Lesson 2 Firearms and Ammunition: TH TH
Lesson 2 Firearms and Ammunition: TH TH
Lesson 2 Firearms and Ammunition: TH TH
This module will focus on the nomenclature of firearms and ammunition. As a form of
orientation, the first lesson will deal on the evolution of firearms. Discussions about firearms
components and their respective functions are included in this module since this will remarkably
help in understanding the fundamental principles of forensic ballistics in relation to firearms
identification. The last part of this module deals with the anatomy of standard cartridge and the
classification of ammunition for modern small arms.
LESSON 2.1
THE EVOLUTION OF FIREARMS
I. Concept:
The precise origin of firearms is unknown although they were in use by the early 14 th
century and were fairly common in Europe by mid-14 century. Most historians agree that
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firearms were invested because of the desire of a man to increase the range of his weapons.
It started when man devised various types of ‘catapults’ and ‘ballistae’ – large slings capable
of hurling stones, arrows, and other large objects to long range targets. Such effort led to
the discovery of gunpowder and then eventually firearms.
Perhaps, the earliest account about a weapon that used gunpowder as propellant
was the gun allegedly made by a German monk named Berthold Schawrz in1313. These
weapons were called ‘pots de fer’ and ‘ vasl’ and they were manufactured in Ghent,
Belgium. (World Book, 2002)
The first specific, reference regarding the use if firearm is found in an English
manuscript of 1326, the ‘De Officils Regnum’ (On the Duties of Kings). In this manuscript,
there is an illustration of a small cannon being fired. (Hogg, 2003).
Another record about the beginnings of firearms was the use of ‘bombard’ (ancient
cannon) in 1346 by King Edward III of England during the battle of Crecy known in history as
the Hundred Year’s War. Bombards were initially made of wooden or iron staves bound
together with hoops. They were later strengthened with wrought iron and finally cast metal.
By mid 14 century, bombards were made of cast bronze. In 1387, the first cast bronze gun
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1. FIRELOCK: This weapon was developed in the first quarter of 14 century. Firelock
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was a simple, smooth-bore tube of iron. Closed at the breech end except for an
opening called a touchhole. It was set into a rounded piece of wood for holding
under the arm. The tube was loaded with shot and powder and then fired by
inserting a heated wire into the touchhole. Later models had flashpan, a saucer-like
depression in the barrel at the outer end of the touchhole. A small charge of powder
was placed in the flashpan and fired by applying a slow match. The slow match,
consisting of a piece of cord soaked in a solution of potassium nitrate and then
dried, smoldered without flaming or becoming extinguished. The common problems
with firelocks was that the charge of powder in the flashpan was difficult to ignite,
was frequently affected by moisture in the atmosphere, and required re-priming
just before use to ensure that misfire will not occur.
2. MATCHLOCK: This was introduced about the middle of 15 century as a type of musket. This
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weapon was essentially the same as the firelock, except that the slow match was clamped in the
top of a device called serpentine – an S-shaped piece of metal pivoted in the center. Pulling with
one finger on the bottom of the serpentine, like trigger, moved the top with the attached slow
match into the priming pan, which contained the firing charge of gunpowder. Because only one
finger was needed to fire the weapon, the matchlock left one hand free to hold and aim the
firearm. A refinement in the shape of its stock to permit firing from the shoulder produced the
harquebus (or arquebus), a primitive portable firearm used in the 15 and 16 centuries
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3. WHEEL-LOCK: The first firelock appeared about 1515. It has improved firing
mechanism compared to firelock and matchlock. The firing mechanism consisted of
a spring-driven wheel. When the wheel is released by a trigger mechanism, it
rotates and the hardened steel rim rubs a lump of iron pyrites. Sparks are produced
that ignite the black powder found in the priming pan and thus firing the weapon.
Wheel lock, however, was not generally accepted because of its complicated and
expensive mechanism. At approximately the same time as the wheel lock,
gunsmiths introduced rifled barrels.
4. SNAPHANCE: The snaphance was invented early in the 17 century. This type of firing
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mechanism consisted of a hammer powered by a trigger spring and bearing a piece of flint.
