What is Motivation?

• Motivation is an internal process. Whether we define it as a drive or a need,

motivation is a condition inside us that desires a change, either in the self or the
environment. When we tap into this well of energy, motivation endows the person
with the drive and direction needed to engage with the environment in an adaptive,
open-ended, and problem-solving sort of way. The essence of motivation is energized
and persistent goal-directed behavior. When we are motivated, we move and take
action.
Motivation Definition in Psychology
• The study of motivation in psychology revolves around providing the best possible
answers to two fundamental questions: what causes behavior, and why does behavior
vary in its intensity?
• Motivational science is a behavioral science that seeks to construct theories about
what constitutes human motivation and how motivational processes work.
• Motivation, when seen in the real world, and when measured by science, becomes
visible and detectable through behavior, level of engagement, neural activation, and
psychophysiology. Some would also include self-report in this list, but studies show
that self-reports have proven to be highly unreliable sources of information .

Some of the most important theories of motivation are as follows:

1. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

2. Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Theory

3. McClelland’s Need Theory

4. McGregor’s Participation Theory

5. Urwick’s Theory Z

6. Argyris’s Theory

7. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

8. Porter and Lawler’s Expectancy Theory.

From the very beginning, when the human organisations were established, various thinkers

have tried to find out the answer to what motivates people to work. Different approaches

applied by them have resulted in a number of theories concerning motivation.

These are discussed in brief in that order.

1. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory:

It is probably safe to say that the most well-known theory of motivation is Maslow’s need

hierarchy theory Maslow’s theory is based on the human needs. Drawing chiefly on his

clinical experience, he classified all human needs into a hierarchical manner from the lower

to the higher order.

In essence, he believed that once a given level of need is satisfied, it no longer serves to

motivate man. Then, the next higher level of need has to be activated in order to motivate the

man. Maslow identified five levels in his need hierarchy as shown in figure 17.2.

These are now discussed one by one:

1. Physiological Needs:

These needs are basic to human life and, hence, include food, clothing, shelter, air, water and

necessities of life. These needs relate to the survival and maintenance of human life. They

exert tremendous influence on human behaviour. These needs are to be met first at least

partly before higher level needs emerge. Once physiological needs are satisfied, they no

longer motivate the man.

2. Safety Needs:

After satisfying the physiological needs, the next needs felt are called safety and security

needs. These needs find expression in such desires as economic security and protection from

physical dangers. Meeting these needs requires more money and, hence, the individual is
prompted to work more. Like physiological needs, these become inactive once they are

satisfied.

3. Social Needs:

Man is a social being. He is, therefore, interested in social interaction, companionship,

belongingness, etc. It is this socialising and belongingness why individuals prefer to work in

groups and especially older people go to work.

4. Esteem Needs:

These needs refer to self-esteem and self-respect. They include such needs which indicate

self-confidence, achievement, competence, knowledge and independence. The fulfillment of

esteem needs leads to self-confidence, strength and capability of being useful in the

organisation. However, inability to fulfill these needs results in feeling like inferiority,

weakness and helplessness.

5. Self-Actualisation Needs:

This level represents the culmination of all the lower, intermediate, and higher needs of

human beings. In other words, the final step under the need hierarchy model is the need for

self-actualization. This refers to fulfillment.

The term self-actualization was coined by Kurt Goldstein and means to become actualized in

what one is potentially good at. In effect, self- actualization is the person’s motivation to

transform perception of self into reality.

According to Maslow, the human needs follow a definite sequence of domination. The

second need does not arise until the first is reasonably satisfied, and the third need does not

emerge until the first two needs have been reasonably satisfied and it goes on. The other side

of the need hierarchy is that human needs are unlimited. However, Maslow’s need hierarchy-

theory is not without its detractors.

The main criticisms of the theory include the following:

1. The needs may or may not follow a definite hierarchical order. So to say, there may be

overlapping in need hierarchy. For example, even if safety need is not satisfied, the social

need may emerge.

