Now that you have completed this topic, what is your view on the question? Discuss with a partner. Has
your learning in this topic changed your view? If so, how?
2. Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question outlining your views.
Resources
eWorkbook Reflection (doc-32122)
Crossword (doc-32123)
Interactivity Ancient Greece crossword (int-7694)
KEY TERMS
acropolis stronghold on high ground in an ancient Greek city-state
agora large open space in the centre of a Greek city that served as a public meeting area and marketplace
astronomy study of the stars and planets
democracy a political system according to which citizens choose the way in which they are governed
Dorians tribes from the north of Greece who moved into the south during the Dark Age
entrails internal organs of an animal
Ephorate five-man ruling body in Sparta that advised the kings
helot slave of the Spartan state
hoplites Greek foot soldiers
immortals gods who lived forever
Iron Age period in which people learned to use iron to make tools and weapons
metic free man living in Athens but not born there; could not vote or own property but served in the army and
paid taxes
mythology a body of myths
oligarchy governing council of rich aristocrats
Olympiad a staging of the Olympic Games
omen sign that predicts good or evil
ostracism the punishment of being banished from Athens
pan-Hellenic for all the Greeks
Parthenon Athenian temple dedicated to the goddess Athena
Peloponnese peninsula the southern part of mainland Greece, joined to the north by the narrow Isthmus of
Corinth
perioeci peoples of Laconian towns around Sparta who could be required to fight for Sparta but were not
citizens
polis (plural poleis) ancient Greek city-state
portico a roof supported by columns, usually attached as a porch to a building
Jacaranda Humanities Alive 7 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

1. HS3 Look closely at SOURCE 1.
(a) How big was China in Shang and Zhou times compared with modern China?
(b) How many major rivers can you find in the area that was part of China under the Shang and Zhou
dynasties?
(a) During the Warring States period, which states occupied land surrounding river valleys?
(b) Which states would appear to have had the most advantages in these wars?
3. HS4 Using the sources and information in this subtopic, make a list of ways in which the adoption of farming
must have changed ancient Chinese society.
4. HS5 Suggest how China’s rivers would have contributed to the development of its civilisation.
5. HS5 Suggest how the natural features of China’s varied geography would have protected it against invasion.
7.4 The people of ancient China

7.4.1 The ruling classes
Chinese society was headed by rulers who were supported by lords, the landowning gentry (whose position
was based on inherited status, wealth and education) and bureaucrats. These classes had authority over
large populations of peasants, landless labourers, artisans and some slaves.
• Ancient Chinese rulers had great power. This is shown by Shang dynasty tombs containing war
chariots and the bodies of thousands of followers. These people must have been sacrificed to serve
their rulers in the afterlife.
• Below the supreme ruler were the powerful lords. They governed the states, such as Zhao, Qin and
Wei, within the kingdom.
• Next came the landowning gentry. The warrior gentry headed the lords’ armies. Bureaucrats were also
recruited from the gentry, but they had to be scholars to become government officials.
SOURCE 1 A late Zhou dynasty bronze SOURCE 2 An ox-shaped bronze zun (wine
musical bell vessel) from the late Zhou dynasty
TOPIC 7 Ancient China 221

The lords of ancient China were often at war with neighbouring nomadic tribes to China’s north and
west. They also made war with each other. Warriors fought at first in chariots and later on horseback. The
lords and warrior gentry regarded war almost as a sporting contest. When not fighting they spent much of
their time hunting, feasting or attending ceremonies and entertainments at court.
Upper-class women had servants and luxuries. However, as girls they were considered inferior to boys.
When they married they were treated as the property of their wealthy husbands, who were allowed to have
several wives.
DID YOU KNOW?