When the trigger was pulled, the hammer struck the flint against a serrated steel striker plate
located above the priming pan and thus produced a shower of sparks.
5. FLINTLOCK: the final development of the flint-ignition firearm was the flintlock. It resembled the
snaphance, except that the striker plate was L-shaped. The bottom limb of the L was used as a
cover for the priming pan, to protect the powder from moisture until the upper limb was struck
by the flint of the hammer. This action produced a shower of sparks when the powder in the pan
was uncovered.
The flintlock was the prevailing type of small-arms weapon for both shoulder guns
and handguns from the end of the 17 century to the middle of the 19 century.
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Smoothbore flintlock muskets were the primary military weapon for infantry in the
armies of the principal European powers. (ibid)
In 1807, the Scottish clergyman named Alexander John Forsyth invented the
percussion-ignition system that led to the development of the first effective breech-loading
firearms. Breech-loading firearms are those loaded through the rear of the barrel rather
than through the muzzle. The first 19 -century breech-loading guns used cartridge
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containing only black powder and a ball. Such weapons was usually equipped with a nipple
holding a percussion cap that was fired by the impact of the hammer (or striker) when
released by the trigger.
In the 1850’s, the self-contained center-fire cartridges came into use. Their
design, with one-piece case, is essentially identical to modern center-fire types.
In the early 1880’s, more powerful and cleaner-burning nitrocellulose-based
gunpowder were perfected thus replacing black powder as propellants for projectiles
fired from breech-loading firearms. Whereas black powder produced a large quantity of
solid material upon combustion, quickly fouling barrels and pouring out huge clouds of
smoke, nitrocellulose produced mostly gas and was therefore labeled ‘smokeless
powder’. Also, it produced three times the energy of black powder and burned at a
faster rate. Such characteristics made possible a shift to longer and smaller-diameter
projectiles. Bore diameters were again reduced to calibers of about 0.30 inch (7.5 to 8
millimeters). Muzzles velocities ranged from 2,000 to 2,800 fps, and accurate range
extended to 1,000 yards and beyond. Because lead projectiles were too soft to be used
at such increased power and velocity, some inventors introduced the idea of using
harder metal as jacket of lead bullets. The first who perfected a full-length, copper-
jacketed bullet was a Swiss military officer named Eduard Alexander Rubin in 1881.
(Encyclopedia Britannica, 2000)
During the flintlock era, a number of heavy guns were developed that can fire
several bullets either serially or in volley. But it was not until the mid-19 century, with
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the forces of recoil or the pressure of the propellant gases to operate the reloading
mechanism. Some of these improved weapons fed with continuous belts of cartridges
were called machine guns. The first known true machinegun was the Maxim gun
developed by an American inventor named Hiram Stevens Maxim. Other weapons
capable of rapid fire that are fed from large clips of cartridges or magazines were called
automatic rifles. Automatic rifles continue firing until their magazines is exhausted as
long as the trigger is pressed.
The earlier versions of automatic rifles are called semiautomatic because they
reload and re-cock automatically after each shot, and require release and another pull
of the trigger to fire each succeeding shot. One of the more popular semiautomatic
rifles that were used during the 2 World War was the caliber 30 M1 Garand rifle
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developed by John C. Garand. This rifle was officially adopted by the US military in
January 9, 1936 as the first automatic rifle to be the standard infantry arm of a major
army.
It was during the 2 Word War that military troops such as artillerymen,
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engineers, and signalmen were armed with the M1 carbine. The first known carbine
was developed by David Williams a.k.a Carbine. M1 Carbine was considerably lighter
and has shorter range compared to rifle thus it is more suited to occasional use for
defense.
Late in World War II, the M1 Carbine was modified to permit full automatic as
well as semiautomatic fire. The carbine operates by means of gas since a small port
near the muzzle passes sufficient gas to propel a rod that operates the breech
mechanism, ejecting the fired cartridge case and loading a fresh round from an 8-shot
magazine. In 1957, the M14 rifle was adopted by the US Army to replace the M1
carbine. The M16 rifle, which permits full- or semi-automatic fire, was introduced in
1966, during the Vietnam War.