2. The need priority model may not apply at all times in all places.

3. Researches show that man’s behaviour at any time is mostly guided by multiplicity of

behaviour. Hence, Maslow’s preposition that one need is satisfied at one time is also of

doubtful validity.

4. In case of some people, the level of motivation may be permanently lower. For example, a

person suffering from chronic unemployment may remain satisfied for the rest of his life if

only he/she can get enough food.

Notwithstanding, Maslow’s need hierarchy theory has received wide recognition, particularly

among practicing managers. This can be attributed to the theory’s intuitive logic and easy to

understand. One researcher came to the conclusion that theories that are intuitively strong die

hard’.

2. Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Theory:

The psychologist Frederick Herzberg extended the work of Maslow and proposed a new

motivation theory popularly known as Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene (Two-Factor) Theory.

Herzberg conducted a widely reported motivational study on 200 accountants and engineers

employed by firms in and around Western Pennsylvania.

He asked these people to describe two important incidents at their jobs:

(1) When did you feel particularly good about your job, and

(2) When did you feel exceptionally bad about your job? He used the critical incident method

of obtaining data.
The responses when analysed were found quite interesting and fairly consistent. The replies

respondents gave when they felt good about their jobs were significantly different from the

replies given when they felt bad. Reported good feelings were generally associated with job

satisfaction, whereas bad feeling with job dissatisfaction. Herzberg labelled the job satisfiers

motivators, and he called job dissatisfies hygiene or maintenance factors. Taken together, the

motivators and hygiene factors have become known as Herzberg’s two-factor theory of

motivation

Herzberg’s motivational and hygiene factors have been shown in the Table 17.1

According to Herzberg, the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. The underlying

reason, he says, is that removal of dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily

make the job satisfying. He believes in the existence of a dual continuum. The opposite of

‘satisfaction’ is ‘no satisfaction’ and the opposite of ‘dissatisfaction’ is ‘no

dissatisatisfaction’.
According to Herzberg, today’s motivators are tomorrow’s hygiene because the latter stop

influencing the behaviour of persons when they get them. Accordingly, one’s hygiene may be

the motivator of another.

However, Herzberg’s model is labeled with the following criticism also:

1. People generally tend to take credit themselves when things go well. They blame failure on

the external environment.

2. The theory basically explains job satisfaction, not motivation.

3. Even job satisfaction is not measured on an overall basis. It is not unlikely that a person

may dislike part of his/ her job, still thinks the job acceptable.

4. This theory neglects situational variable to motivate an individual.

Because of its ubiquitous nature, salary commonly shows up as a motivator as well as hygine.

Regardless of criticism, Herzberg’s ‘two-factor motivation theory’ has been widely read and

a few managers seem untaminar with his recommendations. The main use of his

recommendations lies in planning and controlling of employees work.

3. McClelland’s Need Theory:

Another well-known need-based theory of motivation, as opposed to hierarchy of needs of

satisfaction-dissatisfaction, is the theory developed by McClelland and his associates’.

McClelland developed his theory based on Henry Murray’s developed long list of motives

and manifest needs used in his early studies of personality. McClelland’s need-theory is

closely associated with learning theory, because he believed that needs are learned or

acquired by the kinds of events people experienced in their environment and culture.

He found that people who acquire a particular need behave differently from those who do not

have. His theory focuses on Murray’s three needs; achievement, power and affiliation. In the

literature, these three needs are abbreviated “n Ach”, “n Pow”, and “n Aff” respectively’.
They are defined as follows:
Need for Achievement:

This is the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standard, and to strive to succeed.

In other words, need for achievement is a behaviour directed toward competition with a

standard of excellence. McClelland found that people with a high need for achievement

perform better than those with a moderate or low need for achievement, and noted regional /

national differences in achievement motivation.

Through his research, McClelland identified the following three characteristics of high-

need achievers:

1. High-need achievers have a strong desire to assume personal responsibility for performing

a task for finding a solution to a problem.

