_SSES

1) What is self efficacy?

Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief about his/her innate ability to achieve
goals. Albert Bandura defines it as a personal judgement of how well one
can execute courses of action required to deal with prospective situations.
Self-efficacy versus Efficacy -efficacy is the power to produce an effect.
Self-efficacy is the belief in one's efficacy.
Self-efficacy versus Self-esteem - self-esteem is the sense of self-worth.
Self-efficacy versus Confidence - Confidence is a nonspecific term that
refers to strength of belief but does not necessarily specify what the
certainty is about.
Self-efficacy versus Self-concept- Self-concept is measured more generally
and includes the evaluation of such competence and the feelings of
self-worth associated with the behaviours in question.

2) Describe Sherer's self-efficacy scale.

General Self-Efficacy Scale (Sherer & Adams, 1983; Sherer & Maddux,
1982) is a 23 item inventory that measures the general level of confidence
that a person possesses in implementing life activities and is based on
Bandura's social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1977,1982). The scale consists
of 2 subscales: general self-efficacy (GSE) and social self-efficacy (SSE).
The items are in the form of statements. Responses are to be given in a 7
point likert scale, 1 being strongly disagree 4 being neutral and 7 being
strongly agree.Higher scores are associated with higher self-efficacy. The
self-efficacy scale has been found to predict success in vocational,
educational, and military areas.

3) Describe the scoring of Sherer's self efficacy scale.

The responses given by participants are scored in the direction of high self
efficacy.. Some are scored in direct order and some are scored in reversed
order. All the scores on 23 items are summed up to get a final score. The
scores range from 23-161where scores between 23-69 is considered as
low efficacy, 70-116 is moderate self-efficacy and 117 and above is high
self-efficacy.

4) Discuss the reliability and validity of Sherer's self-efficacy scale.

As per Sherer and Maddux Cronbach's alpha reliability for the General
Self-Efficacy scale was 0.84 and for the Social Self-Efficacy scale was
0.65.
Confirmation of several predicted conceptual relationships between the
Self-Efficacy subscales and other personality measures (i.e., Locus of Control,
Personal Control, Social Desirability, Ego Strength, Interpersonal
Competence, and Self-Esteem) provided evidence of construct validity.
Positive relationships between the Self-Efficacy Scale and vocational,
educational, and military success established criterion validity.
5) State two researches related to high self efficacy and two related to low
self efficacy.
As per research conducted by …. in the year... High self-efficacy is
associated with overconfidence.
As per research conducted by Mart van Dinther in the year 2011 higher
levels of self-efficacy are related to healthy student life habits.
As per Robert Fiorentine, Maureen P Hillhouse in the year 2003 low
controlled use self-efficacy predicted higher levels of abstinence
acceptance independent from the possible influences of alcohol and drug
use histories and treatment history.
As per Karla Bailey Mariam Kashani Arn Eliasson in the year 2013 Low
Self-Efficacy Correlates with Increased Cardiovascular Disease Risk.

6) Where can this test be used? / What are the uses of self-efficacy scale?
Clinical setting
Industrial setup (to know self-efficacy of employees while selecting them
as well as in promoting employees)
School setting (teacher’s or students’ self-efficacy),
Research purpose ( effectiveness of training programs, family background
having any impact on people’s self-efficacy)
7) What are the measures to increase self-efficacy?
Mastery experiences - The key to mastery is approaching life with
dedicated efforts and experimenting with realistic but challenging goals.
Essential to mastery is also acknowledging the satisfaction of goals that are
achieved. Experiencing failure is important so that we can build resilience
to it. This is done by treating every failure as a learning opportunity and a
chance to reach competence with a different approach.
Social Modelling - This means choosing role-models that can demonstrate
their self-efficacy. Observing those who employ this in their lives and have
reached their goals despite adversity can provide great motivation.
Social persuasion - This is about ‘finding the right mentor’. social
persuasion is about having others directly influence one’s self-efficacy by
providing opportunities for mastery experiences in a safe and purposeful
manner.
States of physiology - Our emotions, moods, and physical state can
influence our interpretation of self-efficacy. Positive and negative emotions
act as magnets to further influence one’s sense of self-efficacy, especially
in the case of a depressed mood when control can feel out of reach.
Introspection and education act as combatants to prevent these physical
states from being interpreted negatively.