Many other small arms have been developed, both as regular equipment and
for special services during the second half of the 20 century. In the late 1980’s, the
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growing popularity and availability of the so-called assault rifles and semi-automatic
handguns significantly contributed to the rise of violent crimes.
were generally too heavy, unreliable, or expensive for general issue to infantry forces. In
fact, the first matchlock called mosquetes fielded by Spanish infantry weighed as much as
25 pounds (10kgs) and usually required a forked staff as a rest to enable a man of normal
strength to fire them accurately from the shoulder. Nevertheless, they were capable of
sending bullets through the best armor that could be worn by a moving soldier. Because
of the production of muskets that fire bullets which can penetrate armor, fully armored
soldiers became impractical. With armor-piercing power no longer necessary, muskets
could be made smaller, and shoulder weapons without rests became the norm.
By the 1600’s, European military authorities had begun moving toward greater
uniformity in order to eliminate mixed inventories of nonstandard weapons. England took
the first steps toward creating a national system of small-arms manufacture.
In the United States, an Ordinance Office decree of 1722 led to a standard army
musket called Long Land, which had a 46-inch (1,168-millimeter) barrel and a caliber of .75
inch (19 millimeters). The Long Land became popularly known in America as the first
model Brown Bess musket. In 1768, the Short Land musket, with a 42-inch barrel, became
standard. Known as the second model Brown Bess, the Short Land became one of the
basic weapons used during the American Revolution (1775-83). It was succeeded in 1797
by the ‘India Pattern’, with a 39-inch barrel. During the wars with Napoleon from 1804 to
1815, more than 1.6 million of these muskets were assembled in Birmingham, and nearly
2.7 million muskets of all types were delivered in London and at the Lewisham Royal
Armory Mills.
In France, standard-pattern did not exist prior to 1717 when the government
specified a weapon with a 47-inch barrel and a caliber of 0.69 inch. After the Seven Years’
War, the French army introduced the Modèle 1763, with a stronger lock and shorter
barrel with a length 45 inches. The Modèle 1777 musket represented a major step
forward because of improved production techniques, with the French creating a rigorious
system of patterns and gauges that yielded muskets with nearly interchangeable parts.
By 1794 in the United States, the government created national armories at
Springfield, Massachusetts and at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. Both armories built an
Americanized version of the French Modèle 1777 musket (known as the Model 1795 in
the United States). These armories and their private competitors later became important
centres of technological innovation. With the adoption of the 0.69-inch Model 1842, the
US military introduced the large-scale assembly of weapons from uniform,
interchangeable parts.
century, but given the craftsman-based manufacture of the day none was suited to large-
scale production. Special army units in Europe and America used rifled muzzle-loaders,
such as the flintlock British Baker rifle to harass the enemy at long ranges while most
infantrymen continued to carry muzzle-loading smoothbores. For this reason, inventors
concentrated on adapting rifled barrels to muzzle-loaders.
In 1826, Henri-Gustave Delvigne of France researched a means of expanding the
projectile without making it difficult to ram home. He created a narrow powder chamber
at the breech end of the barrel against which a loosely fitting lead ball came to rest.
Ramrod blows expanded the soft lead at the mouth of the chamber so that when fired,
the bullet fit the rifling tightly. In 1844, another French officer named Louis-Étlenne de
Thouvenin introduced a better method for expanding bullets. His ‘carbine à tige’
embodied a post (tige) at the breech against which the bullet was expanded.
4. THE BREECHLOADERS
For more than a century, soldiers carrying muzzle-loaders had been issued paper
cartridges containing the musket ball and an appropriate powder charge. To use one of
these cartridges, they simply bit off the end of the paper tube, poured a little powder into
the pan of a flintlock, dumped the rest down the barrel, and then rammed the ball and
paper down on top. Some early breechloaders used slightly improved cartridges of
nitrate-soaked paper or linen that contained the powder and ball and were inserted into
the opened breech as a unit. The powder was set off when sparks from the flashpan
ignited either the flammable case itself or exposed powder at the end of the cartridge.