In ancient China, women and men wore ornaments and jewellery as a badge of their social rank. This made it
easy to tell at a glance their position in society.
7.4.2 The common people SOURCE 3 A bronze mao (spearhead)

The struggling peasants from the late Shang dynasty
Most of the people were powerless peasants whose lives
changed little over thousands of years. They reared sheep,
pigs, poultry, buffalo and oxen, and grew grains such as wheat,
millet and barley. Most peasants were tenants who worked
fields owned by the lords or gentry. They had to give their
landlords about half of everything they produced, as well as
paying taxes to the government. Times could be so hard that
they were forced to sell their children into slavery.
Peasants had to cope with natural disasters, such as floods
and famine, and with the constant threat of war. Most of the
infantry in the armies were conscripted peasants. In hand-
to-hand fighting their main weapons were at first halberds
with bronze blades. Later they used swords made from bronze
or iron. Many foot soldiers died in battle. Those who were
captured could expect to be executed or condemned to slavery.
The lowest classes

Below the peasants came artisans, merchants and slaves.
Artisans were skilled craftsmen such as armourers, SOURCE 4 A yue (battle-axe head) with
metalworkers and carpenters. They were a small class because a dragon design, from the late Shang
their products were mostly for the ruling classes. Merchants, dynasty
who conducted businesses and trade, were an even smaller
and lower class. Although some merchants were wealthy, they
were not considered to play a useful role and were ranked
just above slaves. There were fewer slaves in China than in
many other ancient societies. Many slaves had been taken as
prisoners of war. Others suffered slavery as punishment for
crimes (sometimes committed by their relatives rather than
themselves). Still others were peasants who were sold as
slaves to pay debts.
7.4 ACTIVITY
In groups, write and perform a role-play of an imaginary discussion between peasants and members of the ruling
classes on the topic of war. Suggest the feelings each would have about war and why their feelings would differ
greatly. Identifying continuity and change

7.4 EXERCISES

1. HS1 What were the functions of the lords and landowning gentry in ancient China?
2. HS1 What was the role of the bureaucrats?
3. HS1 How do we know that ancient Chinese rulers had great power?
4. HS1 Why did peasants suffer in wars no matter which side won?
5. HS1 How could people become slaves in ancient China?
6. HS1 Why were merchants regarded as belonging to one of the lowest social classes, even though they
might be wealthy?

1. HS3 Look closely at SOURCES 1 and 2. Describe each of these objects and explain why they would almost
certainly have belonged to members of the ruling classes.
2. HS3 Identify the objects in SOURCES 3 and 4 and explain how they could provide evidence of the hardships
faced by conscripted peasants.
3. HS4 Draw and label a social pyramid showing the position of the different social classes in ancient China
and explain why it would have been very difficult for Chinese society to change.
4. HS5 Write one paragraph explaining how it could be argued that agriculture shaped China’s traditional daily
life and culture.
5. HS6 With reference to SOURCES 1, 2, 3 and 4, suggest why the production of bronze objects became so
important to the development of the Zhou and Shang Dynasties.
7.5 Everyday life and death

7.5.1 Everyday life
How different were the everyday lives of people from different social classes in ancient China and how
differently were they treated in death? Life and death were marked by extreme inequality between rulers,
lords, gentry and bureaucrats on the one hand and peasants, artisans and slaves on the other. In addition,
within all classes there was extreme inequality between men and women.
The vast majority of the Chinese people were peasant farmers for whom life was a constant struggle
to survive. Most spent their entire lives in villages of around a hundred families, toiling on small family
farms. They worked long hours every day and most of their work was done by hand. The threat of floods
and droughts meant that groups of families often worked together on such tasks as maintaining irrigation
canals. In towns and cities, crafts were usually hereditary; a son would learn the craft from his father and
take over when his father died. The lives of craftsmen and merchants were also tough but often better than
the lives of peasants. At least craftsmen and merchants got to travel about for work and trade.
Women’s hard lives

Regardless of social class, women were considered inferior to men. Fathers ruled in ancient Chinese
families. Women were expected to look after the household and children, and in peasant families they often
worked in the fields as well. Their fathers arranged their marriages and, once married, a woman had to live
with her husband’s family in a dwelling that might house three generations. Married women had to obey
their husband’s family members but they could gain some respect by producing sons. Baby girls were not
valued and were sometimes put out to die or sold to be servants. If a woman failed to give birth to boys her
husband might take other wives. In a society where people venerated their elders, another way for a woman
to gain respect was to outlive her husband.