`` `EMOTIONS AND LOGICAL REASONING ```

1) State the hypothesis for experiment on emotions and logical reasoning
(Null, null directional, alternative directional, alternative non-directional)

Alternative directional:
Positive emotion facilitates logical reasoning. That is, the mean scores on
logical reasoning task of the positive emotion group will be higher than the
negative emotion group.
Alternative non-directional:
There is a significant difference in logical reasoning as a function of
emotion. That is, there is a significant difference in the mean scores on
logical reasoning task of the positive emotion group and the negative
emotion group.

Null non-directional:
There is no significant difference in logical reasoning task as a function of
emotion. That is, there is no significant difference in the mean scores on
logical reasoning task of the positive emotion group and the negative
emotion group.

Null directional
Positive emotion does not facilitate logical reasoning scores. That is, the
mean scores on logical reasoning task of the positive emotion group will
not be higher than the negative emotion group.

2) What is the design of this experiment?

Design- A randomized measures design with one independent variable
having two levels (positive and negative emotions). Two different
participants will be exposed to two different levels of independent variable.

3) What is IV?
Independent Variable
Emotional state experienced by participants after giving them manipulated
feedback on their performance on verbal and mathematical problems. It
has two levels- Positive emotion and Negative Emotion

4) What is the dependent variable?

No. of logical reasoning problem solved correctly

5) State the control variables.

Control Variables
 ● E ensures that the Ps in both the groups do not have knowledge of
logical reasoning problems.
● The participants' emotional state was altered by a manipulated
IQ-test. However, participants were not told that their emotional state
was to be altered with a success-failure-method and they were
randomly assigned to the “success group” and “failure group.”
(Nummenmaa and Niemi, 2004).
● Both groups received the same set of verbal and mathematical
problems and logical reasoning problems.
● The time limit to solve 10 verbal and mathematical problems (five on
verbal ability and five on mathematical ability) was 10 mins
● The time limit to solve 12 Logical reasoning problem was 12 mins
● Noise and Distractions were kept to a minimum possible level.
● Ps in both the groups was roughly equated in age, gender, education
and ability.

6) What are the reasons for getting contrary results?

1. Participants in the negative feedback group got motivated which
led them to perform better.
2. Participants in the negative feedback group inherently had better
logical reasoning abilities.
3. Participants in the positive emotional group became overconfident
and hence scored less on the logical reasoning task.
4. Experimental manipulation did not work on either group.
5. Participants in the positive emotional group experienced
fatigue-effect.
6. Participants got distracted while solving logical reasoning
problems.

7) Rationale?
Rationale of the study
In one study participants were recruited because they reported being
depressed (Channon and Baker, 1994). They were presented with
categorical syllogisms and their performance was worse than that of
non-depressed participants. One possible explanation is that emotionally
congruent information (e.g., sad content in case of being depressed) put
additional load on working memory (e.g., Baddeley, 2003).
The effect of emotion might be due to the fact that emotion results in
representations in working memory that occupy the same subsystems that
are also needed for reasoning (Oaksford et al., 1996).
Other explanations are that different emotional states affect people's
motivation to solve rather complex cognitive tasks (Melton, 1995) or that
the emotional state affects how attention is allocated (e.g., Gable and
Harmon-Jones, 2012) even with positive material (e.g., Gable and
Harmon-Jones, 2013).

8) What are the past research studies?