Other breechloaders used metal cartridges that were pierced with holes or made with
ends of flammable paper so that the powder could be ignited by a percussion cap. But all
of these systems that relied upon externally mounted flintlock or percussion ignition
mechanism were prone to misfiring. These firing systems did little to prevent the leakage
of gas and flame for which breechloaders were notorious. Breech-loading rifles became
practical only with the design of cartridges that housed the primer as well as the
propellant in a single case and that provided an effective seal when the weapon was fired.
The first modern cartridge to be successfully used in war was the rim-fire type.
Rim-fire cartridge has a ring of detonating fulminate deposited in a hollow rim around the
base of a thin copper case. An external hammer crushed the rim in one spot, firing the
round. Unfortunately, some fulminate compounds detonated unpredictably, leading to
both misfires and premature explosions. Also, a cartridge case that was soft enough to be
crushed by a striker could not stand up to the heavy propellant charge necessary for a full-
power infantry rifle. For this reason, rim-fire cartridges were used most effectively in
pistols or small carbines.
In Europe, a milestone in the development of breech-loading infantry weapons
was achieved by a Prussian gun-maker named Johann Nikolaus Dreyse. His
‘Zundnadegewehr’ needle-fire gun) which was introduced in 1838, used a paper cartridge
with a priming pellet located at the base of a solid egg-shaped bullet. A long, needle-
shaped firing pin, shot forward by a spring, pierced the cartridge and powder charge to
detonate the primer. This needle was housed in a steel cylinder called the bolt, which slid
forward in the frame of the receiver until it was locked firmly against the base of the
cartridge in the chamber. Once the weapon was fired, the user released a latch with his
thumb, grasped a knob at the end of a handle projecting from the bolt, turned it until
locking lugs on the bolt were disengaged from slots in the receiver, and slid the bolt back
to open the chamber for reloading. This bolt action, simple in concept and yet requiring
precise workmanship, constituted a revolution in small-arms design.
The first Dreyse rifles were adopted by the Prussian army in 1843 and were used
in campaigns in 1849 and 1864. In 1866 , notably at the Battle of Königgrätz during the
Seven Weeks’ War, Prussian soldiers lying prone were able to fire six shots from their
15.43-millimeter (.607-inch) Zundnadelgewehr Modell 1862 for every one discharged
from the muzzle-loading rifles of their Austrian enemies.
Needle rifles offered a faster rate of fire, but their paper cartridges provided a
poor seal at the breech, and their long firing pins warped or broke under heavy use. One
solution was the metallic center-fire cartridge with a percussion cap centered in the base
of a hard brass pr copper case. A shorter, sturdier firing pin was sufficient to detonate the
primer, and a metallic case that was strong enough to withstand a powerful propellant
charge also provided effective closure of the breech. Adopting center-fire cartridges,
France transformed its Chassepots into the 11-millimeter Modele 1866/67 and 1874 rifles,
which were named after their designer in the name of BAsile Gras. Germany went to rifles
designed by Peter Paul Mauser, first the 11-millimeter Modell 1871 Gewehr and then the
Modell 1871/84 Infantrie-Repetier-Gewehr. The latter was a10-shot repeater that ejected
the spent case as the bolt was pulled back and fed a fresh cartridge into the chamber from
a tubular magazine beneath the barrel as the bolt was pushed forward.
All other European countries soon adopted cartridge breech-loading rifles, usually
by converting existing muxxle-loaders and then by purchasing purpose-built
breechloaders. Many did not feature bolt action. For example, beginning in 1866, Britain
converted its P/53 Enfields simply by hinging the top of the breech so that it could be
opened sideways, the spent case extracted, and a fresh cartridge inserted.