7.9 The rise and fall of the Han
7.9.1 Reforms, expansion and trade
The fall of the Qin dynasty was followed by four years of bloody civil war before Liu Bang defeated his
rivals and became the first ruler of the Han dynasty. This dynasty lasted, except for a brief interruption, for
four centuries and made important achievements in education, science and trade. The Han dynasty had such
influence on later dynasties that modern Chinese people call themselves ‘Han’ people.
SOURCE 1 Chinese life under the Han
D
A
B E
F
A The marketplace As in Xianyang, large and lively marketplaces were usually just inside the city gates. This
allowed access by travelling merchants. Merchants were looked down on by society even if they were rich.
They were not seen as contributing in the way farmers did. Goods from all over China and the known world
were sold and traded in the market.
B People you might see In the noisy markets, people bought and sold food and animals. There were
musicians, acrobats, jugglers, letter writers, dentists and craftworkers.
C Livestock available Owls, panthers, deer, dogs, pigs, ant eggs, snails and turtles were mostly bought by
the rich.
D City walls Ancient Chinese cities were circled by two walls. City walls were built to protect the people. If you
visit China today, you will still be able to see the remains of these walls in many cities. The inner wall was
called cheng and the outer wall was called guo. Often moats, called chi, surrounded these walls. The inner
city was called geng, and together they were known as cheng chi.
E Family values Rich and poor people lived in extended family groups. Their belief in Confucian values
strengthened family ties. Ancestor worship and respect for elders were important values.
F Crafts and goods Murals, jade jewellery and carvings, glazed pottery, silk goods, and objects made from
cast iron such as ploughs were bought and sold.
G Women According to Confucian principles, women were subordinate to men, and life was difficult for
females living in a male-dominated society. A daughter was given no education and worked under the
direction of her mother. Her father decided whom she would marry. Once married, a girl would live with her
husband’s family and obey her mother-in-law. A female had no status until she gave birth to a male child.

Han reforms
Liu Bang did not want to share the same fate as the Qin dynasty so he took steps to restore prosperity. The
size of the army was reduced. He also reduced taxes on the peasants and encouraged farming to ensure
plentiful supplies of food. As a result, China’s population reached 60 million by the end of the first century
BCE. However, landlords continued to exploit the peasants.
A system of state education was founded. It included a Great Academy, in which boys studied the classic
books of Confucianism. No girls were enrolled. The boys were expected to memorise what they studied and
were not allowed to criticise or challenge ideas. Through examinations they were selected for positions as
bureaucrats in the civil service.
DID YOU KNOW?