In an Experiment conducted by Jung et. al. (2014) it was found that
emotions can have a significant effect on the way we think, decide, and
solve problems. They conducted a series of four experiments to study the
effect of emotion on a cognitive task that is often considered to be a test of
rational thinking par excellence: logical reasoning. The experiments are:
Experiment 1: Positive, negative or neutral emotion (induced) paired with a
Wason selection task that had positive, negative or neutral problem
content.
Experiment 2: Positive, negative or neutral emotion (induced) paired with
conditional reasoning tasks that had positive, negative or neutral problem
content.
Experiment 3: Anxious or neutral emotion (spider-phobic or non-phobic
participants) paired with conditional reasoning tasks that had neutral,
negative or anxious (phobia-relevant)
content.
Experiment 4: Anxious or neutral emotion (exam anxiety or confidence)
paired with
conditional reasoning tasks that had neutral, negative or anxious (exam
anxiety-relevant)
content.
9) Which inferential statistics will be used to calculate the group data of
emotion and logical reasoning experiment ?
Repeated or dependent T-test will be used on participants’ scores on
PANAS questionnaire 1 Phase 1 and phase 3 this is because there is one
IV with two levels that is positive emotions on Phase 1 and phase 3 and
DV lies on a ratio scale. To calculate difference between scores on logical
reasoning among two groups independent design t-test will be used
because there is one IV with two levels that is 2 means to be compared
and DV lies on ratio scale.

10) Which inferential statistics will be used to calculate the individual data
on table number 2?
An independent design t-test will be used because there is one IV with two
levels that is 2 means to be compared and DV lies on a ratio scale.

Group data: Bcs the design of the t test iis random measures design.

VISUAL IMAGERY EXPERIMENT

1) State the hypothesis for experiment on emotions and logical reasoning
(Null, null directional, alternative directional, alternative non-directional)
Null directional - Interactive imagery does not facilitate recall as compared
to non interactive and Rote learning condition. That is the mean scores on
number of words correctly recalled will not be higher in interactive condition
as compared to non-interactive condition and Rote learning condition.
Null non-directional - There is no significant difference in the mean scores
of number of words correctly recalled as a function of learning method.
That is there is no significant difference in the number of words correctly
recalled in the Rote learning condition, interactive condition and interactive
condition.
Alternative directional - Interactive imagery facilitates recall as compared to
Non-interactive imagery and Rote learning: that is the mean recall score
would be highest for Interactive imagery condition followed by Rote
learning condition and that for the Non-interactive imagery condition it
would be the lowest.
Alternative non-directional- There is a significant difference in the mean
scores of number of words correctly recalled as a function of method of
learning. That is there is a significant difference in the number of words
correctly recalled in the Rote learning condition non interactive imagery
condition and interactive imagery condition.
2) What is the design of this experiment?
The design of the experiment is repeated measures design. Each
participant was exposed to all the 3 conditions (Rote learning,
Non-Interactive Imagery and Interactive Imagery condition)

3) What is IV?
The independent variable is method of learning with three levels Rote
learning non interactive imagery condition and interactive imagery condition

4) What is the dependent variable?

The dependent variable is the number of words correctly recalled

5) State the control variables.

1. Participants should have basic knowledge of English. Simple
experiment is on learning understanding meaning is important to be
fill in non interactive and interactive condition
2. The number of word pairs across three conditions were kept
constant i.e. 15 word pairs. to maintain uniformity
3. The words that were used in the experiment were all concrete words
and no abstract words were selected. concrete words are easy to
imagine where as abstract words are subjective
4. During the encoding phase, each word pair was presented for 10
seconds. To maintain uniformity
5. The recall task for all the conditions (Rote learning, Non-Interactive
Imagery and Interactive Imagery) was of 3 minutes duration i.e. the
 time limit to recall the second word of the pair was kept constant for
all the conditions. to maintain uniformity
6. The number of word pairs that were used in the Practice session
were kept constant across all the three conditions i.e. 4 words pairs.
to maintain uniformity. if there was an increase in the number of pairs
practice would be more for the participant and if less words were
used less practice would have been received by the participant which
will hinder the final result.
7. Before each trial E gave a ready signal. This was to ensure each
participant is fully attentive because there should be selective
attention and all 10 second should be given for the task
8. There was an unfilled interval of 1 min after every condition. to avoid
fatigue effect and to avoid carrying the same words head
9. Three sets of 15 word pairs were prepared, one for each condition,
and the same three sets were used across all the participants. to
maintain uniformity
10. No word pairs were repeated in any of the three conditions, not
even the word pairs used in Practice sessions. to avoid practice
effect
11. The order of introducing the three types of learning was kept
constant across all the participants i.e. first Rote learning condition
followed by Non Interactive condition and then Interactive condition.
to maintain uniformity. People are used to Rote learning so we are
not teaching a new technique. If it is something new at first it may get
disturbed with Rote learning
12. The font style and the font size of the word pairs presented in the
three conditions for all the participants were kept constant . to
maintain uniformity
13. The distance of presenting the word pair across all the three
conditions were kept constant. to maintain uniformity
14. Noise and Distractions were kept to a minimum possible level. to
maintain uniformity.