In 1871, the British adopted the new Martini-Henry breechloaders of 0.45-inch
caliber. In these rifles, pushing down a lever attached to the trigger guard lowered the
entire breechblock exposing the chamber and raised the breechblock back to firing
position when it was pulled back. Russia adopted two new 10-millimeter breechloaders:
the Model 1868 Berdan No. 1 and then the bolt-action model 1870 Berdan No. 2. Both of
these were largely the work of American Civil War officer Hiram Berdan. The US-made
Remington Rolling Block Rifle, in which the breechblock was cocked back on a hinge like
the hammer, was bought by a number of countries around the world.
The United States adopted a series of single-shot rifles employing a hinged-breech
‘trap-door’ mechanism, developed by Erskine S. Allin at the Springfield Armory, in which
the top of the breech was flipped forward along the top of the barrel. The first Model
1866 was a converted .58-inch musket, the second Model 1866 was a new rifle in .50-inch
caliber, and subsequent versions were built in .45-inch caliber. These weapons continued
to use components introduced with the Model 1855 muzzle-loaders.
LESSON 2.2
NOMENCLATURE OF FIREARMS
I. CONCEPT
The invention of the first firearm eventually led to a never-ending race to develop a
perfect weapon. Even before World War I, continuous innovation in gun and ammunition
industry resulted to the production of variety of military weapons. With regard to small arms,
volumes of handguns, rifles and machineguns of different models and design are available today
from legitimate and illegitimate sources. This makes the business of firearms investigation and
identification very tasking. After knowing the historical background of firearms, the next logical
step in firearms forensics is to analyze the nomenclature of small arms.
C. HANDGUNS
Handguns are small short-range firearms that are intended to be fired with one
hand. The first gun operated with one hand was the matchlock gun, which appeared in the
1400’s. It was fired by attaching a burning cord or match to an S-shaped holder called a
serpentine. Later on in the early 1500’s, another handgun was invented. This was the wheel-
lock with a metal gear that sparked when it revolved against a piece of pyrite. The next
handguns came out during the mid-1500’s. these were snaphance pistols, which were easier
to operate than the wheel lock. In the 1600’s and 1700’s, many kinds of gunlocks were
developed, including the flintlock.
After Alexander Forsyth introduced the percussion system in 1807, percussion-
system pistols began to be introduced. These were loaded from the muzzle, with a sliding
can of priming powder on the breech. Small handguns called derringers are descended from
percussion-system pistols, but are breech loaded. They are named for Henry Deringer, Jr. a
US pistol maker of the 1800s.
From the very start, handguns were designed as compact weapons for self-defense.
Until today, there are handguns specifically for target competition or hunting. However,
most are still designed with defense in mind. Thus, of the legal definition of handguns since
they are considered concealable and therefore deemed dangerous. (Klatt 2004)
There are two general groups of handguns
1. Revolvers
2. Pistols
Pistols refer to small portable firearms that can be held, aimed, and fired with one
hand. They have a short barrel (no longer than one foot) with a lock-and-load firing
mechanism at the breech area.
In early firearm history, all handguns were generally called pistols. There were three
early classes of pistols:
1. Single-shot pistols: Handguns of this type are operated by pressing a lever
causing the barrel to be unlatched and tipped upward. While the breech of the
barrel is exposed, the cartridge is inserted to the chamber and locked. Its
hammer is pulled back and cocked, ready to be fired.
2. Semi-automatic pistols: These are handguns that are popular today. The semi-
automatic pistol is a more recent development that the revolver, originating in
the 19 century, mostly through the efforts of John Browning who is regarded as
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the wizard of modern firearms. According to Klatt (2004). Almost every semi-
automatic handgun available today is a copy of the two most famous designs of
Browning:
The Colt model 1911A .45 government issue and the Browning Hi-power 9mm.
3. Revolvers: These are handguns that have rotating cylinder containing chambers designed to
position a cartridge ready for firing. Revolvers have rifled barrel and capable of carrying up to 8
rounds in its cylinder in one loading. The revolving cylinder presents each cartridge to the
striker for every pull of the trigger.
Another way to classify revolver is according to mechanical firing action. Such as:
1. Single-action type: Single-action revolvers need manual cocking of the hammer
before squeezing the trigger. This kind of revolvers remains popular for its
historical appeal, reliable design, and uncanny balance. For some reasons, a
single-action colt .45 revolver is easier to shoot from the hip than a modern
revolver, and is used almost exclusively in trick shooting.