The Han dynasty is usually regarded as more tolerant than the Qin dynasty. However, when the great historian
Sima Qian dared to speak in defence of an officer who was unfairly blamed for a Chinese defeat by the Xiongnu,
Emperor Wudi had Sima Qian castrated and thrown into prison.
China expands
China expanded under the Han. In 138 BCE,
SOURCE 2 The Silk Road — the world’s longest trade
Emperor Wudi (140–87 BCE) sent Zhang route in continuous use
Qian and 99 others on a mission to establish
relations with people in the remote west. After Key
Route taken by Zhang Qian
twice being captured and enslaved by the The Silk Road
Xiongnu and twice escaping, Zhang returned Great Wall of China
ARAL SEA
in 125 BCE with stories of civilisations that
BLACK SEA Huang (Yellow)
China had never heard of before. Zhang Qian CASPIAN Samarkand River
SEA
was sent on two further missions to find a Antioch KOREA
Baghdad Khotan Luoyang
trade route to Central Asia and India. In the Tyre Damascus Changan EAST
r
PERSIA Ga
ve
CHINA
e
z
following years, Chinese rule was extended nge gt
Ri
s Ri a n
Y CHINA SEA
ve
RED
r
into the north of Korea in 109 BCE, and from INDIA
Korea the influence of Chinese culture spread
SE A
BAY SOUTH
OF CHINA
to Japan. Much of what is now south-eastern BENGAL SEA
China and western China was brought under
Han control by about 102 BCE. INDONESIA
JAVA SEA
0 1000 2000
The Silk Road
kilometres
By the early first century BCE, further Chinese
Source: Map drawn by Spatial Vision.
missions led to the founding of the famous Silk
Road. From this time onward, camel trains
loaded with valuable silk were able to make the hazardous journey from China through the deserts and
mountains of Central Asia to India, Persia and the Roman Empire. Traders from other lands used the Silk
Road to bring products including jade, silver and Roman glassware to China.
Deepen and check your understanding of this topic with related case studies and auto-marked questions.
• The Asian world > Silk Roads

7.9.2 Growing discontent, rebellion and the fall of the Han
The rich get richer and the poor get poorer
To control newly conquered territories, the Han
SOURCE 3 Terracotta figures representing Han
rulers deported many local people and settled dynasty cavalry. Cavalry became a major part
their lands with Chinese. The ruling classes and of the Han army because of the mobility it gave
merchants benefited from this growth of the empire, Chinese armies fighting mounted nomads.
but the ordinary people of China paid a terrible price.
The Han rulers paid for wars of conquest through
increased taxes on the peasants. Many peasants
had to sell their land to pay taxes. Others were so
desperate that they were forced to sell their children
or themselves into slavery.
Wang Mang
The peasants became more desperate while powerful
landlords became richer. Even among the privileged
there were people who saw this as unjust. Wang Mang was an official who had support from many
Confucian scholars. In 9 CE he seized control of China from the infant Han emperor and set up the Hsin
dynasty. In his first year as ruler, Wang Mang proclaimed many reforms.
• All land was to become the property of the emperor so that the estates of big landlords could be given
to the peasants.
• The slave trade was to be banned.
• Government loans were to be given to peasants at low interest rates. This would have helped peasants
who had to borrow from moneylenders at high interest to pay taxes but lost everything when their
debts became too big to repay.
SOURCE 4 From a Chinese scholar of the early second century BCE, in the Han-shu Han History
These days a family of five peasants will have at least two persons who are liable for labour-services and
conscription. What with their ploughing in the spring and hoeing in the summer, harvesting in the autumn and
storing in the winter, with felling firewood, repairing government offices and rendering labour-service . . . in none
of the four seasons will they have a day of rest. And, in spite of all this painful toil, they will still have to endure
such natural disasters as flood and drought and also the cruelty of an impatient government which imposes
taxes . . . those who own something sell it off at half its price; and those who own nothing borrow at doubled
rates of interest. It is for this reason that some dispose of their lands and houses, and sell their children and
grandchildren to redeem their debts.
SOURCE 5 From the statement of a Han dynasty official in 81 BCE
Those who live in . . . spreading mansions ... know nothing of the discomforts of one-room huts and narrow
hovels, of roofs that leak and floors that sweat.
Those with a hundred teams of horses ... and wealth heaped in their storehouses ... do not know the anxiety of
facing days that have a beginning but no end ...
The fall of the Hsin dynasty

The privileged classes forced Wang Mang to abandon these reforms, and so peasant revolts began in
14 CE. Four years later, led by a secret society called the Red Eyebrows, the rebels attacked towns,
killing officials and landlords. When powerful members of the old ruling family joined the fight against
Wang Mang, his armies were defeated. Wang Mang was killed and beheaded in 23 CE. This was the end of
the Hsin dynasty. The armies of the old ruling family crushed the Red Eyebrows and in 25 CE a new Han
emperor took the throne.