2. High-need achievers tend to set moderately difficult goals and take calculated risks.

3. High-need achievers have a strong desire for performance feedback.

Need for Power:

The need for power is concerned with making an impact on others, the desire to influence

others, the urge to change people, and the desire to make a difference in life. People with a

high need for power are people who like to be in control of people and events. This results in

ultimate satisfaction to man.

People who have a high need for power are characterized by:

1. A desire to influence and direct somebody else.

2. A desire to exercise control over others.

3. A concern for maintaining leader-follower relations.

Need for Affiliation:

The need for affiliation is defined as a desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm

relations with other people’. The need for affiliation, in many ways, is similar to Maslow’s

social needs.

The people with high need for affiliation have these characteristics:

1. They have a strong desire for acceptance and approval from others.

2. They tend to conform to the wishes of those people whose friendship and companionship

they value.

3. They value the feelings of others.

Figure 17.2 is a summary chart of the three need theories of motivation just discussed. The

chart shows the parallel relationship between the needs in each of the theories. Maslow refers

to higher- lower order needs, whereas Herzberg refers to motivation and hygiene factors.

4. McGregor’s Participation Theory:

Douglas McGregor formulated two distinct views of human being based on participation of

workers. The first basically negative, labeled Theory X, and the other basically positive,

labled Theory Y.

Theory X is based on the following assumptions:

1. People are by nature indolent. That is, they like to work as little as possible.
2. People lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and prefer to be directed by others.

3. People are inherently self-centered and indifferent to organisational needs and goals.

4. People are generally gullible and not very sharp and bright.

On the contrary, Theory Y assumes that:

1. People are not by nature passive or resistant to organisational goals.

2. They want to assume responsibility.

3. They want their organisation to succeed.

4. People are capable of directing their own behaviour.

5. They have need for achievement.

What McGregor tried to dramatise through his theory X and Y is to outline the extremes to

draw the fencing within which the organisational man is usually seen to behave. The fact

remains that no organisational man would actually belong either to theory X or theory Y. In

reality, he/she shares the traits of both. What actually happens is that man swings from one

set or properties to the other with changes in his mood and motives in changing .environment.

5. Urwick’s Theory Z:

Much after the propositions of theories X and Y by McGregor, the three theorists Urwick,

Rangnekar, and Ouchi-propounded the third theory lebeled as Z theory.

The two propositions in Urwicks’s theory are that:

(i) Each individual should know the organisational goals precisely and the amount of

contribution through his efforts towards these goals.

(ii) Each individual should also know that the relation of organisational goals is going to

satisfy his/her needs positively.

In Urwick’s view, the above two make people ready to behave positively to accomplish both

organisational and individual goals.

However, Ouchi’s Theory Z has attracted the lot of attention of management practitioners as

well as researchers. It must be noted that Z does not stand for anything, is merely the last

alphabet in the English Language.

Theory Z is based on the following four postulates:

1. Strong Bond between Organisation and Employees

2. Employee Participation and Involvement

3. No Formal Organisation Structure

4. Human Resource Development

Ouchi’s Theory Z represents the adoption of Japanese management practices (group decision

making, social cohesion, job security, holistic concern for employees, etc.)by the American

companies. In India, Maruti-Suzuki, Hero-Honda, etc., apply the postulates of theory Z.

6. Argyris’s Theory:
Argyris has developed his motivation theory based on proposition how management practices

affect the individual behaviour and growth In his view, the seven changes taking place in an

individual personality make him/her a mature one. In other words, personality of individual

develops
Argyris views that immaturity exists in individuals mainly because of organisational setting

and management practices such as task specialisation, chain of command, unity of direction,

and span of management. In order to make individuals grow mature, he proposes gradual

shift from the existing pyramidal organisation structure to humanistic system; from existing

management system to the more flexible and participative management.

He states that such situation will satisfy not only their physiological and safety needs, but also

will motivate them to make ready to make more use of their physiological and safety needs.

But also will motivate them to make ready to make more use of their potential in

accomplishing organisational goals.