2. Double-action type: Double-action revolvers are those that do not need manual
cocking. Pressing the trigger both cocks and releases the hammer causing a
more rapid manner of firing.
D. SHOULDER WEAPONS
Small arms under this category are those normally fired at shoulder level using both
hands. This group of firearms included the following:
1. Muskets
2. Rifles
3. Carbines
4. Shotguns
Muskets are ancient muzzle loading shoulder weapons designed to fire single round
lead ball for every loading. Muskets have long barrel with smooth bore.
Rifles are weapons designed or intended to be operated from the shoulder using
energy of explosive contained in a metallic cartridge to fire only a single projectile through a
rifled bore for each pull of trigger (US Federal Firearms Act). Rifles are originally designed for
targets at a longer distance in single shot manner. They differ from handguns as to length of
the barrel (more than 22 inches in length) and the presence of butt stock. They are harder to
carry and more difficult to conceal but they are much more accurate and shoot more
powerful cartridges than handguns. The two basic types of this group of small arms are
single-shot rifles and repeating rifles.
Repeating rifles are loaded with several cartridges at one time since they are stored
in an ammunition clip or magazine. They have a loading mechanism that carries the cartridge
automatically into the chamber ready to be fired. There are three types of repeating rifles:
a. Bolt-action type
b. Lever-action type
c. Slide-action type
Carbines are classified as light, short-barreled weapons originally designed for the
convenient use of cavalrymen. Carbines are more versatile than rifles because of their short
barrel. They fire a single projectile through a rifled bore either in semi-automatic or full-
automatic for every press of the trigger. The maker of the first known carbine was David
Williams a.k.a. Carbine.
The carbine is essentially the same as the rifle, but has a shorter barrel (not longer
than 22 inches), a generally smaller caliber, and a more limited range. The carbine was
formerly carried only by mounted cavalry troops, but during World War II the M2 carbine
was substituted for the .45-cliber handgun as the personal weapon of artillery personnel
and service troops. Carbines were also modified for semiautomatic firing, but they were
replaced officially by the M14 rifle in the early 1960s.
Shotguns are smoothbore and breech-loading shoulder weapons designed to fire a
number of pellets or shots in one charge. Shotgun barrels usually have 25-30 inches in
length. The common types of shotguns based on their mechanical design are as follows:
a. Slide or pump type
b. Break type bolt type
c. lever type
d. auto-loading type
e. Single-barrel type
f. Double-barrel type
Shotguns are primarily intended for firing multiple small-round projectiles, buck shots
(larger pellets), pumpkin balls (single round ball), and slugs. Although most shotguns are
designed with smoothbore, some shotguns have rifling to give better accuracy with slugs or
greater pattern spread to birdshots. The paradox gun is a special type of shotgun that has
rifling at the last few inches in its barrel. The unique barrel design provides a spin to a slug
that is specially designed for this type of shotgun.
E. MACHINE GUNS
The search for greater firepower has not been limited to shoulder firearms. In
addition to rifles, machine guns have been originally developed as infantry-defense weapons.
During the flintlock era a number of heavy guns were developed that could fire
several bullets either serially or in volley, but it was not until the mid-19 century, with the
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spread of center-fire cartridge ammunition and better manufacturing techniques, that such
weapons could be put to effective military use. The best known were the Gatling gun
invented by Richard J. Gatling, and the mitrailleuse produced by the Christophe & Montigny
in Belgium.
The Gatling gun was the first repeating gun capable of sustained and accurate firing.