The Eastern Han dynasty
The second period of Han rule is called the Eastern Han dynasty because the capital was moved to the east.
So many people had died in the rebellion that there was now enough land for the peasants. Large areas of
state land were given to them and taxes were reduced. But the big landowners benefited most from these
reforms. They paid the lower taxes but continued to take at least half the harvest of their tenant farmers.
Increasingly, the great landowning families were becoming more powerful than the Han government.
The Yellow Turbans and the fall of the Eastern Han

By the middle of the second century CE, more local peasant uprisings had broken out. These were
crushed, but in 184 CE a secret society called the Yellow Turbans led a countrywide revolt. As the
central government collapsed, warlords became the absolute rulers of their own local areas. Their armies
massacred many peasants during the years that it took to smash the revolt. When they finally defeated the
Yellow Turbans, the warlords fought each other for the throne of China. By 220 CE, the Han dynasty was
finished and China began centuries of civil war, division and suffering.
DISCUSS
Peasant rebellions were able to overthrow dynasties but were unable to change the system that caused their
problems. [Creative and Critical Thinking Capability]
7.9 EXERCISES

1. HS1 How did Liu Bang become the founder of the Han dynasty?
2. HS1 Why do modern Chinese people call themselves ‘Han’?
3. HS1 How did the Han try to win support for their rule?
4. HS1 In what ways did the Chinese education system suppress critical thinking?
5. HS1 How were China’s trade, territory and influence expanded under the Han?
6. HS1 Why did the Han rulers establish colonies of Chinese in newly conquered lands?
7. HS1 Which social class benefited and which suffered as a result of wars waged to expand the empire?
How would members of those classes have regarded colonisation and war?
8. HS1 How did Wang Mang try to help the peasants and how did the ruling classes regain control?
9. HS5 What events brought about the end of the Eastern Han dynasty?

1. HS3 Look at SOURCE 1 and analyse it using these questions.
(a) Why were cities enclosed by walls?
(b) What role did marketplaces play in expanding trade?
(c) What can you discover from this source about activities, clothing and hairstyles in a Han-era town?
(a) Use the scale to work out approximately how far Zhang Qian travelled.
(b) Explain how China would have benefited from the contacts established through the Silk Road.
3. HS3 Study SOURCE 3. Why did the Han adopt cavalry as a major part of their army?
4. HS3 Read SOURCES 4 and 5.
(a) What social problems do the sources describe?
(b) What are the perspectives of the writers of each source?
(c) What evidence do the sources provide for the motives of peasants who rebelled against Han rule?
5. HS5 Using the sources and information in this subtopic, explain what caused rebellions such as that of the
Red Eyebrows and the Yellow Turbans.

7.10 The heritage of China
7.10.1 Some great Chinese inventions
There are many legacies of ancient China. One of the most significant
SOURCE 1 An ancient
was the system of rule by emperors, which persisted until 1911. Even compass
in modern times, Chinese leaders have continued to exercise powers
that are not very different from those of the emperors. China’s heritage
also includes traces of the ancient past, such as the Great Wall and
the amazing discoveries from Qin and Han tombs. Perhaps the most
remarkable part of China’s heritage is the scale of discoveries and
inventions that originated in ancient China, in many cases long before
similar developments occurred in the western world.
Many things we take for granted today were invented by the people
SOURCE 2 Paper-making in
of ancient China. Here is a list of some of the more important ones: ancient China
• paper • rocket
• printing • compass
• decimal system • umbrella
• wheelbarrow • printed book
• seismograph • fan
• matches • abacus
• gunpowder • origami
• parachute • cannon
• kung fu/wushu • bomb
• cast iron • acupuncture
• ink • spinning wheel
• helicopter rotor and propeller • iron ploughshare
• horse collar • paper money
• silk • chopsticks.
• kite
Compass
The Chinese invented the magnetic compass. Compasses were first used
SOURCE 3 Printing in ancient
to ensure houses were built facing a direction that was in harmony with China
nature.
Paper and printing