6) What are the reasons for getting contrary results?

1. Participant was familiar with the words.
2. Participant had a personal association with the words that were
presented
3. There was a momentary lapse of attention while learning the words
4. Maybe the participant got distracted while encoding the words
5. Participant experience fatigue effect
6. Participant did not use the method which was instructed by the
experimenter.

7) Rationale?

8) What are the past research studies?

Bower in 1970 presented participants with a list of paired words and
asked them to either use rote learning method, interactive or
non-interactive method. He found that memory performance was best
for participants who used interactive method, moderate for rote
learning method and lowest for non-interactive method.

9) Which inferential statistics will be used to calculate the group data of

emotion and logical reasoning experiment ?
The inferential statistics that will be used is one way repeated measures
anova because the design of the experiment is repeated measures design,
there is one IV having three levels that is there are 3 means to be
compared and the DV lies on a ratio scale.

10) Which inferential statistics will be used to calculate the individual data
on table number 2?

11) Why is the Post-hoc test used?

With Anova we get the f value. F value will only tell the significance of
difference. It does not talk about the direction of difference and whether the
direction of difference between the means is significant or not. Therefore, a
post-hoc test is done.In this experiment Tukey’s HSD test is used.

NVTI

1) Describe NVTI
NVTI is a non verbal test of Intelligence. It consists of four subtests namely
analogy, water reflection, series and classification. Each subtest has 6
practice problems and 20 test problems to be solved and the time limit for
each subtest is 5 minutes.The appropriate age to take this test is 9 to 16
years
2) Describe subtest of analogy of NVTI
In analogy subtest the problem figures show the energy pattern and
followed by that participant has to respond to the question as per the same
and allergy patterns by choosing the correct alternative from the answer
figures. Initially the participant will be given practice sums and after
understanding them 20 test problems on analogy are given which are to be
completed in 5 minutes.
3) Describe subtest of Water reflection of NVTI
In water reflection subtest the participant is provided with the sheet which
consists of an image on the left side that is the problem figures and the
participant has to guess from the answer figures on the right side that how
will the problem figures reflection look like if it is held vertically on the
surface of water. Initially the participant will be given practice sums and
after understanding them 20 test problems on analogy are given which are
to be completed in 5 minutes
4) Describe subtest of series of NVTI
In this test the problem figures on the left change in a definite sequence
from left to right. The participant has to find out this sequence and find out
from the answer figure the figure which will come in place of the question
mark. Initially the participant will be given practice sums and after
understanding them 20 test problems on series are given which are to be
completed in 5 minutes.
5) Describe subtest of classification of NVTI
In this test there are 5 figures out of which 4 are similar in a certain way.
participant has to find out the one which is different from the other four
initially the participant will be given practice sums and after understanding
them 20 test problems on classification are given which are to be
completed in 5 minutes.
6) Describe the scoring and interpretation of NVTI
The scoring and interpretation can be described in the following steps
1) Find the right, wrong and blank responses on each sub test on the basis
of the scoring key.
2) Add the rights of all the four subtests, add the wrongs of all the subtests
and then add the blanks of all the sub tests.
3) Find the mean and standard deviation from the age and gender norm
table mentioned in the manual
4) Calculate the raw score by using the formula rights - wrongs / 4
5) After receiving the raw score, calculate the IQ by using the formula
IQ = 15[(raw score-mean)/standard deviation] + 100
6) State the level of IQ by referring to the table from the manual.

7) State the advantages and limitations of NVTI

The advantages are that it can be administered to illiterate people,
individuals with hearing problem and children.
the limitations are that