Although it was the first genuinely effective rapid-fire weapon, the Gatling gun was not a true
machine gun. It has several barrels arranged in a circle about a central axis. Richard Gatling
invented and produced it in the last half of the 19 century. The first models has six barrels
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that used .58-caliber and later .50-caliber ammunition. A hand crank rotated the barrels to
operate the gun. Ammunition dropped from above the gun into each barrel as the barrels
rotated. After firing, the empty cartridge would fall out of the bottom of the gun as the
barrels continued to rotate. The Gatling gun was used late in the American Civil War and was
used in several other wars in the last half of the 19 century. The mechanically operated gun
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could fire at a rate of approximately 1,000 rounds per minute. Gatling later developed an
electric motor for the gun that produced a firing rate of 3,000 rounds per minute. (Microsoft
Encarta, 2003)
The world’s first true machine gun was the automatic machine gun that bears the
name of Hiram Stevens Maxim. The Maxim machine gun was a single-barrel recoil-operated
gun. Maxim invented the belt feed to continually feed ammunition to his gun. He also
developed a water cooling system to allow his gun to fire continuously without overheating.
Maxim guns were built in many sizes and were used extensively during World War I. (ibid)
Machine guns are one type of heavy military weapon that fire ammunition
continuously. Machine guns are known as full-automatic weapons because they
automatically eject spent rounds of ammunition and reload fresh rounds. The user of a
machine gun can fire a constant and rapid stream of ammunition merely by dressing and
holding the trigger. Almost all machine guns use the energy released from the ammunition
as it is fired to expel, reload, and fire ammunition. Some types of large machine guns, such as
those used on fighter aircraft, are powered by motors.
According to firing operation, machineguns can be grouped in four ways:
1. Blow-back type
2. Recoil type
3. Gas type
Blowback-operated machine guns use the pressure created from the fired round to
push a bolt, located directly behind the round, back and forth against a spring. The pressure
from the fired round pushes the bolt backward against the spring and also ejects the spent
round from the gun. A new round enters the weapon, and as the compressed spring pushes
the bolt forward, the bolt rams the round into the breech. A pin on the end of the bolt
strikes the round and fires it, beginning the cycle again. Blowback weapons are simple and
reliable, but they do not form a complete seal at the breach when firing. This is a
disadvantage, and blowback-operated weapons can be used only with ammunition that
requires low to moderate firing pressure.
Recoil-operated machine guns push the barrel and the breech backwards as a unit,
along with the bolt. The ejection and reloading cycles are completed during this recoil, and
the breech remains sealed during firing. Recoil-operated weapons are extremely reliable, but
are heavy and have more moving parts than blowback-operated weapons. As a result, they
have relatively low rates of fire.
Gas-operated weapons were devised as a means to increase the rate of fire of
machine guns while at the same time reducing their weight. Gas from the fired round
expands in the barrel and is diverted through a port in the barrel to a piston near the front of
the gun. The piston pushes back against a mechanism and a spring, unlocking the breech,
extracting the spent round and powering the reloading of a fresh round. Gas-operated
weapons are lighter than recoil-operated weapons, but they are often not as durable or
reliable.
F. SUBMACHINE GUNS
According to Ivan Hogg (2003), the submachine gun is the youngest class of small
arms having been invented within living memory.
The submachine gun is a light, hand-held automatic weapon firing pistol
ammunition. Today, there are weapons classed as submachine guns that fire assault rifle
cartridges. However, the use of pistol ammunition distinguishes submachine guns from
these weapons better known as assault weapons. Most submachine guns have a shoulder
stock than can be folded for better concealability.
There are two basic types of submachine guns according to bolt mechanism: the
open bolt-operated and the closed-bolt type. The open-bolt type has a bolt operated by a
trigger sear causing the cartridge to be fired in open bolt.
2. HOMEMADE FIRERMS: Even though cheap guns are readily available, youths and youth gang
members may attempt to build their own firearms. Typically, homemade guns are crude, and
adapted to fire available ammunition. In one study, homemade guns caused unusual muzzle
imprints, intensive soot deposits at the entrance wound and on the hands, intensive CO-effects,
burns, and in one case a skin laceration of the hand holding the weapon. The bullets showed a
reduced penetration depth, and characteristic firing marks were missing.
3. SAWED-OFF RIFLES: this is a new group of handguns for hunting big game and long range target
competition. Firearms of this kind are nothing but single shot rifles with shortened barrels and
no stock. These shooting rifles are loaded with hybrid rifle cartridges and deliver rifle energies.