The inventions of paper and printing were to have an enormous impact
on people’s lives. The earliest paper was made by mixing rags, rope,
bark and even fishing nets in a watery solution and crushing the material
down to a wet pulp (see SOURCE 2). The disintegrating fibres were used
to create sheets of paper, which were used for many things including
umbrellas, clothing, toilet paper, curtains, money and wallpaper. Paper
revolutionised communication. Traditionally, silk had been used for
writing, but it was expensive. Paper was cheaper, so more people could
afford to use it for writing.
Following the invention of block printing (see SOURCE 3) in 750 CE,
every Chinese scholar and public servant bought copies of the most
important books for their shelves. With paper, records could be kept and
instructions sent more easily and more often. Today we still rely heavily
on paper for communication.

7.10.2 Also made in China
Today we are used to buying all sorts of goods that are made in China. But how many people realise
that, long ago, China led the world in inventions such as gunpowder and in developments in medicine,
earthquake detection and even a favourite hobby of many people’s childhoods, flying kites?
Gunpowder SOURCE 4 Gunpowder
From very early times the Chinese searched for a drug that would give was first used in fireworks.
the emperor eternal life. By accident they discovered gunpowder. At
first, gunpowder was used in fireworks for entertainment and in religious
ceremonies. Later it was used in making simple bombs. Lengths of heavy
bamboo were loaded with gunpowder and a fuse set in the side. When
cast iron was developed, pipes were loaded to create the first cannons. The
Chinese then developed cannons that fired arrows with individual rockets
attached — the first multi-stage rocket. Flame-throwers, mines and hand
grenades were also used by Chinese armies.
Medicine
Acupuncture appears to have been used in China since the third century
BCE. Needles were understood to block or stimulate the flow of yin
and yang to certain areas of the body. The ancient Chinese were also
the first to understand blood circulation, and, by 200 CE, were using an
anaesthetic based on hemp. Possibly the first human dissection was
carried out on the body of a criminal in 16 CE by a doctor and a skilled
butcher. Human dissection was soon banned, though, as it conflicted with
the Confucian belief in the purity of the body. SOURCE 5 Zhang Heng’s
seismograph
Seismographs
Zhang Heng invented the world’s first seismograph — an instrument for
detecting earthquakes — in 132 BCE. An earth tremor caused a ball to be
released from a dragon’s mouth and fall into a toad’s mouth farthest away
from the earthquake epicentre. This showed the emperor the direction of
the disaster.
Kites
Kites were first made out of bamboo and silk and, later, paper. They were
used mostly during festivals, but they were also used in battle to frighten
SOURCE 6 Kites like
enemies (by creating unusual sounds through the strings) and to send
this could also be seen in
signals to the troops. Kites were even used for fishing and for scaring birds ancient China.
away from crops.
7.10.3 Conserving China’s cultural heritage

The United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) is the world body responsible for identifying natural and
cultural sites in all countries that are of such great value that they must
be conserved. These sites include the remains and heritage of ancient
civilisations. UNESCO maintains a list of these World Heritage Sites,
which you can view on its website. You will not be surprised to find that
China has more UNESCO-listed sites than almost any other country and
that the Mausoleum of Qin Shihuang (see SOURCE 7) and the Great Wall of
China are among the listed sites.

SOURCE 7 Terracotta soldiers and horses at the Mausoleum of Qin Shihuang
7.10 ACTIVITY
Look at SOURCES 4, 5 and 6. Choose one of these ancient Chinese inventions and conduct research on the
internet to prepare a PowerPoint presentation that answers the following questions:
a. When was it first discovered?
b. How was it made?
c. How did it work?
d. How was it used?
e. What effect did it have on people’s lives?
f. Is the invention used today and, if so, how is it now used?
Using historical sources as evidence
7.10 EXERCISES

1. HS1 For what purpose were compasses first used in China?
2. HS1 What material was traditionally used for writing in China and what was gained from the invention
of paper?
3. HS1 How did the Chinese discover gunpowder?
4. HS1 In what medical advances did China lead the world?
5. HS1 What is the role of UNESCO?
6. HS1 Name two UNESCO World Heritage-listed sites in China.

1. HS3 Look at SOURCE 1 and suggest how this early compass worked.
2. HS3 What can you tell from SOURCES 2 and 3 about early Chinese methods of paper-making and printing?
3. HS3 In SOURCE 7 what evidence can you see of measures that have been taken to conserve the objects that
were excavated from around the tomb of China’s first emperor?
4. HS6 Compare the various ancient Chinese inventions described in this subtopic and choose one that you
think had the biggest impact on people in its time and on future generations. Write an advertisement for it.
5. HS6 Refer to the text and sources to write a one-paragraph explanation of the meaning of ‘cultural heritage’.
Identify cultural heritage sites within China that are in great need of protection and conservation.

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2.

HS3 What do you think we might learn from SOURCE 2 about:

5.3 The Minoans and Mycenaeans

TOPIC 5 Ancient Greece 145

5.3.2 The Mycenaeans

146 Jacaranda Humanities Alive 7 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

TOPIC 5 Ancient Greece 147

The Mask of Agamemnon?

SOURCE 6 The gold ‘Mask of Agamemnon’. SOURCE 7 Another Mycenaean

148 Jacaranda Humanities Alive 7 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

5.3 Exercise 1: Check your understanding

5.3 Exercise 2: Apply your understanding

Try these questions in learnON for instant, corrective feedback. Go to www.jacplus.com.au.

5.4 The ‘Dark Age’ to the Archaic Period

TOPIC 5 Ancient Greece 149

5.5 Exercise 1: Check your understanding

5.5 Exercise 2: Apply your understanding

5.6 Everyday life in Sparta

TOPIC 5 Ancient Greece 155

A The army barracks and other Spartan settlements had no walls.

156 Jacaranda Humanities Alive 7 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

5.6.2 The helots and the perioeci

How did the helots react to enslavement?

TOPIC 5 Ancient Greece 157

How have historians explained Sparta’s treatment of the helots?

5.6 Exercise 1: Check your understanding

5.6 Exercise 2: Apply your understanding

158 Jacaranda Humanities Alive 7 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

5.7 Everyday life in Athens

TOPIC 5 Ancient Greece 159

5.7 Exercise 1: Check your understanding

5.7 Exercise 2: Apply your understanding

5.8 Laws, myths, gods and oracles

TOPIC 5 Ancient Greece 163

SOURCE 1 Herodotus, The Histories, Book I, 66.

The gods of Mount Olympus

164 Jacaranda Humanities Alive 7 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

TOPIC 5 Ancient Greece 165

5.8 Exercise 1: Check your understanding

5.8 Exercise 2: Apply your understanding

166 Jacaranda Humanities Alive 7 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

Jacaranda Humanities Alive 7 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

Jacaranda Humanities Alive 7 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

7.4 The people of ancient China

TOPIC 7 Ancient China 221

DID YOU KNOW?

7.4.2 The common people SOURCE 3 A bronze mao (spearhead)

The lowest classes

222 Jacaranda Humanities Alive 7 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

7.4 Exercise 1: Check your understanding

7.4 Exercise 2: Apply your understanding

7.5 Everyday life and death

Women’s hard lives

TOPIC 7 Ancient China 223

SOURCE 1 Chinese life under the Han

236 Jacaranda Humanities Alive 7 Victorian Curriculum Second Edition

DID YOU KNOW?

TOPIC 7 Ancient China 237

SOURCE 5 From the statement of a Han dynasty official in 81 BCE

The fall of the Hsin dynasty